The International Review of Retail, Distribution and

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Music and consumer behavior in chain stores:

theoretical explanation and empirical evidence

Mohammad Rahim Esfidani, Shirin Rafiei Samani & Amir Khanlari

To cite this article: Mohammad Rahim Esfidani, Shirin Rafiei Samani & Amir Khanlari (2022)
Music and consumer behavior in chain stores: theoretical explanation and empirical evidence,
The International Review of Retail, Distribution and Consumer Research, 32:3, 331-348, DOI:
10.1080/09593969.2022.2048411

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/09593969.2022.2048411

Published online: 09 Mar 2022.

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THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH
2022, VOL. 32, NO. 3, 331–348
https://doi.org/10.1080/09593969.2022.2048411

Music and consumer behavior in chain stores: theoretical

explanation and empirical evidence
Mohammad Rahim Esfidania, Shirin Rafiei Samanib and Amir Khanlaria
a
Management Faculty, Business Department University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran; bLuiss Guido Carli (Luiss
Business School), Rome, Italy

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In recent years, there has been significant growth in the number of Received 8 January 2021
chain stores; in this regard, the essential point is that managers Accepted 27 February 2022
should consider not only traditional marketing mix, but also other KEYWORDS
important factors that influence consumers’ shopping behavior, Music; mood-behavior
such as atmospheric factors. Music is one of the important factors model; alertness theory;
in this domain. This study was an attempt to explain and investigate genre; tempo; volume; spent
the relationship between background music and consumers’ shop­ time; spent money
ping behavior in Ofogh Kourosh chain stores based on the mood-
behavior model, alertness theory, and real-world chain store evi­
dence. Genre, tempo, and volume are the elements of music that
have been considered as the independent variables in this study,
while consumers’ spent time and spentmoney in the stores con­
stituted the dependent variables in this study. Moreover, age and
gender have been evaluated as moderators in this relationship. This
study is quasi-experimental in terms of the data collection method.
All Ofogh Kourosh shoppers around Tehran city constituted the
statistical population of this study, and the research sample con­
sisted of 785 shoppers who were selected in 12 branches of Ofogh
Kourosh chain stores via systematic sampling method. The back­
ground music tracks were chosen through a poll. In addition,
observation and interview constituted the tools used in the experi­
mental section. The results indicated that there is a significant
relationship between music elements (genre, tempo, and volume)
and spent time and money. It was also observed that gender had
a considerable moderating role in the relationship between volume
and spent time in stores.

Introduction
Iran’s retail market is valued at around $30 billion, with chain stores accounting for 10% of
the market (Financial Tribune 2017). The growth of modern retail seems to have been
a significant trend in Iran’s economic development over the last decade, as it has been in
many other developing markets. Iranian buyers have shifted from conventional markets
(bazaars) towards the contemporary supermarket format. For example, Digikala, similar to
Amazon, now has around 30 million monthly active users. Ofogh Koroush, a brick-and-
mortar retailer, is just one of many companies developing e-commerce platforms. A good

CONTACT Mohammad Rahim Esfidani esfidani@ut.ac.ir

© 2022 Informa UK Limited, trading as Taylor & Francis Group
332 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

example of retail’s potential is Ofogh Koroush’s expansion. Eight years after launching its
first store, the chain store has expanded from eight branches to a national network of
1300 stores (Serklandinvest 2021). In this competitive and fast-growing context, there is
a great need for the development of new methods for the creation of a positive customer
experience in line with the level of competition in chain stores and shopping centers
(Wakefield and Baker 1998). The “webrooming and showrooming phenomenon’ has been
studied, and the results suggest that 70% of buyers around the world have collected
information online and then purchased a product offline since online retailers are merely
virtual showrooms for gathering information (Arora and Sahney 2017). In an offline
context, environmental stimuli, such as colors, sounds, lights, music, etc. can have
a significant positive impact on consumer behavior (Lowe and Haws 2017). Surveys,
such as the one conducted by Herrington (1996), have shown that background music is
one of the atmospheric variables that can affect the way customers evaluate stores,
embark on buying, and behave as well as their cognition and mood. In this line, research­
ers have come to a consensus that the play of the right music can lead to positive
outcomes; for instance, it increases factors, such as the money and time spent in stores,
customer satisfaction, perceived waiting time, intention to shop, and store image (Areni
and Kim 1993; Brenda 2009; Bruner 1990; Herrington 1996; Herrington and Capella 1994;
Milliman 1982, 1986; Morrison et al. 2011; Oakes 2003; Oakes and North 2008; Yalch and
Spangenberg 1990; Zeeshan and Obaid 2011), also can affect the evaluation of visual
images such as product and packaging (Klein, Melnyk, and Völckner 2021), and the type of
products which has been bought by consumers (Biswas, Lund, and Szocs 2019). Playing
inappropriate music not only may discourage customers and stop them from spending
time in stores but can also have reverse outcomes and bring an unpleasant result.
Much previous research has examined how consumers respond to musical stimuli.
However, to the best of our knowledge, only a few studies provide meaningful insight and
theoretical explanations on how music affects consumer behavior, and empirical results of
much previous research are often contradictory. For example, the findings of Smith and
Curnow (1966) are not the same as suggested by Areni and Kim (1993), Bitner (1992), and
Morrison et al. (2011). The research aims to develop theoretical hypotheses based on the
mood-behavior model (MBM) (Gendolla 2000) and alertness theory to gain a complete
understanding of music effect on consumer behavior and examine the behavioral
response to musical stimuli in real-world chain stores. Throughout this paper, ‘consumer
behavior’ refers to the duration of time and amount of money spent by customers in
stores. In this regard, while a variety of variables under the node of music have been
investigated, this paper attempts to study tempo, genre, and volume as the musical
stimulus. In addition, age and gender are two moderating variables that have not received
much attention in previous studies in terms of the relationship between music and
consumer behavior. This study provides new insights into chain stores marketing and
helps chain stores’ managers reach succeed in the competitive environment by creating
an appealing atmosphere.
This paper first provides a brief overview of the recent history of musical effects on
consumer behavior and presents the research hypotheses based on the mood-behavior
model and alertness theory. The third section is concerned with the methodology
employed for this study. Results and discussion will succeed the methodology. Last but
not least, the paper ends up with some managerial conclusions and suggestions for
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 333

further research regarding the relationship between music and consumer behavior. Being
conducted based on an empirical study, this paper allowed researchers to examine
hypotheses with real data collected through direct observation in a field study. This can
be considered as a differentiating point because of which the paper can stand out among
articles conducted on the same subject.

Literature review
A large volume of published papers have discussed the role of music in retail stores.
Several studies have argued that the shop atmosphere and the interaction of different
atmospheric factors can influence consumer behavior differently (Baker, Levy, and Grewal
1992; Imschloss and Kuehnl 2017; Lam 2001). Today, many marketers regard store atmo­
sphere as an essential tool to keep customers satisfied. These marketers attempt to induce
this satisfaction into shoppers through a positive shopping experience where the store
can establish such a feeling in consumers’ minds in the first shopping center (Andersson
et al. 2012). Environmental features that managers use to shape the physical environment
of stores can trigger special responses by shoppers (Hawkins and Mothersbaugh 2010).
Among different stimuli to which a shopper may be exposed, music is one of the
influential factors that can be manipulated (Herrington and Capella 1994). Music can
affect consumers’ behaviors and their consuming behaviors (Hawkins and Mothersbaugh
2010). Retailers have realized the significant importance of music and have also under­
stood that not only the music play is necessary, but also background music must be used
to differentiate stores from competitors and magnify the stores’ image so that shoppers
may not be distracted (Sweeney and Wyber 2002). Recent studies have shown that music
can affect consumers in a variety of aspects, such as the amount of money they spend in
stores (Areni and Kim 1993; Caldwell and Hibbert 2002; Ferreira and Oliveira-Castro 2011;
Jacob 2006; Milliman 1982; Smith and Curnow 1966; Sweeney and Wyber 2002) and the
time they spent in stores (Caldwell and Hibbert 2002; Herrington 1996; Jacob 2006;
Milliman 1982; Smith and Curnow 1966; Sweeney and Wyber 2002). But these researches
cannot explain how musical stimulus can change consumer response.
Ferreira and Oliveira-Castro (2011) examined the impact of background music on
consumer behavior and argued that the differences between research findings on the
effect of music and its elements on consumer behavior have enticed researchers to get
more interested in doing research in this domain. In this line, Areni and Kim (1993) and
Bitner (1992) concluded that the mere availability of music in stores and shopping centers
has its own positive impacts on customers’ perceptions; furthermore, three elements of
high tempo, high volume, and less known music intensify this positive impact and
lengthen the purchase duration and arousal (as cited in Ferreira and Oliveira-Castro
2011). Furthermore, Ferreira and Oliveira-Castro (2011) found that genre is of significant
importance in attracting customers’ attention in shopping centers. However, these find­
ings can be challenged based on MBM model and alertness theory. First, genre cannot
increase the shoppers’ attention which is influenced by volume. Second, high volume
affects attention negatively. The main arguments are drawn in the hypothesis develop­
ment section. A review of the literature on this topic reveals that genre, volume, and
tempo are three of the most influential musical elements which can be of great help in the
attraction of customers. If these three elements are selected appropriately in line with the
334 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

taste of customers, it can create a win-win situation for both customers and sellers in that
customers can benefit from the already-provided relaxing and peaceful context and make
their purchases with fully relaxed minds and also the sellers can overtake their competi­
tors in a competitive environment.
In previous studies on the relationship between music and consumer behavior,
different variables of music, such as genre (Areni and Kim 1993; Jacob 2006; Sweeney
and Wyber 2002), tempo (Andersson et al. 2012; Caldwell and Hibbert 2002; Herrington
1996; Knoferle et al. 2012; Milliman 1982; Oakes and North 2008) and volume (Biswas,
Lund, and Szocs 2019; Herrington 1996; Morrison et al. 2011; Smith and Curnow 1966)
have been found significant. In a meta-analysis, Jain and Bagdare (2011) reviewed the
findings of studies pertaining to music and its effects on consumer behavior from 1980
to 2010 and arrived at the conclusion that music is, in general, an effective means in
bringing about a variety of positive impacts. In fact, they reported that several ele­
ments, including tempo, pitch, volume, mode, rhythm, harmony, genre, texture, and
affective elements – liking (valence), familiarity, and types (feelings/style) have all
constituted a whole, referred to as the construct of music. In their review, they argued
that music is gradually paving its way and becoming an inseparable part of the buying
and selling settings. There is no doubt in the general effectiveness of music at large.
However, what still remains the area for further inquiries is how to opt for the best
alternatives in the selection of the best music apropos of the situation, including the
social and personality characteristics of the audience, i.e., customers. Another main
important point is how to adapt the degree and rate of music elements in line with the
particular settings.
The current study focuses on the effect of these three background music variables
(i.e., tempo, genre, and volume) on consumer behavior. In this regard, Smith and
Curnow (1966) studied the relationship between the sound level and the time and
money spent by shoppers in two supermarkets, and found out that when music was
played with low volume, the shoppers spent more time and when the volume was high,
the result was reversed. They did not find any relationship between the volume and the
spent cost. In the following, a significant analysis and discussion on the subject was
presented by Milliman (1982), where he studied the relationship between planned
background music and consumer behavior in one branch of a medium-sized chain
store. He stated that music tempo can affect shoppers’ pace and daily gross sales. He
found out that slow music (60 bpm) can raise the spent time compared to fast music
(108 bpm) in that setting. In the same way, Herrington (1996) have also studied the
impact of background music on shopping behavior (time and money spent) in
a traditional service environment (a supermarket). In that study, they manipulated
tempo and volume, but they did not find any significant relationship between these
variables and the spent money. Their research has shown that the musical preferences
of consumers can affect the time that they stay in stores and also the amount of money
they spend.
Similarly, Caldwell and Hibbert (2002) carried out an experimental study to investigate
the relationship of musical preferences and tempo with the time and money spent in
stores. They reported no significant relationship between tempo and perceived time, but
the results showed that tempo and musical preferences had significant impacts on money
spent. Indeed, when a slow tempo was operative, and the background music matched
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 335

consumers’ musical preferences, they spent more money on buying. Jacob (2006) has also
studied the impact of background music on the spent time and money in a bar in France.
He found that when drinking songs were played in the bar, the length of stay and the
money spent by patrons would witness an increase.
Morrison et al. (2011) took even a step beyond the effect of music itself on customer
behavior and explored the impact of the music volume on shopper behavior and
satisfaction. They conducted their research in the setting of retail markets where there
is a high rate of completion among the sellers and shops. Their findings were indicative
of the superior impact of high-volume music on young female fashion shoppers’
emotions and satisfaction levels. This level of satisfaction will certainly bring about
significant changes in the customers’ shopping behavior in favor of the shops wherein
music was played with a high volume. In this regard, the shoppers spend higher
amounts of time and money in such shopping centers in comparison with the ones in
which no music is played at all or low-volume music is played. This is so while the
quality of the goods in both stores may be the same. They claimed that high-volume
music in such stores can lead to a more desirable perception of customers’ behavior and
emotions by retailers and, thereby, the retailers can benefit most from the competitive
advantage by providing the store atmosphere with desired types of music. Indeed, it
can be argued that an aesthetic sense is instinctively active in human beings, and music
is some part of aesthetics, which can trigger positive emotions among shoppers. For this
reason, customers mostly appreciate the good effects of music on their minds and souls
even during shopping.
In the same vein, Morrin and Chebat (2005) reported on the availability of a growing
body of research focusing on evaluating the effect of atmospheric factors, such as back­
ground music, on consumers’ shopping behavior. They believe that background music
leads to the activation of affective factors in customers when low levels of cognition are at
play. Here, of course, the water gets more muddied and this means that customers act
impulsively in buying products and spending money. However, the fact that the play of
background music livens up the environment and gives customers a good sense is
inevitable. Similarly, they asserted that reflective shoppers may not be affected by
music as much as impulsive buyers do; however, there is no doubt that when
a customer, whether a reflective one or an impulsive one, has already decided for the
purchase of his/her required items, s/he will opt for the store or setting in which s/he is
aroused by atmospherics, such as pertinent music rather than a store where no environ­
mental stimuli are at play even when the buying items are of the same quality. For this
reason, sellers are recommended to equip their store environment with suitable music in
order to heighten their competitive power and advantages.
In addition, Vida, Obadia, and Kunz (2007) also reported that background music has
various positive impacts on consumer characteristics, such as the amount of spent time in
shopping centers, the amount of spending money, customer satisfaction, etc. However,
there is still controversy over the definition of the suitability of musical elements, such as
genre, tempo, volume, etc., whose appropriateness is determined differently depending
on the situation and context. Hence, it seems that there is much room left for embarking
on the conduct of research on how to adapt the application of various musical elements,
including tempo, genre, and volume, to different shopping contexts so that more light
can be shed on this area. In addition, the relationship between musical elements and
336 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

customers’ behavior and reactions in different settings can be still an enticing theme for
research so that the variety of findings obtained in different contexts with varying cultural
backgrounds, attitudes, likes, and dislikes can lead to the inference of more comprehen­
sive and practical conclusions.

Hypotheses development
Although consumers’ responses to the musical stimulus (genre, tempo, and volume) have
been investigated, there is much room left for discussing how music can change con­
sumer behavior. Ferreira and Oliveira-Castro (2011) suggest that genre influences the
consumers’ attention which is open to doubt. To deliver on the key contribution, we used
the mood-behavior model to develop the hypotheses. Traits and states are the main
reason for individual differences. Traits are durable and individual stable attributes
through which prediction of consumer behavior across all circumstances and times
would be conceivable. States are impermanent and unsteady over time; they distinguish
behavior that is brought about by specific circumstances, and mood is a state of being
(Karimi and Liu 2020) which is influenced by situational factors including weather, light,
and music. Exposure to preferred music can enhance a positive mood (Roth and Smith
2008). According to the mood-behavior model (MBM), moods can have an informational
and directive impact (Gendolla 2000). People have different musical preferences in terms
of genre, tempo, and volume (Schäfer and Sedlmeier 2009). Based on MBM, exposure to
preferred genre leads to spending more time and money in stores because of (Gendolla
2000):

● Informational impact: music leads to a positive mood. As a result, it primes positive

decision-related information called nodes that are associated with positive moods,
and consumers make more optimistic evaluations and keep the congruency
between mood (which stems from background music) and thoughts (spending
more time and money) called the mood congruency effect (Mayer et al. 1992).
● Directive impact: behavior regulates the mood. In other words, consumers with
a positive mood tend to use spending more money and time as an instrument in
order to maintain the positive mood (instrumentality).

Keeping the above arguments and studies in the context of the relationship between
the genre of music, and consumer’s shopping behavior, this variable can be examined,
constituting three (traditional, pop and classic genres). The traditional genre is the most
favorite musical genre among Iranians. In this regard, the following hypothesis would be
generated and investigated during the study:

H1: Traditional Genre significantly increases customers’ spent money and spent time in stores.

Regarding the impact of tempo on consumer’s shopping behavior stated in previous

studies starting with Milliman’s (1982), it seems that there is a relationship between the
pace of background music and spent money and time in the stores. Caldwell and Hibbert
(2002), likewise Milliman (1982), believe that slow tempo has a positive impact on con­
sumer behavior which is in contrast with Areni and Kim (1993), Kellaris and Kent (1993), and
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 337

Bitner (1992). In line with Michel, Baumann, and Gayer (2017), we believe that tempo can
influence arousal (JungHwan and Lennon 2012) but not mood (Garlin and Owen 2006), so
the MBM model is not helpful to understand the relation of tempo and consumer behavior.
According to Ben Zur and Breznitz (1981), under high time pressure, it is expected that
consumers tend to spend more time noticing the negative dimensions of their decision, In
contrast,under low time pressure they prefer considering positive dimensions of their
decision. Fast tempo leads to high time pressure (Kim and Zauberman 2019), thereby it
can be concluded that decreasing spent time and spent money results from fast tempo.
Hence, the following hypothesis would address these possible relationships:

H2: Fast Tempo significantly decreases customers’ spent money and spent time in stores.

To the best of our knowledge, music volume is hardly investigated in marketing

literature. Even though Smith and Curnow (1966) found that low volume leads to more
spent time, Areni and Kim (1993), and Bitner (1992) and Morrison et al. (2011) discovered
that high volume increases the spent time. The alertness model suggests a good explana­
tion of auditory (Vs. visual) stimulus intensity and consumers’ alertness relationship. The
alertness model posits that auditory stimulus intensity (volume) increases consumer
alertness and information processing through which consumers’ decision making system
gears up for information processing (Nissen 1977). Alertness diminishes reaction time
(decreases spent time through which impacts spent money) and raises more decision
errors. In addition, consumers are passive listeners, and increasing the volume prompts
‘dual-task effect’ in light of the fact that consumers’ alertness may reduce the attentional
capacity for shopping tasks and disturb decision making process (Giannouli, Kolev, and
Yordanova 2019; Michel, Baumann, and Gayer 2017; Silva, Belim, and Castro 2020).
keeping the studies about the impact of background music’s volume on shopping
behavior in mind, this study would investigate volume as a third element of music,
which may influence the time and money spent during shopping in chain stores. Thus,
the hypothesis would be as followings:

H3: High volume significantly decreases customers’ spent time and spent money in stores.

In addition, to the best of the authors’ knowledge, few studies have investigated
the role of gender in the relationship between music and consumer behavior (Kellaris
and Rice 1993), and no previous studies have investigated the role of age in the
relationship between music and consumer behavior. According to this gap in the
literature, the current study seeks to investigate the moderating role of age and
gender in the relationship between background music (i.e., genre, tempo, and
volume) and the time and money spent by shoppers. Hence, the following hypoth­
eses are arranged in this research:

H4: Age and gender moderate the relationship between music and customers’ spent time and
money.
338 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

In summary, the review of the literature, MBM model, and alertness theory suggest that
listening to preferred music (a traditional genre in Iranian context) has a positive effect
and fast tempo and high volume has a negative effect on spent time and money. The
following section outlines the research design used to test the research hypotheses.

Methodology
Before the beginning of the main phase of the study, a pre-study was designed to
choose the suitable type of background music. The songs were chosen from among
a hundred songs in three genres, namely pop, classic, and Iranian traditional music. In
order to ignore the impact of the singer and mode on consumer mood, the selected
songs were all instrumental from minor keys. Iranian traditional songs were also
selected from the pieces of music with a mode that can be aligned with minor keys
in western music. All the pieces of music were the less popular songs that people had
heard to a lesser extent. Songs have been classified into two categories of slow tempo
(average of 60 bpm) and fast tempo (average of 125 bpm); these average numbers were
60 in comparison with 108 in Milliman’s (1982) study and 60 and 140 in Knoferele et al.’s
study (2012). Indeed, 54 songs were selected to control the musical preferences of
consumers. The respondents were also asked to answer the questions about perceived
tempo where the provided responses would reveal whether the selected songs were
played with the tempo in harmony with the listeners’ preferences or not. In pre-study,
71 respondents of different genders and ages participated. In the end, 31 songs were
selected in six groups as follows: slow classic, fast classic, slow pop, fast pop, slow
traditional, and fast traditional. The duration of each group of the songs were about 28
to 32 minutes. According to the results of the primary reviews, each shopper spends an
average of almost 20 minutes in the store; hence, this time would be enough and
prevent hearing fatigue.
After music selection, the main phase commenced in stores. The background music
was played by musical devices, and it was fully checked to be heard clearly from every
corner of the store. The volume was manipulated in two types, i.e., higher than the
average (avoiding hearing damage has been considered) and lower than the average
(audibility everywhere has been considered). With the manipulation of the volume, the
song groups were extended into 12 sub-groups as follows (2 tempo * 3 genres * 2 volume
factorial design): 1. Slow-classic-high, 2. Slow-classic-low, 3. Fast-classic-high, 4. Fast-
classic-low, 5. Slow-pop-high, 6. Slow-pop-low, 7. Fast-pop-high, 8. Fast-pop-low, 9. Slow-
traditional-high, 10. Slow-traditional-low, 11. Fast-traditional-high, and 12. Fast-traditional
-low.
For this study, we analyzed the data collected from 785 people who were randomly
chosen from 12 branches. Males were 54.1 percent of the respondents (425 persons),
while females were 45.9 percent (360 people). Whereas most of the respondents were
between the ages of 30 and 40 (32 percent), those under the age of 20 made up the
least proportion of those who answered the survey questions (8.4 percent). Twenty-
nine percent were between the ages of 41 and 50, and 30.6 percent were over the age
of 50. For systematic sampling, the researcher positioned in a part of the store where
auditing was entirely possible. Still, the shoppers were not aware of the conduct of this
study. The entrance time for each shopper was recorded, and the time of returning to
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 339

the cashier was also recorded as the exit time (to avoid the time waiting in the queue).
The difference between these two-time points was considered as the spent time. After
the conduct of the pertaining calculations, the invoice price was considered as the spent
money. The customers provided information on their age and gender after paying the
invoices.
The experiment was conducted on two Thursdays and two Fridays (weekends in Iran)
between April and May. These days were selected to avoid the selection of long holidays
and the emergence of consequent special offers during the study so that the flow of the
experiment would proceed in a natural mode. It is noteworthy that the study was carried
out in rush hours of stores and shopping peaks. Twelve branches of Ofogh Kourosh,
similar in terms of sale, merchandising, and facilities, were selected and the data were
gathered through direct observation.

Results
This study sought to determine the effect of background music on the time and money
spent in stores by consumers. Background music was investigated in three aspects,
namely tempo, genre, and volume; in addition, gender and age were considered as
moderator variables. In order to check hypotheses, the MANOVA test was run to look
for the difference between the means of the dependent variables (using Z scores of spent
time and money).

Effects of different genres on spent time and money

A three (traditional, pop, and classic genre) by two (high and low tempo) by two (high/low
volume) three-way MANOVA showed a significant three-way interaction (see Table 1). The
results showed that different genres have a significant impact on both spent time
(F = 6.458, P = 0.002) and money (F = 2.353, P = 0.096) in stores at the confidence level
of 90%. As it has been shown in Table 2, LSD test results indicate when traditional music
was played in stores, the mean of spent time and money in stores was significantly higher
than those of the other two genres. However, there is no difference between classical and
pop music in terms of spent time and money.

Effect of tempo on spent time and money

The results showed that tempo has a significant impact on both spent time (F = 21.56,
P = 0.00) and money (F = 3.92, P = 0.048). It was also observed that when slow music was
played, the consumers spent more time and money in stores than when music was played
with a fast tempo (see Tables 1 and 2).

Effect of volume on spent time and money

The manipulation of music volume had a significant effect on the spent time (F = 7.39,
P = 0.007) and spent money (F = 20.43, P = 0.00). The results showed that when the music
volume was low, the consumers spent more time in stores than when it was higher. This
340 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

Table 1. The effect of genre, tempo and volume on the spent time and money.
Type III Sum Mean
Source Dependent Variable of Squares df Square F Sig.
Corrected Model Zscore (Spent Time) 59.163 11 5.378 5.736 .000
Zscore (Spent Money) 34.936 11 3.176 3.278 .000
Intercept Zscore (Spent Time) .008 1 .008 .009 .925
Zscore (Spent Money) .001 1 .001 .001 .974
Tempo Zscore (Spent Time) 20.223 1 20.223 21.566 .000
Zscore (Spent Money) 3.806 1 3.806 3.928 .048
Genre Zscore (Spent Time) 12.112 2 6.056 6.458 .002
Zscore (Spent Money) 4.561 2 2.281 2.353 .096
Volume Zscore (Spent Time) 6.934 1 6.934 7.395 .007
Zscore (Spent Money) 19.803 1 19.803 20.436 .000
tempo * genre Zscore (Spent Time) 4.825 2 2.412 2.573 .077
Zscore (Spent Money) .725 2 .363 .374 .688
tempo * volume Zscore (Spent Time) .041 1 .041 .043 .835
Zscore (Spent Money) .013 1 .013 .013 .910
genre * volume Zscore (Spent Time) 9.280 2 4.640 4.948 .007
Zscore (Spent Money) 3.979 2 1.990 2.053 .129
tempo * genre * volume Zscore (Spent Time) 5.525 2 2.763 2.946 .053
Zscore (Spent Money) 2.015 2 1.008 1.040 .354
Error Zscore (Spent Time) 724.837 773 .938
Zscore (Spent Money) 749.064 773 .969
Total Zscore (Spent Time) 784.000 785
Zscore (Spent Money) 784.000 785
Corrected Total Zscore (Spent Time) 784.000 784
Zscore (Spent Money) 784.000 784

Table 2. Spent time and money mean difference among genre, tempo and volume.
Spent Time Spent Money
Dependent Variables (Z Score) (Z Score)
Independent Variables Mean difference (I-J) Sig Mean Difference (I-J) Sig
Genre Classic (I) Pop (J) 0.050 0.558 0.119 0.168
Traditional (I) Classic (J) 0.235* 0.006 0.065 0.454
Pop (I) Traditional (J) −0.284* 0.001 −0.184* 0.033
Tempo Fast (I) Slow (J) −0.321* 0.00 −0.139* 0.048
Volume High (I) Low (J) −0.188* 0.007 −0.318* 0.00
*The mean difference is significant at the .05 level.

result also held true about the spent money in stores, and there is a significant difference
between the two states. According to the results, customers spent more money and time
when music with low volume was played in stores (see Tables 1 and 2).
After the consideration of the main hypothesis, the interactive effect of all aspects of
music on spent time and money was considered. The outcomes show that there is
a significant relationship between the spent time and the interaction of tempo and
genre (F = 2.573, P = 0.077), the interaction of genre and volume (F = 4.948, P = 0.007),
and interaction of tempo, genre, and volume (F = 2.946, P = 0.053); however, no
significant relationship was found between the spent time and the interaction of tempo
and volume (Table 1).
The investigation of the means of each relationship shows that playing traditional
music with a slow tempo, shoppers have spent the longest time in stores, classical music
with slow tempo is placed at the second place. It also holds true about playing classical
music with low volume. The examination of the means of spent time in different cases of
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 341

Figure 1. The plot of the mean ‘spent time’ score for each combination of groups of ‘genders’ and A).
Tempo: fast vs. slow B). Genre: classic vs. pop vs. traditional C). Volume: low vs. high.

playing music regarding the interaction of three aspects of music shows that playing
classical music with low volume and slow tempo leads to the longest spent time in stores.
Traditional music with low volume and slow tempo was ranked at second place. In the
relationship between the interaction of genre and volume and spent money, classical
music with low volume has taken up to the highest spent money. The mean of spent
money when playing traditional music with low volume in stores was next.

Moderating role of gender and age

No significant difference was found between background music (genre, tempo, and
volume) and the spent time and money in terms of age, as a moderator variable. Thus,
hypothesis 4 is rejected at the confidence level of 90%, and age does not have any
moderating role in this relationship. There is no significant difference in terms of the spent
time between male and female customers except in the relationship between volume and
spent time (P = 0.034). The results in Figure 1 (c) show that when music was played with
low volume, women spent more time in stores than men did. In terms of the moderating
role of gender in the relationship between background music and spent money, the
results also do not indicate the presence of any significant impact.

Relationship between spent time and spent money

In the end, the relationship between spent time and spent money has been studied to see
if there is any linear relationship between these two factors. A linear regression test has
been used to test this relationship. The results proved the presence of a linear relationship
between these two variables (Beta = 0.54, T = 17.95, F = 322.51, R2 = 0.292).

Discussion
The primary purpose of this study is to investigate the relationship between background
music and consumer behavior in chain stores and examine if age and gender have
a moderating role in this relationship. The contribution of this research is to explain the
effect of background music on consumer behavior (time and money) using the MBM
model (priming positive information and mood instrumentality effect) and alertness
theory and to examine the effect of background music in a real-world context to ensure
342 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

the external validity of the results. This study has been conducted based on empirical
study and field experiment, and all data has been collected by direct observation. This can
differentiate the current study from other studies in the same subject. The findings of this
study show that different genres of music have led to different means of spent time in
stores. This research supports the idea that shoppers have spent more time when Iranian
traditional music has been played in stores rather than pop and classical music. Contrary
to the findings of Kim and Areni (1993), where it has been concluded that there is no
relationship between different genres of music and spent time by shoppers, the results
show that music genres effect the spent money and time, which is in line with the mood-
behavior model. This difference between these results can be attributed to the different
musical preferences. Based on the MBM model, genre results in more spent time and
money through priming positive information and mood instrumentality effect, provided
that music leads to positive mood through genre alignment with consumers’ musical
preferences. The relationship between different genres and spent money shows that
Iranian traditional music has led to spending more money than pop and classical music,
which is not in line with the study conducted by Areni and Kim (1993), who indicated that
people had spent more money when classical songs were played than when 40 top songs
were played. These differences can be explained based on the MBM model. Genre
alignment with consumers’ music preferences, customizing music for various buyer
profiles (Choo et al. 2020), leads to informational impact through which music primes
positive decision-related information and mood instrumentality effect. In other words,
consumers tend to spend more money and time to maintain a positive mood.
The relationship between tempo and spent time and money shows that when music
with the slow tempo was played in stores, shoppers spent more time (which can show
that the pace of walking decreased while playing slow music) and money in stores. These
results are in line with those of the study conducted by Milliman (1982) and Caldwell and
Hibert (2002). Both of these studies indicated that when slow songs were played in stores,
people walked around at a slower pace, which led to spending more time and money.
However, the results are not in line with that of the study conducted by Herrington and
Capella (1994), where it was found that there is no relationship between tempo and the
spent time and money. This difference can have been obtained due to the time of doing
the study where the data in this study have been gathered on the weekends, but
Herrington and Capella’s study (1996) has been done during weekdays. Retail crowding
has a negative impact on shoppers’ emotions (Li, Kim, and Lee 2009). this study was
carried out in rush hours of stores, which means that negative emotions may have been
attenuated by slow tempo. In addition, based on Ben Zur and Breznitz,s (1981) and Kim
and Zauberman’s (2019) research and empirical evidence of this research, it could be
concluded that fast tempo has a negative impact on spent time and money because fast
tempo leads to high time pressure and its negative impact on spent time and money
could be fortified during the rush hours. Pantoja and Borges (2021) found that fast tempo
enhances arousal level and food buyers’ mood. In line with Michel, Baumann, and Gayer
(2017), we believe that tempo can influence arousal (Das, Roy, and Spence 2020;
JungHwan and Lennon 2012) but not mood (Garlin and Owen 2006).
The relationship between volume and the spent time and money shows that we can
keep shoppers in stores for a longer period of time by playing music with lower
volume. This result is in line with the study undertaken by Smith and Curnow (1966),
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 343

but it is not consistent with Morrison et al.’s (2011) study. In their study, Morrison et al.
investigated the relationship between the interaction of scent and music volume and
the spent time in stores and their findings showed that when high-volume music was
played with Vanilla scent in stores, shoppers spent more time staying in the stores. This
difference in the results can be attributed to the different industries researched in our
study and Morrison et al.’s study (2011). In fact, Morrison et al.’s study has been done in
women’s clothing stores. Herrington (1996) also did a similar study and did not find any
significant relationship between volume and spent time. This inconsistency in the
results may have been caused by the conduct of the two studies at different times of
the week. The results also show that when low-volume music was played, shoppers
spent more money in stores. This is not in line with the results reported by Smith and
Curnow (1966) and Herrington (1996), where no significant relationship was revealed
between volume and spent money. This finding is not also in line with the results of
Morrison et al.’s (2011) study, which indicated that when high volume music with
vanilla scent was played in stores, people spent more money. This difference can be
attributed to the different settings wherein the two studies have been conducted.
However, the justification for the difference between the results of the current study
and Smith and Curnow’s (1966) and Herrington’s (1996) studies needs more considera­
tion to explain.
The results of this study also indicate that music does not affect spent time and money
differently in different age groups. This is true in all three aspects of music, namely genre,
tempo, and volume, that were studied here. This result may have been arisen by the type
of industry under research, i.e., essential goods and commodities, and the type of stores
under study, i.e., supermarkets. Another explanation for this inconsistency can be the fact
that the majority of our sample units are from above 30 years of age, and most of the
shoppers in this kind of store are in this range.thereby, the sample is not scattered equally
between groups. As there is no similar study in the literature about the moderating role of
age in the relationship between music and consumer behavior, no evidence has been
found in order to compare this result with previous ones.
By investigating the moderating role of gender in the relationship between music and
spent time, it is revealed that volume affects spent time differently between male and
female shoppers. When music with low volume was played in stores, women spent more
time than men. Conversely, when music was played with high volume, men stayed in
stores for a longer time. This result is in line with the study conducted by Kellaris and Rice
(1993), who have acknowledged that women spend more time in stores when music is
played with low volume. Gender does not have any moderating role in the impact of
genre and tempo on spent time. This result is not in line the study conducted by
Andersson et al. (2012) that indicated that female shoppers spent more time in the face
of slow tempo music in home appliances stores, and men spent more time when music
with a fast tempo was played. This has been caused by the different settings where these
two studies took place. When the relationship between music and spent money was
examined, no difference was found between female and male shoppers. This is not
consistent with those of the studies conducted by Kellaris and Rice (1993) and
Andersson et al. (2012). They have indicated that women and men act differently when
facing a different type of music. The conduct of research in different industries can be the
reason for this difference.
344 M. R. ESFIDANI ET AL.

We investigated the interactive effect of variables on spent time and money. The
results showed that traditional music with a slow tempo and classical music with a slow
tempo in the interaction of tempo and genre has led to spending more time in stores.
However, there is no significant difference between the mean values of spent time in
different interactions of tempo and volume. The results also showed a significant impact
of the interaction of genre and volume on spent time. In addition, classical music with low
volume made people spend more time in stores than other conditions. There is
a significant difference between spent time in stores while investigating the interaction
of all music variables and outcomes shows that when classical music with a slow tempo
and low volume was played in stores, people spent more time in stores. In this regard,
traditional music with slow tempo and low volume was in second place.
Studying the relationship of music variables’ interaction and spent money show no
significant impact but between the interaction of genre and volume on spent money
which conclude that when classical music with low volume was played in stores, people
spent more money. Traditional music with low volume was after that. No similar studies
have been found by researchers to compare the results.
It was shown that there is a linear relationship between these spent times and spent
money. Thus, when shoppers raise up the time in stores, the stores can earn more
financial profit. This result is in line with that of the study conducted by Milliman (1982),
who indicated a similar outcome.

Managerial implication and further research

Nowadays, managers must consider the environmental factors that can affect consumer
behavior and impact stores’ income. One of these factors is the type of music that is
played in stores. The results of this study and previous studies show that background
music can lead to differences in the spent time and money by shoppers in stores.
According to the current results, we conclude that slow tempo music can decrease the
pace of shoppers which leads to spending more time and money in stores. We also
suggest that managers use traditional Iranian music to increase the time spent by
shoppers and use Iranian traditional music and classical music in order to increase the
money spent by customers in stores. Low volume music also can lead to a higher level of
spent time, and money and managers can manipulate music in low volume to make
people stay in stores and spend more money. According to the results, since men and
women behave differently in the face of different volume levels, we also suggest that
managers use music with low volume if most of the shoppers are women.
With regard to the interaction of music variables, we suggest playing slow tempo
traditional music and slow tempo classical music if only genre and tempo are manipu­
lated; low volume classical music if genre and volume are the factors that can be changed.
However, if all aspects of music can be manipulated, the play of classical music with a slow
tempo and low volume and also the play of traditional music with a slow tempo and low
volume are suggested.
We also suggest that managers should consider raising up the time shoppers spend in
stores since it has been shown that the more time they spend, the more money they
spend in stores.
 THE INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF RETAIL, DISTRIBUTION AND CONSUMER RESEARCH 345

For further research, we suggest that researchers consider the negative impact of high
music volume on consumer decision error based on alertness theory. In addition, we
propose to combine music with other environmental factors to investigate the interaction
of these factors and their impact on consumers’ behavior. The study carried out in offline
discount store context. So, the result of the study may not be generalizable because of the
differences in marketing channels (online vs. offline), store formats (discount stores vs.
other forms of retailing), cultural factors, patronage behavior, and hedonic (vs. utilitarian)
values. These factors might be addressed in future studies. This can also be another area
of study to see what happens if songs are arranged with one instrument or different
instruments. Instrumental songs and songs with lyrics (including semantic priming) can
also lead to different results. It is also noteworthy that we chose the songs that were
unknown, and people had rarely heard them in this study. Hence, the conduct of further
research in this area can test the impact of nostalgia on the relationship between music
and consumer behavior. Another variable that can be investigated in further research is
the mode. All songs chosen here are from the minor key, so the major key should also be
considered in future studies. In the end, we suggest that the interested researchers in this
area investigate other moderating variables, such as musical preferences, to see if there is
any moderating impact when people prefer different kinds of music.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the author(s).

Notes on contributors
Mohammad Rahim Esfidani is an assistant professor at the management faculty, University of
Tehran, Iran. His research interests are consumer behavior, business-to-business marketing, and
ethical marketing. His work has been published in various journals, including the International
Journal of Retail & Distribution Management, Journal of Research in Interactive Marketing, Journal
of Electronic Commerce Research, and the International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management.
Shirin Rafiei Samani is the student of Luiss Guido Carli, Luiss Business School. Before that, she
headed to the University of Tehran, where she received her Master's degree in marketing.
Amir Khanlari is an assistant professor at the management faculty, University of Tehran, Iran. His
research interests are customer relationship marketing, advertising, and branding. His work has
been published in various journals, including the Neural Computing and Applications, Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Technology.

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