CHAPTER 11: CONVECTIVE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENT It is well known that a hot piece of material will cool faster when air is blown or forced by the object. When the fluid outside the solid is in forced or natural convective motion, we express the rate of heat transfer from the solid to the fluid, or vice versa, by the following equation: q=hA(Tv-Tr) where gis the heat transfer rate, Ais the are, Jwis the temperature of the solid surface, Tfis the average or bulk temperature of the fluid flowing and h is the average heat transfer coefficient. The unit of Ais W/n?-Kin S| and Bfu/ff-hr-Fin the English units. COMBINED CONVECTION AND CONDUCTION AND OVERALL COEFFICIENTS In many practical situations the surface temperatures or boundary conditions at the surface are not known, but there is a fluid on both sides of the solid surfaces. Consider the plane wall as shown with a hot fluid at temperature T1 on the inside surface and a cold fluid at T4 on the outside surface. The outside convective coefficient is ho and hi on the inside. The heat transfer rate is given as q=hiA (Tr - Tz) = kaA(Te-Ts)=hoA( Ta - Ts) Ax| Expressing 1/hi A, Axa/(ka A) and 1/( ho A) as resistances and combining the equations as before, q=_Th os Te = Tek elo xR 1+ dm hiA kad hoA The overall heat transfer coefficient by combined conduction and convection is often expressed in terms of an overall heat transfer coefficient U defined by q=UAAT overall where AT overall = T: - T.and Uis in W/(m’K) or Btu/(hrft?°F) + 7 RP ee ho hi A more important application is the heat transfer from a fluid outside a CYLINDER, through a metal wall, and toa fluid inside the tube, as often occurs in heat exchangers. A ho th 4 Y — qe=_t} = Th oe L mR 1+ genni + hiAr kaAat ho Ac| = where Airepresents 2nnL, the inside area of the metal tube; A a. the log mean area of the metal tube; and Ai the outside area. The overall heat transfer coefficient U for the cylinder may be based on the inside area Ai or the outside area Ao of the tube. Hence, = UiAi(Ts ~ Te) = Us AolTs = Te) = (Tr - TH / ER Ui= 1 J+ po=rile) + Ai hi Ka Age ho Ao Uo= 1 Ao + o-Pi (Ao renin Ac kaAae he Example Problem: Heat Loss by Convection and Conduction and Overall U Saturated steam at 267°F is flowing inside a steel pipe having an ID of 0.824" and OD of 1.05". The pipe is insulated with 1.5” of insulation on the outside. The convective coefficient for the inside steam surface of the pipe is estimated as hi = 1000 Btu/ft-hr-F and the convective coefficient on the outside of the lagging is estimated ho = 2 Btu/ff-hr-F. The mean thermal conductivity of the metal is 45 W/m-K or 26 Btu/hr-ft-°F and 0.064 W/m-K or 0.037 Btu/ft-hr-°F for the insulation. The ambient air is at 25°C. Calculate the heat loss in Btu/hr per foot of the pipe.Problem Given ® ne 0-4 Ae / foe 0-505 Ji Steam at ar vet Agmbien cir @ 95°C = AF HLS im Bu / ne gttr b= 2 Boyd pepe OF kgipe= 4 Bov/ ep F : Kinewation = 0-097/10/ be e"F hesa: fr Silve basis \=Fe long pipe Fir pipe: At an (o-aie fiw) = 0-215 RE Ave ay (t-ses/ie) = 0- 274q Fe Ave = b2IN4— 21h _ 9. 20m pt? iy Begaug gy i Ds Mores D- 215¢ 1 ,4e , Kiem pl For insulation WA KpAap — KineAtine he ho A> noses /i)= 0-0 A? Ave MM ( oes /ie)= bet pr? Av ing = 100% = D+ 7704 _ psa pt’ in Qr- ta = 77 . 0-074 I 4 dese y s/n (emdoas) —Cealt-2m) eles) Olas gre 3 a8 bt Zrlight, may originate in various ways. Some types of material will emit radiation when they are treated by external agencies, such as electron bombardment, electric ischarge, or radiation of definite wavelengths, Radiation due to these effects will not be discussed here. All substances at temperatures above absolute zero emit radiation that is independent of external agencies. Radiation that is the result of temperature only is called thermal radiation, and this discussion is restricted to radiation of this type. Rie which may be considered to be energy streaming through space at the speed of NATURE OF RADIANT HEAT. TRANSFER, In the preceding chapters, we have studied conduction and convection heat transfer. In conduction, heat is transferred form one part of a body to another, and the intervening material is heated. In convection, the heat is transferred by the actual mixing of materials and by conduction. {n radiant heat transfer, the medium through which heat is transferred usually is not heated, Radiation heat transfer is the transfer of heat by electromagnetic radiation. Thermal radiation is a form of electromagnetic radiation similar to x-rays, light waves, gamma ays, and so on, differing only in wavelength. It obeys the same laws as light: travels in straight lines, can be transmitted through space and vacuum, and so on. MECHANISM OF RADIANT HEAT TRANSFER, In an elementary sense, the mechanism of radiant heat transfer is composed of three (3) distinct steps of phases: 1. The thermal energy of a hot surface at T; is converted into the energy of the electromagnetic radiation waves; 2. These waves travel through the intervening space in straight lines and strike a cold object in sight which is at lower temperature, T3; 3. The electromagnetic waves that strike the body are absorbed by the body and converted back to thermal energy or heat. ABSORPTION, REFLECTION AND TRANSMISSION OF RADIATION When radiant energy fall upon a body, part or all of it may be absorbed, part or all of it may be reflected and part or all of it may be transmitted (pass through the body undiminished). Reflectivity, p is the fraction of radiation falling on a body that is reflected, Absorptivity, 0: is the fraction of radiation falling on a body that is absorbed. ‘Transmissivity, t is the fraction of radiation falling on a body that is transmitted, ‘Transmissivity,An opaque body absorbs and reflects all the radiation falling upon it. Radiation reflected, qp, (2) Total incident Radiation, ary (=) Radiati bsorbed, ou) adiation al od BR = % + Oe reflectivity, p = 2 Ge absorptivity, a = Sa GR p+ a = 4 When radiation falls upon a transparent body, the radiation that is absorbed depends upon the absorptivity as well as the transmissivity. + Transmissivity is a term used to indicate the ease with which all thermal radiation can pass through a substance. Btu Radiation reflected, Qs {7 Total incident Radiation, qa, () Radiation absorbed, qe, () Btu Radiation transmitted, ay | >>absorptivity, a = = transmissivity, + Kirchoff's Law An important generalization concerning the radiating power of a substance is Kirchoff’s law, which states that, at temperature equilibrium, the ratio of the total radiating power of any body to its absorptivity depends only upon the temperature of the body. Thus, consider any two bodies in temperature equilibrium with common surroundings. Kirchoff’s law states that wie ey a a where W,,Wp = total radiating powers of two bodies 014,042 = absorptivities of two bodies This law applies to both monochromatic and total radiation If the first body is a blackbody 04 =1, Wye = 22 Wp = total radiating power of a blackbody 3 ws a = Fee Thus, emissivity and absorptivity are equal when a body is at temperature equilibrium with surroundings. For blackbadies and graybodies, © = 0, even the temperature is not in equilibrium with the surroundings. a ivity is UNITY, attained only if the body absorbs all the radiation incident tne maximum absorptivity nsmits none. A body that absorbs all incident radiation is called a blackbody.a Actually, in practice there are no perfect black bodies, but as a close approximation to this is a small hole in a hollow body as shown below. Concept of a perfect black body hole The inside surface of a hollow body is blackened by charcoal. The radiation enters the hole and impinges on the rear wall; part is absorbed there and part is reflected in all directions. The reflected rays impinge again, part is absorbed, and the process continues. Hence, essentially all of the energy entering is absorbed and the area of the hole acts a perfect black body. The surface of the inside wall are “rough” and rays are scattered in all directions. EMISSION OF RADIATION The radiation emitted by a material is independent of radiation being emitted by other bodies in sight of, or in contact with it. The net energy is the difference between the energy emitted and that absorbed by it. When bodies at different temperatures are placed in sight of one another inside an enclosure, the hotter bodies lose energy by emission of radiation faster than they receive energy by absorption from the cooler bodies, and the temperature of the hotter bodies decrease. Eventually, the process reaches equilibrium when all the bodies reach the same temperature. RADIATION WAVELENGTH Radiation of a single wavelength is called monochromatic. Actual radiation beams consist of many monochromatic beams. The higher the temperature of the body radiating, the shorter is, the predominant wavelength emitted by it. ‘The monochromatic energy emitted by a surface depends upon the surface temperature and wavelength of the radiation. The monochromatic radiating power W, is the monochromatic radiation emitted from unit in unit i from a surface, the total radiatin: area in unit time. For the entire spectrum of the radiation : < power W is the sum of all the monochromatic radiations from the surface, We fe the maximum attainable emissive power at any given temperature and is the a ir radiation is referred. standard to which all otherThe ratio of the total emissive power W of a body to that of a blackbody Wy is by definition the emissivity, , of the body. eat ; =1 (blackbody) Wy The monochromatic emissivity e, is the ratio of the monochromatic emissive power to that of a blackbody at the same wavelength Mw Moa ae LAW ON BLACKBODY RADIATION Stefan-Boltzmman Law The total emissive power of a blackbody is proportional to the fourth power of the absolute temperature of the body. W = oT (above absolute zero which is OK) where — o =0.1713x10"S — Bu 5.6720x10°8§ Ww Ine ne The Stefan-Boltzmann law is an exact consequence of the laws of thermodynamics and electromagnetism. Planck's Law ‘The distribution of energy in the spectrum of a blackbody is known accurately. It is given by Planck's law 2ahe2nS WwW, =e i> Shera Where Wha, =monochromatic emmisive power of blackbody h=Planck’s constant = 6.626x10"4 Js c= speed of light 2. = wavelength of radiation k =Boltzmman’s constant =1.380x10"9 Js T = absolute temperatureWien’s Displacement Law ing power is attained at definite At any given temperature, the maximum monochromatic rad : wavelength, denoted by Amax. Wien's displacement law states that Jing, {5 inversely proportional to the absolute temperature, or Thmax = max The constant C fs 2890 when Aay is in micrometers and T is in kelvins or 5200 when T is in degrees Rankine, RADIATION BETWE! IN SRFACES The total radiation from a unit area of an opaque body of area A:, emissivity ; and absolute temperature T, is given by A = oct ay The simplest type of radiation between surfaces is where each surface can see only the other, e.g., where the surfaces are very large parallel planes, as shown in figure (a). All the radiation from each of the surfaces falls on the other surface and is completely absorbed. ANGLE OF VISION Qualitatively, the interception of radiation from an area element of a surface by another surface of finite size can be visualized in terms of the angle of vision, which is the solid angle subtended by the finite surface at the radiating element. The solid angle subtended by a hemisphere is 2m steradians. This is the maximum angle of vision that can be subtended at any area element by a plane surface in sight of the element. IF the angle of vision is less than 2m steradians, only the receiving area will intercept a fraction of the radiation from the area element and the remainder will pass on to be absorbed by other surfaces in sight of the remaining solid angle. “Typical radiating surfaces are shown in the figures in the next page. In figure (a) for two large parallel planes, an area element on either plane is subtended by a solid angle of 2m steradians by the other. The radiation from either plane cannot escape being intercepted by the other. i ly the cold surface, and the angle of vision i In figure (b), a point on the hot body sees only angle of vision is again dnseradlans. However, elements of the cold surface see, for the most pat, other Portions of itself and the angle of vision for the hot body is small. , # setf-absortion is also shown in figure © where the angle of vision of an element of This elfect of selubtended by the cold surface is relatively small .