Kuliah-5

Fabrication of Metal and Alloys

Part-1: Ferrous Metals
26 September 2022
 Pokok Bahasan

Bagian-1: Sifat, Aplikasi dan Pemrosesan Logam Fero

(besi dan baja) – Ref: Bab 4.
1. Pendahuluan
2. Logam dan Paduan
3. Pengertian besi dan baja
4. Proses Pembuatan Besi dan Baja.
5. Baja
6. Besi Tuang

Bagian-2: Sifat, Aplikasi, dan Pemrosesan Logam Non-

Fero (Ref: Bab 5)
 1. Introduction
• One of the most challenging tasks is the proper selection of
the material for a particular job → to choose the optimum
combination of properties in a material at the lowest
possible cost without compromising the quality.
Factors affecting the selection of materials
1. Component shape
2. Dimensional tolerance
3. Mechanical properties
4. Fabrication (Manufacturing) requirements
5. Service requirements
6. Cost: Cost of the material and Cost of processing
7. Availability of the material
Procedure for materials selection
Design → material selection → process selection →
production → evaluation → and possible redesign or
modification
 2. Metals and alloys:
• Engineering metals are generally Alloys.
• There are metallic materials formed by mixing two or
more elements

2.1. Classification of metals and alloys

•Ferrous: Fe-Base alloys, relatively inexpensive,

extremely versatile, widespread engineering materials
• Steels (1.4 %C): Plain carbon steel and Alloy steel
• Cast irons (3-4.5 %C): brittle
•Nonferrous: Non-Fe base alloys, such as Light Alloys:
Al, Mg, Ti, Zn; Heavy Alloys: Cu, Pb, Ni; Refractory
Metals: Mo, Ta, W; Precious metals: Au, Ag, Pt.
2.2. Fabrication of Metals
 3. Steel and Iron
• Iron and steel alloy: the most widely used metals in engineering
applications, because:
• It is abundantly available in the earth’s crust.
• Economical: low processing and refining cost.
• Can be produced in a vast range of properties, to meet the
design requirement.
Steels Iron
• C<2% • C>2%
• High pitch sound when hit • Low pitch sound when hit
• Bounded C as α or Fe3C lamella • Free C as graphite
• Tmelting > 1550OC • Tmelting 1300–1400 OC
• High strength and ductility • Low strength and ductility
(200-500 MPa, 18-35 %) (150-300 MPa)
• Malleable • Not malleable
• Long machinary chips • Short machinery chips
• Low yellowish spark • High red spark
 4. Proses Pembuatan Besi dan Baja
1. Production of metallic iron: Pemrosesan bijih besi
menjadi besi melalui proses reduksi/reduction (Iron ore
→ Iron)
2. Production of Molten Steel: pemurnian baja/refining -
reducing C +impurities to make steel (bahan setengah jadi)
a) BOF (Basic Oxygen Furnace)
b) EAF (Electric Arc Furnace)
3. Secondary Refining: to produce high-quality steel
4. Casting to produce ingot, billet, bloom or slab
5. Hot rolling-Pembentukan (forming), pengubahan baja
setengah jadi (dalam bentuk ingot, billet, bloom atau slab)
menjadi bahan jadi (products)
a) Long product
b) Flat product
Ref: kawasakisteel.org
 4.1.a. Iron Ore and Its Pretreatment
Iron ore and iron ore pellets are important sources of iron for manufacturing steel.
68-70 % Fe
max 72% Fe
Siderite (FeCO3) max 48.3% Fe

Table 1. Iron ore products classification for iron making

Product Size range Basic application
(mm)
Lump 6.3 – 31.7 Directly fed to BF and DR
Sinter feed 0.15 – 6.3 Agglomeration by sintering to be fed in BF
Pellet feed <0.15 Agglomeration by pelletizing to be fed to
BF and DR
Iron Ore Terminology basics
Notes:
• Iron ore undergoes a series of mineral processing to
meet the demands of ironmaking processes, particularly
their particle size distribution.
• Materials containing a very fine particle size distribution
must be agglomerated by:
• sintering (fine particle-diffusion) or
• pelletizing (ultra-fine particle).
• The main used reduction reactors are
• Blast furnaces (BF): iron ore is reduced and melted,
and the most common product is liquid iron called
hot metal
• Direct reduction reactors (DR): iron remains in a solid
state and the product is the so-called direct reduced
iron (DRI).
Iron Ore Utilization by Type
 4.1.b. Process: Iron Ore → molten Iron

Carbon monoxide (CO) + Iron oxide

→ Carbon dioxside (CO2) + Iron (Fe)

Carbon dioxside (CO2) + Coke Coke (C) + Oxygen (O2) →

(C) → Carbon monoxide (CO) Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Molten slag
Molten iron
 Direct Reduction vs Indirect Reduction
Indirect Reduction Direct Reduction
• Uses Carbon as the • the removal of oxygen from iron ore in the
reductant solid state, i.e. without melting, as in the
C + O2 → 2CO blast furnace.
• Chemical reactions: • The reducing agents are gas CO and H2,
3Fe2O3 + CO →2Fe3O4 + CO coming from reformed natural gas,
syngas, or coal.
Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2 • Iron ore is used mostly in pellet and/or
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2 lumpy form.
• Cost a lot of energy (via • Chemical reactions:
melting process) With H2
3Fe2O3 + H2 → 2Fe3O4 + H2O
Fe3O4 + H2 → 3 FeO + H2O
FeO + H2 → Fe + H2O
With CO
3Fe2O3 + CO →2Fe3O4 + CO
Fe3O4 + CO → 3 FeO + CO2
FeO + CO → Fe + CO2
 4.1.c. Direct Reduction Processes
There are several processes for the direct reduction of iron ore:
1. gas-based shaft furnace process (Midrex® and Energiron)
2. gas-based fluidized bed processes (the Finmet / Finored process
being the only commercial-scale one in operation)
3. Coal-based rotary kiln furnaces (mainly in India).
Example of Direct Reduction Process – Midrex Process

HBI
 4.2.a. Basic Oxygen Furnace (BOF)
Prinsip pemurnian baja pada BOF: meniupkan gas oksigen
kedalam besi cair (hasil proses reduksi) → kadar C dalam besi
cair ↘ 2C + O2 → 2CO
 • Gas O2 bertekanan tinggi ditiupkan melalui top-blown vessel, atau bottom-
blown vessel, atau kombinasi keduanya (top and bottom-blown vessel).
• Selain oksigen, ditambahkan batu kapur (CaCO3) mengambil material
pengotor → terak/slag (CaO-SiO2-FeO) → baja lebih murni.
Hot Metal (liquid iron) is obtained upon
reduction of iron ore (normally in BF), ~ 93-
94% Fe + C ~4%), Si ~1%, Mn ~1%), S, P etc..

Pig iron: A solid (lumpy) form obtained

upon solidification of Hot Metal.
 4.2.b. Electric Arc Furnace (EAF)

• In EAF, the steel scrap is heated and melted by the heat of electric arcs
striking between the furnace electrodes (graphite) and the metal bath
(scrap).
• Steel is produced in EAF by the following steps:
• The charge is put into the furnace.
• A powerful electric current arcs (jumps) between the electrodes,
producing intense heat.
• The charge melts and chemical reactions produce steel.
• Alloying materials are added.
• The furnace is tipped to pour out the molten steel
 4.3. Secondary Refining Facilities

• For making high-quality steels such as tool steel and stainless steel →
secondary refining using Laddle Furnace (LF), Argon-Oxygen
Decarburization Furnace (AOD), Vacuum-Oxygen Decarburization
Furnace (VOD), and RH type degassing unit (RH).
4.4. Continuous casting

• After the required chemical

composition of the steel has been
achieved → cast the molten steel into
a mold to form a slab, or into a
tundish at a continuous casting
process to form a thinner slab.
• Ingot: very large casting products. Their size and shape > blooms, billets and
slabs. Rectangular/square cross-section. Ingot may have variable cross-
sections.)
• Bloom: rectangular/square cross-section and always > 36 in2 (230 cm2). Used
as rolling material in the manufacturing process of rails, seamless pipes, etc.
• Billet: a casting product, generally made using a continuous casting machine. A
square cross-section area, <36 in2 and should be the same throughout its
length. Used in the manufacturing process of Steel Rebars.
• Slab: rectangular cross-section, thickness < bloom.
The weight of ingot > bloom > billet > slab
Continuous Flat
Caster
Products
4.5.a. Proses Pembuatan Pipa
4.5.b. Proses Pembuatan Pelat Tipis (Strip)
4.5.c. Proses Pembuatan H-Beams
Summary of Steel Production
5. Baja (Steel)
 Steel vs Cast Iron
Steel

Cast Iron
▪ alloy with C 1.7-4.5%; Si 0.5-3.0%; Mn 0.2-1.3%; P 0.8% max; and S
0.2% max., Mo, Ni, Sn, Sb, V, Cu and other elements may be added
to enhance specific properties.
▪ Has a low Tm and good fluidity compared to steel (better castability)
▪ Low cost and generally produced by sand casting.
▪ A wide range of properties depending on composition & cooling
rate)
▪ Good Damping capacity
 Classification of Ferrous Metals

Ferrous

Steels Cast Irons

Low Alloy High Alloy

Grey Malleable White
Cast Cast Iron Cast
Low Medium High Iron Iron
Carbon Carbon Carbon Stainless Nodular
Steel Steel Steel Steel Cast
Iron
Tool
Steel
Classification of Steels
Steels
 5.1. Plain Carbon Steel
Classification of Plain carbon steels
TYPE OF PLAIN CARBON STEEL CARBON COMPOSITION
LOW CARBON/MILD 0.05-0.25%
MEDIUM CARBON 0.26-0.60%
HIGH CARBON 0.61-1.50%

Low Carbon Steels

• Microstructure: ferrite (α) + pearlite
(α+Fe3C)
• Properties:
• Soft & weak but outstanding
ductile and toughness.
• Not responsive to heat treatment.
• machinable, weldable,
• and, of all steels, are the least
expensive to produce.
Fig 1: Microstructure of low carbon
• Application: automobile body, pipe, steel, with the light phase = the ferrite
sheet, etc. and the dark phase = pearlite.
 Sistem Kodifikasi baja

• Standar AISI (American Institute for Steel and Iron) dan SAE
(Society of Automotive Engineers)
AISI-SAE XXXX
• “X” pertama = unsur paduan utama
• “X” kedua = unsur paduan dari subgroup atau persentase
relatif dari unsur paduan utama
• “XX” dua terakhir = kandungan karbon (kali 100), misal 0.20
wt%.
• Untuk baja karbon, dua digit pertama adalah 1 dan 0,
sementara baja paduan memiliki dua digit pertama dapat
berupa suatu kombinasi (misal: 13, 41, 43).
• Contoh, AISI 1040: dua digit pertama 10 → klasifikasi baja
karbon rendah. Dua digit terakhir 40 → karbon sebesar 0,40
wt.%.
 Steel Plate Cold Rolled Products
decreasing C →
decrease the vol
fraction of pearlite →
more ductile.

• SPCC: Common & General Use; Applications: Refrigerators, rails,

switchboards, iron baskets, etc.
• SPCD: Drawing & Stamping Use; Applications: Automobile chassis, roof, etc.
• SPCE: Deep Drawing & Stamping Use; Applications: Car fender, rear side
panels, etc.
ε
Symbol ASTM Class C Si Mn P S UTS HRB
0.2%
ASTM 0.12 0.50 0.040 0.045 270 32 60
SPCC CR-CQ -
A366-72 max max max max min min max
ASTM 0.10 0.45 0.035 0.035 270 34
SPCD CR-DQ - 50
A619-82 max max max max min min
ASTM CR- 0.08 0.40 0.030 0.030 270 36
SPCE - 50
A620-82 DQSK max max max max min min
 Medium Carbon Steel
• C: 0.25 – 0.6 %
• Microstructure: ferrite (α) + pearlite
(α+Fe3C)
• Properties:
• Lower ductility, higher strength,
and toughness compared to low-
carbon steel.
• Responsive to heat treatment (by
austenitizing, quenching, and then
tempering) to improve their
mechanical properties
• Application: gears, railways,
crankshaft, etc. AISI 1040 Steel
 High Carbon Steel
• C: 0.6 – 1.2 wt. %
• Microstructure: pearlite + Proeutectoid
cementite (Fe3C).
• Properties:
• High strength, high hardness, and low
ductility → heat treated to increase
toughness while keeping the high
strength.
• Application: tool steel, die, cutting blade. microstructure of high carbon
steel with about 1.2% C (hyper-
eutectoid steel)
 Comparison of properties and applications of Carbon steels
AISI/ Carbon Tensile Yield Ductility (%
Type ASTM content strength strength elongation Applications
name (wt.%) (MPa) (MPa) in 50 mm)
Automobile panels,
Low 1010 0.10 325 180 28
nails, wire
Pipes, structural
Low 1020 0.20 380 205 25
steel, sheet steel
Low A36 0.29 400 220 23 Structural
A516 Low-temperature
Low 0.31 485 260 21
Grade 70 pressure vessels
Machinery parts,
Medium 1030 0.27-0.34 460 325 12 gears, shifts, axles,
bolts
Crankshafts,
Medium 1040 0.37-0.44 620 415 25 couplings, cold
headed parts.
High 1080 0.75-0.88 924 440 12 Music wire
Springs, cutting
High 1095 0.90 -1.04 665 380 10
tools
 5.2. Stainless Steels (Baja Tahan Karat)
• alloy steels with a nominal Cr content ≥ 11 wt %, with or without
other alloy additions (the presence of a passive Cr-rich oxide film on
the surface).
• The major alloying elements that affect the characteristics of SSs
Cr (ferrite former, termed Cr-eq), and
Ni and C (Austenite former, termed Ni-eq).
Surface Oxide (rust) > Surface Passive film
~ 2nm thick corrosion resistance
20μm thick
The passive film forms
in a few minutes

Increasing Cr content increases the effectiveness

of the passive film… but there are other
important factors that influence the corrosion
resistance 42
 General Category of SS
Ferritic SS Austenitic SS

Duplex SS

Precipitation
Martensitic SS Hardening (PH) SS
Chemical Composition of Some Typical SSs
 Typical Applications of Stainless Steels
Types Typical Applications
420 Cooks and professional knives, spatulas, etc.
(martensitic)
430 (ferritic) Table surfaces, equipment cladding, panel (ie. components requiring
little formability or weldability). Used for moderately corrosive
environments (eg. vegetables, fruits, drinks, dry foods, etc.)
304 Vats, bowls, pipework, machinery parts (ie. components requiring
(austenitic) more formability or weldability). Corrosion resistance superior to 430
316 Components used with more corrosive foods (eg. meat/blood, foods
(austenitic) with moderate salt contents), which are frequently cleaned, with no
stationary solids and not under excessive stress
1.4539 Used with corrosive foods (eg. hot brine with solids that act as crevice
(austenitic) forms, stagnant and slow-moving salty foods)
1.4462 Used with corrosive foods (eg. hot brine with solids, stagnant and
(duplex) slow-moving salty foods). Higher strength than austenitic. Good
resistance to stress corrosion cracking in salts solutions at elevated
temperatures.
6% Mo Used with corrosive foods (eg. hot brine with solids, stagnant and
types slow-moving salty foods). Good resistance to stress corrosion cracking
(austenitic) in salt solutions at elevated temperatures. Used in steam heating and
work circuits, hot water boilers, etc.
 5.3. Tool Steels (Baja Perkakas)

What is tool steel?

• Technically any steel used as a component part of a tool
• high-quality steel for working and shaping other materials
(cutting, shearing, forming, drawing, extrusion, rolling).
• Chemical composition: Fe+ C 0.1-1.6% + (W, Mo, V, Mn, and
Cr).
• A steel containing alloying elements that enable it to be
heat-treated to obtain desirable characteristics such as
strength, hardness, toughness, and wear resistance.
• They are usually used in conditions:
•Very high & rapid load
•Very high temperature
• They can be classified based on the method of quenching,
such as water-hardening steels, oil-hardening steels, and air-
hardening steels.
Types of Tool Steels
6. Cast Irons (Besi Tuang)
White and Malleable Cast Iron
Gray and Ductile Cast Iron