LEYTE NORMAL UNIVERSITY

Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Mathematics

MASUELA, ANJELO JOSEPH T.

OCOPIO, RONIE A.
OLMEDO, JHIRONE BRIX CELSIUS G.
RAEL, KEVIN T.

The Predictive Value of SHSGPA and College Admission Test Scores;

and the Moderating Effects of SHS Strands

on College Readiness

Thesis Adviser:
ARIEL GALLANO SALARDA

Thesis Critique:
CRISTOBAL JR. ARANETA RABUYA

Date of Submission
July 30, 2021
i
 Table of Contents

Contents
Table of Contents................................................................................................................. i
List of Tables.....................................................................................................................iii
List of Figures.................................................................................................................... iv
Chapter 1............................................................................................................................. 1
INTRODUCTION ..............................................................................................................
1
Background of the Study................................................................................................. 1
Statement of the Problem................................................................................................ 3
Significance of the Study ................................................................................................
4 Scope and Limitation
...................................................................................................... 5
Chapter 2............................................................................................................................. 7
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE.......................................................................... 7
Defining college readiness.............................................................................................. 7
Predictors of college readiness........................................................................................ 8
Moderating effects of senior high school strands on college readiness........................ 13
Signal theory ................................................................................................................. 16
Conceptual Framework ................................................................................................. 19
Hypotheses of the Study................................................................................................ 20
Definition of Terms....................................................................................................... 20
Chapter 3........................................................................................................................... 23
METHODOLOGY ...........................................................................................................
23 Research Design............................................................................................................
23 Respondents and Sampling Strategy.............................................................................
24 Instrumentation..............................................................................................................
24 Data Collection Procedure ............................................................................................
26 Data Analysis Procedure ...............................................................................................
27 REFERENCES
 ................................................................................................................. 29 Appendix A.
.................................................................................................................. 34 Research
Instrument...................................................................................................... 34
ii

Appendix B. ..................................................................................................................
39 Informed Consent..........................................................................................................
39 Appendix C.
.................................................................................................................. 45 Gannt
Chart/Timetable.................................................................................................. 45
Appendix D. ..................................................................................................................
46 Line Item
Budget........................................................................................................... 46
iii

List of Tables

Table 1. Research Objectives by Data Analysis Procedure.............................................28

Table 2. Modified Report of Records …..…...…………….….......................................34

Table 3. Gantt Chart……….…..………………………..................................................45

Table 4. Line Item Budget ...…..……………………….................................................46

iv

List of Figures

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework…..………………………...........................................19

Figure 2. Pledge of Confidentiality…..………………………........................................39

Figure 3. Letter of Consent A…..……………………….................................................40

Figure 4. Letter of Consent B …..………………………................................................41

Figure 5. Letter of Consent C …..………………………................................................42

Figure 6. Letter of Consent D …..………………………................................................43

Figure 7. Letter of Consent E…..……………………….................................................44

Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION

Background of the Study

Throughout history, the Philippines was known to have high quality education. In

the Spanish period, the country established a number of educational institutions, and in the

American period, the country adopted the American educational system. However, in

recent years, basic education in the Philippines experienced major setbacks; dropout rates

increased and access to primary education became an issue. To combat this, the

Department of Education (DepEd) implemented the K-12 Program. The K-12 is an

educational program that spans from kindergarten to twelfth grade. It covers twelve years

of basic education that starts from elementary, first grade to sixth grade; then to junior

high school (JHS), seventh grade to tenth grade; and ending on senior high school (SHS),

eleventh to twelfth grade. The program originated in America and is also the educational

system that is used in some other countries all over the world (Okabe, 2013).

The main objectives under the K-12 Program are: providing sufficient time for

mastery of concepts and skills, developing lifelong learners, and preparing graduates for

tertiary education. Before the implementation of the program, the Philippines was the only
country in Asia with a 10-year basic education cycle (Don Carlo Cavina School, n.d.). A

defining feature of the K-12 Program is the inclusion of tracks and strands in SHS. Before

enrolling to SHS, students will choose a track and a strand, the purpose of tracks and

strands is to offer specialization, so that, by the time the students enter college, they will

already

be exposed to their own field. There are four tracks, namely: academic, technical

vocational-livelihood, arts and design, and sports. Under each track, there are specific

strands that the students can select based on their potential college degree program. For

instance, students interested in mathematics should enroll to Science, Technology,

Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) strand (Cueva, 2021).

While K-12 has been proven to be effective in other countries, for instance, the

United States of America, the implementation of the new curriculum received criticisms

in the Philippines. It sparked negative remarks from teachers, parents, and other

stakeholders (Relucio & Palaoag, 2018). According to a youth group, Anakbayan, the

program will not solve the education crisis in the country, instead, it will only make

things worse. Adding years in high school will mean additional burden to the poor

population, and the increase of tuition fees in tertiary level institutions. The group also

emphasized that the government lacks the facilities and budget to fully implement the

program (Calderon, 2014). Furthermore, the League of Filipino Students (2018) argued

that the K-12 failed in its promise of producing college-ready graduates. They claim that

there is a mismatch between the tracks and strands that the students selected, and their
chosen degree program in college. Although there are institutions offering bridging

programs, these are not enough to solve the issue on college-readiness.

In addition, data from the Philippine Institute for Development Studies (2020)

shows that a number of SHS graduates did not develop basic literacy, numeracy, and

research writing skills. In fact, Philippines ranked among the lowest in mathematics and

science in the international assessment by the Trends in International Mathematics and

Science Study (Paris, 2019). Similarly, in 2018, Philippines ranked in the low 70s in an

international assessment of 15-year-old learners by the Programme for International

Student Assessment (PISA). The Philippines scored 353, 357, and 340 in mathematics,

science, and reading, respectively. All of these scores are below the mean scores of other

participating countries (DepEd, 2019).

The K-12 Program is still in its early years, and it might be too early to conclude if

it succeeded or not. However, due to the criticisms presented earlier, and the early batch

of graduates’ poor performance in various assessment tests, the need to test and examine

college-readiness among the K-12 graduates is now dire, as it will reflect, at the very

least, the current state of the K-12 Program (Miguéis et al., 2018).

Statement of the Problem

The principal intention of this study is to examine the correlation of senior high

school grade point average (SHSGPA) and college admission test scores on the general

weighted average (GWA) in the first semester of the freshman year of the first two batch
of Bachelor of Secondary Education Major in Mathematics (BSEd-Math) students of

Leyte Normal University (LNU) main campus.

Specifically, to procure the research with authentic correspondence, the

researchers will aim to accomplish the following objectives:

1. To know the educational background of the first two batch of BSEd-Math students of

LNU main campus, in terms of:

1.1. SHS strand

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1.2. SHSGPA

1.3. College admission test score

1.4. GWA in the first semester

2. To determine the predictive value the students’ SHSGPA on their GWA in the first

semester of college.

3. To determine the predictive value of the students’ college admission test scores on their

GWA in the first semester of college.

4. To identify the moderating effects of the students’ SHS strand on the correlation

between the predictors of college readiness and indicators of college readiness,

particularly:

4.1. The moderating effects of the students’ SHS strand towards the correlation of

SHSGPA and first semester GWA.

4.2. The moderating effects of the students’ SHS strand towards the correlation of

college admission test scores and first semester GWA.

Significance of the Study

The outcome of this research will provide useful information to various

institutions and personnel in decision-making, policy formulation, implementation and

management, and further research of the K-12 Program in the Philippines. Particularly,

this research will benefit the following:

Department of Education. The results of this study will provide DepEd a better

insight and understanding on the current state of the K-12 program. Furthermore, the data

may springboard future modifications in the policies and management of K-12, to tackle

the education crisis in the Philippines.

Commission on Higher Education (CHED). The findings will allow CHED to

have a better understanding on the level of knowledge, skills, and college-readiness of the

K-12 graduates. From this, CHED can use the data as basis in future programs with

regards to the transition from secondary to tertiary education.

Teachers. The data, gathered from this study, will serve as one of the bases in

improving teaching methods and strategies. In addition, the data will give additional

knowledge, to educators, on the academic needs of the 21st century learners.

Students. The study will be beneficial, because through understanding their

capabilities, students will improve their career choices, decision-making, self-reflection,

and learning experience.

 Researchers. Findings from this correlational research will serve as an initial data,

and a go-signal whether to proceed on conducting an experimental research or not.

Scope and Limitation

This research will focus mainly on examining the correlation of the predictors of

college readiness on the indicators of college readiness; and the moderating effects of

SHS strand on the said correlation. The number of participants for this study will be the

total population of the fourth-year and third-year BSEd-Math students, since regression

analyses typically require a large sample size. The second-year BSEd-Math students and

below, will not participate in this study because the learning modality in their freshman

year, is

different to the learning modality that the first two batch had in their freshman year. The

mismatch in the learning modalities will affect the quality and rigidity of the findings of

the study. In addition, the latter batch of BSEd-Math students did not take the college

admission test, meaning, they are not qualified for the conduct of this study. The

participants in this research will come from LNU Tacloban City campus. This research

will be conducted in the academic year 2021-2022, wherein the researchers will write and

edit the paper, gather the necessary data, and analyze the data itself. The data for this

research will be obtained from the record of the students, that are stored in the archives of

LNU. The researchers will use college admission test scores instead of constructing a

college readiness test, since both serve the same purpose, and the respondents in this

study are already in college, meaning, the results of the college readiness test will be
inaccurate.

Despite the limitations, the researchers will assure that the data, that will be

collected and analyzed, will be necessary in accomplishing the objectives of the research,

and will be sufficient in making accurate and precise conclusions.

Chapter 2

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

This chapter is composed of ideas and concepts from various studies and other

academic literature, that are related to this study. Concepts that are thoroughly presented

in this portion of the paper are as follows: defining college readiness; the various

predictors of college readiness; the moderating effects of senior high school strands on

college readiness; and signal theory. Through this review, the researchers were able to

identify the variables that are included in this study; and formulate the research

hypotheses.

Defining college readiness

College readiness refers to a high school student’s knowledge, set of skills, and

behaviors upon moving up to the freshman year of college. It is the ability to find success

in tertiary education without the need for remediation. Being a college-ready student is

advantageous as it predicts early success, and provides momentum in the early years of

college. It also increases a student’s chance of college degree completion. There are a

number of ways in predicting college readiness, usually, it is determined by a student’s:

class rank, coursework, grade point average, and standardized test scores (Wignall, 2020).
In western countries, standardized college readiness tests, such as the scholastic

assessment test (SAT), American college test (ACT) and college admissions tests are the

most common method of predicting college readiness (Scott-Clayton, 2012).

College readiness is commonly defined as the student’s ability to enroll and

succeed in college credit courses without the need for developmental education. College

readiness

of high school students is a high priority across the education system in USA, national and

state policies, initiatives, and reforms at high school and college levels mainly focuses on

better preparing students before enrolling on college. Colleges typically place students in

developmental education based on their performance on the SAT or ACT or

ACCUPLACER or ACT Compass. Though recent research implies that reliance of these

test-based measures may direct students to developmental coursework when students

could have succeeded in their college coursework. In order to improve placement process

and determine the students’ appropriate highest level of coursework in which they are

likely to proceed, colleges are beginning to use students high school GPA in addition to

test scores (Hodara & Cox, 2016).

In the perception of first-year college students who are taking remedial courses,

college readiness is not necessarily all about content knowledge. According to them, the

education environment and their attitude towards education are also factors that need to be

taken account when discussing college readiness. Meaning, college readiness, as

perceived by students, is more than just cognitive abilities and content knowledge
(Wallaert, 2018).

Predictors of college readiness

Currently, despite of the existing college readiness standards (CRS) that is set by

the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), standardized college readiness tests (CRT)

that are intended for K-12 Filipino graduates, does not exist. Having a Philippine-based

CRT will contribute in resolving the issues of K-12 because CRT serves as an arbitrary

basis for the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines, in order to measure

the readiness of K-12 Filipino graduates when they enter tertiary level institutions. After

designing, validating, and administering a CRT among senior high school graduates of

various institutions in the northern area of the Philippines, it was established that CRT is a

reliable instrument to measure college readiness as it possesses inter-item consistency

(r=0.796) and it is criterion-referenced, gender-fair, and contextualized. CRT has the

ability to recognize K-12 graduates who are likely to be admitted to college and who

could succeed without remediating general education courses (Tamayao et.al., 2020).

The PSAT, SAT, ACT and California Smarter Balances standardized test has been

analyzed and compared as predictors of college persistence. The result from the

MANOVA did not indicate a significant difference between the tests in question.

However, a significance difference was detected from MLR only between ACT ELA

scores and college persistence, and between SAT Math score and College persistence.

Based on the findings, an argument rose for the gleaning from but replacing the

traditional college admission test with an improve version of California Smarter Balances
as a single new assessment better designed to measure and predict the students' future

career success. On the other hand, standardized exams continue to serve as a key factor in

the American College Admission process. The preliminary SAT (PSAT) has for many

decades served as a practice test. The index score of PSAT indicates the progress of the

students towards college readiness (Dam, 2019).

Comparing the predictive powers of high school GPA and standardized test scores

through regression shows that, across most demographic sub groups, test scores are

equally effective as high school GPA, in predicting the first-year college GPA of the

respondents. Furthermore, when the sample was grouped based on ethnicity, test scores

and high school

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GPA are also equal in predicting first year college GPA. Focusing on the female

demographics, admission test scores was shown to be better than high school GPA, in

predicting first year college GPA. The only instance that test scores produced less

predictive power than high school GPA, was when it was used to predict unsuccessful

college students. These findings provide data that standardized test scores are equally as

effective, if not, better in predicting college readiness, when compared to high school

GPA. Test scores reflects the cognitive performance of the students, while high school

GPA measures both cognitive and non-cognitive performances. The reason why test

scores is a better predictor is because college GPA is measured more on cognitive

performance rather than non-cognitive elements (Marayuma, 2012).

While standardized tests are good indicators of college readiness, according to the
American Educational Research Association (2020), high school grade point average

(GPA) is also a strong indicator of college readiness. In fact, it is five times more reliable

compared to test scores. Grades reflect a number of non-cognitive aspects of a student’s

study habits, such as: growth mindset, executive functioning, and academic perseverance.

These aspects are not reflected on the scores taken from standardized tests (Cooney,

2017). On the other hand, a standardized test measures only a small portion of the

students’ skills. It is also important to note that students can prepare for tests, making test

scores less reliable in predicting college success in the long run (Allensworth & Clark,

2020).

Academic discipline is a psychological factor that predicts GPA, in the first year of

college, the most. The student’s capability to remain disciplined is essential to find

success in the tertiary level. In addition, study habits, learning methods, and practices for

as early

11

as the tenth grade in high school, causes early success in and momentum in college.

Motivation is also a psychological factor that predicts college readiness. Comparisons

from the results of regression analyses of the psychological factors and standardized test

scores, reveals that psychological factors such as academic discipline and general

motivation are the most effective predictors of college readiness (Wilson, 2012).

Upon examining the college admission test scores of 55,088 former high school

students, who graduated between the years 2006 and 2008, in Chicago, it was found out

that high school GPA is a stronger predictor of college success than standardized test
scores. In addition, the correlation between high school GPA and academic performance

in college is consistent, regardless of the schools that the respondents attended. On the

other hand, at some schools, the correlation between standardized test scores such as

college admission tests, and college GPA, are inconsistent. There are also schools where

students with high college admission test scores, corresponded to low college graduation

rates (De la Rosa, 2020).

Correlational study on standardized test scores, high school GPA, and non

cognitive aspects, towards academic success in college, the results show that students who

have higher GPA in high school, but scored low in college admission test scores, garnered

higher grades in college. Moreover, regression analysis shows that although college

admission test scores predicted 13% of the college GPA, high school GPA and non

cognitive aspects predicted more. In addition, it was found out that academic discipline

plays a mediating effect on the correlation between high school GPA and college GPA

(Komarraju, 2013).

12

High school GPA may be a better indicator than standardized tests, but it does not

mean that the use of standardized tests are to be dismissed. Using both means of

measuring college readiness is advantageous, in fact, using multiple measures helps in

predicting a student’s college readiness and success. Due to differences in grading

practices on different high schools, using only the GPA in measuring college readiness

may produce biased data. Through standardized tests, the differences in the grading

practices can be reduced. Similarly, with GPA, areas that the test scores do not reflect, can
be measured (ACT, 2013). Other than GPA and test scores, senior high school tracks and

strands are also predictors of academic success in college. Tracks and strands serve as a

preparation of selecting a college degree program, meaning, the relationship and

alignment between strands in senior high school and college degree program can predict

college readiness (Magbag & Rudolfo, 2020).

This is particularly true for college students who are concerned in performing well

on academic achievement like GPA. Studies have investigated simultaneously about the

relative predictive powers of two or three factors on students’ GPA. In analyzing the

relative powers of five social/personality factors, five cognitive/learning factors, and SAT

scores in order to predict freshmen and non-freshmen’s academic success. Other

researchers also argue that models of academic achievement should include,

social/personality and cognitive learning factors in order to be comprehensive. These

imply that there are many significant predictors of GPA for freshmen and non-freshmen,

although, subsequent regressions exhibit that only academic self-efficacy, epistemic belief

of learning, and high knowledge integration interpreted unique variance on GPA. For

13

freshmen, SAT scores showed an additional unique 10.6% variance after attributing those

three predictors were removed, however for non-freshmen, SAT scores were unable to

explain any additional variance. The results highlight the important contributions of

academic self-efficacy, epistemic belief of learning and high knowledge integration on

GPA over other previously-identified predictors (Hannon, 2014).

Moderating effects of senior high school strands on college readiness Vertical

alignment refers to the planning and arranging of the curriculum, in order to facilitate

students’ performance across the different year levels in education. This way, the time

that is consumed in reteaching concepts, that are already taught on previous levels of

education, can be reduced. Vertical alignment reduces unnecessary repetitions in the

curriculum (Brown, Bourke-Taylor, & Williams, 2012).

According to the vertical alignment theory, there is a clear, direct, and linear

relationship between the concepts that the learners have acquired in the different levels of

the learning process. Meaning, the learners who are under a vertically aligned curriculum

tend to demonstrate better learning outcomes. A curriculum that is vertically aligned, is a

curriculum that aims to teach the students essential lessons that will prepare them to

higher levels of education. In addition, the vertical alignment theory suggests that

teaching is purposefully structured, and sequenced logically. This will enable the learners

to acquire knowledge and skills that will progressively prepare them to take high-level

education that are more challenging and requires high-level work. Inversely, the vertical

alignment theory also argues that the mismatch or the misalignment between specialized

courses in high

14

school and college degree program could cause a disconnection and a disruption to the

learning progression of the students (Kurz, Talapatra, & Roach, 2012).

Mathematics misalignment is a common experience among college students who

took STEM-related courses. Mathematics misalignment occurs when college students

perform poorly in mathematics, even if they had outstanding marks and achievements in
high school mathematics. Upon examining various records of college students, a common

observation is the existence of mathematics misalignment on the majority of the students.

further inspection suggests that the existence of mathematics misalignment hinders

students’ success on STEM-related and mathematics-centered courses in college.

Moreover, students who are pursuing STEM-related courses in college, who experienced

mathematics misalignment were less-likely to complete their courses. Inversely, the

students who did not experience mathematics misalignment were proven to excel in

STEM-related courses. Meaning, aligning academic standards in high school and college

is important, for it will lead to improvements in STEM-participation (Park, Ngo, &

Melguizo, 2020).

Analysis on high school and college records of community college students, in a

large metropolitan are in California, shows that students who were deemed college ready

upon high school graduation were placed under remedial mathematics course in college.

This phenomenon among students, is described as inter-section mathematics

misalignment (ISMM). When the students were grouped according to gender and race,

analyses showed that ISMM is common to female students, black students, and Latina

students. The students who experienced ISMM were less likely to complete transfer-level

mathematics courses,

15

and are less likely to complete degree-applicable credits. Through inverse probability

weighting analyses, it was shown that students who experienced ISMM in college, were

highly likely be discouraged to pursue mathematics courses. These findings suggest that
improvements in the alignment between high school and college may reduce inequality

among students, in terms of college completion (Ngo & Melguizo, 2020).

Similarly, academic elitism theory argues that students with specialized

knowledge, skills, and qualifications who are enrolled under a specific field, are deemed

to gain high scores in academics. Meaning, these students tend to be more academically

successful than the students who experiences misalignment between senior high school

strand and chosen college degree program (Rambe, & Moeti, 2017). Furthermore,

academic elitism theory also claims that in highly-competitive education environments,

only the students with sufficient academic background can endure challenging academic

requirements, such as difficult quizzes, examinations, and projects (Mukharji, 2017).

To provide evidence on academic elitism, significant difference in academic

performance were observed in first-year health science students, specifically, the

difference was seen when the students were grouped based on their strands in senior high

school. In fact, students, who were enrolled to the STEM strand in senior high school,

performed better academically, compared to the students who were enrolled in a

non-STEM strand. On this note, the strand in senior highs school were not the main

reason for the difference in academic performance. There were other variables in the

study that predicted academic performance in college, one of which is academic

adjustment. Even if this is the case, it

16

was shown that senior high school strands have moderating effects on the students’

academic performance in college (Alipio, 2020).

Signal theory

Signal theory was first developed in 2004 by Michael Kirst and Andrea Venezia,

in the book “From High School to College: Improving Opportunities for Success in Post

Secondary Education.” The theory originated from the signaling theory in economics.

Basically, the purpose of signaling theory was to examine the characteristics of job

applicants in the perspective of the employers, compared on what job applicants might do

to increase their chance of getting hired. In the context of education, signal theory focuses

on the student, or the receiver of the signals; and the accuracy of the signals. Signals refer

to the students’ grades, skills, and first impressions. Similarly, test scores and course

grades in high school are also signals. In the signal theory, signals reflect the students’

level of preparedness for college (Cimetta, 2012).

There are instances where signals such as high school course grades, do not

predict the level of preparedness for college. This happens when students acquire high

grades, only to get the minimum grade requirements of the tertiary level institutions that

they are interested in. sometimes, students would pass only for the sake of passing.

Because of these, some students would fail in college, even if they had good grades in

high school. Hence, signal theory assumes that through educational reforms, educators,

parents, and students can receive proper signals, increasing their chance of college

success. If college institutions collaborate with high schools to ensure that the proper

standards are met, then, students would be more prepared for college. Similarly, it would

lead to the alignment

17
between what college admission tests would include, and what high school would teach

their students (Jackson & Kurlaender, 2014).

Furthermore, the students’ ability or inability to find success and complete college

has less to do with their personal motivation, rather, it has more to do with clear signals.

The signal theory assumes that students who receive accurate signals in high school will

know their actual level of preparation to complete college. Equivalently, they will find

little to no difficulty completing course requirements in college. All of these implies that

students who can find a connection between high school and future career choices will be

highly likely to study high school seriously (Vinaja, 2016).

To summarize, college readiness is defined as a student’s ability to complete

tertiary-level education. A college-ready student is one who finds success in the early

years of college; and one who is highly-likely to complete a college-degree. College

readiness, as perceived by students, is more than just cognitive abilities, it is also affected

by the educational environment and the student’s attitude towards education. Based on

multiple studies, there is a number of predictors of college readiness, but the most

commonly used are: standardized test scores and highs school GPA. There are also

psychological factors that predict college readiness, such as academic discipline and

general motivation. These psychological factors, according to researchers, are reflected in

the student’s high school GPA. Standardized test scores have been used and proven to be

effective predictors of college readiness, however, discussions concerning its reliability

and validity have been prevalent in the education community. In fact, most studies argue
that high school GPA is a better predictor of college readiness. However, there are also

studies that would suggest

18

that standardized test scores and high school GPA, have equal predictive value. In an

effort to find out which one is better, multiple studies have been conducted. Findings

point out that using both predictors is more advantageous, than just using only one as a

basis of college readiness. Issues on the different grading practices in various high

schools would affect the reliability of high school GPA in predicting college readiness.

This concern can be resolved by using test scores, since test scores are objective, it can be

used to verify the predictive value of high school GPA. Similarly, standardized test scores

are one dimensional and does not include the students’ psychological factors. By using

highs school GPA, issues on one-dimensionality can be resolved.

Moving away from high school GPA and test scores, senior high school strands

have been observed to have an effect on college readiness. Although its effect is

insufficient to be able to predict college readiness, studies still suggest that senior high

school strands have moderating effects on college readiness. The moderating effects of

senior high school strands, is explained by academic elitism, which assumes that students

that lack prior knowledge in their field of study are less likely to complete their program.

This is evident on students who took non-STEM courses in high school but took

STEM-courses in college. The moderating effects of senior high school strands, is also

explained in vertical alignment theory, which suggests that the misalignment between

high school and college standards can cause students to fail the completion of their
college program. Misalignment is commonly seen on students who were deemed as

college-ready in high school mathematics, but failed to find success in mathematics

courses in college.

19

According to signal theory, there are signals, such as grades and skills, that help in

predicting college readiness among students. The stronger the signals, the better the

students would perform in the tertiary level. Meaning, students with higher grades and test

scores would have higher chances of college completion. However, there are instances

where students who performed well in high school, would perform poorly in college. This

happens when the signals that the students received in high school are weak due to

misaligned standards from high school to college. This implies that the level of

preparedness of students for college, heavily relies on their schools. Meaning, better

educational reforms promote college readiness. This concept can be applied to the K-12

program, thus, if the predictors of college readiness, does not predict college readiness,

then there is a misalignment between K-12 and college standards. Therefore, the

predictive value of high school GPA and college admission test scores on college

readiness, suggest the current state of the K-12 program. The same also applies to the

moderating effects of senior high school strands on college readiness.

Conceptual Framework

Students’ senior high

school GPA

Students’ GWA in the

first semester of
college
 strands
Students’ college admission
test scores Figure 1. Conceptual
Senior high Framework
school
20

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the study. The predictive variables

are students’ SHSGPA and college admission test scores; while the criterion variable is

the GWA in the first semester of college. There is also a moderating variable, which is

the strands in SHS.

Hypotheses of the Study

The following are the null hypotheses of the study:

HO1: The students’ SHSGPA does not predict their GWA in the first semester of

college.

HO2: The students’ college admission test scores do not predict their GWA in the

first semester of college.

HO3: SHS strands do not have moderating effects on the correlation of SHSGPA

and GWA in the first semester of college.

HO4: SHS strands do not have moderating effects on the correlation of college

admission test scores and GWA in the first semester of college.

Definition of Terms

The following are the key terms that are identified in this study. Each term will be

defined based on their purpose in the study, and on how they will be utilized. Senior high

school. Refers to a secondary school that students attend before progressing to college. In
the Philippines, it refers to Grades 11 and 12 which are the last two years of the K-12

Basic Education Program (Okabe, 2013).

Senior high school strands. Refers the division of K-12 curriculum subjects

depending on the learner’s specialization. Learners may choose among three tracks which

21

are: (1) Academic; (2) Technical-Vocational-Livelihood; and (3) Sports and Arts. The

Academic track includes four strands namely, Accountancy, Business, and Management

(ABM), Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM), Humanities and

Social Sciences (HUMSS), and General Academics (GA). The ABM strand focuses on

concepts of financial management, business management, and corporate operations. The

STEM strand are intertwined disciplines that are applied in real world scenarios. This

focuses on advanced concepts and topics. The HUMSS strand is designed for those who

are taking up journalism, communication arts, education, and other social science related

courses. Lastly, the GA is a strand for learners who are still undecided which

specialization to take (Cueva, 2021).

College Readiness. Refers to the knowledge, skills, and attitude of a high school

learner should have before proceeding to college. High school graduates must be able to

demonstrate the knowledge and solid foundation of lifelong learning skills required to

complete basic freshman level college courses (Wignall, 2020).

Grade point average. Commonly known as GPA, is the number representing

learner’s average value of the accumulated final grades acquired in courses. It is

calculated by adding up all accumulated final grades and dividing that number to the
number of grades allocated (Glossary of Education Reform, 2013).

General weighted average. Known as GWA, it is the average grades in all

subjects. It is calculated by multiplying the grades in each subject to the corresponding

units. Then, the products will be added and divided by the sum of all units. It serves as

22

indicator of academic performance in a semester or academic year (Glossary of Education

Reform, 2013).

Moderating effects. Refers to the changes that a moderator variable, also known

as the third variable, have on a correlation. Moderating effects can either weaken or

amplify the correlation between the predictor and criterion variable. The moderating

effects can be determined through multiple linear regression (Hayes, 2013).

Predictive value. Defined as the regression coefficient, and is used in describing

the relationship between the predictor and criterion variable. The sign of the regression

coefficient, either positive (+) or negative (-), indicates the direction of the relationship of

the variables. A positive sign indicates that if the predictor variable increases, the criterion

variable also increases. A negative sign indicates that if the predictor variable increases,

the criterion variable decreases (Frost, n.d.).

23

Chapter 3

METHODOLOGY
Research Design

This research will follow a correlational research design. The correlational

research design is used in establishing the degree of association between two or more

variables without the need of manipulating any of the variables. Correlations can

establish either a positive correlation or a negative correlation (McCombes, 2019).

Specifically, the researchers will use regression analysis in establishing the

correlation between the variables in this study. According to Beers (2021), there are two

types of regression: simple linear regression and multiple linear regression. Both types are

used in predicting the outcome of the dependent variable by using the independent

variable. Additionally, regression analysis is used in developing a prediction model based

on the variables of the study (Australian Council for Educational Research, 2015). Since

there are two predictor variables, this research will utilize the multiple linear regression

analysis. Multiple linear regression is an extension of simple linear regression, it is a

statistical test used in examining the outcome, based on multiple predictor variables

(Boston University, 2021).

The main objective of this research is to examine the correlation between the

senior high school GPA and college admission test scores, on GWA in the first semester

of the freshman year of college, hence, the researchers decided that it is appropriate to

follow the correlational research design.

24

Respondents and Sampling Strategy

 The participants in this study will be the third-year and fourth-year BSEd-Math

students of LNU. The respondents were selected under the conditions that the students

must be graduates of the K-12 Program and they took the college admission test for

BSEd-Math students.

The entire population of fourth-year and third-year BSEd-Math students will be

the respondents in this study, thus, sampling will not be conducted. In order to establish

an accurate and precise correlation between the variables, multiple researchers suggest to

have a large sample size. Typically, sample sizes for correlations should approach at least

250 respondents, meaning, if the population size is less than 250, the whole population

should be included in the study. Furthermore, according to Chris Draheim, a correlation

with 50 to 60 observations is not reliable, it should have around 80 to 100 in order to

produce reliable results (Chua, 2019). There are 87 third-year BSEd-Math students, and

75 fourth year BSEd-Math students, thus, there will be a total of 162 BSEd-Math students

who will participate in this study.

Instrumentation

This research will use archival data as the primary source of information. Archival

data are information that already exist in a private or public organizations and other

institutions’ files. Archival data are gathered for legal requirements, internal record,

reference purposes, and research purposes. Most commonly, archival data are kept by:

public record from government agencies, research organizations, schools and education

departments, academic and similar institutions, and in the business industry. Archival data

25
can be used for evaluations that will provide findings that are useful in assessing a

program’s effectiveness, and can provide data necessary in the program’s improvement

(Rabinowitz, 2014).

The archival data that will be needed for the data analysis procedure of this study

are the following: the students’ test scores in the college admission test for BSEd-Math

students; the students track when they were enrolled in senior high school; the GPA of the

students when they were in senior high school; and the students weighted average in the

first semester of their freshman year in college.

The instruments that will be used in this study is a modified report of records.

Typically, the report of records in LNU provides the student’s grades per course and their

semester general weighted average. However, in the modified report of records, the

researchers will only ask for the archival data mentioned earlier. The modified report of

records will be composed of a table with five columns, the number of rows will be the

same with the total number of the research respondents. The first column will be for the

students’ name and the students’ ID number, the second column will be for the students’

SHS strands, the third column will be for the students’ SHSGPA, the fourth column will

be for the students’ GWA in the first semester of their freshman year in college, and

lastly, the fifth column will be for the students’ scores in the college admission test for

BSEd-Math students.

Validity refers to the level of accuracy to which a research instrument measures

data, in line with the aims of the study. Secondly, reliability is the degree of which the
 26

research instrument produces consistent results (Li, 2016). The modified report of records

is a simple research instrument that only require data regarding the respondents’

educational background. Moreover, the findings that will be produced in this study, will

not only rely on the archival data, because further interpretations will be generated

through the multiple regression analysis. Furthermore, the aim of the research instrument

is only to gather the educational background of the students, therefore, based on the

objective, the research instrument is valid and reliable.

Data Collection Procedure

The initial step before data collection will be the creation and approbation of

various request letter from the university administrators to be able to conduct the data

gathering in the university. There will be two letter of consents that will be created, first is

the letter of consent for the students that will allow the researchers to use the respondents’

data from high school and college. The second letter of consent will be directed at the

university, its purpose is to allow the researchers to access the records and data of the

BSED-Math students who will participate in the study. After disseminating the letter of

consent, the researchers will arrange an appointment with the university as to when the

data, needed in the study, will be available. Upon consent and agreement, the researchers

will go to LNU to deliver the modified report of records to the mathematics unit. Once the

report of records has been completely filled up, the researchers will go to LNU again, in

order to collect the filled out modified report of records.

To ensure the confidentiality of the data, the researchers will fill out a
confidentiality agreement form with the university personnel who will provide access to

27

the archival data. The modified report of records will be stored in an envelope. Then, the

raw data will be encoded and transferred in a spreadsheet, which will be uploaded in a

private google drive folder that only the researchers can access.

Data Analysis Procedure

In order to examine the correlation between the variables of the study, and to

identify the predictive value of senior high school GPA and college admission test scores

on the GWA in the first semester of college, the researchers will utilize multiple linear

regression analysis. Similarly, in testing the moderating effects of senior high school

strand on the correlation between senior high school GPA and college admission test

scores, on GWA in the first semester of college, multiple linear regression will also be

used. The researchers decided to utilize multiple linear regression as the statistical tool,

because there are multiple predictor variables, and it can run moderator analysis on

categorical data, such as senior high school strand.

There are four assumptions that are associated to regression analysis. First is

linearity, the relationship between the predictor variable must be linear with the mean of

the criterion variable. Second is homoscedasticity, the variance of the residual must be

equal with any value of the predictor variable. Next is independence, all of the

observations must be independent of each other. Lastly, all the predictor and criterion

variables must be normally distributed (Boston University, 2016). Once these

assumptions are assessed, the researchers will proceed to data analysis.

 28

A significance level of p < 0.05 will be used for all the statistical tests in this

research study. Furthermore, all of the statistical tests in this study will be conducted using

SPSS, a reliable statistical computer software.

Table 1. Research Objectives by Data Analysis Procedure

Research Objectives Hypothesis of the Study Data Analysis

scores and first semester correlation of college
To determine the predictive GWA. admission test scores and
value the students’ senior HO1: The students’ senior GWA in the first semester
high school GPA on their high school GPA does not of college.
GWA in the first semester predict their GWA in the Multiple linear regression
of college. first semester of college.

To determine the predictive

value of the students’ HO2: The students’ college
college admission test admission test scores do
scores on their GWA in the not predict their GWA in Multiple linear regression
first semester of college. the first semester of
college.
To identify the moderating
effects of the students’ HO3: Senior high school
senior high school strand strands do not have
towards the correlation of Multiple linear regression
moderating effects on the
senior high school GPA and correlation of senior high
first semester GWA. school GPA and GWA in
the first semester of
college.
To identify the moderating
effects of the students’
H : Senior high school
senior high school strand O4
towards the correlation of strands do not have Multiple linear regression
college admission test moderating effects on the
 Table 1 shows the research objective and its corresponding hypothesis. It also

shows the statistical tool that will be used to accomplish the objectives of the study.

29

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34

Appendix A.
Research Instrument

Modified Report of Records

Student ID and Name SHS SHS Admissi First
GPA Strand on Test Sem
Score GWA

1905824 Abueva, John Mel

1905639 Agrava, Rexon Mark T.

1905827 Arado, Vic Loyd

1905730 Bajado, Marcelo

1905836 Borjal, Gene Boy

1905740 Cabral, Ogie

1905748 Cinco, Jezreel

1905849 De La Cruz, Leo Mark

1905663 Delmonte, Mark Angelo A.

1905669 Dungzal, Ralph

Florence C.

1905601 Echavez, Angel JR. E.

1800706 Escoto, Kessel Andree C.

1905605 Gacho, Samuel

1905674 Gullina, James Clark Y.

1905681 Lar, Jerico A.

1905782 Llaneras, Jimuel

1905687 Magno, Kent Nimuel

1905690 Malibago, Camilo IV N.

1905609 Masuela, Anjelo Joseph T.

1905613 Ocopio, Ronie A.

1905619 Olmedo, Jhirone

Brix Celsius G.

1300145 Oquiño, John Paul R.

1905788 Orejola, Jeffrey

1905707 Osares, Darel L.

1905625 Quintana, Ralph John C.

1905627 Rael, Kevin T.

1905798 Ragobrio, Bryle G.

1907129 Rocero, Justine Lourd E.

1905891 Serafin, Lino

1905725 Villar, Kyle M.

1905727 Abanes, Joanna Mae

1905641 Alapoop, Jane

35

1905643 Almoden, Sheena May

1905574 Ambos, Ira Evan G.

1905546 Arante, Glaiza B.

1905579 Baldomar, Ma.

Leilla Millen C.

1905583 Balijado, Stephanie O.

1905834 Batiquin, Roselyn

1905585 Bertes, Trexie Rose

1905647 Betinol, Syrene Rose R.

1905733 Bingco, Laarni

1905840 Briones, Camille

1905843 Cabañas, Crislyn Mae

1905735 Cabigayan, Zandra Joy

1905738 Cablao, Joan Grace

1905587 Cajepe, Jaquilene C.

1905650 Calvadores, Charmaine M.

1905593 Canayon, Tiara May

1905595 Capoquian, Mary Rose

1905655 Capuno, Queennie Niña A.

1905744 Chua, Ruffa Mae

1905846 Cipriano, Crizza Mael

1905751 Cue Kim Dit, Shanee

1905658 De la Cruz, Maria

Christine

1905661 Dela Cruz, Erneilyn

1905852 De la Peña, Stephanie

1905599 Dumdum, Anika Marie

1905672 Elejedo, Gladys

1905855 Engracial, Kate

Mackenziel

1905603 Entendez, Hannah Mae B.

1905861 Fabella, Kristylle

1905761 Gabriel, Gensell Mae

1801013 Hernandez, Kimberly

Jane C.

1905771 Labro, Ella Mae

1905774 Ladyao, Mylene

1905867 Lagahit Mae

1905776 Lerios, Irish Joy Anfel

1905779 Lizarde, Trixie Anne

1905874 Meras, Lyndie

1905611 Morallos, Lydweena

36

1905702 Nacional, Leahjean A.

1907162 Navarro, Erika O.

1900742 Noble, Renia J.

1905877 Oliva, Lorie Anne

1905621 Pabello, Divine Grace F.

1905790 Pabunan, Tricia Mae

1905623 Pacurib, Julami R.

1905793 Paraguya, Koleen Aira

1905796 Piangco, Carylle Faye H.

1905800 Regaña, Maevel

1905629 Rodriguez, Princess H.

1905885 Saludaga, Donalyn

1905807 Santizo, Mariel

1905810 Sebalon, Cindy

1905713 Tabuquilde, Andrea

1905818 Torres, Pamela

1802667 Uraga, Wherlyn Rosse A.

1800737 Abilar, Josua Mahilom

1800954 Aguiliña, Ronillo I.

1800955 Albarico, Kent D.

1802640 Amistoso, John Ross G.

1801021 Amolar, Archie L.

1802641 Anilao, Racky G.

1802643 Biano, Filgino P.

1801025 Bingco, Haward Niel N.

1801026 Calolo, Vicente Jr. B.

1800976 Cinco, Mark Shane T.

1804074 Collarga, Ramil B.

1802647 Daga, John Rey F.

1802649 Dualan, John Carlo L.

1800998 Echano, Silveryo John

Rey R.

1801003 Escoriall, Paul V.

1801004 Estrada, Samuel Jr. V.

1802651 Flores, Omni

Julius Daganio

1802655 Lacambra, Jericho B.

1801057 Macalla, Reymark D.

1805058 Macawille, El Ivenger

1801064 Nuevas, Meyco A.

1801065 Oliva, Fernando Jose

1802660 Pineda, Vincent P.

37
1801072 Sumaljag, Nicolas C.
1802666 Taboy, Leoled R.

1801016 Abarracosso, Jenelyn A.

1801017 Abretil, Sharmaine C.

1801020 Amistoso, Rovelyn G.

1800959 Artoza, Felina Joy C.

1800961 Asebias, Marial A.

1801022 Azores, Sheena Mae V.

1802644 Bohol, Anelyn G.

1800966 Bohol, Marian R.

1800967 Borromeo, Maria Mellia D.

1802645 Cabia, Kayle Marxes AJ S.

1800969 Cabias, Jolina

1801028 Camba, Jobelle S.

1800971 Canales, Syrel Mae G.

1800975 Casas, Estelle Jade

1802646 Celis, Charmaine T.

1801032 Colinares, Bliszel G.

1800984 Cuevas, Marissa A.

1800120 De Castro, Mary Joy N.

1800991 Dechosa, Enna Rose T.

1800992 Dedal, Ailen T.

1802649 Dela Vega, Varyah
Faye V.

1800997 Dimpas, Guadalupe R.

1801001 Empectana, Mary Grace L.

1801002 Epil, Via P.

1801005 Etos, Jessa Joy S.

1801006 Eugenio, Hazel Rose N.

1803313 Gallaza, Marisol D.

1801008 Garciola, Jasmin

1801009 Gerilla, Nicole Anne

Joy O.

1801011 Gomez, Sheila

Marie Isabelo

1801012 Grego, Russel L.

1802049 Guantero,
Khlyndanne Joyce S.

1801014 Imus, Irica M.

1801015 Java, Jeseree L.

1801055 Latoza, Juliet Y.

38

1801056 Leyes, Christine P.

1802656 Macasaet, Daisy P.

1801035 Maribbay, Joyce G.

1800460 Nabaunag, Jasmin

 1801061 Nalagon, Aiza P.

1801062 Nebab, Mary Grace M.

1801038 Niones, Haide C

1801063 Nogal, Aljonette

1801040 Ocena, Charity B.

1802659 Panong, Zarah Jane A.

1802662 Quijano, Jecelyn R.

1801048 Quintana, Maria

Fedelaine H.

1905888 Santiago, Charlotte

1802669 Ventoso, Natalie

Marie Angela Quejada

1801073 Verzosa, Marjorie

Glycel M.

Table 2. Modified report of records.

The modified report of records will serve as the research instrument. This table is

where the archival data about the students will be written.

39

Appendix B.
Informed Consent
 Figure 2. Pledge of Confidentiality

The pledge of confidentiality will serve as a written proof that the data obtained

from the archives of LNU shall remain confidential.

40
 Figure 3. Letter of Consent A

Letter of Consent A is the written letter, addressed to the third-year representatives

of BSEd-Math students. Its purpose is to ask for permission to access the high school and

college records of the third-year students.

41
 Figure 4. Letter of Consent B
Letter of Consent B is the written letter, addressed to the fourth-year

representatives of BSEd-Math students. Its purpose is to ask for permission to access the

high school and college records of the fourth-year students.

42
 Figure 5. Letter of Consent C
Letter of Consent C is a written letter addressed to the university president of

LNU. Its purpose is to ask for permission to conduct the research in LNU and to access

the archives of LNU, that stores the records of the students.

43
 Figure 6. Letter of Consent D
Letter of Consent D is a written proof that the third-year representatives, in behalf

of all third-year students, authorize the researchers to access their data.

44
 Figure 7. Letter of Consent E
Letter of Consent D is a written proof that the fourth-year representatives, in

behalf of all the fourth-year students, authorize the researchers to access their data.

45
 Appendix C.
Gannt Chart/Timetable
Month April May June July August

Week No. 1 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
2

Initial readings
and literature
review

Selecting
research topic
of interest

Research topic
defense

Research topic
approval

Consulting with
research adviser

Literature review

Writing the
research
proposal
manuscript

Constructing the
research
instrument for
data gathering

Consulting with
research instructor

Revision of the
research
proposal
manuscript

Semester break
 Table 3. Gantt Chart

The Gantt chart shows the time duration of the process of conceptualizing,

planning, writing, and revising the research proposal manuscript.

46

Appendix D.
Line Item Budget
EXPENSE MONTH ACTUAL PROJECTE ACTUAL
CATEGORIES EXPENSE D EXPENSE
2020 EXPENSE 2021
2021

Internet April P 100 P 100 P 100

Connection

Internet May P 100 P 100 P 100

Connection

Internet June P 100 P 100 P 100

Connection

Internet July P 100 P 100 P 100

Connection

TOTAL P 400 P 400 P 400

Table 4. Line Item Budget

The line item budget shows the monthly expenses, used in the process of

conceptualizing, planning, writing, and revising the research proposal manuscript. It also

shows the difference between the estimated cost and the actual cost.