19/8/2014 Variables that Affect Weld Penetration

Variables that Affect Weld Penetration

One of the other articles on the Lincoln Electric w ebsite discusses w eld fusion vs. w eld penetration, as w ell as w hen deeper w eld
penetration can be beneficial and be a problem . Which w elding variables affect w eld penetration? How can you get m ore or less penetration
in a w eld?

Depth of fusion (aka "penetration") is the distance that fusion extends into the base metal or previous pass from the surface melted during w elding. Figure 1
show s a cross section of a fillet w eld, w here the penetration profile can be seen.

The w elding variable that has the greatest effect on the degree of w eld penetration is current (measured in amperage or amps). Quite simply, as w elding current
increases (i.e., more amperage), w eld penetration increases and as w elding current decreases (i.e., less amperage), w eld penetration decreases. Figure 2
illustrates this point w ith three w elds made at different current levels and w here all other variables w ere held constant.

Figure 1 Figure 2

With arc w elding processes w hich use constant current (CC) output, current is the main, presettable w elding variable. How ever, w ith processes that use
constant voltage (CV) output, voltage and w ire feed speed (WFS) are the main, presettable w elding variables, w ith current levels a result of WFS. As WFS
increases, the corresponding current level for that particular electrode type and diameter also increases. Conversely, as WFS decreases, current also
decreases.

There are several other w elding variables w hich also affect the degree of w eld penetration. The follow ing bullet points, in no particular order, w ill discuss the
effects that each of them have on penetration level (assuming all other variables are held constant). Note that figure 2 (above) as w ell as figures 3, 5, 6 and 7 w ill
show cross sections (and the resulting penetrations levels) of w elds made w ith the Submerged Arc Welding (SAW) process. The SAW process w as chosen to
illustrate the effect (or none effect) that these various w elding variables have on penetration level because the results are more dramatic. SAW is typically used
at very high current levels, as w ell as fast travel speeds, fairly high voltage levels and uses larger diameter electrodes. While changes in these w elding variables
w ill have the same effect on penetration level w hen using other arc w elding processes, because current level, etc. are not as high, the differences in penetration
w ill not be as dramatic.

Polarity: the type of w elding polarity used affects penetration level. With most arc w elding processes, DC+ (direct current electrode positive) polarity produces
more w eld penetration, because more arc energy is focused into the base plate. Conversely, DC- (direct current electrode negative) polarity produces less w eld
penetration, because more arc energy is focused into the electrode and not into the base plate. This is the case w ith the Shielded Metal Arc Welding (SMAW),
Gas Metal Arc Welding (GMAW), Flux Cored Arc Welding (FCAW) and SAW processes (see figure 3). The exception is the Gas Tungsten Arc Welding (GTAW)
process, in w hich the effect of polarity on penetration is opposite. With GTAW, DC- polarity results in more w eld penetration (w ith DC+ polarity generally not
used).

Some advanced SAW pow er sources use Waveform Control Technology and AC (alternating current) in order to provide excellent arc stability and control
betw een w eld deposition rates and w eld penetration levels. They also have the ability to control the balance of the AC w ave, offset of current and frequency for
further control over the w eld characteristics.

Figure 3

Welding Process: the various arc w elding processes have associated w eld penetration characteristics. For example, the SAW, FCAW and GMAW (in a
globular, spray or pulse spray arc metal transfer mode) processes are know n in general for higher levels of w eld penetration. Whereas the GTAW, GMAW-C
(metal core) and GMAW (in a short circuit metal transfer mode) processes are know n in general for low er levels of penetration. Of course this correlation is also
related to current. For example, the SAW process tends to be used at very high current levels w hile the short circuit GMAW process tends to be used at low er

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19/8/2014 Variables that Affect Weld Penetration
current levels. The SMAW process can have deeper or shallow er penetration characteristics, depending on the specific type of electrode used.

Type of Electrode: even w ithin the same w elding process, electrodes of different classifications can have different penetration characteristics. For example,
w ith the SMAW process, an E6010 electrode typically has deeper penetration, w hile an E7024 electrode typically has shallow er penetration. Another example can
be seen w ith the FCAW process. An E70T-1 electrode typically has deeper penetration, w hile an E71T-1 electrode typically has shallow er penetration.

Travel Angle: the degree of the travel angle, w hether a push or drag travel angle, affects how much of the arc force is directed dow n into the base plate. A
travel angle of 0° to 10° (i.e., the electrode perpendicular or mostly perpendicular to the plate) w ill result in more w eld penetration. As the travel angle becomes
more severe, the level of w eld penetration w ill decrease.

Shielding Gas Type: shielding gas types also have an effect on w eld penetration. Shielding gases w ith a higher rate of thermal conductivity, such as 100%
carbon dioxide (CO2) or 100% helium (He), w ill produce w elds w ith a broader, deeper penetration profile. While shielding gases w ith a low er rate of thermal
conductivity, such as 100% argon (Ar), or an Ar / CO2 or Ar / oxygen (O2) blend, have a shallow er penetration profile that is more tapered in the middle (see
Figure 4).

Figure 4

Electrode Diam eter: w hen w elding w ith tw o different diameters of the same electrode and at the same current level, generally more penetration is achieved
w ith the smaller diameter electrode than w ith the larger diameter electrode (see Figure 5). If you look at an end slice of each size w ire, the smaller diameter has
less cross sectional area than the larger diameter. As the same amount of current flow s through each electrode, the concentration or density of current is greater
in the smaller diameter electrode than in the larger diameter electrode. As a result of this higher current density, the smaller diameter electrode w ill have greater
w eld penetration than the larger diameter electrode. Note how ever that every electrode diameter has a maximum current density before the w elding arc becomes
very unstable and erratic. So as current reaches a certain level, it w ill become necessary to increase the electrode diameter.

Figure 5

Travel Speed: how fast the electrode travels dow n the joint affects how much time the arc energy has to transfer into the base plate at any particular point
along the joint. As travel speed increases, the amount of time that the arc is over a particular point along the joint is less and the resulting level of penetration
decreases. As travel speed decreases, the amount of time that the arc is over a particular point along the joint is greater and the resulting level of penetration
increases (see Figure 6).

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19/8/2014 Variables that Affect Weld Penetration

Figure 6

CTWD Variations: w ith the GMAW, FCAW and SAW processes on constant voltage (CV) pow er sources and running at a set w ire feed speed and voltage, as
the contact tip to w ork distance (CTWD) is increased, more resistance to the flow of electricity through the electrode occurs, because the electrode (i.e., the
metal electrical conductor) is longer. At a constant voltage level, this increase in resistance causes current to decrease (i.e., Ohms Law ), w hich results in a
decrease in penetration level. Conversely, as CTWD is decreased, resistance also is decreased. Therefore current increases and thus penetration increases.

One main w elding variable that has virtually no effect on w eld penetration is arc voltage. While changes in arc voltage can result in minimal changes in w eld
penetration, the effect is very minor compared to w elding current and the other variables just listed in this article. Arc voltage affects the arc length. At the same
w ire feed speed, as voltage increases, the arc length gets longer and as voltage decreases, the arc length gets shorter. The length of the arc in turn determines
the w idth and size of the arc cone. As arc length decreases, the arc cone becomes narrow er and the arc is more focused (see Figure 7). The result is a w eld
bead that is more narrow and ropy and the level of w eld penetration may decrease very slightly. Conversely, as arc length increases, the arc cone becomes
w ider and the arc is broader. The result is a w eld bead that is w ider and flatter and the level of w eld penetration may increase very slightly. The effect of arc
voltage on the bead shape can clearly be seen in Figure 8. Notice also that a very slight difference in w eld penetration can be detected betw een w elds made at
27 volts, 34 volts and 45 volts (all at the same amperage, travel speed and diameter electrode). Realize how ever that this is an extremely large variation in arc
voltage, done only on this w eld sample to illustrate the point. Practically, arc voltage w ould only be varied by a few volts w hen w elding. Therefore, the change in
penetration caused by changing voltage (only) by just a few volts w ould virtually be nonexistent.

Figure 7 Figure 8

Ironically, many w elders mistakenly think that arc voltage is the main variable w hich affects the level of w eld penetration. Voltage is often improperly referred to
as “heat”, w here w elders turn up the voltage or "heat" for perceived more penetration and turn dow n the voltage or “heat” for perceived less penetration. This
misconception likely occurs because they see the w eld bead w iden out w ith more voltage and become narrow and ropey w ith less voltage (as illustrated in
Figure 8). How ever, as explained above, the w eld bead profile becomes w ider or narrow er w ith changes in voltage because the arc cone becomes w ider or
narrow er w ith changes in voltage. The resulting w eld penetration level w ith different arc voltage levels (but at the same current level) is virtually unchanged.

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