Updating Humidification and Dehumidification

MTO-I 2021-22 CVSRVR
Humidification and Dehumidification

Vapor pressure or equilibrium vapor pressure is the pressure of a vapor in thermodynamic
equilibrium with its condensed phases in a closed system. All liquids have a tendency to
evaporate, and some solids can sublimate into a gaseous form. Vice versa, all gases have a
tendency to condense back to their liquid form, or deposit back to solid form, as long as the
temperature is below their critical temperature or decomposition temperature. In plain terms,
a liquid will evaporate at all pressures below its vapor pressure while remaining stable at
pressure above the vapor pressure.
The vapor pressure of any substance increases non-linearly with temperature according to the
Clausius–Clapeyron relation. The atmospheric pressure boiling point of a liquid (also known
as the normal boiling point) is the temperature at which the vapor pressure equals the ambient
atmospheric pressure. With any incremental increase in that temperature, the vapor pressure
becomes sufficient to overcome atmospheric pressure and lift the liquid to form vapor
bubbles inside the bulk of the substance. Bubble formation deeper in the liquid requires a
higher pressure, and therefore higher temperature, because the fluid pressure increases above
the atmospheric pressure as the depth increases.
The vapor pressure that a single component in a mixture contributes to the total pressure in
the system is called partial vapor pressure.
Vapour – Gas Mixture
Molal humidity
The ratio of the moles of the moisture present in the sample to the moles of dry air present in
the same sample. This quantity is also known as the water vapor density. Absolute Humidity
indicates the moisture content in the air.

Relation between absolute humidity and molal humidity
Note: Y= 0.0791 means that 1 mole of dry air is associated with 0.0791 moles of water.
Absolute humidity
The ratio of the mass of the moisture present in the sample to the mass of dry air present in
the same sample. Absolute Humidity indicates the moisture content in the air.
Humidity (Y) is the measure of the water content of the air. The absolute humidity,
sometimes called the humidity ratio, is the mass of water vapour per unit mass of dry
air and the units are therefore kg kg-1, and this will be subsequently termed just the
humidity.
Air is said to be saturated with water vapour at a given temperature and pressure if its
humidity is a maximum under these conditions. If further water is added to saturated air, it
must appear as liquid water in the form of a mist or droplets. Under conditions of saturation,
the partial pressure of the water vapour in the air is equal to the saturation vapour pressure of
water at that temperature.
Saturated Vapour-Gas Mixtures

The partial pressure of vapour in the saturated mixture is independent of the nature of the gas
and the total pressure (except at very high pressures) and is dependent only upon the
temperature and identity of the liquid. However, the saturated molal humidity depend upon
the total pressure. Both saturated humidities become infinite at the boiling point of the liquid
at the prevailing total pressure.
Unsatured Vapour –Gas Mixtures

If the partial pressure of the vapour in a vapour-gas mixture is for any reason less than the
equilibrium vapour pressure of the liquid at the same temperature, the mixture is unsaturated.
Relative saturation or Relative humidity

As the name implies, relative humidity is a measure of how much moisture is present
compared to how much moisture the air could hold at that temperature.
The ratio of the vapor pressure of moisture in the sample to the saturation vapour pressure at
the dry bulb temperature of the sample.

Expressed as a percentage
=
The relative humidity of an air–water system is dependent not only on the temperature but
also on the absolute pressure of the system of interest. This dependence is demonstrated by
considering the air–water system shown below. The system is closed (i.e., no matter enters or
leaves the system).
If the system at State is isobarically heated (heating with no change in system pressure) then
the relative humidity of the system decreases because the equilibrium vapor pressure of water
increases with increasing temperature.
If the system at State is isothermally compressed (compressed with no change in system

temperature) then the relative humidity of the system increases because the partial pressure of
water in the system increases with the volume reduction. the RH would exceed 100% and
water may begin to condense.
If the pressure of State was changed by simply adding more dry air, without changing the
volume, the relative humidity would not change.
Therefore, a change in relative humidity can be explained by a change in system temperature,
a change in the volume of the system, or change in both of these system properties.
Percentage saturation or percentage absolute humidity

Expressed as a percentage
yp=
Relation between percentage saturation (yp) and relative saturation (yr)
Humid volume / Specific volume

Analogous to the specific volume of a pure substance. In psychrometrics, the term quantifies
the total volume of both the dry air and water vapor per pound of dry air.

If the operating pressure is ptis 1 atm, then
Suffix A – represents water vapour or compound vapour and B – represents air
Humid heat
Humid heat is the constant-pressure specific heat of moist air, per unit mass of dry air.
Heat required to raise the temperature of unit mass of gas and its accompanying vapour by
one degree at constant pressure
(where CA, heat capacity of the water, CB, heat capacity of the air)
So the heat required to raise the temperature of a mass WB dry gas and its accompanying
vapor an amount Δt.
Heat required, Q = WB CS Δt
Specific Enthalpy
Analogous to the specific enthalpy of a pure substance. In psychrometrics, the term quantifies
the total energy of both the dry air and water vapor per pound of dry air.
A - water vapour or compound vapour and B – air

Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wBVGZIhbHaw
The Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point temperatures are important to determine the state
of humid air. The knowledge of only two of these values is enough to determine the state of
the moist air - including the content of water vapor and the sensible and latent energy
(enthalpy) in the air.
Common thermometers measure temperature. Electronic temperature measurement, via

thermocouples, thermistors, and resistance temperature devices (RTDs), for example, have
been widely used too since they became available.

Dry – bulb Temperature
The dry-bulb temperature (DBT or Td ) is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer

freely exposed to the air. DBT is the true thermodynamic temperature. It indicates the
amount of heat in the air and is directly proportional to the mean kinetic energy of the air
molecules.).
The Dry Bulb Temperature refers basically to the ambient air temperature. It is called "Dry
Bulb" because the air temperature is indicated by a thermometer not affected by the moisture
of the air.
Dry-bulb temperature - Tdb, can be measured using a normal thermometer freely

exposed to the air. Constant dry bulb temperatures appear as vertical lines in the
psychrometric chart .

Wet Bulb Temperature - Twb
A wet-bulb thermometer is an instrument which may be used to infer the amount of moisture
in the air. If a moist cloth wick is placed over a thermometer bulb, the evaporation of
moisture from the wick will lower the thermometer reading (temperature). If the air
surrounding a wet-bulb thermometer is dry, evaporation from the moist wick will be more
rapid than if the air is moist. When the air is saturated, no water will evaporate from the wick
and the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer will be the same as the reading on the dry-
bulb thermometer. However, if the air is not saturated, water will evaporate from the wick
causing the temperature reading to be lower.
Wet Bulb temperature can be measured by using a thermometer with the bulb wrapped in wet
muslin. The adiabatic evaporation of water from the thermometer bulb and the cooling effect
is indicated by a "wet bulb temperature" lower than the "dry bulb temperature" in the air.
The wet bulb temperature is the temperature of an object that can be achieved through
evaporative cooling, assuming good air flow and that the ambient air temperature remains the
same. The Wet Bulb temperature is the adiabatic saturation temperature.
The rate of evaporation from the wet bandage on the bulb, and the temperature difference
between the dry bulb and wet bulb, depends on the humidity of the air. The evaporation from
the wet muslin is reduced when air contains more water vapor.
The Wet Bulb temperature is always between the Dry Bulb temperature and the Dew Point.
For the wet bulb, there is a dynamic equilibrium between heat gained because the wet bulb is
cooler than the surrounding air and heat lost because of evaporation.
Wet bulb temperature lines or Adiabatic

saturation temperature lines

Dew point temperature

The saturation temperature of the moisture present in the sample. The atmospheric
temperature (varying according to pressure and humidity) below which water droplets begin
to condense and dew can form.
The temperature at which the vapor starts condensation. Or the temperature at which the
given vapor pressure become saturated vapor pressure.
Just cooling not

changing the
composition
Vapour pressures of water
Temperature Pressure Existing vapour Temperature Pressure Existing vapour

(degrees C) (mmHg) Pressure (mmHg) (degrees C) (mmHg) Pressure (mmHg)
0 4.6 50 92.5
1 4.9 51 97.2
2 5.3 52 102.1
3 5.7 53 107.2
4 6.1 54 112.5
5 6.5 6.5 55 118
6 7 56 123.8
7 7.5 57 129.8
8 8 58 136.1
9 8.6 59 142.6
10 9.2 60 149.4
11 9.8 61 156.4
12 10.5 62 163.8
13 11.2 63 171.4
14 12 64 179.3
15 12.8 65 187.5
16 13.6 66 196.1
17 14.5 67 205
18 15.5 68 214.2
19 16.5 69 223.7

20 17.5 70 233.7
21 18.7 71 243.9
22 19.8 72 254.6
23 21.1 73 265.7
24 22.4 74 277.2
25 23.8 75 289.1
26 25.2 76 301.4
27 26.7 77 314.1
28 28.3 78 327.3
29 30 79 341
30 31.8 80 355.1
31 33.7 81 369.7
32 35.7 82 384.9
33 37.7 83 400.6
34 39.9 84 416.8
35 42.2 85 433.6
36 44.6 86 450.9
37 47.1 87 468.7
38 49.7 88 487.1
39 52.4 89 506.1
40 55.3 90 525.8
41 58.3 91 546
42 61.5 92 567
43 64.8 93 588.6
44 68.3 94 610.9
45 71.9 95 633.9
46 75.7 96 657.6
47 79.6 97 682.1
48 83.7 98 707.3
49 88 99 733.2
100 760
Dew Point Temperature - Tdp
The temperature at which the equilibrium vapour pressure (or saturated vapour
pressure) of the liquid is equal to the existing partial pressure of the liquid is called the
dew point temperature. Or the temperature at which the given unsaturated vapour-gas
mixture becomes saturated vapour-gas mixture. The saturation temperature of the moisture
present in the sample. Dew point temperature is the temperature at which moist air becomes
saturated (100% relative humidity) with water vapour when cooled at constant pressure, i.e.
temperature at which condensation of moisture begins when the moist air is cooled.
The Dew Point is the temperature where water vapor starts to condense out of the air (the
temperature at which air becomes completely saturated). Above this temperature the moisture
stays in the air.
 If the dew-point temperature is close to the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is
high.
 if the dew point is well below the dry air temperature - the relative humidity is low

If moisture condenses on a cold bottle taken from the refrigerator the dew-point temperature
of the air is above the temperature in the refrigerator.
The Dew Point temperature is always lower than the Dry Bulb temperature and will be
identical with 100% relative humidity (the air is at the saturation line). As air temperature
changes the Dew Point tends to remain constant unless water is added or removed from the
air.
The Dew Point temperature can be measured by filling a metal can with water and some ice
cubes. Stir by a thermometer and watch the outside of the can. When the vapor in the air
starts to condensate on the outside of the can, the temperature on the thermometer is pretty
close to the dew point of the actual air.
The Dew Point is given by the saturation line in the psychrometric chart.
Does the dew point change when the system temperature changes?
A. No. Dewpoint will not change as the system temperature changes below the saturation
point. If the system temperature is at or below the dew point temperature in a closed
system, the dew point will change because the water vapour is removed from the air. It is
a common misconception that changes in temperature will affect the dew point. It is
important to remember that dewpoint is independent of the ambient temperature. Only
changes in pressure or the actual amount of water vapour present will affect the dew
point.
Dew point is a temperature at which a vapor-gas mixture must be cooled (at constant
humidity) to become saturated. The dew point of a saturated gas equals the gas temperature.
If a vapor-gas mixture is gradually cooled at a constant pressure, the temperature at which it
just becomes saturated is also called its dew point.

How does pressure affect dew point measurement?

As the pressure of a system increases, the dew point temperature will rise and approach
saturation. Dew point is a common measure in compressed air systems because it is possible
to reach the saturation point and introduce liquid water into the compressed air by simply
increasing the pressure. As the pressure of a system is decreased, the dew point temperature
becomes lower and the gas will become relatively dryer as the difference between dew point
and ambient temperature increases. This is why systems that are maintained in a vacuum state
are typically very dry.
Adiabatic saturation temperature (Wet bulb temperature for air-water system)

This is the lowest temperature that can be reached by the evaporation of water/solvent only.
A wet-bulb thermometer is an instrument which may be used to infer the amount of moisture
in the air. If a moist cloth wick is placed over a thermometer bulb, the evaporation of
moisture from the wick will lower the thermometer reading (temperature). If the air
surrounding a wet-bulb thermometer is dry, evaporation from the moist wick will be more
rapid than if the air is moist. When the air is saturated, no water will evaporate from the wick
and the temperature of the wet-bulb thermometer will be the same as the reading on the dry-
bulb thermometer. However, if the air is not saturated, water will evaporate from the wick
causing the temperature reading to be lower.
The accuracy of a simple wet-bulb thermometer depends on how fast air passes over the bulb
and how well the thermometer is shielded from the radiant temperature of its surroundings.
Factors that have influence on wet-bulb temperature

(i) Dry bulb temperature of air TG
(ii) Humidity, Y
(iii) Air velocity
(iv) Shape of the thermometer bulb
Adiabatic Saturation Temperature curves



In special case where the leaving gas-vapour mixture is saturated, i.e at adiabatic saturation
And
Subtracting both sides

The schematic of the adiabatic saturation of air by water is shown in Figure 1. The air stream
attains thermal equilibrium with water at temperature Tas and also gets saturated with water
vapor at that temperature before it leaves. A small quantity of water at the temperature Ts is
fed to the humidification chamber continuously in order to compensate for the vaporization
loss of water. The chamber operates adiabatically, wall is well-insulated. The temperature
Tas attained by air (same as water) is called “adiabatic saturation temperature, Tas”.
Wet-bulb temperature
The wet-bulb temperature is the temperature reached by a water surface, such as that
registered by a thermometer bulb surrounded by a wet wick, when exposed to air passing
over it. The wick and therefore the thermometer bulb decreases in temperature below the dry-
bulb temperature until the rate of heat transfer from the warmer air to the wick is just equal to
the rate of heat transfer needed to provide for the evaporation of water from the wick into the
air stream.

TWB
tG
less Unsaturated air
highly Unsaturated air
or Saturated air
Humidity
Heat =Y’ to
is supplied
evaporate water from wick Heat is used to evaporate
surface (so temperature water from wick surface (so
will decrease) temperature will decrease)
Equations for adiabatic and wet bulb are very similar. Note that would be identical
if .
For air-water system . So the adiabatic saturation
temperature and the wet-bulb temperature are nearly equal for the air-water system. But this
is certainly not true for any other gas-vapour system. The following correlation can be used
to estimate the ratio for any system.


Lewis number
The Lewis number (Le) is a dimensionless number defined as the ratio of thermal
diffusivity to mass diffusivity. It is used to characterize fluid flows where there is
simultaneous heat and mass transfer.
For the water/air system at normal working temperatures and pressures that for practical
purposes the numerical magnitude of the ratio:
Humid Heat Cs = hG/ky’(known as the Lewis number) ≈ 1.
in the context of a boundary layer flow, Le>1 means that heat diffuses more easily than
solute does and therefore the thermal boundary layer thickness will be greater than the solutal
boundary layer thickness.
The Lewis Number (Le) is defined as the ratio of the Schmidt Number (Sc) and the Prandtl
Number (Pr).
This has a useful practical consequence. The wet bulb line and the adiabatic saturation line
coincide when the Lewis number = 1.
Psychrometric ratio
The psychrometric ratio is the ratio of the heat transfer coefficient to the product of mass
transfer coefficient and humid heat at a wetted surface. It may be evaluated with the
following equation:

where:
r = Psychrometric ratio, dimensionless
hc = convective heat transfer coefficient, W m-2 K-1
ky = convective mass transfer coefficient, kg m-2 s-1
cs = humid heat, J kg-1 K-1
Psychrometric
A psychrometric chart graphically represents the thermodynamic properties of moist air. The
study of relationships between air and its associated water is called psychrometry. A
psychrometer (note: psychrometer is measuring instrument), sometimes called a "wet
bulb/dry bulb thermometer". It has two thermometers, one red and one blue. One
thermometer, usually containing red liquid, is called the dry bulb. It measures the ambient air
temperature. The other thermometer, which contains blue liquid, is called the wet bulb, and is
separated from the dry bulb by a small chart.
The combination of a dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometer is called a “psychrometer”.
Forms of Psychrometric
The Psychrometric chart construction and its use

Seven important quantities, namely,
1) dry-bulb temperature,
2) wet-bulb temperature,
3) relative humidity,
4) absolute humidity,
5) dew point,
6) enthalpy and
7) Specific volume, are all inter-related.
The psychrometric chart characterizes this interdependence. If any two of these quantities are
known, the other five quantities can be readily obtained from this psychrometric chart. The
interdependency of these seven properties is presented in Figure 2. If TG is the dry-bulb
temperature o air and ʹ is its humidity, its state is denoted by point ‘a’. It alls on the
constant humidity line, A%. The adiabatic saturation line through ‘a’ is ‘ab’. ‘c’ point
indicates its humidity, Y’. The adiabatic saturation temperature, Tas is obtained by drawing

the vertical line through ‘b’. For air-water system, wet-bulb temperature Tw is practically
same as Tas. The humidity of the adiabatically saturated air is given by the point ‘e’. The dew
point Td is given by the point ‘d’ that can be reached by moving horizontally rom the point
‘a’ to 100% humidity line and then moving vertically down to the temperature axis. The
humid volume of saturated air at TG corresponds to the point ‘ ’ and that o dry air at TG is
given by point ‘g’. The point ‘m’ gives the humid volume i the humidity is ` and it is
reached by interpolation between ‘g’ and ‘ ’. Enthalpy o a sample o air can also be obtained
from humidity chart.
Vapour Volume
Vs-Vd = 100 % saturation
? (Vs-Vd)A/100 A % Saturation
Vs
Total volume Vm= Dry gas volume +
Vapour Volume
Vd

COOLING TOWER
A cooling tower is a heat rejection device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through
the cooling of a water stream to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the
evaporation of water to remove process heat and cool the working fluid to near the wet-bulb
air temperature.
They represent a relatively inexpensive and dependable means of removing low grade heat
from cooling water.
Closed loop cooling system
Cooling towers are a special type of heat exchanger that allows water and air to come in
contact with each other to lower the temperature of the hot water. During this process, small
volumes of water evaporate, lowering the temperature of the water that's being circulated
throughout the cooling tower.
Applications
Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in oil refineries,
petrochemical and other chemical plants, thermal power stations systems for cooling
buildings.
Range and Approach

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance of cooling towers,
are:
i) "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and outlet temperature
ii) "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold water temperature and
ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach should be monitored,
the 'Approach' is a better indicator of cooling tower performance.
iii) Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the ideal range, i.e.,
difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb temperature, or
in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).

Major Components of Cooling Tower:

Cold Water Basin, Cooling Tower Structure, Fills, Drift eliminators, Cooling Tower Fans,
Water Distribution Piping’s, Fan Deck & Fan cylinder, Cooling Tower Louvers..
Basically, a cooling tower intimately contacts a flow of warm water with a flow of ambient
air which is not saturated with water vapor (i.e, air which contains less water vapor than it is
capable of containing). That causes part of the warm water to evaporate and the air absorbs
that evaporated water. The heat required to evaporate part of the water is derived from the
water itself and thus causes the water to cool. This process is known as evaporative cooling.
The net result is that the air leaving the tower is saturated with water vapor and the un-
evaporated water leaving the cooling tower has been cooled.

Such towers can cool water to a temperature that approaches the wet-bulb temperature of the
ambient air. The average ambient air wet-bulb temperature chosen as the design basis
essentially determines the size of the cooling tower, and the size of a cooling tower is
inversely proportional to the design wet-bulb temperature.
Fills:
Cooling Tower Fill is the main heat transfer area available for Heat transfer from Hot water
to Cold Air. To achieve better performance (more cooling), a media called fill is used to
increase the contact surface area between the air and water flows. There are two types of fills
available namely Splash fills & Film Fills. Splash fills disintegrates the hot water from
vertical direction and it splits the water to pass through next level of splash bars. Splash fill
consists of material placed to interrupt the water flow causing splashing. Film fill is
composed of thin sheets of material upon which the water flows. Film fills forms thin vertical
film of water to make the air to contact in with to aid heat transfer. Fills are normally made of
PVC, Polypropylene or Wood. Most fill in modern cooling towers is plastic material.
Splash fills film type fills

Drift Eliminators:
The purpose of Drift eliminator is to reduce the drift loss in cooling tower. Drift
eliminators normally kept next to fills in the air flow path thereby reducing the drift loss.
Drift loss is the loss of entrained water through hot air to atmosphere. Drift eliminators
normally made up of PVC. More number of passes through drift eliminator decreases the
drift loss but increases the pressure drop thereby increasing fan power consumption.
Cold Water Basin:

Cold Water Basin is normally made up of Reinforced Cement Concrete (RCC). It has got two
functions. One is to collect the cold water from tower and acts as storage. The other is being
strong it acts as a foundation for the main structure of cooling tower. The cold basin is either
lies on the top of the soil or lies below the ground level. The height of the cooling tower is
determined from the distance between the top of the cold basin to fan assembly.
Cooling Tower Structure:

Most of the Towers are made up of Chemically Treated Wood, while RCC & Fiber
Reinforced Plastic (FRP) cooling towers are also available depending on the requirement of
the user. Cooling Tower Fans: Main part of the cooling tower components. Cooling Tower
fans are normally made from Aluminum, Fiber Reinforced Plastic (FRP), Glass fiber and hot-
dipped galvanized steel are commonly used as fan materials. FRP being light in weight,
impellers made up of FRP reduces the power requirements of the fan. Cooling tower fan
blades pitch angle is varied depending on seasonal requirements. Cooling tower Fan blade
Pitch angle is the angle made by the fan with the plane. Normally during summer season the
air density is low. So the fan blade pitch angle is increased to increase the capacity of the fan.

Water Distribution Piping’s:

Cooling Water Distributing pipes to hot basin must be buried underground or supported in
ground to avoid thrust loading of the tower due to self-weight and water pressure inside the
pipe. Individual cell inlet piping is to be independently supported.
Distribution Valves:
Distribution Valves are used to regulate the hot water flow to distribute evenly in cells. The
outlet is open to atmosphere. Valve body is designed to withstand the adverse corrosive
environment. Valve should pose minimum pressure drop.
Nozzles: Plastics are widely used for nozzles. Many nozzles are made of PVC, ABS,
polypropylene, and glassfilled nylon. Nozzles are used to provide uniform distribution of hot
water inside a cell of a cooling tower. Recent advancement of the design involves a non
clogging type nozzle.
Louvers: Louvers are made up of asbestos sheets.

It serves two purposes.
1) One is to retain circulating water within the tower, and

2) other is to equally distribute the air flow into the fill.
Fan Deck & Fan cylinder:

Fan deck provides a platform for the support of the fan cylinders and acts as access way to
the fan and water distribution system. Fan cylinder is venture shaped for enhancing the
proper flow of air through the tower. The clearance between fan blade tip and fan cylinder
should be very less in order to have maximum efficiency.
The Importance of Fan Cylinders The fan cylinder does far more than protect operating personnel
from a rotating fan. It is a vital link in the chain of critical components that contribute to the overall
efficiency of the cooling tower. When correctly designed, manufactured and applied, it assures that
the fan will be capable of moving the maximum amount of air through the tower at the minimum
required horsepower. Poorly designed or utilized, it contributes virtually nothing to the fan's
capability and, in some cases, can be more of a hindrance than a help.
Gear box, Drive shafts & Mechanical Equipment Support:

The drive shaft transmits power from the output shaft of the motor to the input shaft of gear
reduction units. Gear box reduces the speed of the depending on the fan requirement. Torque
tube unitized supports gives permanent alignment of the motor, driveshaft & gear reducer.

Classification of cooling towers
Natural Cooling tower (Natural Drift cooling tower)

I) With respect Air flow generation methods

There are 2 types of towers - mechanical draft and natural draft
The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of
cooling towers are natural draft and induced draft cooling towers.
With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers:
a) Natural draft — Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air naturally rises
due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm moist air is
less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an
upwards current of air through the tower.
Natural draft designs use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media.
Due to the tremendous size of these towers (500 ft high and 400 ft in diameter at the base)
they are generally used for water flow rates above 200,000 gal/min. Mechanical draft
cooling towers are much more widely used. These towers utilize large fans to force air
through circulated water. The water falls downward over fill surfaces which help
increase the contact time between the water and the air. This helps maximize heat transfer
between the two.
b) Mechanical draught — Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the
tower. Mechanical draft Cooling Towers have long piping runs that spray the water
downward. Large fans pull air across the dropping water to remove the heat. As the water
drops downward onto the "fill" or slats in the cooling tower, the drops break up into a
finer spray. On colder days, tall plumes of condensation can be seen. On warmer days,
only small condensation plumes will be seen.
 Induced draught — A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top)
which pulls air up through the tower. The fan induces hot moist air out the discharge.
This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of
recirculation in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin
arrangement is also known as draw-through.
 Forced draught — A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake.
The fan forces air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities.
The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on
the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions.

Another disadvantage is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor
horsepower than an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft
design is its ability to work with high static pressure. Such setups can be installed in
more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fill geometry is
also known as blow-through.
c) Fan assisted natural draught — A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup,
though airflow is assisted by a fan.
II) Categorization by air-to-water flow

Crossflow

Crossflow is a design in which the air flow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (see
diagram at left). Air flow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the
fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air
continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a
fan forces the air out into the atmosphere.
Advantages of the crossflow design:

 Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.
 Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.
 Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements.
Disadvantages of the crossflow design:

 More prone to freezing than counterflow designs.
 Variable flow is useless in some conditions.
 More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counterflow designs, especially in dusty or
sandy areas.
Counter flow

In a counterflow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow (see diagram at
left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up vertically.
The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then flows
downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow.
Advantages of the counterflow design:

 Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.
 Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.
Disadvantages of the counterflow design:
 Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.
 Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively affected.
 Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the
cold water basin

Non-adiabatic operation: Evaporative Cooling

Spray Chamber
See: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1oMwioiEl-Q
Design of cooling tower
Design calculations of cooling tower Primarily we need to calculate,

(i) tower cross-section required to take the given load of warm water
(ii) height of the packing required to achieve the desired cooling
Basic assumptions for the design of cooling tower are as follows:

(iii) the rate of vaporization of water is much less than the rate of water input to the tower
(about 1% loss of feed water)

(iv) Evaporative or adiabatic cooling of water occurs in the tower.
The schematic of cooling tower is shown in Figure 10.

We know that ;
In differential form
Multiplying Gs;
(10.21)





Step-by-step design procedure of cooling tower

1. Specify the inlet and outlet temperatures and flow rate of warm water.
2. Select the design value of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures of air (at the proposed
geographical location).
3. Draw the ‘equilibrium line curve’ i.e., saturation humidity curve [H/ vs T]. The enthalpy
data are calculated using vapor pressure equation for water and physical properties of air and
is 25ºC.
4. Locate the lower terminal o the operating line, ‘B’ on TL-H plane by the point (TL1, /
1H). This point indicates the condition at the bottom of the tower.
5. Draw a tangent to the equilibrium line through the point ‘B’. The slope o the tangent gives
the ratio of the liquid and minimum gas flow rate. Hence, minimum air rate is calculated.
Actual air rate taken is usually 1.25 to 1.5 times the minimum.
6. The upper terminal o the operating line is located by the point ‘A’ (TL2, / 2H ). It is the
point where the operating line of the slope determined in step 5 meets the vertical line
through TL2. It can also be located by calculating the top end enthalpy / 2H from Eq. (18)

The packed height is the product of height of transfer unit and number of transfer units.
Specific humidity
The ratio of the mass of the moisture present in the sample to the mass of dry air present in
the sample. This quantity is also known as the moisture content or mixing ratio.
Dehumidification



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Humidification and Dehumidification

Vapour – Gas Mixture

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Relation between absolute humidity and molal humidity

Saturated Vapour-Gas Mixtures

Unsatured Vapour –Gas Mixtures

Relative saturation or Relative humidity

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If the system at State is isothermally compressed (compressed with no change in system

Percentage saturation or percentage absolute humidity

Relation between percentage saturation (yp) and relative saturation (yr)

Humid volume / Specific volume

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If the operating pressure is ptis 1 atm, then

Suffix A – represents water vapour or compound vapour and B – represents air

A - water vapour or compound vapour and B – air

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Dry Bulb, Wet Bulb and Dew Point

Common thermometers measure temperature. Electronic temperature measurement, via

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Dry – bulb Temperature

The dry-bulb temperature (DBT or Td ) is the temperature of air measured by a thermometer

Dry-bulb temperature - Tdb, can be measured using a normal thermometer freely

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Wet Bulb Temperature - Twb

Wet bulb temperature lines or Adiabatic

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Dew point temperature

Just cooling not

Vapour pressures of water

Temperature Pressure Existing vapour Temperature Pressure Existing vapour

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Dew Point Temperature - Tdp

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How does pressure affect dew point measurement?

Adiabatic saturation temperature (Wet bulb temperature for air-water system)

Factors that have influence on wet-bulb temperature

Adiabatic Saturation Temperature curves

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Subtracting both sides

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The combination of a dry-bulb and wet-bulb thermometer is called a “psychrometer”.

The Psychrometric chart construction and its use

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Closed loop cooling system

Range and Approach

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Major Components of Cooling Tower:

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Splash fills film type fills

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Cold Water Basin:

Cooling Tower Structure: