3  IOD IVERSI T Y
B
AND C O NSERVATI ON
3.1 An introduction to biodiversity
Significant ideas:
➔➔ Biodiversity can be identified in a variety of
forms including species diversity, habitat
diversity and genetic diversity.
➔➔ The ability to both understand and
quantify biodiversity is important to
conservation efforts.
Knowledge and understanding:
➔➔ Biodiversity is a broad concept encompassing
total diversity which includes diversity of
species, genetic diversity and habitat diversity.
➔➔ Species diversity in communities is a product of
two variables, the number of species (richness)
and their relative proportions (evenness).
➔➔ Communities can be described and compared
by the use of diversity indices. When comparing
communities that are similar then low diversity
could be evidence of pollution, eutrophication
or recent colonization of a site. The number
of species present in an area is often used to
indicate general patterns of biodiversity.
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Applications and skills:
➔➔ Distinguish between biodiversity, species
diversity, genetic diversity and habitat diversity.
➔➔ Comment on the relative values of
biodiversity data.
➔➔ Discuss the usefulness of providing numerical
values of species diversity to understanding
the nature of biological communities and the
conservation of biodiversity.
➔➔ Habitat diversity refers to the range of different
habitats in an ecosystem or biome.
➔➔ Genetic diversity refers to the range of genetic
material present in a population of a species.
➔➔ Quantification of biodiversity is important
to conservation efforts so that areas of high
biodiversity may be identified, explored,
and appropriate conservation put in place
where possible.
➔➔ The ability to assess changes to biodiversity in
a given community over time is important
in assessing the impact of human activity in
the community.
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Types of biodiversity ‘It should not be believed

You may think of biodiversity as the numbers of species of different that all beings exist for the
animals and plants in different places. But it is a far more complex sake of the existence of
concept than that. Usually, high diversity indicates a healthy man. On the contrary, all
ecosystem but sometimes, particularly in the Arctic, there may be low the other beings too have
diversity in an unpolluted, ancient site but this is because conditions been intended for their own
are so harsh.
sakes and not for the sake
Biodiversity is the overall term for three different but inter-related types of of something else.’
diversity: genetic diversity, species diversity and habitat diversity.
Maimonides, The Guide for the
If we think about biodiversity then the spread of individuals between Perplexed 1:72, c. 1190
species is more important than the total number of individuals in a
habitat. Species diversity reflects this, as it looks at both the range
(variety) and number of organisms (abundance). Species diversity is
not just the total number of organisms in a place but the number of Key term
organisms within each of the different species.
Species diversity in
Consider the examples in figure 3.1.1. communities is a product of
two variables, the number
Forest A Forest B of species (richness) and
15 different species 15 different species their relative proportions
(evenness).
100 individuals of one species and one Seven individuals of each of the
individual of each of the other 14 species. 15 species.
Total individuals = 114 Total individuals = 105
Greater number of individuals
TOK
Low species diversity because the Greater species diversity – because
individual species may not be able to the species are evenly spread and The term ‘biodiversity’ has
breed = disappear the populations more viable replaced the term ‘Nature’ in
much writing on conservation
▲  Figure 3.1.1 Biodiversity in two forests issues. Does this represent a
paradigm shift?
This variation in diversity alters from habitat to habitat. Some habitats
such as coral reefs and rainforests have high species diversity. Urban
habitats and polar regions have much lower species diversity by
comparison.
Another way to measure diversity is to look at genetic diversity – that
Key term
is the amount of variation that exists between different individuals Genetic diversity is the
within different populations of a species. A small population normally range of genetic material
has a lower genetic diversity than a larger one because of the smaller present in a gene pool or
gene pool. population of a species.
Species are made up of both individuals and populations. Naturally,
each individual in a species has a slightly different set of genes from
any other individual in that species. And if a species is made up of two
or more different populations in different places, then each population
will have a different total genetic make-up. Therefore to conserve the
maximum amount of genetic diversity, different populations of a species
need to be conserved.
Not all species have the same amount of genetic diversity. Almost the
entire world population of grey seals exist on the Farne islands off the
north-east coast of England with a few small, scattered populations in

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Grey seals have one large

population within which
individuals interbreed.
The whole population is adapted
to the same conditions so they all
have very similar genetic make-up
and low genetic diversity.
What may happen if disease
strikes?

▲  Figure 3.1.2 Grey seal

other places. This is an example of an organism with a small amount of

genetic diversity.
Organisms where large genetic diversity exists include the European red
fox, which is found right across Europe. Humans also have high genetic
diversity as we exist planet-wide in many populations.
Each population has a slightly different genetic make-up so there is more
variety within the species.
Humans can alter genetic diversity by artificially breeding or genetically
engineering populations with reduced variation in their genotypes
or even identical genotypes – clones. This can be an advantage if it
produces a high-yielding crop or animal but a disadvantage if disease
strikes and the whole population is susceptible. This domestication and
plant breeding has led to a loss of genetic variety, hence the importance
of ‘gene banks’.
POP E For many conservationists, more genetic variation is a good thing. So
POP A def
they would want to maximize genetic diversity. That means having
abc
many species and much variability within each species. Then species
POP G
have a better chance of adapting to change in their habitats. But
ghi that could mean stopping succession as species diversity falls later in
succession (2.4) so interfering with the natural process.
▲  Figure 3.1.3 Red fox Tropical rainforests are high in habitat diversity as there are many
ecological niches due to the layering of the forests. Tundra has a lower
Key term level of habitat diversity (see 2.4, biomes).

Habitat diversity is the range

of different habitats per unit Biodiversity – an indicator of ecosystem health
area in a particular ecosystem It is difficult to determine if one ecosystem is more healthy than another.
or biome. Biodiversity is often used as a measure as high biodiversity usually
equates with high ecosystem health.

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A habitat with high biodiversity has these advantages:

●● resilience and stability due to the range of plants present of which
some will survive drought, floods, insect attack, disease
●● genetic diversity so resistance to diseases
●● some plants there will have deep roots so can cycle nutrients and
bring them to the surface making them available for other plants.
But high biodiversity does not always equate to having a healthy ecosystem:
●● diversity could be the result of fragmentation (break up) of a habitat
or degradation when species richness is due to pioneer species
invading bare areas quickly
●● managing grazing can be difficult as plant species have different
requirements and tolerance to grazing
●● some stable and healthy communities have few plant species so are
an exception to the rule.

Diversity indices
We can only accurately compare two similar ecosystems or two
communities within an ecosystem. Communities can be described and TOK
compared by the use of diversity indices (see 2.5).
Biodiversity index is not a
When comparing communities that are similar then low diversity could measure in the true sense
be evidence of pollution, eutrophication or recent colonization of a of the word, but merely a
site. The number of species present in an area is often used to indicate number (index) as it involves
general patterns of biodiversity but only tells us part of the story. a subjective judgement
It is important to repeat investigations of diversity in the same on the combination of two
community over a period of time and to know if change is a natural measures; proportion and
process due to succession or due to impact from human activity. This richness. Are there examples
could either increase or decrease biodiversity which would tell us if in other areas of the
conservation efforts are succeeding or not. subjective use of numbers?

Hotspots
Biodiversity is not equally distributed on Earth. Some regions have more
biodiversity than others – more species and more of each species than Key term
in other areas. There are hotspots where there are also unusually high
numbers of endemic species (those only found in that place). Where A biodiversity hotspot is a
these hotspots are is debated but about 30 areas have been recognized. region with a high level of
biodiversity that is under
●● They include about ten in tropical rainforest but also regions in most threat from human activities.
other biomes.
●● They tend to be nearer the tropics because there are fewer limiting
factors in lower latitudes.
●● They are all threatened areas where 70% of the habitat has already
been lost.
●● The habitat contains more than 1,500 species of plants which are
endemic.
●● They cover only 2.3% of the land surface.
●● They tend to have large densities of human habitation nearby.
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These hotspots are shown in figure 3.1.4; between them they contain
about 60% of the world’s species so have very high species diversity.
Critics of naming hotspots say that they can be misleading because they:
●● focus on vascular plants and ignore animals
●● do not represent total species diversity or richness
●● focus on regions where habitats, usually forest, have been lost and
ignore whether that loss is still happening
●● do not consider genetic diversity
●● do not consider the value of services, for example water resources.
But they are a useful model to focus our attention on habitat destruction
and threats to unique ecosystems and the species within them.

Caucasus
Mediterranean
basin South central
China
California Caribbean
floristic Philippines
islands Indo-Burma
province
Mesoamerica Polynesia/
Brazil’s Micronesia
cerrado W. African Western Ghats
Choco/Darien/ Tropical forests and Sri Lanka
Western Ecuador Andes Eastern arch &
coastal forests of Sundaland Wallacea
Tanzania/Kenya
New
Polynesia/ Brazil’s Madagascar Caledonia
Micronesia Central Succulent
Chile Atlantic
forests karoo Southwest
Australia
Cape floristic New Zealand
province

▲  Figure 3.1.4 World map of regions with biodiversity hotspots

Questions
Hotspot Plant species Endemic plant Endemics as a percentage of
species world total
Atlantic Forest, Brazil 20,000 8,000 2.7
California Floristic Province 3,488 2,124 0.7
Cape Floristic Region, South Africa 9,000 6,210 2.1
Caribbean Islands 13,000 6,550 2.2
Caucasus 6,400 1,600 0.5
Cerrado 10,000 4,400 1.5
Chilean Winter Rainfall – Valdivian Forests 3,892 1,957 0.7
Coastal Forests of Eastern Africa 4,000 1,750 0.6
East Melanesian Islands 8,000 3,000 1.0

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Hotspot Plant species Endemic plant Endemics as a percentage of

species world total
Eastern Afromontane 7,598 2,356 0.8
Guinean Forests of West Africa 9,000 1,800 0.6
Himalaya 10,000 3,160 1.1
Horn of Africa 5,000 2,750 0.9
Indo-Burma 13,500 7,000 2.3
Irano-Anatolian 6,000 2,500 0.8
Japan 5,600 1,950 0.7
Madagascar and the Indian Ocean Islands 13,000 11,600 3.9
Madrean Pine–Oak Woodlands 5,300 3,975 1.3
Maputaland–Pondoland–Albany 8,100 1,900 0.6
Mediterranean Basin 22,500 11,700 3.9
Mesoamerica 17,000 2,941 1.0
Mountains of Central Asia 5,500 1,500 0.5
Mountains of Southwest China 12,000 3,500 1.2
New Caledonia 3,270 2,432 0.8
New Zealand 2,300 1,865 0.6
Philippines 9,253 6,091 2.0
Polynesia–Micronesia 5,330 3,074 1.0
Southwest Australia 5,571 2,948 1.0
Succulent Karoo 6,356 2,439 0.8
Sundaland 25,000 15,000 5.0
Tropical Andes 30,000 15,000 5.0
Tumbes–Choco–Darien 11,000 2,750 0.9
Wallacea 10,000 1,500 0.5
Western Ghats and Sri Lanka 5,916 3,049 1.0

▲  Figure 3.1.5 Biodiversity hotspots showing the total and endemic plant species

1. How many of these hotspots can you locate on a world map?

2. Why is the number of plant species important for biodiversity?
Practical Work
Investigate the differences
3. What are the criteria for defining hotspots? in biodiversity in pools and
4. What is an endemic species? riffles.
5. For what reasons do you think these hotspots are threatened areas? Investigate global biodiversity.
Investigate plant biodiversity
in two local areas.
Evolution/natural selection
simulation.

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REVI EW BIODI VE RS IT Y AN D C ON S E R VATION

Discuss in what ways Discuss in what ways

To what extent can
might our approaches your EVS influences
conservation restore
to conservation alter your attitude towards
habitats and species?
biodiversity in the future. conserving other species.

BIG QUESTIONS
Biodiversity and
conservation

Comment on the factors

that may make your own
To what extent is loss of
EVS differ from that of
biodiversity sustainable?
others with respect to
conservation.

Reflective questions
➔ The term “biodiversity” has replaced the term “Nature” in much writing on conservation issues. Does
this represent a paradigm shift?
➔ Biodiversity index is not a measure in the true sense of a word, but merely a number (index) as it
involves a subjective judgement on the combination of two measures; proportion and richness. Are
there examples in other areas of the subjective use of numbers?
➔ The theory of evolution by natural selection tells us that change in populations is achieved through the
process of natural selection. Is there a difference between a convincing theory and a correct one?
➔ There may be long term consequences when biodiversity is lost. Should people be held morally
responsible for the long term consequences of their actions?
➔ There are various approaches to the conservation of biodiversity. How can we know when we should be
disposed to act on what we know?
➔ Within the human population distinct characteristics have evolved within different populations through
natural selection and exposure to the environmental conditions that were unique to the regions of
those populations. How has globalization altered some of the environmental factors that were formerly
unique to different human populations?
➔ Human impact has increased the rate at which some mass extinctions have occurred on a global scale.
In which regions are the highest extinction rates and why?
➔ Why is the science of taxonomy important in understanding species extinction?
➔ Why is international scientific collaboration important in the conservation of biodiversity?
➔ Why does conservation need to involve the local community to create meaningful and sustainable change?
➔ Why are NGOs important in global conservation agreements, assessing global status of species’ numbers
and influencing governments?

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Quick review

R EVI EW
1. The table below gives the approximate number A B
of bird species found at different altitudes in
tropical South America. large small
1
reserve reserve
Altitude (m) Number of species
0–500 2000 several
2 one large
small
500–1000 1950
1000–1500 1550
3 corridors no corridors
1500–2000 1100
2000–3000 950
3000–4000 500 4 round not round
4000–5000 200
Data from a diagram in Gaston K and Spicer J, Biodiversity: an For each pair (1) to (4), explain why the areas
Introduction, Blackwell Science, 1998 represented in column A might be considered
a) Describe and explain the relationship better for conservation than the areas in
between altitude and number of species column B.  [4]
shown in the table. [3]
b) Define habitat diversity and species diversity.[2]
3. Outline three reasons for the relative value of
c) Outline three characteristics that an area tropical rainforests in contributing to global
should have if it is to be designated a biodiversity.[3]
nature reserve or similar protected area. [3]
d) An area of forest has been made a nature 4. The table below gives the number of flowering
reserve. It is surrounded by farmland with plant species for several tropical regions in the
several towns. Describe some of the Americas, together with the area of each of the
changes that might occur in the area regions in km2.
following its protection in this way. [2] Region Surface area Estimated
e) Briefly describe a named protected area in km2 total number
or nature reserve that you have studied of species
and explain how it has been managed to
Amazon Basin 7,050,000 30,000
protect its biodiversity. [3]
Northern Andes 383,000 40,000

2. a) Explain the term biodiversity.[2]

Atlantic coastal 1,000,000 10,000
forests of Brazil
b) List four arguments for the preservation
Central America 2,500,000 19,000
of biodiversity.  [2]
including Mexico
c) Describe the processes that may lead to
the formation of new species. [3] Data from: Andrew Henderson and Steven Churchill, ‘Neotropical
plant diversity’, Nature (1991), Vol. 351, pp. 21–22. © Nature
d) Discuss the relative advantages and
disadvantages of a species-based a) (i) Which region has the greatest
conservation strategy compared to the number of species per unit area? [1]
use of reserves. [4]
(ii) Which region has the lowest
e) The diagram below shows the layout of number of species per unit area? [1]
various conservation reserves. The reserves
(iii) Explain the range of biodiversity
represent “islands” containing protected
shown in the data above. [2]
ecosystems surrounded by unprotected
areas affected by human activities.

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