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Almost every year, a smoky haze blankets the South East Asian region - signalling the return of
forest fires in Indonesia.
For many in this region, grey skies and a lingering acrid smell are not unfamiliar, but 2019 has already
brought with it some of the worst haze levels in years.
But what causes these fires - and why do Indonesia's forests burn each year?
But Indonesia's not the only culprit. There have also been cases of open burning in neighbouring
Malaysia, though it pales in comparison to Indonesia.
As of 14 September, there were 10 hotspots in the Malaysian states of Sabah and Sarawak,
compared to 627 in Kalimantan, according to the ASEAN specialised meteorological centre.
The burning usually peaks from July to October during Indonesia's dry season.
Many farmers take advantage of the conditions to clear vegetation for palm oil, pulp and paper
plantations using the slash-and-burn method.
They often spin out of control and spread into protected forested areas.
Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESImage captionOne of many forests in Riau province that are ablaze
The problem has accelerated in recent years as more land has been cleared for expanding plantations
for the lucrative palm oil trade.
The burnt land also becomes drier, which makes it more likely to catch fire the next time there are slash-
and-burn clearings.
Read more: Why are peat lands burning?
Why is it an issue?
The haze usually measures hundreds of kilometres across. It has spread to Malaysia, Singapore, the
south of Thailand and the Philippines, causing a significant deterioration in air quality.
In Malaysia, hundreds of schools have been forced to close after the haze reached "very unhealthy
levels" of 208 on the Air Pollutants Index (API) in several districts.
On 14 September, Pollutants Standards Index (PSI) levels in Singapore went beyond the 100 mark for
the first time in three years, though it's yet to reach the hazardous levels of 2015.
In 2015, the PSI level in Singapore was at 341 - schools were forced to close and several fast-food chains
suspended their delivery services.
On both indices, a reading above 100 is classified as unhealthy and anything above 300 is hazardous.
Image copyrightREUTERSImage captionMany in Singapore are wearing special masks to combat the
haze
In Palangkaraya, the capital of central Kalimantan, the Air Quality Index (AQI) reached 2000 on Sunday,
according to Greenpeace Indonesia.
For many, its a reminder of 2015, the country's last major haze crisis.
Image copyrightBJORN VAUGHNImage captionNot everyone in Palangkaraya can afford a high quality
mask
The 2015 crisis cost the country $16bn (£12bn) and caused more than 500,000 people to suffer from
respiratory ailments - a state of emergency was declared.
Read more: Emergency nursery in Indonesian town
"It's just like 2015," llham, a Palangkaraya resident told BBC Indonesia. "[It caused] my wife's face to
turn red... [from skin irritation]. When she was taken to the emergency room, it turned out to be because
of the smoke."
"I haven't opened the windows and doors for two weeks," said Lilis Alice, another resident. "In the
morning, it's dark. If I'm inside the house I have to turn on the lights. It's so dark."
Image copyrightBJORN VAUGHNImage captionIn Palangkaraya, visibility is extremely poor
The indices used to measure air quality in the region usually measure particulate matter (PM10), fine
particulate matter (PM2.5), sulphur dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide and ozone.
PM2.5 is considered the most dangerous as it can enter deeper into the lungs. It has been associated
with causing respiratory illnesses and lung damage.
The forest fires have destroyed much of the natural habitat of Indonesia's orangutans and released large
amounts of carbon into the atmosphere.
Kalimantan is home to many of the region's orangutans. The Bornean orangutan, which is native to the
island of Borneo, is critically endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of
Nature.
How will Indonesia's capital move affect the orangutans?
Media captionAs Rebecca Henschke reports, Indonesia's peatland fires are threatening orangutan
The country has for years promised to step up enforcement. Under President Joko Widodo, it has named
10 corporations as suspects this year, and said it is investigating more than 100 individuals.
In September 2015, Mr Widodo told the BBC his country needed at least three years to tackle the haze
as it was "not a problem you can solve quickly".
But it's not just small-scale farmers at work here. The concern is many of these fires are started by big
corporations that want to plant oil palm plantations.
Indonesia is the world's biggest producer of palm oil and the demand for the commodity has been rising.
This means there is need for extra land for palm oil plantations.
Image copyrightGETTY IMAGESImage captionPalm oil plantations are big money in Indonesia
But Indonesia and environment rights activists also say the country is not entirely to blame, as some of
the big corporations accused of illegal burning have Malaysian and Singaporean investors.
Slash-and-burn is illegal in Indonesia but has been allowed to continue for years, with some saying
corruption and weak governance have contributed to the situation.
What is slash-and-burn?
Indonesia's costly haze problem
Greenpeace International has said some companies in Indonesia appeared "to operate outside the law
for years with little sanction".
In the meantime Indonesian authorities struggle to put out the fires, many of which have flared up on
flammable and dry peat-rich areas.
A peat fire is difficult to put out as it can burn underground for months, and requires a lot of water to
extinguish. Fires can spread underground and spring up in other places later.