Food Dehydration

Digvir S Jayas, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada

Ó 2016 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Moisture in Foods 1
Psychrometric Properties 2
Dehydration Process 2
Types of Dryer 3
Selection of Dryer 3
Sun Dryer 3
Cabinet or Tray Dryer 4
Tunnel Dryer 4
Conveyor Dryer 4
Spray Dryer 5
Freeze Dryer 6
Drum Dryer 6
Fluidized Bed Dryer 7
Sprouted Bed Dryer 7
Flash Dryer 7
Microwave Dryer 9
Vacuum Dryer 9
Airborne Ultrasound-Assisted Dryer 9
References 10
Change History 10

Moisture in Foods

Water is the most abundant material in food, has the most influence on its storability and organoleptic characteristics, and is the
most expensive to remove from food. It is a historical observation that food material can be preserved for a longer duration if its
moisture content is reduced. A dry food product is less susceptible to spoilage caused by the growth of bacteria, molds, and insects.
Dehydration can improve palatability, digestibility, color, flavor, and appearance of a food. Packaging, handling, and transportation
of a dry product are easier and cheaper (Geankoplis, 1983; Brennan et al., 1990; Mujumdar, 1987, 1994, 2006, 2014). The spoilage
of a food is a direct function of the available water in the food expressed by the relative humidity of the surrounding atmosphere in
equilibrium with food. For a food, equilibrium relative humidity (ERH) can be called water activity (aw), with the distinction that
water activity is used to indicate an intrinsic parameter of the food, whereas the ERH refers to the property of the surrounding atmo-
sphere. The biochemical reactions responsible for deterioration of food, such as lipid oxidation, enzymatic reactions, and develop-
ment of microorganisms on food, are influenced by aw or ERH (Jayas, 2003; Sahin and Sumnu, 2006).
The phenomenon of water binding in foods is not yet well understood. Foods are complex systems in which water is present
along with solids (e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, fiber etc.), liquids (e.g., lipids), and gases (e.g., air and other volatiles). Food mate-
rial can bind water physically or chemically. Physically bound water is adsorbed to surfaces in food such as proteins, carbohydrates,
and other hydrophilic colloids, whereas chemically bound water represents a definite proportion by mass of the specific
compounds. An example of the latter is the water of hydration in chemical compounds of foods. The water also fills the intercellular
space in the solid
liquid matrix of the food and is known as free water. In the dehydration process, free and physically bound water
is usually removed and, at times, a portion of the chemically bound water may also be removed. The majority of the moisture in
liquid foods such as skim milk exists as free water and for dehydration of the liquid foods some preconcentration is usually done
(Mercer, 2012; Mujumdar, 2014).
In food dehydration, when hot air is used to transfer heat to the food, the temperature and relative humidity of the air determine
the final moisture content to which a food can be dried. If the food is left in contact with air at constant conditions for an indefinitely
long time, it will reach equilibrium with the air. The moisture content of the food at equilibrium is known as equilibrium moisture
content (EMC). The EMC–ERH relationships of food thus have practical utility in calculating drying times and energy estimates for
removing the moisture from food. A sorption isotherm (Figure 1) represents the EMC–ERH interactions macroscopically. The
typical isotherm for food is sigmoidal in shape. Foods can attain equilibrium either by losing or by gaining moisture depending
on whether the vapor pressure of the surroundings is lower or higher than the vapor pressure of the moisture in food. The former
process is called desorption and the latter is called adsorption, thus resulting in desorption and adsorption EMC, respectively. The
desorption EMC values are greater than the adsorption EMC values at constant temperature and ERH. The difference between the
desorption and the adsorption EMC values for the same ERH is called the hysteresis effect (Iglesias and Chiriffe, 1982; Shatadal and
Jayas, 1992; Al-Muhtaseb et al., 2002; Jayas, 2003).

Reference Module in Food Sciences http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-08-100596-5.02913-9 1

2 Food Dehydration

Moisture Content
0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
Water Activity

Figure 1 A typical sorption isotherm.

Psychrometric Properties

Dry air and water vapor exert pressure upon each other when they are mixed. These pressures are called partial pressures. The differ-
ence in the partial pressure of water vapor in the air and the pressure of the moisture content in the food is the driving force behind
dehydration.
The properties or air and water vapor mixture are called psychrometric properties and can be summarized on a psychrometric
chart. The changes in these properties can be used to analyze the dehydration process. The skeleton of the psychrometric chart and
the dehydration process on the chart are shown in Figure 2. Dry bulb temperature is the air temperature indicated by an ordinary
thermometer. Humidity ratio or absolute humidity is the ratio of mass of water vapor to the mass of dry air. The ratio of vapor
pressure to saturation vapor pressure at the same temperature is called relative humidity. Relative humidity is an indication of
the maximum moisture that the moist air can hold at a given temperature. The 100% relative humidity line (saturation line) consti-
tutes the extreme left boundary of the psychrometric chart. Wet bulb temperature is the temperature shown by a thermometer whose
sensor is wrapped by a dampened cloth and exposed to the moving air. Air must blow at a speed of 5 m s
1 (18 km h
1) over the
moistened cloth to obtain a correct wet bulb temperature. Enthalpy is the heat content of the moist air. Enthalpy lines are almost
parallel to the wet bulb lines on the psychrometric chart (Karel, 1974; Keey, 1978; Pabis et al., 1998).

Dehydration Process

Dehydration methods have evolved around every product’s specific requirement. The dehydration process can be classified based on
energy source (adiabatic and nonadiabatic processes), process time (batch and continuous processes), and moisture removal rate
(constant and falling rate processes) (Van Arsdel and Copley, 1973a,b).

We
ty

tB
di

Humidity Ratio

ulb
mi
e
Lin

Hu
n

ive
tio
ra

lat

tu 3
Sa
Re

Dr
yin
g

1 2
Heating

Dry Bulb Temperature

Figure 2 Skeleton of the psychrometric chart showing the adiabatic drying process.
 Food Dehydration 3

Moisture Content
Drying Rate
Mc

Me

Time

Figure 3 The moisture content (solid line) and the moisture removal rate (dashed line) for a typical food during dehydration (Mc ¼ critical moisture
content and Me ¼ equilibrium moisture content).

In adiabatic processes, heat of vaporization is supplied by sensible heat of air in contact with the material to be dried. In nonadi-
abatic processes, heat of vaporization is supplied by radiant heat or by heat transferred through walls in contact with the material to
be dried.
The adiabatic dehydration process is shown in Figure 2. Point 1 is the ambient air condition; point 2 is the air after being heated
to a certain temperature T2; point 3 represents the exit conditions of drying air after it has passed through the dryer. Note that, in the
drying process, air has been cooled while taking up moisture from the product. Often the line between points 2 and 3 is a straight
line and is parallel to the wet bulb temperature line (Sokhansanj and Jayas, 2014; Singh et al., 2015).
In a batch dehydration process, the moisture is removed from a certain quantity of food at a time. The dryer is loaded with the
wet food and, after drying, the dried product is removed. The next load of food is then loaded in the dryer, and the process is
repeated until the total quantity of food is dried. The batch-drying chambers are rooms that have controlled heating and ventilation.
In a continuous dehydration process, wet food material is fed continuously into the drying chamber. The food is dried during
travel through the drying chamber, and dried food is collected at the exit. Generally the process conditions remain steady except
during start-up of the dryer or during process upsets. Depending on the direction of flow of both air and food, these types of dryers
can be further classified as concurrent, countercurrent, and crossflow dryers. In concurrent dryers, both hot air and food travel in the
same direction through the drying chamber; in countercurrent dryers, hot air and food travel in opposite directions; and in crossflow
dryers, hot air and food travel perpendicular to each other (Vega-Mercado et al., 2001; Jayas and Ghosh, 2006).
Removal of moisture from wet food as a function of time is shown in Figure 3. In the dehydration process, moisture moves from
the inside of the food to the surface and is then removed by the carrier gas. Thus there are two resistances to moisture removal from
food (internal and external). Initially, the food product is wet, and moisture moves easily (i.e., low internal resistance) to the
surface, thus keeping the surface wet. The vaporization of the moisture is similar to that occurring from an open water surface.
The moisture removal rate during this phase of drying is constant and is a function of only the air conditions. As drying continues,
the movement of moisture inside the food is slowed down (i.e., internal resistance starts increasing), and the food surface contains
dry and wet spots. The moisture is removed at a declining rate from the surface of the food. Eventually, as the evaporation of mois-
ture occurs inside the food material, the removal of moisture is further slowed down.
In a constant rate dehydration process, the rate of moisture removal remains constant with time, and in a falling rate dehydration
process, the rate of moisture removal decreases as the drying progresses. The moisture content of food at which the falling rate
period starts is known as the critical moisture content (Jayas and Ghosh, 2006).

Types of Dryer
Selection of Dryer
Dehydration of food materials is a complex process. Therefore, many different drying systems are used in the food industry to dry
various foods. The selection and commissioning of dryers is usually by a trial-and-error process. Dryers can be classified based on
the drying processes discussed here or on the type of design used in the drying process. For example, a dryer could be a concurrent
tunnel or countercurrent tunnel. Some common types of dryer designs are discussed in the following sections. The analysis of the
drying process in any of these dryers can be done by conducting energy and mass balances on the food material and the drying or
cooling medium.

Sun Dryer
The simplest of the sun dryers consists of an open surface on which wet food product is spread on a thin layer (usually 1–5 cm thick)
and is dried by the energy from the sun. The evaporated moisture is removed by the natural movements of atmospheric air. The
4 Food Dehydration

material being dried may be stirred or turned occasionally or regularly. Spices, fruits, meat, and fish have been dried using sun dryers
since time immemorial. The main limitations of the sun dryers are large area requirement, labor intensive, inability to control
drying process, and potential of food loss and contamination. Numerous attempts have been made around the world to develop
simple solar dryers that overcome one or more of these limitations. A schematic of a typical solar dryer is shown in Figure 4. The
dryer consists of an insulated cabinet and a south-facing transparent wall to allow direct radiation of the product spread on a perfo-
rated sheet. The air movement through the product is by natural convection. Many simple modifications to this dryer can improve it
or yield other types of solar dryers. For example, by adding a small fan at the inlet or outlet, the air movement can be increased by
forced convection. A device can be installed to turn the product at regular intervals. A separate solar collector can be added to
increase the temperature of the incoming air, or multiple layers of food may be spread in the cabinet or both (Mujumdar, 1987,
1994, 2006, 2014).

Cabinet or Tray Dryer

A cabinet or tray dryer can be considered as a small room with the capabilities of heating and circulating the air. The product is held
in trays and is dried in batches. Heat from a drying medium (hot air) to the food product is transferred by a convection mechanism.
The convection current passes over the product and not through the product. It is suitable for dehydration of fruits, vegetables, and
meat. It is relatively easy to set and control the optimum drying conditions in cabinet dryers. For this reason, various heat-sensitive
food materials can be dried in small batches. The heat source is usually steam batteries or steam coils.
The turbo-dryer shown in Figure 5 can be classified as a cabinet or a tray dryer. Trays in the turbo-dryer are rotating instead of
being stationary. The wet material enters the turbo-dryer through a feed chute in the roof of the housing (cabinet) onto the first
shelf. The shelves are circular with cutout center and radial slots. The shelves are rigidly mounted on an inner supporting frame,
forming a vertical stack that rotates slowly as a unit. Material flows onto each shelf from the one above, forming a pile. The rotation
of the tray (shelf) assembly carries the freshly formed pile past a stationary blade set to level the pile to fill the tray at a uniform
height. At the end of revolution, another stationary blade wipes the tray and material flows onto the shelf below. Dried product
is discharged through a chute in the bottom of the housing. Air or other drying medium is supplied to the dryer through a side-
mounted vertical manifold with control dampers (Mujumdar, 1987, 1994, 2006, 2014).

Tunnel Dryer
Tunnel dryers consist of a tunnel (drying chamber) that is usually rectangular in shape, although they may have many different
configurations. The number of tunnels in a dryer is quite variable and can be as high as 100. Truckloads of the wet material are
moved at intervals into one end of the tunnel. The whole string of trucks is periodically advanced through the tunnel, till these
are removed at the other end. Air movement, circulation, and heating methods vary in tunnel dryers. Three different arrangements,
namely, counterflow, concurrent flow, and a combined flow, are possible. Figure 6 shows a concurrent arrangement. These dryers
are simple and versatile in comparison to other types of dryers, and food pieces of any shape and size can be handled. If solid trays
are incorporated, fluids can also be dried. In a three-tunnel dryer arrangement, wet loads are moved in at intervals in the outer wet
tunnels. At the end of wet tunnels, the trolleys are loaded alternatively to the central dry tunnel. This, in effect, reduces the residence
time in the dry tunnel to half in comparison to residence time in wet tunnels. The dry tunnel is normally operated at a lower temper-
ature than wet tunnels to prevent longtime exposure of the product to high temperatures and to save energy (Mujumdar, 1987,
1994, 2006, 2014).

Conveyor Dryer
A conveyor dryer (also called conveyor band dryer or belt dryer) has a single or several perforated wire mesh conveyor belts as the
main component (Figure 7). The wet material is fed evenly at the feed end and is conveyed along the length of the dryer. Hot air is

Air
Transparent
Glass Wall

Food Insulated
Cabinet

Perforated
Air Tray

Figure 4 Schematic of a typical solar dryer.

 Food Dehydration 5

Feed Exhaust Gases

Wiper
Turbo

Leveler

Fans Inlet
Manifold

Heater
( Cooler )
Intake
Fan

Product

Figure 5 Schematic of the turbo-dryer, a type of cabinet or tray dryer. Reproduced with permission of the Wyssmont Company Inc., Fort Lee, N.J.
Copyright, 1993.

Exhaust Air
Heater Baffles Out
Air In

Fan Trucks
Out
Trucks In Air Movement
Material Movement

Figure 6 Principle of concurrent tunnel dryer. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., New York, NY.

forced through the bed of moving material, and the dried product is continuously discharged at the end of the dryer. The air char-
acteristics such as temperature and relative humidity may be adjusted throughout the passage to satisfy the drying characteristics of
the product. The direction of air movement through the permeable bed of the product may be vertically upward or downward. The
thickness of the bed of the product is kept between 25 and 250 mm. This thin layer of the product and higher airflow rates result in
the uniform drying of the product. In the illustrated dryer (Figure 7), a portion of the moist air is being recycled (Mujumdar, 1987,
1994, 2006, 2014).

Spray Dryer
Spray dryers are used to dry slurries or liquid foods. A typical spray dryer consists of a cylindrical or a rectangular drying
chamber in which the liquid is introduced in the heated airstream in an atomized form (Figure 8). When hot air is replaced
by superheated steam, the process is called superheated steam drying. Application of superheated steam drying to food mate-
rials is, however, limited. The atomization may be done by a rotary or a nozzle atomizer. Dried product is separated from the
airstream using cyclone separators, settling chambers, or bag filters. The performance of spray dryers thus depends on the
uniformity of the atomized droplets. The arrangement of flows of air and product could be concurrent, countercurrent, or
mixed flow type. The design of spray dryers ranges from very simple to very complex depending on the fluid. The main differ-
ences in the designs are the variations in atomizing devices, in the airflow patterns, in air heating systems, and in separating
and collecting systems. Some of the dry food powders may stick to the walls of the drying chamber (Mujumdar, 1987, 1994,
2006, 2014).
6 Food Dehydration

Figure 7 Schematic of a typical conveyor dryer. Solid arrow is hot air; partially shaded arrow is moist air after drying; arrow with circles is ambient
air; and conveyer belt ends are shown at the top left and bottom right. The conveyer belt has three lengths through the drying chamber. Courtesy of
Food Engineering Corporation, Minneapolis, MN.

Feed In

Air In

Air In Air Out

Product Out

Figure 8 Schematic of a typical spray dryer with integrated fluid bed. Courtesy of Niro, Soeborg, Denmark.

Freeze Dryer
In freeze drying, water is removed at low temperatures (about
10  C) by sublimation rather than evaporation. Therefore, freeze
drying is done under vacuum (at absolute pressures of about 2 mm Hg) on frozen products. It is applicable to food products that
may be damaged by heat in other dryers or that are high-value products. The quality of the product after freeze drying is better than
obtained by any other drying method. The structural rigidity of the product is maintained during the sublimation process, and prod-
ucts retain better flavor and aroma. Freeze drying, however, is an expensive process because of slow drying rate and the use of
vacuum (Mujumdar, 1987, 1994, 2006, 2014).

Drum Dryer
Drum dryers are used to dry slurry, liquid, or pastelike food materials. The material is spread in a thin layer on the surface of a drum
by various methods of application (Figure 9). The material is dried on the outer surface of an internally heated revolving drum. The
 Food Dehydration 7

Feed In
Scraper Knife Scraper
Feed In Knife
Product Product
Scraper Out Out
Knife
(a) Single Drum Drier (b) Double Drum Drier

To Vacuum System

Vacuum
Chamber

Product Scraper Scraper

Out Knife Knife

Feed In
Feed
Roller
Feed In Product Out
(c) Twin Drum Drier (d) Vacuum Drum Drier

Figure 9 Various feeding arrangements for drum dryers. Reproduced with permission of Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., New York, NY.

drums are heated by steam or by direct firing inside the drum. The drums rotate slowly, and in the course of about 300 degrees of
rotation, the product is dried. The dried product is scraped off the surface using a blade. For heat-sensitive materials, drum dryers
may be operated under vacuum (Figure 9; Mujumdar, 1987, 1994, 2006, 2014).

Fluidized Bed Dryer

Fluidized bed, spouted bed, and flash dryers are examples of suspended bed dryers because the food particles being dried
are supported and carried by the hot air. These dryers are suitable for drying of heat-sensitive materials. In a fluidized bed
dryer, the food material is supported on a perforated metal at the bottom of a drying chamber (Figure 10). The hot air is
forced through the material at high velocities such that the particulate material is fully suspended in the hot airstream. All
particles are completely exposed to drying air, resulting in high rates of heat transfer. This system is more suitable for batch
drying but could also be applied to continuous drying of particulate materials. The dryer shown in Figure 10 is a contin-
uous type. The characteristics of food materials that are suitable for fluidized bed drying are an average particle size
between 10 mm and 20 mm, narrow particle size distribution, and regular particle shape (Mujumdar, 1987, 1994, 2006,
2014).

Sprouted Bed Dryer

Spouted bed dryers are suitable for food materials that are too coarse to be readily fluidized. A schematic of a spouted bed dryer is
shown in Figure 11. The dryer consists of a cylindrical or rectangular drying chamber fitted with a nozzle in the conical bottom and
a cylindrical draft tube in the center. The hot air is introduced at velocities that fluidize and support the food material in the central
column. The material moves down in a plug flow in the outer annulus and is picked up by the incoming air after some recondi-
tioning during downward travel. By adjusting the discharge rate, the material may be recirculated a number of times (Mujumdar,
1987, 1994, 2006, 2014).

Flash Dryer
In a flash dryer, heated, low-pressure drying air or inert gas is injected in the drying chamber such that the solid material is
hydrodynamically supported and conveyed through the chamber (Figure 12). Wet material is metered into the return zone of
the drying torus by a feeding unit such as a screw conveyer. The small particles are fluidized by the high-speed steam of the
drying gas and are circulated to the top of the dryer into the classification chamber. Classification is initiated by centrifugal
force, with large particles returning to the drying chamber for further size reduction and drying (Mujumdar, 1987, 1994,
2006, 2014).
8 Food Dehydration

Air Out

Feed

Air In

Product

Figure 10 An example of a fluid bed dryer. Courtesy of bepex corporation, Minneapolis, MN.

Gas

Wet Material

Product

Gas

Figure 11 A typical spouted bed dryer. Reprinted from Mujumdar, A.S. (Ed.), 1987. Handbook of Industrial Drying, p. 420, by courtesy of Marcel
Dekker, New York.
 Food Dehydration 9

Air Out

Feed In

Product
Air In Out

Figure 12 An example of a flash dryer. Courtesy of bepex corporation, Minneapolis, MN.

Microwave Dryer
In microwave dryers, the energy used for evaporation of water is in the form of microwaves, which are electromagnetic waves of
frequency 300 MHz to 300 GHz and wavelength 1 mm to 1 m. The microwaves are electromagnetic energy that is converted
into heat as a result of interaction with food, in particular with the water molecules and ions in aqueous solutions in the food.
Industrial applications of microwave drying of food are limited. Research and development work is being conducted on food appli-
cations around the world (Zhang et al., 2006; Feng et al., 2012).

Vacuum Dryer
At atmospheric pressure (101.325 kPa), water evaporates at 100  C, meaning food during dehydration is exposed to high
temperatures for an extended period of time. This high temperature can affect the food quality, in particular the quality of
heat-labile products. The temperature of evaporation of water decreases as pressure is lowered below atmospheric as vacuum
is created. For example, at 80 kPa pressure (21.325 kPa below atmospheric pressure), water boils at 93.5  C, and at 20 kPa pres-
sure (81.325 kPa below atmospheric pressure), water boils at 60  C. Thus, vacuum provides opportunity to remove water from
food products at significantly lower temperatures than those required at atmospheric pressure conditions. Although this
process could be used for any product, the generation of low pressure conditions adds cost; therefore, drying under vacuum,
or vacuum drying, is done mostly for heat-sensitive and/or high-value products. Vacuum drying could be combined with hot
air drying processes, as well as with other sources of heat generation, such as microwaves or infrared radiation. When vacuum is
used in combination with microwaves, the process is known as microwave-vacuum drying. The products dehydrated under
vacuum conditions have better color, texture, taste; retain vitamins or other constituents better; and show an improved appear-
ance and rehydration capability compared to those dried using hot air or other energy sources on its own (Drouzas and
Schubert, 1996; Clary et al., 2007).

Airborne Ultrasound-Assisted Dryer

A recently developed dehydration technique is airborne ultrasound-assisted drying. Here, ultrasound is used to establish mechanical
vibrations in the product which can create microchannels in the food matrix or keep these channels from collapsing during drying;
furthermore, the ultrasound generates pressure variations at gas–liquid interfaces, thus resulting in faster water removal and shorter
exposure of the product to high temperature drying air. This technique has been reported to be useful for drying fruits and vegetables
(Gallego-Juárez et al., 2007). Such systems can also be used to remove moisture from foods at temperatures lower than those
required for the drying of foods using hot air only. Major technical challenges in designing such systems is the efficient generation
of high-intensity ultrasound in air and transferring the ultrasonic energy from air into the product due to the acoustic impedance
mismatch between the sonotrode and air, and air and product. Similar to using low pressures, high-intensity airborne ultrasonic
waves can be used synergistically with other forms of energy to enhance drying processes (Fernandes and Rodrigues, 2008; Mulet
et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2015).
10 Food Dehydration

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Change History

Update of: D.S. Jayas, Food Dehydration. Encyclopedia of Agricultural Sciences (1994), pp. 285–292.
Change History: July 2016. D.S. Jayas added sections on “Microwave Dryer” and “Airborne Ultrasound-Assisted Dryer” and updated the bibliography.