AESTHETICS (2nd year)

GUIDE QUESTIONS

1. Art as Imitation and the form of Beauty by Plato

● Many particular things can have the form of a circle, or of justice, or beauty. For Plato, these Forms are perfect
Ideals, but they are also more real than physical objects. He called them "the Really Real". The world of the Forms
is rational and unchanging; the world of physical appearances is changeable and irrational, and only has reality to
the extent that it succeeds in imitating the Forms. The mind or soul belongs to the Ideal world; the body and its
passions are stuck in the muck of the physical world. -art imitates reality
● The role of an artist is imitator.
● Beauty is desired- Love is beautiful, he loves the beautiful because it is good. When it is good, it will lead you to
happiness. Happiness will lead to a beautiful life.

2. Art as Idealization by Aristotle.

● For him, art was not mere copying. As a realization in the external form of a true idea, art idealizes nature and
completes its faults seeking to grasp the universal type in the individual phenomenon. 'The aim of art is to
represent not the outward appearance of things, but their inward significance', Aristotle wrote. The theory of art as
an imitation of beauty or nature was persistent throughout the history of art.
● Aristotle took a particular interest in tragedy through art, which he described as an imitation of action. It creates a
treatment for the more unbearable passions we hold in our minds. Aristotle referred to this phenomenon as
catharsis.
● Aristotle believed that mimesis could be defined as the replication of nature. In Greek thought, the concept of
mimesis was very important because they believed that art was a search for imitating the beauty of reality, and this
concept of imitation is very important in the search for true art that reflects reality accurately. For Aristotle,
mimesis did not just simply involve imitation but also equally appealed to mathematical principles in search of
perfection.

3. Authentic Beauty is not sensuous by Plotinus

● The material thing becomes beautiful— by communicating in the thought that flows from the Divine. We hold that all
the loveliness of this world comes by communion in Ideal-Form.
● The first emanation from the "One" is the "Nous" (which can be variously translated as "intelligence", "thought", "the
divine mind", "logos", "order" or "reason"), the true first principle, which Plotinus identified (at least metaphorically)
with the Demiurge of Plato's "Timaeus". The "Nous" is not a self-sufficient entity like the "One", but rather possesses
the ability to contemplate both the "One" (as its prior) as well as its own thoughts and the ideas which are in its spiritual
nature (which can be identified with Plato's Forms or Ideas).
● From "Nous" proceeds the "Soul" (or "Psyche"), the dynamic, creative, temporal power, which itself is subdivided into
two: the upper aspect (or "World Soul"), the contemplative part which governs the Cosmos and remains in contact with
the "Nous", ensuring that the individual embodied souls eventually return to their true divine state within the "Nous";
and the lower aspect (identified with "Nature") which allows itself to be multiply divided into individual human souls.
● Finally, after the first three degrees which form a sort of trinity, the third level of emanation is the universe itself (i.e.
the sky, the stars, good and evil spirits, human souls and matter). Matter and the world of the senses is the lowest and
least perfected level of being, so far removed from divinity that Plotinus sometimes identified matter with "evil".
Human souls (which were in a state of pre-existence in the "Nous"), are now imprisoned in material bodies although,
like the "Soul", they have two levels of activities, the rational (which tends to the formation of ideas) and the
informative (which tends to the informing of the body).

4. Beauty is a kind of knowledge by Aquinas

● " For Aquinas, beauty is id quod visum placet, "that which pleases upon being seen."
● Beauty, for Thomas, is not a subjective response or an intellectual concept; beauty in existent things is objectively
or actually perceived through a cognitive process of seeing or hearing.
● Actuality, Proportion, Radiance, and Integrity is the criteria of beauty.
● Thomas Aquinas defined art as recta ratio factibilium (right reason in regard to the making of things), and the
rectitude he had in mind was none other than an understanding of the forms that God had already placed in nature.

5. Pleasures of the imagination by Joseph Addison

● nature and art are qualified to entertain the imagination.

● Nature they can have nothing in them of that Vastness and Immensity, which afford
so great an Entertainment to the Mind of the Beholder
● Art is defective since it is only man-made and therefore limited.

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 ● I mean only such Pleasures as arise originally from Sight, and that I divide these Pleasures into two Kinds: My
Design being first of all to Discourse of those Primary Pleasures of the Imagination, which entirely proceed
from such Objects as are before our Eye; and in the next place to speak of those Secondary Pleasures of the
Imagination which flow from the Ideas of visible Objects, when the Objects are not actually before the Eye, but
are called up into our Memories, or formed into agreeable Visions of Things that are either Absent or Fictitious.

6. The sense of beauty by Hutcheson

● Francis Hutcheson helped move aesthetics from theories about Beauty and Harmony, as characteristics of the
world, to theories about the experience of the viewer. This eighteenth century shift is the source of all the
theories about "the aesthetic sense" that have developed since the beginning of the eighteenth century.
Hutcheson's philosophy was based on the empiricist thinking of John Locke, from whom he got the
notion that all of our ideas come from experience. The idea of Beauty, according to Hutcheson, is
actually the idea of a certain experience of pleasure that we have when we look at or listen to certain
things. In other words, Beauty is in the Eye (or at least, in the Mind) of the beholder.
● Hutcheson argues that objects in the world are perceived to be beautiful by specific qualities acting upon our
"inner sense" or "sense of beauty."

7. Aesthetic principles are not universal by Voltaire

● Candide, satirical novel published in 1759 that is the best-known work by Voltaire. It is a savage denunciation of
metaphysical optimism. This philosophical tale is often hailed as a paradigmatic text of the Enlightenment, but it
is also an ironic attack on the optimistic beliefs of the Enlightenment. Voltaire’s critique is directed at Leibniz’s
principle of sufficient reason, which maintains that nothing can be so without there being a reason why it is so.
The consequence of this principle is the belief that the actual world must be the best one humanly possible. At the
opening of the novel, its eponymous hero, the young and naive Candide, schooled in this optimistic philosophy by
his tutor Pangloss, who claims that "all is for the best in this best of all possible worlds," is ejected from the
magnificent castle in which he is raised. The rest of the novel details the multiple hardships and disasters that
Candide and his various companions meet in their travels. These include war, rape, theft, hanging, shipwrecks,
earthquakes, cannibalism, and slavery. Although these experiences gradually erode Candide’s optimistic belief, he
and his companions display an instinct for survival that gives them hope in an otherwise sombre setting. When
they all retire together to a simple life on a small farm, they discover that the secret of happiness is "to cultivate
one’s garden," a practical philosophy that excludes excessive idealism and nebulous metaphysics.
● The beauty of an object does not rely on his end or purpose. In other words, it does not mean that when the object
reached its goal, we can call it as beautiful. This is not the case.

8. Aesthetic principles are universal by Hume

● Taste is a matter of sentiment, of how I feel about things. And how I feel is how I feel; once I'm clear about it
there's no room for argument. If something feels beautiful to me, then to me it is beautiful. End of discussion.
Taste is a subjective feeling with a standard found within the beholders.
● Hume's rules for art appreciation and criticism:
● 1. Start with the right equipment. To discern "the sentiment of beauty" reliably requires "a delicate
imagination."
● 2. Practice makes perfect. The more experience you get in looking at works of art, the more discerning your
judgment becomes.
● 3. Take several looks. What you miss on the first examination may become clear on the third or fourth.
● 4. Compare the work with others like it. This will help you see what you might otherwise miss.
● 5. Free the mind from prejudice. As much as possible, forget about any special personal interest you might
have in the work (e.g., that it was made by a relative of yours, or that you paid a large amount of money for
it, or that you agree or don't agree with the point the work is making). Try to be a disinterested observer.

9. Taste is Universal by Burke

● Taste, in its most general acceptation, is not a simple idea, but is partly made up of a perception of the primary
pleasures of sense, of the secondary pleasures of the imagination, and of the conclusions of the reasoning faculty,
concerning the various relations to these, and concerning the human passions, manners, and actions. taste is the
faculty of mind that forms judgments about the works of imagination. Curiously, imagination will also be the thing
that is affected, and he wants to bring together the imagination with reason.
● The Beautiful, according to Burke, is what is well-formed and aesthetically pleasing, whereas the Sublime is what
has the power to compel and destroy us. Burke writes about the physiological effects of the Sublime, in particular
the dual emotional quality of fear and attraction. Burke described the sensation attributed to the sublime as a
“negative pain” which he called delight, and which is distinct from positive pleasure. Delight is taken to result
from the removal of pain (by confronting the sublime object) and is more intense than positive pleasure.

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10. Aesthetic Judgments are Necessary by Kant

First Moment “Imagination” = Quality - is the one that judges something to be beautiful based on the pleasure
one feels in apprehending it. This refer to the experiential content to your own subjective taste. Therefore,
judgement of taste is a subset of that type of judgement that say something is pleasurable to apprehend; they are
subjective, not objective judgements. Product of contemplation, beholding beauty of the individual is subjective.

Second Moment “Subjective Universality” = Quantity - to know the beauty of a thing see the universality in
everything, “the judgement of taste itself does not postulate the agreement of everyone”. Something is beautiful all
should agree, but if we say something is pleasant to us not all will agree.

Third Moment “Purposiveness” = Purpose - Form, we find an object to be purposive in its form though we do
not conceptualize a definite purpose; and this harmony in its form contradicts a harmony in our cognitive powers
(imagination and understanding) in our reflection on the object which harmonizes itself the pleasure we experience
when we find an object beautiful.

Fourth Moment “Common Sense” = Modality – Shared capacity for the exercise of taste, agree the objective and
subjective. Kant calls it “exemplary”- a particular judgment that invites universal assent: it “claims that everyone
ought to give his approval to the object in question and also describe it as beautiful”

Thus, judgments of beauty or judgments of taste (as he calls it) are based on the feelings of pleasure or displeasure
which denote nothing in the object and so cannot be other than subjective. From this emerges that beauty is a
perceptual form whose subjective finality is felt as a disinterested, universally communicable and necessary
pleasure. Its finality assures us that its worth contemplating for its own sake, although it is only through feeling
this feature can be apprehended.

11. Art is a Mode of Absolute Spirit by Hegel

● Hegel’s philosophy of spirit speaks of his teaching about “Dialectic Process”. This was all about the triadic
movement of the philosophy. The Subjective spirit as the thesis (in itself), the Objective spirit as the antithesis (for
itself), and the Absolute spirit as the synthesis (for and in itself). Accordingly, the Subjective spirit refers to the
individual mind, the objective spirit represents the external embodiment in social and political institutions. The
apex of knowledge for Hegel are ART, RELIGION, and PHILOSOPHY which only be true in Absolute Spirit
who’s capable of inner freedom.
● Hegel was an absolute idealist, means that everything can be comprehended by the mind, and he was influenced by
Plato. He did not have a philosophical writing that “directly” speaks of aesthetics but rather he has a philosophy of
fine arts which entails his understanding in art that synthetic art is much beautiful rather than the natural ones
because it has freedom of Spirit (idea). Nonetheless, the artist for Hegel is the one who bares truly the freedom.

12. Art transcends Suffering by Schopenhauer

● The will to live is the that would be found in everything that is or existed in animals and even in animate things.
The will is the agent in all the inner and unconscious bodily functions, the organisms being itself nothing but the
will. In all nature forces the active impulse is identical with the will, that is moving response to the driving force in
all things. Will is the endless striving and this impulse, working without knowledge through all nature is finally the
will to live. The will to live has no other purpose than to continue the cycle of life.
● Art and aesthetics. Art is one of the avenues of escape from the overpowering force of the will. In art, we become a
pure knowing subject as opposed to a willing subject. In this sense, we became pure will-less subject and escape
from the misery of the existence.

13. “Art as Intrinsic Personal Feeling” by John Stuart Mill. Context of his philosophy. Idea of Poetry. Soliloquy.

● Context of his philosophy

- Mill’s major influence is not in Aesthetics but in logic and political philosophy. But what made mill
shift his philosophy into aesthetics was when he suffered mental illness (melancholic depression) or
crisis at the age of 20.
- This depression made him realize that inventing a perfect just society would not necessarily bring
him happiness.
- The habit of analysis has a tendency to wear away the feelings. (sa sobraan nato ka bright, sa
kasobra nato paghtag ug importansya ug pagtagad sa atong huna huna, natabunan na niini ang
atong mga pagbati o feelings nga maoy juy tinuod nato na naghatag ug pleasures).
- Our thoughts cannot affect others gravely and directly, only feelings. Feelings can gravely and
directly affect others.
- Mill emerged from this crisis through poetry. The expression of ones feeling as a means that gives
him pleasure and happiness that will eventually lead him to his ‘inward joy.’

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 ❖ Context of the Modern world – ‘without feelings/Indifferent.’
● Idea of Poetry
- Poetry is s‘feeling’ confessing or expressing itself to itself in moments of solitude and embodying
itself in symbols which are the nearest possible representations of the feeling in the exact shape in
which it exists in the poet’s mind.
- Everyone is a poet and everything is poetry as long as one uses one’s feelings alone in expressing
oneself.
- Art – ‘expression of ones feeling,’ alone, regardless if someone is listening to you or none.
- Poetry vs. Eloquence – Poetry is the expression of ones feeling alone while eloquence, on the
other hand, presupposes others. If one wants to influence and court others sympathy, it now leaves
in the domain of poetry and enter into the domain of eloquence.
● Soliloquy
- The act of talking to oneself.
- Beauty is seen on the standpoint of the one expressing.

14. Music is the language of Emotion by Spencer

● There are five vocal phenomena that Spencer elaborated:

Loudness, Timbre, Pitch, Intervals, Variation
● These vocal phenomena which manifested through our feelings are changes of voice that are
physiological result of pain or pleasure that could carried to an extreme vocal music. The music now
employs and exaggerates the natural language of emotions that’s because of systematic combination of
those vocal phenomena, loudness, timbre, pitch, intervals, and rate of variation, which are the
physiological effects of severe pleasure and pain. Spencer, concluded that the origin of the music is that
there is a physiological relation, which is common to all man and all animals, that is, the relation
between feeling/emotion and muscular action. Vocal sounds are produced by muscular action, there is a
result physiological relation between feeling and vocal sounds. The modification and changes of voice in
which produced by feelings are the direct result of this physiological relation, that is, through music
those modification had been adopted and intensified them more and more as it ascends to its higher and
higher forms.
● Spencer agreed, that music is the chief media of sympathy. Through sympathy, men are led to behave
justly and kindly to one another. This faculty makes us sharers in the joys and sorrows of others, and
this is the bases of all higher sentiments and affections. Our direct happiness is intensified by the
sympathy, we lose the half of our enjoyment if we have no one to enjoy with us, for instance, being
lonely at the concert, theatre, and seeing the picture gallery, and etc. Music serves as natural means for
social evolution.

15. Aesthetics as Life’s Affirmation by Nietzsche

● Concept of man- man is the origin and foundation of universe according to Nietzsche, that is, through words
and ideas he shapes cosmos. Life itself is lacking of sense and meaning, and it is the role of man to provide
meaning. Therefore, he is the source of sense and meaning. Man gives meaning to the world by the virtue of
artistic creativity that reaches to justify and affirm his existence on giving meaning and direction of it.
● Role of art in man’s life. Art is man’s foundational metaphysical activity, that is the highest form of human
activity and must be sublime and metaphysical in nature. Art is the transfigure of existence, it is through work
of art as transcending lives of human being. Art is the highest or the supreme form of human activity. Moral
values of nobility and aesthetic value of beautiful combine together in making of one’s life is a work of art.
Life is the work of art.

16. Art is the pleasure in Work by Morris

The pre-Raphaelite brotherhood

The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood was a seven-member group of poets, artists, and critics that formed in response to
the Royal Academy. They found the Royal Academy to be shallow and uninspired and drew their own inspiration
from 14th and 15th century Italian art. They believed in a more spiritual, realistic approach to art- values that were
common in the 15th century- and took issue with the Classical style popularized by Raphael- thus the name Pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood. (“Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood”) The Brotherhood set out to create to new and refreshing
art for the modern age. They challenged the contemporary conventions of art. Its principal members were William
Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais, and Dante Gabriel Rossetti. Thus, they have called themselves as pre-
Raphaelite Brotherhood for they want to bring back the style that occur before Raphael became so influential
during his time particularly the Quattrocento Italian art.

Art as a driving force for life

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 William Morris have found out that art was so essential in our daily life, but during their time the quality of art is
declining for this was the time that the rise of industrial revolution. Industrial revolution brings England into
progress economically, but living art in the state of stagnancy. William Morris have been so in love with the
medieval art he thinks the art produced during that time was the best example on how the artist expressed his
pleasure upon doing that work, even though the artist is commission to produce a particular art.

Morris defines art as the “expression of man’s pleasure in labor”. Art was a driving force for life for without it
(pleasure) life would be meaningless for everyone. The pleasure that we have exerted upon doing a particular art or
work is so important so that we can produce an art with high quality not just quantity. Thus, Morris view art as the
means and not the end for pleasure existed upon doing a particular work.

17. Art evokes Feeling by Tolstoy

Art as communication of emotion.

Tolstoy defines art as an expression of a feeling or experience in such a way that the audience to whom the art is
directed can share that feeling or experience. Art does not belong to any particular class of society. To limit the
subject matter of art to the experiences of a particular class of society is to deny that art can be important for all of
society. Tolstoy criticizes the belief that art is only relevant to a particular class of society, saying that this is a
misconception which can lead to obscurity and decadence in art. He believes that art is a means of communicating
emotion, with the aim of promoting mutual understanding. By gaining awareness of each other’s feelings we can
successfully practice empathy and ultimately unite to further mankind’s collective well-being.

According to Tolstoy, good art is intelligible and comprehensible. Bad art is unintelligible and incomprehensible.
The more that art restricts itself to a particular audience, the more obscure and incomprehensible it becomes to
people outside that particular audience. Good art is not confusing and incomprehensible to most people. To the
contrary, good art can communicate its meaning to most people, because it expresses its meaning in a way which
can be understood by everyone. Tolstoy believes that art is good if it is judged to be good by the majority of
people.

Good art is moral art

Tolstoy excludes many forms of art from what he considers to be "good" art, because he believes that "good" art
must communicate some form of religious experience. Tolstoy argues that good art must be religious art. He
assumes that religious art must conform to his own religious standpoint, and that his personal form of Christianity
is the only true form of Christianity. His deeply personal but very narrow viewpoint may be disputed, however, by
the argument that good art may not necessarily be religious art. His argument that aesthetic values must be moral
and religious values leads him to the false conclusion that the ultimate aim of art must be defined by his own moral
viewpoint. The true definition of art, according to Tolstoy, should be based on moral principles. Before anything,
we need to question if a work of art is moral. If it is moral, then it is good art. If it is not moral, it is bad.

18. Art is emotion by Pater

● Victorian Art- is must be for life-sake, it must serve for social sake. Every art must have a civic, moral, and
utilitarian purposes. Art must be meaningful or art must have meaning/s.
● Art for art sake- this is the slogan of the aesthetic movement headed by Walter Pater as a revolution against
Victorian society’s standards on art in the time of Queen Victoria in England during 18 th century. It means art
does not serve a specific end just like of the Victorian arts, rather art is the end in itself. We must look at it as
mere art and nothing else.
● Art is already the reality for him, without meaning or purpose beyond the art. Art simply evokes feelings,
emotions, and impression. As already the reality, it must not only be appreciated but must be realization of
beauty, because beauty is the fulness of the phenomenon. Beauty for Walter is the truth within you, that is
being evoked/realized. Beauty is your feeling/emotion or impression in the moment you perceive an art
without putting any meaning.

19. Art is Expression by Croce

● Two kinds of knowledge: 1. Intuitive Knowledge deals with intuition, perception, imagination and the senses.
It is considered as the internal knowledge. 2. Logical Knowledge deals will concept, idea, notion. He used
mainly the intuitive knowledge in expressing his art.
● Expressionism is the expression of emotional experience. It always internal and must express meaning.
● The problem should be the art could not be fully expressed by the artist and impressed by the viewer. The
artist would keep away from outside and external forces, if that so, the artist could no longer express profound
expression.

20. Beauty as Intrinsic pleasure by Santayana

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 Beauty is value positive, intrinsic, and objectified. “Beauty is pleasure regarded as the quality of a thing.”

Beauty is Value. It is an emotion, an affection of our volitional and appreciative nature. It requires a feeling or
emotion from the observer in appreciating an art.

This value is positive. It is the sense of the presence of something good. Aesthetic pleasure or aesthetic value is
always concern with beauty, that is, good, therefore positive. When we say pure positive, you cannot experience
ugliness but only good and beautiful things.

Beauty is a positive value that is intrinsic; it is a pleasure. Beauty is constituted by the objectification of pleasure.
It is pleasure objectified.

21. Art as Significant Form by Bell

Significant form

•Significant form is the essential quality which is the essence of art and it is found in all works of art.

•Without this quality an object cannot be truly works of art. The essential quality he refers to as
significant form.

•These combination of lines and colors, these aesthetically moving forms, he call it significant form is
the one quality common to all works of visual arts.

•The Features of Significant Form Lines and colors combined in a particular way” and certain forms and
relations of forms” that produce the aesthetic emotion are the features of significant form.

Aesthetics Emotions

•Every work of art produced different emotions, but all this emotions are recognizably the same kind it is
provoke in all visual art

•This emotion is called aesthetics emotions

•He claims that all sensitive people will immediately recognize this emotions and subsequently recognize
a work of art

•To feel the true aesthetics emotion, bell says a viewer must distance themselves from the subject of
painting or any message it convey.

What is art?

•According to him art has an essence.

•For Clive, in art you will find no accurate representation, we will find only significant form. He call this
Primitive art. Images that are not too intellectual, nor realistic contain significant form, which Bell
believes is what makes work of art.

•For him art must have in common a defining property. The property is significant form. The significant
form produce an aesthetics emotion in sensitive viewers. Thus, all works of art have the capacity to
produce an aesthetic emotion.

22. Art as Unrepressed Wish-fulfillment by Freud

Art as unrepressed wish-fulfilment by Sigmund Freud discussed his claim against Plato. Sublimation V.S
Repression. What is art.

Platonic concept about the world/beauty is in ideal form which attracts most of the philosophers. This form of
beauty is perfect, non-material and the object of desire. However, Freud offered his concept that the physical world
is the ultimate reality not the ideal world of Plato. Thus, Human action stems from the two fundamental drives
1.sex (love) and 2.death (aggression). The ideals for Freud are in these two physical drives and not in the extreme
view of the world of ideas of Plato.

Sublimation, is a process in which we channel our unconscious desires into a creative art rather than hiding
desires in the unconscious, making activities that are more socially acceptable and more within the individual's
reach as providing a degree of satisfaction to those desires. Sublimation a process by which negative urges,
drives, and behaviors are channeled into more socially acceptable behaviors.

Repression pushes down the desire into the subconscious.

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 WHAT IS ART? For Sigmund Freud art is the sublimation of the sexual satisfaction.

The defense mechanism for Freud is the art itself according to him art is the best defense mechanism for us to
be productive. It is the expression of the unconscious or the sublimation of the unconscious. for Sigmund Freud,
we need to recollect our past or we need to go back to our past experience.

The main point of Freud is that we need to channel all our urges and desires into something that will allow us to
become productive.

Art as unrepressed wish-fulfillment the reality now is the sublimation of the unconscious. The artist role now is
to channel the energies (sex, wishes, trauma, aggression).

23. Art as Archetypal Form by Jung

● Analytical psychology approaches psychotherapy in the tradition of C. G. Jung. It is distinguished by a focus on

the role of symbolic experiences in human life, taking a prospective approach to the issues presented in therapy.
This means that while one’s life history is of great significance for understanding one’s current circumstances, the
current circumstances also contain the seeds for future growth and development. The goal of Jungian analysis is
what Jung called individuation.
● Individuation refers to the achievement of a greater degree of consciousness regarding the totality of the person’s
psychological, interpersonal and cultural experiences. Along with Freud, Jung recognized the importance of early
life experiences, and the personal complexes that arise from disturbances in the person’s life all of which are found
in the personal unconscious. Jung’s particular insight, however, was his recognition that individuals are also
influenced by unconscious factors that lie outside their personal experience, and which have a more universal
quality. These factors, which he called archetypes, form the collective unconscious, and give shape to the more
universal narratives, myths and religious phenomena that shape the larger context of human experience. The
analytic process is intended to bring these factors, both personal and collective, into consciousness, allowing the
individual to see more clearly what forces are at play in his or her life. This is the process of individuation, which
has the larger goal of providing the individual with the resources to shape their life going forward. Implicit in
Jung’s understanding of the archetypes in particular is the sense of a goal toward which one’s life may be directed.
The role of the analyst is to help facilitate the individuation process by providing an informed interpretative
environment for understanding the individual’s life experiences. The aim of individuation, equated with the
extension of consciousness and the development of personality, is to divest the self of its false wrappings of the
persona.

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