Authors

Jaime Koh & Stephanie Ho

https://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/infopedia/articles/SIP_2013-08-30_185150.html

Haze is an air-borne mixture of pollutants that includes soot particles, carbon dioxide and other
toxic gases.1 Haze pollution affects several Southeast Asian countries on a regular basis, notably
Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore and Brunei, and to a lesser extent Thailand, Vietnam and the
Philippines.2 The condition is largely caused by the burning of large tracts of forested land in
Indonesia. The haze usually occurs during the southwest monsoon season between June and
September, and becomes more severe during periods of dry weather.3

Causes
Forest fires in Sumatra, Indonesia, are the main cause of the haze in Singapore. Many farmers
in Indonesia practice shifting agriculture, which is a traditional farming method that involves
clearing tracts of forested land for cultivation using the slash-and burn method. This practice
has intensified in recent decades as large-scale burning is carried out to prepare land for the
planting of commercial crops such as oil palm.4 Coupled with El Niño-related droughts, poor
forest management and fire control, the number of forest fires in Indonesia has increased and
become more widely distributed.5

El Niño is a climatic phenomenon caused by a prolonged increase in the sea surface

temperature of the Pacific Ocean. This phenomenon can disrupt weather patterns, resulting in
less rainfall and storms.6 The resultant hot and dry weather conditions are conducive for
sparking forest fires.7 Strong winds during the southwest monsoon season (usually between
June and September), which usually coincides with periods of El Niño-related weather
conditions, help spread the haze produced by such fires throughout Southeast Asia.8

Pollutant Standard Index (PSI)

In Singapore, haze levels are measured using the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI). This index was
developed by the United States Environmental Protection Agency to measure the daily levels of
air pollution. PSI is computed based on a 24-hour average reading of the concentration levels of
pollutants.9

Singapore’s air quality is monitored through a network of 15 air-monitoring stations using a

telemetric air quality monitoring and management system. This system measures air pollutants
such as sulphur dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, ozone, carbon monoxide, and particulate matter
such as soot and dust particles. The PSI then converts the measured pollutant concentration
into a number on a scale of 0 to 500.10

The PSI values indicate the air quality and are generally divided into five main categories: good
(PSI 0–50), moderate (PSI 51–100), unhealthy (PSI 101–200), very unhealthy (PSI 201–300) and
hazardous (PSI 300 and above).11

Haze outbreaks affecting Singapore (1970s–2000s)

The haze caused by forest fires in the Indonesian islands of Sumatra and Kalimantan have long
affected neighbouring countries. One of the worst haze outbreaks in Singapore occurred in
1972. Visibility was as low as 1 to 2 km across parts of the island due to the thickness and
persistence of the haze during the first two weeks of October that year. The cause of the haze
was forest fires started by shifting cultivators in Palembang and South Kalimantan, Indonesia.
The hazy conditions eased by mid-October due to a change in wind direction and the onset of
rains in the originating areas.12

There were sporadic reports of haze over Singapore in the 1980s. During that period, the haze
was generally caused by dry weather conditions that increased the amount of dust in the air,13
occasional bushfires in Singapore14 and forest fires in Indonesia.15

During the 1990s, one of the worst haze outbreaks occurred in 1997. The outbreak was the
result of raging fires in Indonesia caused by the large-scale burning of forested land. The fires
that year were more severe due to the dry weather conditions caused by the El Niño
phenomenon.16 The hazy conditions lasted for around two months and attracted much
attention from the news media, government, businesses and general public.17 Between August
and October that year, the island experienced 14 days when the PSI was in the unhealthy range.
As a result, more Singaporeans were affected by respiratory and haze-related ailments,18 and
the tourism industry was severely affected. Experts estimated the economic loss caused by the
haze to be between S$97.5 million and S$110.5 million.19

In September 2006, Singapore again experienced serious haze pollution. Like in 1997, the haze
was caused by widespread forest fires in Indonesia that were exacerbated by the El Niño
conditions. The PSI reading peaked at 128 on 7 October that year.20 Conditions returned to
normal in mid-November with the onset of the monsoon rains.21

2013 haze outbreak

The 2013 haze outbreak was one of the most serious haze episodes to affect Singapore in the
past 16 years. It was the first time that the PSI level reached the hazardous range, with the
highest PSI reading of 401 recorded on 21 June 2013.22 At the peak of the outbreak, the
general public was advised by the authorities to minimise outdoor activities and to wear N95
masks if they needed to engage in outdoor activities.23

Like the previous haze episodes, the cause of the 2013 haze outbreak was due to the
widespread burning of forested land in Indonesia. The severity of haze this time was attributed
to the massive burning of land carried out by palm oil companies. The Indonesian authorities
claimed that some of these companies were owned by Singaporean and Malaysian investors.24
In response to such claims, the Singapore government warned that it would take action against
any Singapore-linked company found to be involved in the illegal burning activities.25 The
Singapore Manufacturing Federation (SMF) urged its members to boycott the firms involved, 26
while the Consumers Association of Singapore (CASE) criticised the companies responsible for
such activities.27
Domestic action against the haze
In September 1994, the Haze Task Force was formed to help coordinate the Singapore
government’s efforts against the haze. As of June 2013, the Task Force comprises
representatives from 23 government agencies.28 The Task Force meets yearly to prepare for
the annual dry season (usually lasting from June to September), which often coincides with
cases of haze pollution over Singapore.29 In 2013, the aims of the task force were to protect
public health and safety, work with Indonesia to curb the burning of forested land, and
maintain social and economic resilience.30 In June 2013, in response to the severe haze
conditions, the government set up an Inter-Ministerial Committee chaired by Minister for
Defence Ng Eng Hen to oversee the overall national efforts against the haze.31

At the height of the outbreak, various government ministries, including the Ministry of
Education, Ministry of Health and Ministry of Defence, issued health advisories urging the
public to monitor their health and limit outdoor activities.32 The government’s stockpile of N95
masks was also released and distributed to various retail outlets. The masks were distributed
free to low-income families.33 Medical health subsidies were also granted to vulnerable groups
such as the elderly and young children.34

Regional action against the haze

Since the 1980s, some regional efforts have been made to control the forest fires in
Indonesia.35 In light of the serious haze outbreak in 1997, the Association of Southeast Asian
Nations (ASEAN) strengthened the 1995 ASEAN Co-operation Plan on Transboundary Pollution
and developed it into the Regional Haze Action Plan.36 The objectives of the plan were to
prevent forest fires through better management policies and enforcement, establishing
mechanisms to monitor land and forest fires, and strengthening firefighting capacity.37

Singapore adopted a monitoring role in the plan and has been providing satellite pictures and
coordinates of fire hotspots to Indonesian authorities since 1997. In addition, Singapore has
also conducted training courses on the health effects of haze pollution, air quality monitoring
and GPS satellite information interpretation for Indonesian officials. In 2006, Singapore offered
the Indonesia government an assistance package that included an aircraft for cloud-seeding
operations, visuals to help identify fire locations and a contingent of firefighters, but the offer
was not taken up.38

At an emergency meeting convened by Indonesia in June 2013, Singapore offered a similar

assistance package, which included an aircraft for cloud seeding operations as well as high
resolution satellite pictures and hotspot coordinates. The Indonesia government considered the
offer but eventually decided not to accept assistance from Singapore.39