• UNIT-II

FUNDAMENTAL OF AC CIRCUITS

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 Syllabus
Fundamentals of A.C. circuits : alternating current and voltage,
concept of notations ( i, v, I, V), definitions of amplitude, phase,
phase difference, RMS value and average value of an AC signal,
complex representation of impedance, steady state analysis of ac
circuits consisting of RL, RC and RLC (series), resonance in series
RLC circuit, power factor and power calculation in RL, RC and RLC
circuits, three-phase circuits- numbering and interconnection (delta
or mesh connection) of three phases, relations in line and phase
voltages and currents in star and delta

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 AC Fundamentals
➢ Previously you learned that DC sources have fixed polarities and constant
magnitudes and thus produce currents with constant value and unchanging
direction

➢ In contrast, the voltages of ac sources alternate in polarity and vary in

magnitude and thus produce currents that vary in magnitude and alternate in
direction.

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➢ Sinusoidal ac Voltage

One complete variation is referred to as a cycle.

Starting at zero,
the voltage increases to a positive peak amplitude,
decreases to zero,
changes polarity,
increases to a negative peak amplitude,
then returns again to zero.

➢ Since the waveform repeats itself at regular intervals, it is called a periodic

signal.
➢ Symbol for an ac Voltage Source

Lowercase letter e is used

to indicate that the voltage varies with time.

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 Sinusoidal ac Current

➢ During the first half-cycle, the
source voltage is positive
➢ Therefore, the current is in the
clockwise direction.
➢ Since current is proportional to voltage, its
shape is also sinusoidal
➢ During the second half-cycle, the
voltage polarity reverses
➢ Therefore, the current is in the
counterclockwise direction.

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 GENERATION OF AC VOLTAGE

• An alternator is an electrical generator that converts mechanical energy to

electrical energy in the form of alternating current

Principle: A conductor moving relative to a

magnetic field develops an electromotive
force (EMF) in it. (Faraday's Law).

This emf reverses its polarity when it moves

under magnetic poles of opposite polarity.

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 If two sinusoids of the same frequency but of different amplitudes
and phase angles are subtracted, the resultant is

(A) sinusoid of the same frequency

(B) A sinusoid of half the original frequency
(C) A sinusoid of double the frequency
(D) Not a sinusoid

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 All the rules and laws of D.C. circuit also apply to A.C. circuit
containing

A) Capacitance only
(B) Inductance only
(C) Resistance only
(D) All above

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 POLL

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 POLL

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 Generating AC Voltages

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 Generating AC Voltages

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 Generating ac Voltages
➢ Since the coil rotates continuously, the voltage produced will be a repetitive,

Time Scales ➢ Often we need to scale the output voltage in time.

➢ The length of time required to generate one cycle depends on the
velocity of rotation.
600 revolutions in 1 minute = 600 rev / 60 s
= 10 revolutions in 1 second.

The time for 1 revolution = one-tenth of a second

= 100 ms
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 Generating ac Voltages (Method-2)
➢ AC waveforms may also be created electronically using function (or
signal) generators.
➢ With function generators, you are not limited to sinusoidal ac. gear.

➢ The unit of Figure can produce a variety of variable-frequency waveforms,

including sinusoidal, square wave, triangular, and so on.
➢ Waveforms such as these are commonly used to test electronic

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 Instantaneous Value
➢ As the coil voltage changes from instant to instant. The value of voltage at any
point on the waveform is referred to as its instantaneous value.

➢ The voltage has a peak value of 40 volts ✓ at t = 0 ms, the voltage is zero.
➢ The cycle time of 6 ms. ✓ at t=0.5 ms, the voltage is 20V.

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 Voltage and Current Conventions for ac
➢ First, we assign reference polarities for the source and a reference direction for
the current.
➢ We then use the convention that, when e has a positive value, its actual polarity is the
same as the reference polarity, and when e has a negative value, its actual polarity is
opposite to that of the reference.
➢ For current, we use the convention that
when i has a positive value, its actual
direction is the same as the reference
arrow,
➢ and when i has a negative value, its actual
direction is opposite to that of the
reference.

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 Voltage and Current Conventions for ac

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 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Periodic waveforms (i.e., waveforms that repeat at regular intervals), regardless
of their wave shape, may be described by a group of attributes such as:
✓ Frequency, Period, Amplitude, Peak value.
Frequency: The number of cycles per second of a waveform is defined

➢ Frequency is denoted by the lower-case letter f.

➢ In the SI system, its unit is the hertz (Hz, named in honor of pioneer researcher Heinrich
Hertz, 1857–1894).

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 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
➢ Period: ➢ The period, T, of a waveform, is the duration of one cycle.

➢ It is the inverse of frequency.

➢ The period of a waveform can be measured between any two corresponding

points ( Often it is measured between zero points because they are easy to
establish on an oscilloscope trace).

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 Attributes of Periodic Waveforms
Amplitude , Peak-Value, and Peak-to-Peak Value
Amplitude (Em):
The amplitude of a sine wave is the distance
from its average to its peak.

Peak-to-Peak Value (Ep-p):

It is measured between minimum and maximum peaks.
Peak Value

The peak value of a voltage or current is its maximum

value with respect to zero.

In this figure : Peak voltage = E + Em

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 The Basic Sine Wave Equation

The voltage produced by the previously described generator is:

• Em: the maximum coil voltage and

• α : the instantaneous angular position of the coil.

➢ For a given generator and rotational velocity, Em is constant.)

➢ Note that a 0° represents the horizontal position of the coil and that one
complete cycle corresponds to 360°.

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 Radian Measure

➢ In practice, q is usually expressed in radians per second,

➢ Radians and degrees are related by :

For Conversion:

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 Relationship between ω, T, and f

➢ Earlier you learned that one cycle of sine wave may be represented as either:

➢ Substituting these into:

Sinusoidal Voltages and Currents as Functions of Time:

➢ We could replace the angle α as:

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 POLL
Units of angular velocity
1. Second
2. m/s
3. rad/sec
4. radian

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 AC signal is
a. Periodic
b. Non periodic

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 Voltages and Currents with Phase Shifts

➢ If a sine wave does not pass through zero at t =0 s, it has a phase shift.
➢ Waveforms may be shifted to the left or to the right

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 Phasor Difference
➢ Phase difference refers to the angular displacement between different
waveforms of the same frequency.

➢ The terms lead and lag can be understood in terms of phasors. If you observe
phasors rotating as in Figure, the one that you see passing first is leading and
the other is lagging.

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A complex number can be represented in
one of three ways
Z = x + jy » Rectangular Form
Z = A ∠Φ » Polar Form
Z = A e jΦ » Exponential Form

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A sinusoidal voltage supply defined as V(t)=100xcos(ωt+30o is
connected to a pure resistance of 50 Ohms. Determine its
impedance and the peak value of the current flowing through
the circuit. Draw the corresponding phasor diagram.

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 The Basic Sine Wave Equation
• Voltage at angular position of sine wave
generator
– May be found by multiplying Em times the sine of
angle at that position

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 Shifted Sine Waves

• Phasors used to
represent shifted
waveforms
• Angle  is position of
phasor at t = 0
seconds

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 Phase Difference

• Phase difference is angular displacement

between waveforms of same frequency
• If angular displacement is 0°
– Waveforms are in phase

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 Phase Difference

• If angular displacement is not 0o, they are out

of phase by amount of displacement

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 Phase Difference

• If v1 = 5 sin(100t) and v2 = 3 sin(100t - 30°), v1

leads v2 by 30°
• May be determined by drawing two waves as
phasors
– Look to see which one is ahead of the other as
they rotate in a counterclockwise direction

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 AC Waveforms and Average Value
➢ Since ac quantities constantly change its value, we need one single numerical
value that truly represents a waveform over its complete cycle.

Average Values: ➢ To find the average of a set of marks for example, you add
them, then divide by the number of items summed.
➢ For waveforms, the process is conceptually the same. You
can sum the instantaneous values over a full cycle, then
divide by the number of points used.
➢ The trouble with this approach is that waveforms do not
consist of discrete values.
Average in Terms of the Area Under a Curve:

Or use area

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 Sine Wave Averages
• Average value of a sine wave over a complete
cycle is zero
• Average over a half cycle is not zero

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 Effective Values

• In North America, house voltage is 120 Vac.

– Voltage is capable of producing the same average
power as a 120 V battery

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 Effective Values or RMS Value

• To determine effective power

– Set Power(dc) = Power(ac)
Pdc = pac
I2R = i2R where i = Im sin t
• By applying a trigonometric identity
– Able to solve for I in terms of Im

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 Effective Values

• Ieff = .707Im
• Veff = .707Vm
• Effective value is also known as the RMS value

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 RMS value or Effective value

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 11.8 16.2 19.0 20.0 19.0 16.2 11.8
Voltage 6.2V 6.2V 0V
V V V V V V V

Angle 18o 36o 54o 72o 90o 108o 126o 144o 162o 180o

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 The r.m.s. value of half wave rectified sine wave is 200 V. The r.m.s.
value of full wave rectified AC. will be

(A) 282.8 V
(B) 141.4 V
(C) 111 V
(D) 100 V

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 A sine wave has a frequency of 50 Hz. Its angular frequency is
_______radian/second.

1.100 π
2.50 π
3.25 π
4.5 π

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 The form factor is the ratio of

1.Peak value to r.m.s. value

2.r.m.s. value to average value
3.Average value to r.m.s. value
4.None of the above

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Form Factor and Crest Factor
Although little used these days, both Form Factor and Crest
Factor can be used to give information about the actual
shape of the AC waveform. Form Factor is the ratio
between the average value and the RMS value and is given
as.

For a pure sinusoidal waveform the Form Factor

will always be equal to 1.11. Crest Factor is the
ratio between the R.M.S. value and the Peak value
of the waveform and is given as.

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 Problem
A sinusoidal alternating current of 6 amps is flowing
through a resistance of 40Ω. Calculate the average voltage
and the peak voltage of the supply.

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 Phase Difference
The phase difference or phase shift as it is also called of a
Sinusoidal Waveform is the angle Φ (Greek letter Phi), in
degrees or radians that the waveform has shifted from a
certain reference point along the horizontal zero axis. In
other words phase shift is the lateral difference between
two or more waveforms along a common axis and
sinusoidal waveforms of the same frequency can have a
phase difference.
Phase difference can also be expressed as a time
shift of τ in seconds representing a fraction of the time
period, T for example, +10mS or – 50uS but generally it is
more common to express phase difference as an angular
measurement.
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 Phase Difference Equation
Where:
Am – is the amplitude of the waveform.
ωt – is the angular frequency of the waveform in
radian/sec.
Φ (phi) – is the phase angle in degrees or radians that the
waveform has shifted either left or right from the reference
point.

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 Sine and Cosine Wave
Relationships

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 Impedance
• Impedance is a complex number, with the
same units as resistance, for which the SI unit
is the ohm (Ω). Its symbol is usually Z, and it
may be represented by writing its magnitude
and phase in the polar form |Z|∠θ. However,
cartesian complex number representation is
often more powerful for circuit analysis
purposes. Z=R+jX

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 Basic Formulae of Z
1. Impedance Z = R or XLor XC(if only one is present)
2. Impedance in series only Z = √(R2 + X2) (if both R
and one type of X are present)
3. Impedance in series only Z = √(R2 + (|XL - XC|)2) (if
R, XL, and XC are all present)
4. Impedance in any circuit = R + jX (j is the
imaginary number √(-1))
5. Resistance R = ΔV / I
6. Inductive reactance XL = 2πƒL = ωL
7. Capacative reactance XC = 1 / 2πƒC = 1 / ωC
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 Resistor

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 Inductor
In inductor, the voltage and the current are not in
phase. The voltage leads that of current by 90o or
in other words, voltage attains its maximum and
zero value 90o before the current attains it.

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 POLL
In case of Inductive circuit, Frequency is ______________
to the current.

a) Directly proportional
b) Inversely proportional
c) Unrelated
d) Much greater than

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 POLL
Two 300-mh choke coils connected in
series will have the total inductance of
a) 300 mh
b) 60 mh
c) 150 mh
d) 600 mh

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 Inductor

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Phasor Diagram for Purely Resistive,
Capacitive and Inductive Circuits

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 POLL
What is the unit for inductive reactance?
a) Henry
b) Ohm
c) Farad
d) Volts

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 Series RL Circuit
Consider a simple RL circuit in which resistor,
R and inductor, L are connected in series with a
voltage supply of V volts. Let us think the
current flowing in the circuit is I (amp) and
current through resistor and inductor is IR and
IL respectively. Since both resistance and
inductor are connected in series, so the current
in both the elements and the circuit remains the
same. i.e. IR = IL = I. Let VR and Vl be the voltage
drop across resistor and inductor.

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 Series RL circuit
Step- I. In case of series RL circuit, resistor and inductor are
connected in series, so current flowing in both the elements are
same i.e IR = IL = I. So, take current phasor as reference and draw
it on horizontal axis as shown in diagram.
Step- II. In case of resistor, both voltage and current are in same
phase. So draw the voltage phasor, VR along same axis or
direction as that of current phasor. i.e VR is in phase with I.
Step- III. We know that in inductor, voltage leads current by 900,
so draw VL (voltage drop across inductor) perpendicular to
current phasor.
Step- IV. Now we have two voltages VR and VL. Draw the
resultant vector(VG) of these two voltages. Such as,

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 Impedance of
Series RL Circuit
The impedance of series RL circuit opposes the flow of
alternating current. The impedance of series RL Circuit is
nothing but the combine effect of resistance (R) and
inductive reactance (XL) of the circuit as a whole. The
impedance Z in ohms is given by Z = (R2 + XL2)0.5 and from
right angle triangle, phase angle θ = tan– 1(XL/R).

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 Series RL circuit

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Impedance of Series RL Circuit

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 POLL
• A filter passes certain frequencies and rejects
others.
A. True
• B. False

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 POLL
The resistor voltage in an RL circuit is always
out of phase with the current.
a. True
b. False

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 POLL
A 1.2 kΩ resistor is in series with a 15 mH
coil across a 10 kHz ac source. The
magnitude of the total impedance is
a. 152.6 Ω
b. 1,526 Ω
c. 1,200 Ω
d. 942 Ω

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 POLL
The phase angle (θ) of a series RC circuit
varies directly with frequency.

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 Series RC circuit
An RC circuit (also known as an RC filter or
RC network) stands for a resistor-capacitor
circuit. An RC circuit is defined as an
electrical circuit composed of the passive
circuit components of a resistor (R) and
capacitor (C), driven by a voltage source or
current source.

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 Series RC circuit

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 Series RC circuit
• VR is drawn in phase with current 'I' because in
a pure resistor the voltage and current are in
phase with each other.
• VC is drawn lagging with current 'I' by 900
because in a pure capacitor voltage and
current are 900 out of each other i.e. voltage
lags current by 900 or current leads the
voltage by 900

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 Series RC circuit

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 Series RC circuit

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 Vector Diagram of RC circuit

Impedance triangle

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 Impedance Representation

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 POLL
Capacitive reactance is more when

(A) Capacitance is less and frequency of supply

is less
(B) Capacitance is less and frequency of supply
is more
(C) Capacitance is more and frequency of
supply is less
(D) Capacitance is more and frequency of
supply is more

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A Capacitor of capacitance 79.5µF is connected in series with a
non inductive resistance of 30 across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Find
(i) impedance (ii) current (iii) phase angle

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 Series RLC circuit
• A series RLC circuit is one the resistor, inductor and capacitor
are connected in series across a voltage supply. The resulting
circuit is called series RLC circuit.

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 Series RLC circuit
• Step – I. In case of series RLC circuit; resistor, capacitor and
inductor are connected in series; so, the current flowing in all the
elements are same i.e I r = Il = Ic = I. For drawing the phasor
diagram, take current phasor as reference and draw it on
horizontal axis as shown in diagram.
Step – II. In case of resistor, both voltage and current are in same
phase. So draw the voltage phasor, VR along same axis or
direction as that of current phasor i.e VR is in phase with I.
Step – III. We know that in inductor, voltage leads current by 90°
so draw Vl (voltage drop across inductor) perpendicular to
current phasor in leading direction.
Step – IV. In case of capacitor, the voltage lags behind the current
by 90° so draw Vc (voltage drop across capacitor) perpendicular
to current phasor in downwards direction.
Step – V. For drawing the resultant diagram, draw Vc in
upwards direction. Now draw resultant, Vs which is vector sum
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 Series RLC circuit

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 Impedance series RLC circuit

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 Basic Formulae Series RLC circuit

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 POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

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 True Power, Reactive Power
and Apparent Power with Resistive
and Inductive Load

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 Concept of Power Factor

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 POWER TRIANGLE

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 Active and Reactive Power

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM
BASICS
Line voltage VL= voltage between lines

Phase voltage Vph= voltage between a line and

neutral

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM
BALANCED STAR
Line Voltage VL= √3 Vph
Line current IL = Iph

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED DELTA
Line Voltage VL= Vph
Line current IL = √3 Iph

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 Star- Star connection

➢ This connection satisfactory only in balanced load

otherwise neutral point will be shifted.
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 Star- Delta connection

➢ Used to step down voltage ie end of transmission

line
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 Delta - Star connection

➢ This connection is used to step up voltage ie.

Beginning of high tension line
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TRUE POWER: The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is
called true power, and it is measured in watts (symbolized by the capital letter P, as
always)

APPARENT POWER: The combination of reactive power and true power is

called apparent power, and it is the product of a circuit’s voltage and current, without
reference to phase angle. Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA)
and is symbolized by the capital letter S.
REACTIVEPOWER

We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero power, yet
the fact that they drop voltage and draw current gives the deceptive impression that
they actually do dissipate power. This “phantom power” is called reactive power, and it
is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts. The
mathematical symbol for reactive power is (unfortunately) the capital letter Q.

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• POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

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 True Power, Reactive Power and Apparent Power with Resistive and
Inductive Load

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 Current and Voltages in Resistive,
Inductive and Capacitive Circuits

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 Phasor Diagram for Purely Resistive,
Capacitive and Inductive Circuits

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 POWER TRIANGLE

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 C

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 Power and power factor in AC circuits

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The actual amount of power being used, or dissipated, in a circuit is called true power,
and it is measured in watts (symbolized by the capital letter P, as always)

REACTIVE POWER:
We know that reactive loads such as inductors and capacitors dissipate zero power, yet
the fact that they drop voltage and draw current gives the deceptive impression that
they actually do dissipate power. This “phantom power” is called reactive power, and
it is measured in a unit called Volt-Amps-Reactive (VAR), rather than watts. The
mathematical symbol for reactive power is (unfortunately) the capital letter Q.

APPARENT POWER:
The combination of reactive power and true power is called apparent power, and it is
the product of a circuit’s voltage and current, without reference to phase angle.
Apparent power is measured in the unit of Volt-Amps (VA) and is symbolized by the
capital letter S.

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• POWER IN AC CIRCUITS

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 POWER TRIANGLE

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 Current and Voltages in Resistive,
Inductive and Capacitive Circuits

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 True Power, Reactive Power and Apparent Power with Resistive and
Inductive Load

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BASICS
Line voltage VL= voltage between lines

Phase voltage Vph= voltage between a line and

neutral

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED STAR
Line Voltage VL= √3 Vph
Line current IL = Iph

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 THREE PHASE SYSTEM

BALANCED DELTA
Line Voltage VL= Vph
Line current IL = √3 Iph

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 Star- Star connection

➢ This connection satisfactory only in balanced load

otherwise neutral point will be shifted.
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 Star- Star connection

Advantages

1.Requires less turns per winding ie cheaper

Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line voltage

2.Cross section of winding is large ie stronger to bear

stress during short circuit
Line current is equal to phase current

3. Less dielectric strength in insulating materials

phase voltage is less

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 Star- Star connection
Disadvantages
1.If the load on the secondary side unbalanced
then
the shifting of neutral point is possible

2.The third harmonic present in the alternator

voltage may appear on the secondary side. This
causes distortion in the secondary phase
voltages

3. Magnetizing current of transformer has 3rd

harmonic component
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 Delta - Delta connection

➢ This connection is used for moderate voltages

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 Delta - Delta connection

Advantages

1. System voltages are more stable in relation to

unbalanced load
2. If one t/f is failed it may be used for low power
level ie V-V connection
3. No distortion of flux ie 3rd harmonic current not
flowing to the line wire

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 Delta - Delta connection

Disadvantages
1. Compare to Y-Y require more insulation

2. Absence of star point ie fault may severe

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 Star- Delta connection

➢ Used to step down voltage ie end of transmission

line
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 Star- Delta connection

Advantages
1. The primary side is star connected. Hence fewer
number of turns are required. This makes the
connection economical

2. The neutral available on the primary can be

earthed to avoid distortion.

3. Large unbalanced loads can be handled

satisfactory.

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 Star- Delta connection
Disadvantages

The secondary voltage is not in phase with the

primary. (30 ⁰ phase difference )

Hence it is not possible to operate this connection in

parallel with star-star or delta-delta connected
transformer.

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 Delta - Star connection

➢ This connection is used to step up voltage ie.

Beginning of high tension line
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 Delta - Star connection

Features
➢ secondary Phase voltage is 1/√3 times of
line voltage
➢
➢ neutral in secondary can be grounded for 3 phase
4 wire system

➢ Neutral shifting and 3rd harmonics are there

➢ Phase shift of 30⁰ between secondary and

primary currents and voltages

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