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 International Medical Journal Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 103 - 107 , April 2018 103
PHYSIOTHERAPY EDUCATION

Evolution of Physical Therapy Education in Australia, United

Kingdom, United States of America, and Nigeria: A
Comparative Analysis
1) 2) 3) 4)
Joseph A. Balogun , Philip C. Aka , Adetutu O. Balogun , Chidozie Mbada ,
5)
Udoka Okafor

ABSTRACT
Objective: Vis-à-vis other countries, the general perception is that the evolutionary journey of physiotherapy education in
Nigeria is timid. There is currently little empirical basis in support of this postulation, a gap this study seeks to fill.
Design: This retrospective descriptive study compared the developmental journeys of physiotherapy education in Nigeria
with the milestones of Australia, United Kingdom and United States of America (USA).
Methods: The researchers reviewed publications germane to the history of physiotherapy (PT) education alongside informa-
tion on the professional association websites of the selected countries to identify the timeline (year) for achieving the following
milestones: (1) entry-level baccalaureate degree, as well as master's, and doctor of physiotherapy (DPT) degrees; (2) the first
doctor of philosophy (Ph.D.) and post-professional (t-DPT) degrees in physiotherapy, and (3) specialty certification in physio-
therapy. Also, these researchers monitored the number of Ph.D. and DPT degree programs in each country.
Results: The findings revealed that the USA attained major educational milestones at a faster pace than Australia, the United
Kingdom, and Nigeria, respectively.
Conclusions: To promote excellence in physiotherapy education, the Nigeria Society of Physiotherapy (NSP) should use its
organizational and professional clout to press the National Universities Commission (NUC), the national agency charged for
responsibility for regulating higher education standards in Nigeria, to transition the existing baccalaureate education to doctoral
level. Also, the NSP should vigorously pursue legislation that will lead to the recognition of the National Postgraduate
Physiotherapy College.

KEY WORDS
retrospective/descriptive study, professionalization milestones, history, physiotherapy education, Nigeria

INTRODUCTION general perception that the development of PT education in Nigeria is

timid (Balogun, 2015a). However, it is a speculative position not backed
by any empirical evidence that this study seeks to provide.
Background This retrospective study was designed to identify the developmental
milestones of PT education in Nigeria, juxtaposed with its journeys in
A vibrant and growing empirical evidence abounds in the literature three different countries whose national experiences provide teachable
on the evolution of PT education in several countries around the world. lessons that will shed important comparative light on PT education in
However, that is not the case with Nigeria where, instead, there is pres- Nigeria.
ently only one known participant-observer appraisal of the history of PT
education (Eni, 2015).
The quest for excellence in PT education in Nigeria was shaped,
decades ago, by the decision of the NSP to upgrade the first PT training
program located within the Royal Orthopedic Hospital at Igbobi to a
university setting (Oshin, 1986). Vis-à-vis other countries, there is a

Received on February 4, 2017 and accepted on April 4, 2017

1) College of Health Sciences, Chicago State University
U.S.A
2) Faculty of Law, International University of Sarajevo, Bosnia, and Herzegovina;
Department of Criminal Justice, Chicago State University, U. S. A.
3) Department of Occupational Therapy, at Brown Mackie College
Indiana, USA
4) Department of Medical Rehabilitation, Obafemi Awolowo University
Ile-Ife, Nigeria
5) Department of Physiotherapy, University of Lagos
Lagos, Nigeria
Correspondence to: Joseph A. Balogun
(e-mail: jbalogun@csu.edu)

C 2018 Japan Health Sciences University

& Japan International Cultural Exchange Foundation
104 Balogun J. A. et al.
METHODS
Ethical Approval
Because this descriptive study did not involve the use of human
subjects, there was no need for any institutional ethics review approval,
and none was sought.
Procedures
We meticulously reviewed the relevant publications on the evolu-
tionary journeys of PT education in Australia, UK, USA and Nigeria.
We set out to identify the timeline (year) when the following PT educa-
tion milestones were attained in each country: (1) the first entry-level
baccalaureate and Master's degrees in PT; (2) the first entry-level DPT,
and t-DPT, degree programs; (3) the Ph.D. program in PT; and (4) first
Specialty Training program in PT. Also, we monitored the number of
Ph.D. and professional DPT degree programs in each country. Finally,
we reviewed the website of the NSP, American Physical Therapy
Association (APTA), Chartered Society of Physiotherapy (CSP), and the
Australian Physiotherapy Association (APA) to garner additional infor-
mation that is relevant to the study objectives.
RESULTS
PT Education in the UK
Our reviews revealed that the PT profession took roots in the UK
toward the end of the 19th century (CSP, 2015). The Association of
Teachers of Physiotherapy was the first clinical interest and occupational
group to be formed in 1922 followed by the Association of Orthopaedic
Chartered Physiotherapists in 1945. In the early 1950s, British
Commonwealth countries practiced manipulation of the spine and
extremity joints. Later in that decade, physiotherapists extended their
practice beyond the confines of the hospital walls to other practice set-
tings, such as outpatient orthopedic clinics, public schools, colleges and
universities, skilled nursing homes, rehabilitation, and medical centers.
Following the formation of the CSP in 1894, PT education in the
UK was offered only in the hospital setting until 1976 when the first-de-
gree program was established. Physiotherapy graduates in the UK were
awarded a diploma and registered as Members of the CSP (MCSP). The
first baccalaureate degree program in PT was initiated in 1976 at the
Northern Ireland School of Physiotherapy of Ulster College at Belfast.
The London Hospital School of Physiotherapy, which subsequently
became the North East London Polytechnic, upgraded its diploma pro-
gram to a degree program in 1981. Another degree program in PT was
opened at Queen's College, Glasgow in 1982 (CSP, 2015).
The year 1981 is remarkable in the history of British PT education
because it was in that year that Fred Frazer, the first physiotherapist in
the UK to earn a Ph.D., received his doctorate from Aston University,
based on a successful defense of a thesis titled "Domiciliary
Physiotherapy: Cost and Benefit." Subsequently, between 1981 and
1993, a lull appeared to occur in PT education in the UK as little of any
significance or import took place in the field. Activity returned by 2002
when Paul Watson became the first physiotherapist to be appointed
Honorary Consultant at the University Hospitals of Leicester Trust
(CSP, 2015). Before then, in 1994, the British government promulgated
a major reform that required a Master's degree in PT as the entry-level
education for the profession.
In the aftermath of Watson's appointment as Honorary Consultant,
some important events took place in the history of British PT education.
These include the introduction in 2003 of the first professional doctor-
ate, in health rather than in PT, at the University of Brighton. Today, fol-
lowing that occurrence, 35 universities in the UK offer Bachelor's and
Master's degrees in PT. Not only that, the University of Sussex now
offers a five year research-based post-professional doctorate in PT
(t-DPT). Furthermore, three universities now offer a generic profession-
al doctorate (ProfD.) degree in health science. The ProfD title served to
standardize the degrees awarded by the other professions in the UK,
such as veterinary medicine and pharmacy. Finally, the UK has 8 Ph.D.
programs in various health disciplines allied to PT, such as acupuncture,
exercise physiology, and sports medicine.
Another critical moment in the history of PT education in the UK
took place in 2012 when it became legal for physiotherapists in the
country, with appropriate training in pharmacology, to independently
prescribe medications without a physician's authorization. This land-
mark development, first in the world, is expected to decrease bureau-
cratic clinical practices, free up physician's time, and subsequently
lower healthcare cost (WCPT, 2016).
PT Education in the USA
Toward the end of the 19th century, orthopedic surgeons in the USA
began treating children with disabilities and employed women who
were trained in physical education, massage, and remedial exercise to
rehabilitate victims of the polio outbreak in 1916. As a profession, PT
became institutionalized during the First World War (1914-18) as
women were recruited to restore physical function to returning injured
soldiers (Moffat, 2012; 2013; 2015). All through this period, the profes-
sion was awkwardly referred to as "Reconstruction Aide."
The first PT training program in the USA was established at Walter
Reed Army Hospital in Washington, D.C. following the outbreak of
World War I. In 1921, the first research in PT was published in "The PT
Review" and Mary McMillan formed the first professional association
called the American Women's Physical Therapeutic Association, today
known by the acronym APTA. The transition of PT education from the
hospitals into university setting reflected the increasing academic
knowledge required by the PT profession.
The first baccalaureate degree in PT was offered at New York
University (NYU) in 1927. Recognizing that need for PT education
beyond the entry-level baccalaureate degree, NYU established the first
advanced Master's degree program in 1942, and the first post-profes-
sional Ph.D. program in PT (pathokinesiology) in 1973. The University
of Southern California followed with a Ph.D. degree program in PT
(Biokinesiology) in 1984. The university added another arrow in its
quiver when, in 1992, it introduced the first t-DPT education. One year
later in 1993, Creighton University, Omaha introduced the first
entry-level DPT education (Moffat, 2012; 2013, Plack, 2015).
Specialization in PT in the USA began in 1974 with the formation
of the Orthopedic Section of the APTA. The same year witnessed the
formation of the International Federation of Orthopedic Manipulative
Therapy (IFOMT). Collectively, these two developments marked a sig-
nificant moment in the professionalization of PT globally. Orthopedic
physical therapy was greatly influenced by the treatment philosophies of
Norway's Freddy Kaltenborn, Chile's Mariano Rocabado, and
Australia's Geoffrey Maitland. Rocabado specialized in the treatment of
temporo-mandibular disorders.
In 1991, Freddy Kaltenborn, Stanley Paris, and Ola Grimsby
formed the American Academy of Orthopedic Manual Physical Therapy
(AAOMPT), to enhance the knowledge and clinical skills of physical
therapists in manipulative therapy. The AAOMPT became the national
chapter of IFOMT and started a formal residency and training program
in orthopedic PT (Kumar, 2010; Moffat, 2012; 2013). Today, there are
over 200 PT education programs and more than 250 PT assistant educa-
tion programs in the USA accredited by the Commission on
Accreditation in PT Education (CAPTE, 2015).
PT Education in Australia
The history of PT profession in Australia is traced to the massage
therapists from the UK who immigrated to Australia in 1894
(McMeeken & Kinesitherapie, 2008). In 1905, a small interest group of
massage therapists was formed in Victoria, New South Wales, and South
Australia. This development laid the groundwork for the formation of
the Australian Massage Association in February 1906. Physiotherapy
education in Australia also evolved from the hospital-based setting.
In the early 1900s, several attempts were made to develop one stan-
dard PT curriculum in Australia; unfortunately, the education programs
developed relatively independently. The first PT education program,
which was two years in duration, started in 1906 in Victoria (Chipchase
et al. 2006). Before the offering of PT degrees in the university setting,
the PT registration boards in most Australian States had responsibility
for awarding accreditation. The State boards retained responsibility for
certification until the Australian Council of Physiotherapy Regulating
Authorities took over this function after the formation of the Australian
Physiotherapy Competency Standards in 1994 (McMeeken &
Kinesitherapie, 2008)
Physiotherapy training within the universities started at Victoria, New
South Wales, and South Australia in 1910 (Chipchase et al., 2006), which
several decades later evolved into entry-level MS and DPT programs
(Struber, 2003). From the mid-1960s, post-professional specialty certifi-
cation education courses in vertebral manipulation were offered by pri-
vate practitioners, such as Geoff Maitland, Patricia Trott, Brian Edwards
 Comparison of the Evolution of Physiotherapy Education in Four Countries
and Lance Twomey. In 1974, a postgraduate diploma in manipulative
therapy was launched in universities at Perth and Adelaide for the first
time, followed by Sydney in 1979, and Melbourne in the early 1980s.
Subsequently, other postgraduate specialization was later offered across
the country. The first Master's degree program was delivered in 1990 at
the University of Queensland, and La Trobe University offered the first
professional doctorate in PT program in 1998. Today, six universities in
Australia offer the entry-level DPT and Ph.D. degree programs; 13 uni-
versities offer post-professional Master's degrees in PT (Woods, 2014).
PT Education in Nigeria
Physiotherapy profession was imported into Nigeria in 1945 by two
British physiotherapists, Miss Manfield and Mr. Williams. The Nigerian
national government employed them and charged them with the respon-
sibility of treating wounded and disabled Nigerian soldiers who returned
home from Burma and other war fronts during World War II, as well as
to start a training program in PT (Oshin, 1986). Similar to the UK,
Australia, and the USA, PT education in Nigeria began within the hos-
pital setting.
The two British physiotherapists began a three-year diploma pro-
gram at the Royal Orthopedic Hospital at Igbobi to train assistant phys-
iotherapists. Several of the program graduates subsequently proceeded
to the UK for further studies to become chartered physiotherapists.
Eventually, the training program at Igbobi discontinued. Later, the
University of Ibadan (UI) launched a BSc-PT degree program in
October 1966. The degree program at UI was followed in 1971 by a
diploma program at the College of Medicine, University of Lagos
(CMUL) which in 1977 converted to a degree program. In 1977,
Obafemi Awolowo University (OAU) started a bachelor of medical
rehabilitation in physiotherapy (BMR-PT) program.
The UI and CMUL patterned their curricula after the British model
of education. This development is not surprising, given that the pioneer-
ing physiotherapist educators in Nigeria, Dr. Abayomi Oshin, and the
late Associate Professor Gabriel Odia, obtained their initial professional
education (MCSP and Teacher's Diploma) from the UK. Conversely, the
BMR-PT curriculum at OAU, developed by the late Professor Vincent
Nwuga, who received his professional education from the UK,
Canadian and American, followed the course unit system that is a stan-
dard practice in the USA and Canadian universities.
Between 1966 and 1997, PT education in Nigerian was a 4-year
program leading to a Bachelor of Science degree. In 1998, all the uni-
versities upgraded their curriculum to a 5-year professional BPT or a
BMR-PT degree. Also, graduates were mandated to complete a one-year
clinical internship before being granted a license to practice.
The period between 1985 and 2004 witnessed the development of
the second generation of PT education programs in the country (Figure
1). Going forward, the period between 2013 and 2016 marked the third
generation of PT education programs in Nigeria. In 1985, OAU initiated
the first Master's degree program and Mrs. Mabogunje, the first student
enrolled, completed her degree in 1987. The UI in 1997 launched the
first Ph.D. program, and the first student who enrolled, Dr. T.K. Hamzat,
graduated in 2000. Today, six of the twelve PT programs in Nigeria
offer MS and Ph.D. degrees. Despite these essential strides, the
entry-level education for physiotherapists is still at the baccalaureate
degree level. The yearning for entry-level DPT education in Nigeria has
been in the offing for more than two decades.
105
Empirical Data on Developmental Milestones
Table 1 captures the developmental milestones of PT education in
Nigeria and the three developed countries juxtaposed with Nigeria for
comparative insights in this study. It took Australia 4 years, the USA 6
years, Nigeria 21 years, and the UK 62 years to make the transition in
PT education from the hospital milieu to the university setting. The
USA was the first nation in rank numbering to develop baccalaureate
and Master's degree programs in PT, followed by Australia, the UK, and
Nigeria. Similarly, the USA was the first nation to establish Ph.D. pro-
grams in PT, followed by Australia and Nigeria, both of whom are tied.
It took Nigeria 39 years, the UK 109 years, the USA 55 years, and
Australia 92 years to initiate the first Ph.D. program in PT. The USA
was also the first nation to develop both the t-DPT and the entry-level
DPT, followed by Australia.
Table 2 presents the rankings of the countries in educational mile-
stones. The USA ranked No. 1 in six out of 9 milestones, Australia No.
2 in 9 out of 9 milestones, the UK No. 1 in 3 out of 9 milestones but No.
4 in three milestones, and Nigeria No. 4 in 6 milestones but No. 2 in
two milestones. The USA has the highest number of Ph.D. programs,
followed by Australia and Nigeria, each with six programs. The USA
also has the highest number of t-DPT and entry-level DPT programs,
followed by Australia. Based on the comparative analysis of the evolu-
tionary journeys of PT education in the four countries, the USA attained
major milestones in PT education at a faster pace than Australia, UK,
and Nigeria, respectively.
DISCUSSION
Although PT, as a field of academic interest and profession in
Nigeria had registered notable incremental gains since 1945 when the
occupation arrived in the country, the pace of its development has been
a subject of concern for several years. This matter was the impetus for
this study. To our knowledge, this study constitutes the first attempt to
systematically investigate the evolutionary journey of PT education in
Nigeria in tandem with three other countries whose experiences, from a
comparative standpoint, shed helpful light on Nigeria. The findings
revealed that USA attained the significant educational milestones at a
faster pace than Australia, UK, and Nigeria, respectively.
Curiously, the UK took 62 long years to upgrade its diploma program
to baccalaureate level, compared to a mere four years for Australia, 6 for
the USA, and Nigeria 21 years in the journey from hospital milieu to the
university setting in PT education. It is also equally curious that the UK
took 109 years to develop its first Ph.D. program in PT, compared to 92
years for Australia, 39 for Nigeria, and 55 for the USA. Our research
revealed that the development of a Ph.D. program in PT evolved at a fast-
er pace in Nigeria than in the USA, the UK, and Australia. The USA is
the first nation to develop a DPT for practicing physiotherapists in 1992
at the University of Southern California, and an entry-level DPT program
in 1993 at Creighton University, Omaha, Nebraska.
Paradoxically, both the UK and Nigeria are yet to upgrade their
entry-level professional education to doctoral level. The UK currently
has 35 CSP accredited entry-level BSc and MS degree PT programs, but
no Ph.D. degree program specifically in PT. However, the UK has under
its educational and professional belt, 8 Ph.D. degree programs in disci-
plines closely allied to PT, such as exercise physiology, acupuncture,
and sports medicine.
New PT graduates in Nigeria with a baccalaureate degree are cur-
rently mandated by the professional licensure regulatory board (MRTB)
to take an examination before participating in the one-year internship
program. The license requirement by MRTB is a desirable best practice;
unfortunately, there is currently no formal assessment undertaken at the
end of the internship experience. To strengthen the licensure process,
these researchers recommend that a competency-based evaluation pro-
cess is instituted at the end of the internship. The examination should be
designed to objectively assess the cognitive knowledge and clinical
competencies of program graduates.
In the USA, UK and Australia, the transition of PT education from
the entry-level baccalaureate degree level to a clinical doctorate educa-
tion was a contentious issue. Conversely, the debate on the need for
entry-level doctoral education in Nigeria was fraught with little acrimo-
ny. The entry-level PT education in Nigeria is still at the baccalaureate
degree level; however, the overwhelming majority (98.7%) of practi-
tioners are in support of the recent decision of the NSP and MRTB to
upgrade the minimum entry training in the profession to a DPT educa-
tion (Johnson et al., 2012).
The authorization granting physiotherapists in the UK legal rights to
106 Balogun J. A. et al.

Table 1. Evolution of Physiotherapy Education in Nigeria, UK, USA and Australia

Milestone Nigeria UK USA Australia
Year of formation of the first physiotherapy association 1959 1894 1918 1906
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #3) (Ranked #2)
Year of development of the first program in physiotherapy* 1945 1914 1921 1906
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #3) (Ranked #2)
Year of initiation of BS degree in physiotherapy** 1966 1976 1927 1974
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #3) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
Year of initiation of MS degree in physiotherapy*** 1985 1984 1942 1974
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #3) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
Year of initiation of PhD degree in physiotherapy~ 1998 2003 1973 1998
(Ranked #2) (Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
Year of initiation of t-DPT or entry-level DPT~~ None None 1992, 1993 1998
(Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
Year of initiation of specialty training in physiotherapy~ 2012 1945 1974 Mid-1960s
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #3) (Ranked #2)
Number of entry-level BS degree programs 12 35 Discontinued Discontinued
Number of PhD or doctorate degree programs in physiotherapy 6 0 56 6
(Ranked #2) (Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
Number of entry-level DPT or t-DPT programs 0 0 256 6
(Ranked #4) (Ranked #4) (Ranked #1) (Ranked #2)
* To transition physiotherapy education from diploma/certificate training offered in the hospital environment to a degree program offered in the University setting, it took 4
years in Australia, 6 years in USA, 21years in Nigeria, and 62 years in UK.
The USA ranked #1 in developing the first Baccalaureate** and Master's*** degree programs in physical therapy, followed by Australia, and UK.
~ From the formation of the first physiotherapy association, it took Nigeria 39 years, UK 109 years, USA 55 years and Australia 92 years to develop the first Ph.D. program in
physiotherapy. USA was the first nation (rank #) to develop Ph.D. programs in physical therapy, followed by Australia and Nigeria (tied).
~~USA also ranked #1 in developing the t-DPT and entry-level DPT degree programs, followed by Australia.

Table 2. Frequency (Number) of the Milestone Rankings by

Countries
Ranking Nigeria UK USA Australia
Classification
Rank #1
0 3 6 0
Rank #2 from litigation. The desire to prescribe medication includes the effec-
2 0 0 9
Rank #3 therapists who desire to prescribe analgesics, NSAIDs, and muscle
0 2 3 0
Rank #4
6 3 0 0
Total^^ 8* 8* 9** 9**
*Yet to initiate a t-DPT or entry-level DPT program
**Entry-level BS degree program discontinued
^^ USA ranked #1 in six out of 9 milestones; Australia ranked #2 in 9 out of 9 milestones;
UK ranked #1 in 3 out of 9 milestones but ranked #4 in three milestones. Nigeria ranked #4
in 6 milestones and ranked #2 in two milestones.
prescribe medication in many countries is considered a revolutionary
and a groundbreaking achievement. The development has, however,
engendered controversy among physiotherapists across the world
(Unger & Lochner, 2006; Onigbinde et al., 2013). In a word, while
some physiotherapists consider it the "dawn of a new era" in PT prac-
tice, others view it less positively; being of the opinion that the develop-
ment will play into the hands of many physicians who berate physio-
therapists as "wannabe doctors." Some critics go as far as to opine that
implementation of this law will create an identity crisis because PT has
over the years been considered an effective "drugless" profession that
improves patient's quality of life.
There are published studies from different parts of the world
designed to gauge the opinions of physiotherapists about medication
prescription rights. In South Africa, more than 60 percent of physiother-
apists favor changing the scope of PT practice to include the prescrip-
tion of a limited range of medications after relevant coursework. These
researchers recommend inclusion of basic pharmacology course in the
curriculum of entry-level education for physiotherapists (Unger &
Lochner, 2006). In Nigeria, 83.8% of physiotherapists sought legal pro-
tection to prescribe analgesics (74.8%), NSAIDs (74.8%) and muscle
relaxants (59.2%). Similarly, 86.4% support a law that will protect them
tiveness of clinical practice (77.7%), improved image of the profession
(67.0%) and convenience for patients (82.5%). The numbers of physio-
relaxants were significantly higher than for other classes of medications
(Onigbinde et al., 2013).
For some time now, the need for entry-level DPT education has
been a subject of controversy in many countries around the world.
Figure 2 represents a theoretical framework conceptualized by Stark et
al. (1986) and Threlkeld and associates (1999) in support of the idea.
Primarily, the model in Figure 2 was adapted for Nigeria in its quest for
entry-level DPT education.
While t-DPT for practicing physiotherapists, and entry-level DPT
education have been initiated as far back as 1992 and 1993, respectively
in the USA, it was only in 2014 that the NSP submitted a proposal to the
NUC to elevate the baccalaureate education to a DPT program. The
implementation of the proposed entry-level DPT potentially faces sig-
nificant hurdles due to limited human and physical resources. In the last
three decades, several talented and experienced Nigerian physiotherapist
educators have migrated to the developed countries due to suboptimal
working conditions in their own country (John et al., 2012). One of
many ways Nigerian governments at the national and state levels can
stem the hemorrhaging brain drain challenge they confront will be
through concerted efforts aimed at improving the conditions of service
of lecturers in Nigerian universities.
In a keynote at the 55th Annual Conference of the NSP, Balogun
(2015b) advocated for DPT as an entry-level qualification for physio-
therapists but also cautioned on the problems associated with the imple-
mentation of doctoral education. He opined that the transition to
entry-level doctoral training would be challenged by external influences
from the professional organization and government regulatory bodies
(MRTB, NUC and Federal Ministry of Health) and the society at large.
 Comparison of the Evolution of Physiotherapy Education in Four Countries
Also, intra-organizational (institutional), and internal (specific program)
influences will also exert a significant impact.
The quality of the entry-level DPT education and the clinical spe-
cialist training currently offered by the National Postgraduate
Physiotherapy College of Nigeria, can be objectively assessed in the
future by their graduate performance on the licensing exam and the cer-
tification board examination, respectively. Also, their pursuit of life-
long learning and demonstration of appropriate professional ethos are
important outcome measures that can be used to gauge quality educa-
tion.
CONCLUSIONS
This descriptive study revealed that the USA attained major educa-
tional milestones at a faster pace than Australia, UK and Nigeria,
respectively. The USA developed the first BS, MS and Ph.D. programs
in PT before any other country in the world. Surprisingly, Nigeria devel-
oped MS and Ph.D. in PT before the UK.
Based on the findings in this study, the authors posited that the tran-
sition to entry-level DPT education provides the best path to accelerate
the professionalization of PT in Nigeria. Using the synergy of their
immense organizational and professional clout, the NSP and the MRTB
must continue to press the NUC to act expeditiously to bring to fruition
the entry-level DPT education this article advocates.
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