I.

Carbohydrates

1. It is the most abundant organic compounds in the plant world - Carbohydrates

2. What are the three components of Carbohydrates - Carbon, hydrogen, Oxygen
3. What is the basic unit of Carbohydrates? - Saccharide
4. A simple sugar consist of a single polyhydroxy aldehyde or ketone unit -
Monosaccharides
5. It is composed of 2 monosaccharides that are chemically joined together -
Disaccharides
6. Also called as Glycans - Polysaccharide
7. Known as Blood Sugar - Glucose
8. Known as Fruit Sugar – Fructose
9. Known as Milk Sugar – Lactose
10. Carbohydrate found in plants - Starch
11. Carbohydrate found in animals - Glycogen
12. What are the 4 sources of Carbohydrates - (Simple, Starchy, Fibrous, Complex)
13. three examples of diseases associated with carbohydrates - (Galactosemia, Obesity,
Gastrointestinal, Cardiovascular, Type 2 Diabetes, Dental Caries)
14. In oxidation of monosaccharides this gives us a type of molecule - Aldonic Acid
15. This reaction is the reverse of that used for glycoside formation. - Hydrolysis Reaction
16. Found in the combined state in brain and nerve tissues. - Galactose
17. Process where we eat carbohydrates, they breakdown into simple sugars which all turn
into glucose which flows through the blood to the cells. - Glucose Metabolis
18. Consist of short chains of monosaccharide units and composed two to ten sugar
molecules - Oligosaccharides
19. Sugar found in DNA - Ribose
20. Table sugar formed by plants - Sucrose

II. What is the difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic?

Prokaryotic cells are primitive cells mainly found in the unicellular organisms, and they do
not nucleus, instead they contain a fragment of DNA, and the organelles are not bounded
by the membranes, where as the eukaryotic cells are found in all types of multicellular
organisms such as plant and animal cells and they contains nucleus and membrane bound
organelles.

III. Enumeration

Examples of Major causes of Diseases

1. Physical agents: Mechanical trauma, extremes of temperature, sudden changes in atmospheric
pressure, radiation, electric shock.
Example:
• Facial Disorders or Skin Diseases - due to work-related exposure to ultraviolet radiation
• Dysbaric osteonecrosis – Dysbaric osteonecrosis is a type of avascular necrosis of the
bone that is most commonly found in undersea divers and workers that breathe
compressed air or gas. This condition can lead to increased risk of fractures and of total
joint arthroplasty.
2. Chemical agents, including drugs: Certain toxic com pounds, therapeutic drugs, etc.
Example:
• Lung tissue diseases -- These diseases affect the structure of the lung tissue. Scarring
or inflammation of the tissue makes the lungs unable to expand fully (restrictive lung disease). This
makes it hard for the lungs to take in oxygen and release carbon dioxide. People with this type of lung
disorder often say they feel as if they are "wearing a too- tight sweater or vest." As a result, they can't
breathe deeply. Pulmonary
fibrosis and sarcoidosis are examples of lung tissue disease.
• ▪ Sensitizers- are chemicals capable of producing an allergic response
Skin sensitizer means a chemical that will lead to an allergic response following skin contact.. The body
produces lit-tle or no immune response at the initial exposure. However, with repeated exposure, the
immune system can be sensitized and subsequently evoke an allergic response to the allergen.
Respiratory tract sensitizers, such as isocyanates, natural rubber latex proteins, or ethylene diamine, can
cause asthma.
3. Biologic agents: Viruses, rickettsiae, bacteria, fungi, higher forms of parasites.
Example:
• Measles, or rubeola- is a viral infection that starts in the respiratory system. It still
remains a significant cause of death worldwide, despite the availability of a safe, effective
vaccine. A widespread skin rash is a classic sign of measles
• Norovirus - is a stomach and intestinal virus that’s very contagious. It passes easily through
direct or indirect contact with an infected person.

4. Oxygen lack: Loss of blood supply, depletion of the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, poisoning
of the oxidative enzymes.
Example:
• Renal artery disease - A blockage in your renal arteries can cause renal artery disease and kidney
failure.
• Peripheral artery disease - A blockage in your legs. Total loss of circulation can lead to gangrene
and loss of a limb.
5. Genetic disorders: Congenital, molecular
Example:
• congenital heart disease — including a hole in the heart, a valve problem or a problem with the
blood vessels. These are usually diagnosed during routine scans in pregnancy or during newborn
screening.
• Fragile X syndrome — may be diagnosed through genetic testing during pregnancy or in the first
few years of life
6. Immunologic reactions: Anaphylaxis, autoimmune disease. Example:

• Graves disease- is an autoimmune disorder that leads to an overactive thyroid gland

(hyperthyroidism). An autoimmune disorder is a condition that occurs when the immune system
mistakenly attacks healthy tissue. The thyroid gland is an important organ of the
endocrinesystem. The gland is located at the front of the neck above where the collarbones
meet. This gland releases the hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3), which control
body metabolism. Controlling metabolism is important for regulating mood, weight, and mental
and physical energy levels.
• Addison disease - is a disorder that occurs when the adrenal glands do not produce enough
hormones. The adrenal glands are small hormone-releasing organs located on top of each
 kidney. They are made up of an outer portion, called the cortex, and an inner portion, called the
medulla.

7. Nutritional imbalances: Deficiencies, excesses.

Example:
• Iodine - is an essential mineral for normal thyroid function and the production of thyroid
hormones. The most common symptom of iodine deficiencyis an enlarged thyroid gland, also
known as a goiter. It may also cause an increase in heart rate, shortness of breath, and weight
gain
• Vitamin D - is a fat-soluble vitamin that functions like a steroid hormone in your body.It travels
through your bloodstream and into cells, telling them to turn genes on or off. Almost every cell
in your body has a receptor for vitamin D. Vitamin D is produced from cholesterol in your skin
upon exposure to sunlight. Thus, people who live far from the equator are likely to be deficient
unless their dietary intake is adequate or they supplement with vitamin D
8. Endocrine imbalances: Hormonal deficiencies, excesses.
Example:
• Hypophysis Hormone – Hypopituitarism is a rare disorder in which your pituitary gland fails to
produce one or more hormones, or doesn't produce enough hormones. The pituitary gland is a
kidney-bean-sized gland situated at the base of your brain.
• Hypothyroidism- Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid) is a condition in which your thyroid
gland doesn't produce enough of certain crucial hormones. Hypothyroidism may not cause
noticeable symptoms in the early stages.
All Disease Has a Biochemical Basis

All diseases are manifestations of abnormalities of molecules, chemical reactions, or processes. The
major factors responsible for causing diseases in animals and humans are listed in Table 1-1. All of them
affect one or more critical chemical reactions or molecules in the body.

Biochemical Studies Contribute to Diagnosis, Prognosis, and Treatment

There is a wealth of documentation of the uses of biochemistry in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment
of disease; many examples will be cited throughout this text. Here, seven brief examples are given to il
lustrate the breadth of the subject and stimulate the reader's interest.

(1) Humans must ingest a number of complex organic molecules called vitamins in order to maintain
health. If a particular vitamin is deficient in the diet, the reactions in which it is involved are. compro

Table 1-1. The major causes of diseases. All of the causes listed act by influencing the various
biochemical mechanisms in the cell or in the body¹

1. Physical agents: Mechanical trauma, extremes of temperature, sudden changes in atmospheric

pressure, radiation, electric shock.

2. Chemical agents, including drugs: Certain toxic compounds, therapeutic drugs, etc. 3. Biologic agents:
Viruses, rickettsiae, bacteria, fungi, higher forms of parasites.

4. Oxygen lack: Loss of blood supply, depletion of the oxygen-carrying capacity of the blood, poisoning
of the oxidative enzymes. 5. Genetic disorders: Congenital, molecular.

6. Immunologic reactions: Anaphylaxis, autoimmune disease

7. Nutritional imbalances: Deficiencies, excesses. 8. Endocrine imbalances: Hormonal deficiencies,

excesses.

2. REACTIONS OF CARBOHYDRATES
• Photosynthetic Reaction
• Glucose Metabolism
• Alkylation of -OH
• Acylation of -OH
• Reduction
• Oxidation
• Hydrolysis
• Glycoside Formation
CHELSEA M. ABAT DDM – 2A AUGUST 31, 2022

1. Draw and label the parts of the animal and plant cells for comparison.

2. State the function of each part.

PARTS FUNCTION FOUND IN

Cell Membrane controls what moves in Plant and Animal Cell
& out of the cell (takes in
food/ gases & removes
wastes) -outermost layer
of an animal cell -inside
the cell wall of plant
cells

Cytoplasm -clear thick jelly-like fluid Plant and Animal Cell

between the inside the
cell membrane
-contains & supports the
organelles
Jelly-like substance,
where chemical
reactions happen

Nucleus -control center for cell Plant and Animal Cell

activities
-contains genetic
information in
chromosomes (DNA)
that determine which
CHELSEA M. ABAT DDM – 2A AUGUST 31, 2022

traits are passed to

offspring
Carries genetic
information and controls
what happens inside the
cell

Mitochondria -provides energy for the Plant and Animal Cell

cell
-"power house" of the
cell
-site of cellular
respiration which
releases energy by
breaking the chemical
bonds of food
- Where most respiration
reactions happen

Vacuole -stores water, wastes & Plant Cell Only

other materials
-helps provide shape &
structure in plant cells -
larger in plant cells since
they may have to go
for long periods without
rain
-Contains a liquid called
cell sap, which keeps the
cell firm
Cell Wall -rigid, outermost layer of Plant Cell Only
the plant cell -shapes,
protects & supports the
cell
-Made of a tough
substance called
cellulose, which
supports the cell
Chloroplasts Structures which contain Plant Cell Only
the green pigment
chlorophyll that traps
sunlight; the site of
photosynthesis
Ribosome Micro-Machine for Plant and Animal Cell
making proteins. It is
composed id special
protein and nucleic acid.
Lysosomes The digestive system of Plant and Animal Cell
the cell, serving both to
degrate material taken
up from outside the cell
CHELSEA M. ABAT DDM – 2A AUGUST 31, 2022

and to digest obselete

components of the cell
itself.
Nucleolus It is facilitating Plant and Animal Cell
ribosome biogenesis
through the processing
and assembly of rRNA
into preribosomal
particles.
Golgi Apparatus is responsible Plant and Animal Cell
for transporting,
modifying, and
packaging proteins and
lipids into vesicles for
delivery to targeted
destinations. As the
secretory proteins
move through the Golgi
apparatus, a number of
chemical modifications
may transpire.

Rough To produce proteins for Plant and Animal Cell

Endoplasmic the rest of the cell to
Reticulum function
Smooth It synthesizes lipids, Plant and Animal Cell
Endoplasmic phospholipids as in
Reticulum plasma membrane and
steroids.
Peroxisome Sequester diverse Plant and Animal Cell
oxidation reactions and
play important roles in
metabolism reactive
oxygen and sorted for
transport to their
eventual destinations
Amyloplast Responsible for strarch Plant Cell
biosynthesis and
storage
Microtubules Regulating cell growth Animal Cell
and movement as well
as key signaling event,
which everyone
modulate fundamental
cellular processes.
Centrioles Organizing microtubles Animal Cell
that serve as the cell’s
skeletal system