HANDOUT IN SOCIAL & CULTURAL VIEW OF THE SELF

SOCIOLOGY ~ is a social science that studies human societies, their interactions, and the processes
that preserve and change them.
- the study of society, patterns of social relationships, social interaction and culture of
everyday life.

THE SELF AS A PRODUCT OF MODERN SOCIETY AMONG OTHERS

What is a society?
A society is a group of individuals involved in
• persistent social interaction
• sharing a common culture
• sharing the same geographical or social territory
• sharing the same interest or purpose

Through interaction with their social and cultural environment, people are transformed into participating members
of their society. This interactive process through which people learn the basic skills, values, beliefs, and behavior
patterns of a society is called socialization.
According to Lundberg, socialization consists of the “complex processes of interaction through which the
individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and standard of judgement that are necessary for his effective
participation in social groups and communities”.
Your SELF is your conscious awareness of possessing a distinct identity that separates you and your
environment from other members of society.
Several reasons why self and identity are social products:
1. Society helped in creating the foundations of who we are.
2. Whether we like to admit it or not, we need others to affirm and reinforce who we think we are.
Agencies of Socialization
• Family • Workplace
• School • Religion
• Peer Group • Government
• Mass Media • Economy

1. GEORGE HERBERT MEAD AND THE SOCIAL SELF

Mead’s ideas…
• The self develops solely through social experience. Mead believed that social experience depends
on our seeing ourselves as others do, or, as he coined it, “taking the role of the other.”
• Social experience consists of the exchange of symbols. Mead emphasized the particularly human
use of language and other symbols to convey meaning.
• Knowing others’ intentions requires imagining the situation from their perspectives.
• Understanding the role of the other results in self-awareness. Mead believed that social
experience depends on our seeing ourselves as others do, or, as he coined it, “taking the role of the
other.”
Identity as a social process
• Individual forms his identity (self) through processes of interaction and communication.
• Life-long influence of others on the development and control of our identity.
• For Mead, the self is not there from birth, but it is developed over time from social experiences and
activities.
• Social self emerges from social interactions.

According to Mead, the self represents the sum of people’s conscious perception of their identity as distinct from
others.
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Even our own understanding of who we think we are (our self-concept) is influenced by who others tell us we
are. Central to understanding ourselves is understanding the importance of other people in shaping our self-
understanding. Symbolic interaction theory has had a major influence on communication theory because of the
pervasive way our communication with others influences our attitudes, beliefs, values, and self-concept.
Symbolic Interaction Theory
• A theory that human interaction and communication are aided by words, gestures and symbols with
conventionalized meanings.
• We interpret what a word, symbol, or experience means based, in part, on how other people react to our use
of words and symbols.
• Assumes that we each make sense of the world based on our interactions with others.

Three important parts of Symbolic Interactionism:

1. Meaning - people assign different meanings to objects or people they encounter and act differently
depending on the specific meaning they've given that person or thing.
2. Language - to express themselves to each other, people create language as a set of symbols to give
names to the different meanings we find in the world.
Language - the method of human communication, either spoken or written, consisting of the use of
words in a structured and conventional way.
3. Thought - people use thought to examine their beliefs and change their interpretation of things based
on new information they've learned about the object or person.
Three Stages of Development of Self
1. Imitation: In this stage, children copy behavior of adults without understanding it.
2. Play stage: Play develops self by allowing individuals to take on different roles, pretend, and express
expectation of others. Play develops one's self-consciousness through role-playing.
3. Game Stage: More complex form of role-playing than that involved in play. Individual is required to
internalize, not merely the character of a single and specific other, but the roles of all others who are
involved with him in the game comprehend the rules of the game which condition the various roles. An
individual gain a social identity.

NO ONE
The Self is able
(no ability to take ONE other in ONE MANY others in MANY others in
simultaneously to
the role of the situation ONE situation MANY situations
take the role of:
other)
Engaging in Engaging in Recognizing the
When: Engaging in PLAY
IMITATION GAMES generalized others
Building on Social Experience
G. H. Mead described the development of the self as a process of gaining social experience. That is, the
SELF develops as we expand our capacity to take the role of the other.

GENERALIZED OTHERS - refer to an individual's recognition that other members of their society hold specific
values and expectations about behavior. This generalized other is a composite of the expectations one believes
others hold toward one. When one says, “Everyone expects me to one' is using the concept of the generalized
other. Awareness of the generalized other is developed through the processes of role taking and role playing.
SIGNIFICANT OTHERS - is the person whose approval we desire and whose direction we accept.
Significant others are those persons who exercise major influence over the attitudes of individuals. Significant
others may be influential because of the roles they fill (parents, teachers) or because one has selected this
significant other as important (popular celebrities, best friends, favorite relative, boyfriend or girlfriend).

2. CHARLES HORTON COOLEY’S LOOKING GLASS SELF THEORY

Looking-glass self emphasized that our sense of self is influenced by others’ views of us. Other people act as a
mirror, reflecting back the image we project through their reactions to our behavior.
Core Assumptions:

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 1. We imagine how we appear to others.
2. We imagine others’ judgements of that appearance.
3. We develop feelings about and responds to those perceived judgments.

If we are repeatedly labeled and evaluated by others, then self-labeling may occur, which happens when we
adopt others labels explicitly into our self-concept.

The labeling bias occurs when we are labeled, and others’ views and expectations of us are affected by that
labeling.

• People tend to think that their looks and attractiveness are important to their happiness.
• People’s behavior is governed by society and the judgments of others.
• People are highly concerned with their image as it affects their self-esteem, self-identity, and happiness.

3. LEON FESTINGER’S SOCIAL COMPARISON THEORY

Social comparison theory assumes that our sense of self is influenced by comparisons with others.
Social comparison occurs when we learn about our abilities and skills, about the appropriateness and validity
of our opinions, and about our relative social status by comparing our own attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors with
those of others.
Upward and Downward Comparisons Influence Our Self-Esteem
Downward social comparison
• occurs when we attempt to create a positive image of ourselves through favorable comparisons with
others who are worse off than we are.
Upward social comparison
• occurs when we compare ourselves with others who are better off than we are
Social comparison helps people measure how well they think they are doing compared to others.
• I’m good at playing soccer (because I beat others);
• I can’t cook (because others cook better than I do);
• I’m not good at meeting people (most people I know seem to be more comfortable interacting with
others

4. HENRI TAJFEL AND JOHN TURNER SOCIAL IDENTITY THEORY

• Social identity theory describes the cognitive processes related to social identity and how social identity
impacts intergroup behavior. This theory postulates that becoming part of different groups, and how
membership to these groups helps construct our identities.
•
• Social identity theory is built on three key cognitive components: social categorization, social
identification, and social comparison.
• Generally, individuals wish to maintain a positive social identity by maintaining their group’s favorable
social standing over that of relevant out-groups.

Cognitive Processes of Social Identity

Three key cognitive components:
1. social categorization,
2. social identification, and
3. social comparison

Social categorization is the process by which we organize individuals into social groups in order to understand
our social world. This process enables us to define people, including ourselves, based on the groups to which
we belong. We tend to define people based on their social categories more often than their individual
characteristics.
Social identification is the process of identifying as a group member. Socially identifying with a group leads
individuals to behave in the way that they believe members of that group should behave.
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Social comparison is the process by which people compare their group with other groups in terms of prestige
and social standing. In order to maintain self-esteem, one must perceive his or her in-group as having a higher
social standing than an out-group.
5. ERVING GOFFMAN’s SELF-PRESENTATION THEORY
Self-presentation Theory states that your sense of self is influenced and affected by the kind of audiences we
have. This theory suggests that people tend to present constructive self-image to others.
Core Assumptions:
1. Life is a dramatic performance.
2. We ‘perform’ for others.
3. We present a kind of ‘act’ to them.
4. We perform differently in different situations - and the world is our ‘stage.’

• Social life is a Theatre with social scripts, performances and actors & roles in FRONT & BACK region
of the self.
• DRAMATURGY - social interactions is like a drama performance; people are an audience, judging
each other’s performances, trying to determine everyone's true character
• SELF is nothing more than “SELF PRESENTATIONS” & “ROLE PERFORMANCES”

6. GEERT HOFSTEDE’s INDIVIDUALISM VS COLLECTIVISM

Culture shapes self-concept.
Western cultures tend to encourage Individualism ~ the idea that the self exists independent of others.
In Eastern Cultures, Collectivism replaces individualism. Collectivism views the self in relation to others,
stressing their interdependence of the self as part of a larger network of people who all shape each other.
What is Individualism?
• The focus of all thinking in individualism is the individual.
• “I” identity
• Individual rights are being the most important. Rules attempt to ensure self-importance and
individualism.
• Independence is valued.
• Relying or being dependent on others is frequently seen as shameful.
• People are encouraged to do things on their own; to rely on themselves.
• People strive for their own successes.

What is Collectivism?
• Each person is encouraged to be an active player in the society; to do what is good for the society
rather than themselves.
• The rights of families, communities, and the collective supersede those of the individual.
• Rules promote unity, brotherhood, and selflessness.
• Working with others and cooperating in the norm; everyone supports each other.

INFLUENCE OF CULTURE ON SELF-CONCEPT

• Culture refers to the behavior and belief characteristics of a society, community or ethnic group. It is the
invisible bond which ties people together. It refers to the pattern of human activity. The art, literature,
language, and religion of a community represent its culture.
• Our behavioral patterns, belief systems, principles, and ways of living are the derivatives of our culture.
• Culture is related to the development of our attitude. Our cultural values influence how we approach
living. According to the behaviorist definition of culture, it is the ultimate system of social control where
people monitor their own standards and behavior. Our cultural values serve as the founding principles of
our life. They shape our thinking, behavior, and personality.

CULTURE AFFECTS PERCEPTION

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 • Our culture forms the framework for our thoughts and behavior. The ideas ingrained in our minds by our
culture influence the way we perceive people and situations.

CULTURE INFLUENCES BEHAVIOR

• Culture affects perception, and perceptions drive behavior. Thus, the culture we belong to, has a direct
impact on our behavior. Moreover, our environment, which has cultural influences, shapes our behavior.

CULTURE SHAPES PERSONALITY

• Group culture determines the behavioral norms for a group.
• Our culture defines people’s expectations from us.
• In the attempt to fulfill them, we shape our behavior and personality to suit our culture.
• Our religion, traditions, customs, all a part of our culture, play a major role in shaping our personalities.
The way we perceive a situation and react to it, depends largely on what we have learned from the
environment and the way we have been brought up.