Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture
E Coton and M Coton, Université de Brest, Plouzané, France
H Guichard, Institut Francais des Productions Cidricoles, Le Rheu, France
ã 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Definition and Origin
Cider is generally defined as an alcoholic beverage obtained by
apple juice (apple must) fermentation. Noteworthy, in North
America, the term ‘cider’ is rather associated with a cloudy unfer-
mented and unpasteurized apple juice, whereas the fermented
product is called ‘hard cider.’ In Europe, the fermented product is
mainly named ‘cider’ in the UK, ‘cidre’ in France, ‘sidra’ in Spain,
and ‘apfelwein’ in Germany. Another common fruit fermenta-
tion is obtained from pears and leads to a product named ‘perry’
in English or ‘poiré’ in French. It is worth mentioning that cider
can either be a final product ready for consumption or an inter-
mediate product used for apple brandy (e.g., ‘Calvados’ in Nor-
mandy and ‘Lambig’ in Brittany) production by distillation or
cider vinegar via an acetic fermentation. Moreover, Calvados
blended with apple must leads to an aperitif-type beverage (i.e.,
predinner drink) named ‘Pommeau’ in France.
Like the other major fermented beverages (i.e., wine and
beer), cider is one of the oldest alcoholic beverages in the
world; Hebrews called it ‘sichar,’ whereas Romans and Greeks
called it ‘sicera’ and ‘sikera,’ respectively. From an etymological
point of view, the name cider would come from ‘sicera’ (mean-
ing any fermented beverage that is not wine; Cambridge Psal-
ter); this can especially be observed in Normandy, as ‘cidre’ was
originally spelled ‘sidre.’ Although the name cider was not used
at the time, during antiquity, a certain number of writings by
Pliny the Elder or Palladius refer to alcoholic beverages
obtained from apples or pears. During the ninth century, the
term ‘sicetores,’ referring to brewers producing ale but also
‘pomacium’ from apples, was used by Charlemagne. In France,
the first use of the word ‘cidre’ was found in the Conception de
Nostre-Dame (Wace, twelfth century). From this time, and
thanks to the invention of the press (thirteenth century),
cider production extended to various apple-producing
European regions. From the fourteenth to twentieth centuries,
technological practices and processes were optimized and led
to higher volumes and better-quality products. Nowadays,
cider production, although far more limited than wine and
beer, can be found on every continent in apple-growing
regions worldwide. In Europe, the UK (mainly West Country,
West Midlands but also Wales), France (mainly Normandy and
Brittany), Spain (mainly Asturias and Basque country), and
Germany are the main cider-producing countries, although
many others have local productions (e.g., Ireland, Austria,
Poland, Sweden, Norway). In North America, hard cider pro-
duction is done in the United States, Canada, and even Mexico.
Interestingly, in Quebec, a new cider type named ‘ice cider’
(equivalent to icewine in enology and thus using apples with
high sugar contents due to natural frost) has recently appeared.
In South America, cider is produced in Argentina and Chile.
Cider production is also found in Asia (China and Japan),
Africa (South Africa), Australia (Tasmania), and New-Zealand.
Encyclopedia of Food and Health http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-384947-2.00163-X
Although the generic term ‘cider’ is commonly used, the
term ‘ciders’ is more appropriate to reflect the large variety of
fermented apple products. According to production region,
cider can be produced from only apples, with the addition of
pear or from apple concentrate. Additives such as sugar, acid,
or coloring agents can also be used. Sugar content may vary
leading to dry, semidry, or sweet ciders. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
may be absent or present and obtained in the final product by
carbonation or a secondary fermentation. In this context,
beyond the classical definition of the term cider, it is important
to note that several country regulations exist to define cider and
cidermaking. Examples of regulations include the French
“Décret n
87–600 du 29 juillet 1987 modifiant le décret n

53–978 du 30 septembre 1953 relatif à l’orientation de la
production cidricole et à la commercialisation des cidres et
des poirés,” the UK “Customs & Excise Notice 162: cider
production” and the Spanish “Orden de 1 de agosto de 1979
por la que se reglamentan las sidras y otras bebidas derivadas
de la manzana.” In these regulations, authorized products
entering the cidermaking process as well as specific analytical
parameters (e.g., ethanol, volatile acidity, or SO2 levels) are
defined.
Moreover, to ensure cider product quality, several certifica-
tions exist at the national or international (European) level.
They are delivered based on certain product specifications and
requirements to ensure product authenticity and quality for
consumers. Examples of these certifications, which are gener-
ally easily recognizable by specific logos on the label, include
• Protected Designation of Origin (PDO) and covers, as
defined by the European Commission, “agricultural prod-
ucts and foodstuffs which are produced, processed and
prepared in a given geographical area using recognized
know-how” (e.g., Cidre Pays d’Auge, Cidre de Cornouaille
and Sidra de Asturias).
• Protected Geographical Indication (PGI) and covers, as
defined by the European Commission, “agricultural prod-
ucts and foodstuffs closely linked to the geographical area.
At least one of the stages of production, processing or
preparation takes place in the area” (e.g., Cidre de Bretagne,
Cidre de Normandie, Gloucestershire cider, Herefordshire
cider, and Worcestershire cider).
• Organic farming corresponds to products that must comply
with strict EU requirements covering not only production
and processing, but also the control and labeling of organic
foods. This certification has gained interest due to strong
societal demand but also higher commercial value for the
product.
• ‘Label Rouge’ (red label) is specific to France and attests that
the product, examined by a national commission, presents
superior overall quality compared to a similar product (e.g.,
Cidre de Normandie, Cidre Royal Guillevic).
119
120 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture

Production organoleptic qualities that make them uninteresting for direct

consumption linked to their acidity or natural polyphenol
Cider production practices in France (Figure 1) and the UK, content. On the contrary, these traits provide high product
although both leading to products called ciders, exhibit major qualities in terms of body equilibrium (sweetness, acidity,
differences that in some instances can even be considered astringency, and bitterness) that are not obtained using dessert
opposite. In the following section, these practices will be apples. Different cider apple cultivars exist, and more than
used as examples. 1000 have been described, although only a few are used for
production. They are classified into six categories based on
juice-specific savors:
Raw Material
• Sweet: These apple varieties are the blandest of the six
Although cider can be produced from any apple cultivar, in categories. They have low acid (<60 mequiv. l1) and poly-
Europe, a distinction is traditionally made between dessert, phenol (<2 g l1) contents and up to 15% sugar (cultivars:
cooking, and cider apples. Cider apples have distinct Douce Coëtligné, Doux Normandie, Muscadet Petit de l’Orne,
Rouge Duret, Sweet Copin, Sweet Alfortd, Nortwood . . .).
• Sour: These apples are mildly sour (60–90 mequiv. l1)
Manual or
with low polyphenols (<2 g l1) (cultivars: Guillevic, Jude-
mechanical harvest
line, Rouget de Dol, Locard blanc . . .).
• Sharp: These apples provide sourness and freshness to cider
Storage to maturity due to their high acidity (>90 and up to 240 mequiv. l1)
and low polyphenol (<2 g l1) contents (cultivars: Petit
Jaune, Judor, Avrolles, Locard vert, Crimson King, Brown’s
Variety blending Apple . . .).
• Bittersweet: This apple type corresponds to intermediate
cultivars with low acidity (<60 mequiv. l1) and high poly-
Washing & sorting phenol (>2 g l1 and <3 g l1) contents providing bitter-
ness and astringency to cider (cultivars: Douce Moën, Bedan,
Binet Rouge, Bisquet, Ashton Bitter, Dabinett, Yarlington Mill,
Milling Tremlett’s Bitter . . .).
• Bittersharp: These apples have high acid (>60 mequiv. l1
pomace
Water leaching and up to 240 mequiv. l1) and total polyphenols (>2 g l1
Cuvage
and up to 6 g l1) (cultivars: Cazo jaune, Kingston Black,
Foxwhelp . . .).
• Bitter: These apples have low acid (<60 mequiv. l1) and
Pressing
high total polyphenols (3–9 g l1) (cultivars: Marie
Ménard, Kermerrien, Petit Amer, Fréquin rouge, Bramtot, Ellis
Apple juice Bitter . . .).
Pressing
Traditionally, ciders are not obtained from a single cultivar.
Pre-fermentation Indeed, blending (‘pommage’) of different apple types allows
juice treatments for the production of balanced ciders with various organoleptic
qualities. Also, three maturity stages can be distinguished: early
season (beginning to end of September), midseason (begin-
Fermentation
ning of October to mid-November), and late season (mid-
November to end of December). After harvest, which is rather
Stabilization by mechanically performed nowadays, apples are stored for a
fining or filtration maximum of 5 days before processing to reach full maturity
and to ensure that all starch has been converted into sugar. This
Blending short time period allows good fruit preservation and texture
compatible with optimal pressing.

Bottling
Milling and Pressing
Prise de mousse Before any processing operation, fruit sorting and washing are
or/and carbonation
required to eliminate rotten fruits and potential foreign mate-
rials (e.g., wood pieces, grass, soil, and stones) that could
Commercialization impact overall product quality. Rotten fruits are associated
with mold contamination and originate either directly
Figure 1 French cidermaking diagram. Steps in lighter gray and from the apple tree itself (Monilia spp.) or indirectly after
discontinued lines are optional. impacts due to falling and being in contact with the ground
 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture
(Fusarium spp.). All damaged fruit, especially in the case of
mechanical harvesting, can also be spoiled by secondary
molds belonging to Botrytis and Penicillium genera. Beyond
the rotten aspect of these fruits and potential associated off-
flavors, it is worth noting that some molds are also able to
produce toxins (mycotoxins) that may have an impact on
human health. Milling (rapâge in French) is then performed
to obtain fruit pulp for more efficient juice (or must) extrac-
tion. In general, a high-speed mill corresponds to a wheel
bearing graters or coarse knives rotating against a fixed surface;
they are calibrated to tear the fruit tissues without smashing the
seeds. Fine milling is used for firm apples, whereas rougher
milling is used for very ripe apples. In France, an extra step
called ‘cuvage’ (pectin leaching for 2–5 h for better pressing
yields) can be performed.
In both the UK and France, the next step involves pressing
the pulp by exerting high pressure. Nowadays, technological
evolutions have led to the use of semicontinuous, continuous,
or even automated presses, although discontinued and more
traditional presses can still be encountered in farm and arti-
sanal cider productions. The main types encountered are
• Horizontal presses: They correspond to compressible cham-
bers, equipped with several juice ducts, in which the pulp is
introduced. Then pressure is applied through the action of a
piston or a membrane. Thanks to several cycles of pressure
and homogenization, high extraction yields (up to
800 l T1) can be reached.
• Continuous belt presses: In this case, the pulp is placed
between two bands that will go through a series of rollers
that apply pressure onto the belt, resulting in a pressing
action. This type of press gives yields ranging from 600 to
750 l T1.
Pressing leads to two products, on the one hand, a liquid phase
corresponding to the juice, also called ‘apple must’ (moût pur
jus in French), and on the other hand, a solid phase called
pomace (marc in French). After coarse screening, the juice is
transported through piping systems to stainless steel, HDPE
(high-density polyethylene) or fiberglass tanks. Less com-
monly, wood tanks can still be encountered in more tradi-
tional cider productions, even though this material is more
difficult to clean and sterilize, thus leading to potential product
spoilage.
The obtained pomace (200–400 kg per ton) still contains
compounds of interest. A second extraction can therefore be
performed by water leaching (countercurrent water percolation
of the pomace) or by pressing the watered pomace. These
actions lead to diluted juice (moût de diffusion or petit jus in
French) that will be added to the first juice obtained. The
extraction step may be facilitated by using enzymatic cocktails
(pectinases and hemicellulases, or pectin methylesterase [PME]
in the presence of calcium) – by themselves or in combination
with the mechanical material.
Prefermentation Juice Treatments
In France, juices are subjected to additional specific steps called
défécation and décantation (keeving and settling in English) to
obtain slow and long fermentations. Keeving corresponds to
121
the traditional juice treatment, and about half of French cider
juices are still treated by this method.
• Keeving relies on the ability of pectins to form a gel via PME
enzyme and calcium action. All compounds necessary for
keeving (pectin, PME, and calcium) are naturally present in
juice. During PME demethylation, an increase of acidic
groups on pectin chains is observed. In the presence of
calcium, bonds will form between pectic chains, thus lead-
ing to gel formation. After 2–6 days, CO2 is generated by
the onset of the fermentation process, and the bubbling
action will force the gel to rise to the top of the tank,
carrying along suspension deposits (rich in nitrogen) that
form a complex structure called chapeau brun. At the same
time, complexed materials will also sediment to the bottom
of the tank. The clarified juice is situated between the gel
and sediment layers. The natural process is slow and not
always reliable. Nowadays, in order to increase the reliabil-
ity of this static system, fungal PME preparations and CaCl2
are added. Recently, a continuous dynamic system, termed
flottation, has also been used by some cider producers. In
this case, the juice is treated for up to 48 h, before being
introduced in a specific device with nitrogen bubbling in
the presence of CaCl2.
• Settling is obtained by pectin hydrolysis, using a combina-
tion of enzymes (PME, endopolygalacturonase and pectin-
lyase). The clarified juice is obtained by decanting; some-
times this is followed by fining by gelatin addition. This
method is widely used by industrial cider producers.
The clarified juice obtained by either method is then trans-
ferred to another tank to begin the next production step.
Prefermentation clarification generates juices without any sus-
pension deposits and low bacterial counts, thus reducing
potential microbial spoilage. Moreover, amino nitrogen con-
tent and yeast counts are also reduced, thus leading to a slow
fermentation. Polyphenols have also been shown to be
affected by these treatments, mainly through a reduction in
both flavanol content and average degree of polymerization.
In the UK, keeving is not performed but juice additions
are. The goal is to obtain a blend of fermentable sugar
sources, including juice but also apple juice concentrates
and/or syrups that give a final product of 10–12% alcohol
after fermentation. Whereas in the case of French cider pro-
duction, everything is done to allow for slow fermentation by
reducing nutrients, reducing yeast counts, and using cold
temperatures. In the UK, the goal is to ferment juices to
dryness in as a short time as wine. To achieve this, several
nutrients are added to the blend. Although there is obviously
no sugar shortage in apple juice, ammonium nitrogen and
vitamins (enzymatic cofactors), which are essential for yeast
development and thus for fermentation, can be limiting,
thereby leading to sluggish or stuck fermentations. This is
especially the case for apple juice concentrates and syrups.
In this context, ammonium phosphate (250 ppm) will be
used to standardize the blend in amino nitrogen content
(about 100 mM). Thiamin, biotin, panthoneate, or pyridox-
ine vitamins can also be added. As performed in France,
British cider makers also depectinize the juice using pectino-
lytic enzyme preparations. This indeed facilitates filtration
operations and prevents haze formation.
122 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture
Finally, sulfur dioxide (SO2) is an important technological
additive that is added during both French and British fermen-
tation processes. It presents two main properties of interest for
cider making and is widely used in oenology. First, it exhibits
antiseptic activity against bacteria and non-Saccharomyces yeast.
The multiple SO2 targets leading to microbial cell death
explains why no sulfite resistance has been observed to date.
Second, sulfite has antioxidant (leading to sulfate formation in
the presence of oxygen) and antioxidative (oxidase inhibition)
activities. SO2 performance is directly linked to pH as only the
undissociated form (termed ‘molecular SO2’) is active. There-
fore, it is recommended to adjust the pH of the juice to pH 3.75
by adding malic acid, the main organic acid found in apples.
Moreover, SO2 interacts with various chemical compounds
(especially aldehydes), microorganisms, and solids; therefore
only the so-called free SO2 will be active and participate to the
overall juice or blend quality. However, SO2 can negatively
affect cider aroma, in particular due to its action on oxidative
flora, and more important is considered to be an allergen (legal
limits for SO2 contents in ciders have been set in Europe).
Although no efficient alternative has been found to date, ascor-
bic acid (antioxidant properties) addition can help reduce SO2
concentrations.
Fermentation
Fermentation refers to microbial activities that will transform
the juice into cider. Like any other technological process, the
key factor to obtain the desired end product is control. This is
especially true and critical when living organisms are involved.
In the context of cidermaking, several technological levers can
be used. These levers correspond to biotic factors (microbial
inoculation or indigenous flora) and abiotic factors, either
intrinsic (pH, amino nitrogen content, sugar content) or
extrinsic (temperature, oxygen content). As discussed earlier
for amino nitrogen content, the contrast between the French
and British processes is also obvious for the fermentation step.
French production relies exclusively on indigenous flora.
The typical fermentation temperature is between 5 and 15
C,
due to the fact that cider tanks were traditionally situated
outside the buildings and thus directly influenced by seasonal
temperatures. This also prevents or inhibits lactic acid bacteria
(LAB) and spoilage microorganism growth. The combination
of low temperature, low amino nitrogen content, and lower
yeast counts (by centrifugation or filtration at strategical time
points) yields slow fermentation times, in accordance with the
desired organoleptic qualities. In the case of PDO and Label
Rouge ciders, a 6-week minimum fermentation time before
bottling is required. In the cider industry, temperature is regu-
lated between 8 and 10
C by refrigeration systems to control
the fermentation, whereas in traditional ciderhouses, racking,
centrifugation or filtration can still be used for control.
French cider production consists of several phases:
• Oxidative phase: This phase is named oxidative due to the
presence of oxygen in juice and lasts from 5 to 15 days.
From a microbiological point of view, high species biodi-
versity can be observed (Tables 1 and 2) with oxidative or
slow fermentative yeasts especially belonging to the Metsch-
nikowia, Hanseniaspora, and Candida genera (Figures 2(a)
and 2(c)). During this stage, little alcohol is produced
(<1%), but numerous volatile compounds are produced,
especially esters that largely contribute to the aromatic
qualities of the final product.
• Alcoholgenic phase (alcoholic fermentation): During the
transition between the oxidative phase and this phase,
microbial diversity largely decreases and the Saccharomyces
uvarum species becomes dominant (Figures 2(a) and 2(c)
and Table 1). Under anaerobic conditions, this species,
more adapted to cold temperature than Saccharomyces cere-
visiae (the main species carrying out the alcoholic fermen-
tation in many fermented beverages), mainly metabolizes
sugars into ethanol and CO2 as well as contribute to the
organoleptic qualities of the cider by producing fusel alco-
hols, acids, and more important, ethyl esters.
• Maturation phase: This stage actually corresponds to a
slower fermentation period, usually associated with a
decrease in S. uvarum counts and sometimes with the
appearance of other yeast species such as Lachanceae cidri,
S. cerevisiae, Brettanomyces anomala, or B. bruxellensis. In
general, LAB counts can also rise at this time (Figure 2
(b)), due to increased fermentation temperatures (climate
changes) and their metabolism (especially for the Oenococ-
cus oeni species). They induce malolactic fermentation (this
transformation sometimes happens concurrent with the
alcoholic fermentation). LAB species encountered mainly
belong to Oenococcus, Lactobacillus, Leuconostoc, and Pedio-
coccus genera (Table 2). Malolactic fermentation results in
the decarboxylation of the main apple juice acid (malic
acid) to lactate. The loss of a carboxylic (–COOH) function
leads not only to the production of CO2 but also to a
reduction in acidity. Although this metabolic step can pos-
itively contribute to the overall organoleptic quality of
the product, it is not always desired as it may lead to ciders
with high pH values (>3.75), compatible with microbial
spoilage. Malolactic transformation can be controlled by
racking, centrifugation, and filtration operations. The mat-
uration stage can last until bottling.
Except for traditional ciders, British fermentation can be consid-
ered as the complete opposite. Indeed, in the UK cider industry,
rapid and complete fermentations are performed. To do so, not
only are juice compositions adjusted as described earlier, but
they are also inoculated with commercial active dried yeasts
(S. uvarum, S. bayanus, or a mix of both). The commercial yeasts
usually originate from the wine industry. Notable technological
traits of these yeast strains include aroma production, killer
activity (favors strain development in the presence of other
yeasts), and flocculation (for easy clarification). Inoculation
trials, concerning both alcoholic fermentation (even using
mixed cultures for ester production), but also malolactic trans-
formation, have been performed in various countries; however,
to this date, this method has not yet been widespread.
Usually in the UK cider industry, an aerobic phase is per-
formed to favor yeast sterol production, essential to cope with
the final ethanol content. After this step, the inoculated juice is
fermented to dryness under anaerobic conditions for one week
at temperatures ranging between 15 and 20
C.
In all cases, alcoholic fermentation is monitored by follow-
ing density or specific gravity, until the desired residual
 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture 123

Table 1 Yeast biodiversity in cider during the various production steps

Species Cider type Dominance Fermentation stages when species can be found
a
Arthroascus schoenii (formerly Endomyces French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
schoenii)
Cryptococcus sp.a French cider þ Water for apple transport, cider must, oxidative
phase
Candida matritensis French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida oleophila French cider, UK cider þ/ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida parapsilosis Spanish cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida pomicola French cider, UK cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida sake French cider þ/ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida stellata French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Candida tropicalis French cider þ/ Cider must, oxidative phase
Dekkera anomala French cider þþ Maturation phase, bottled cider
Dekkera bruxellensis French cider þ Maturation phase, bottled cider
Hanseniaspora osmophila French cider, UK cider, þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Spanish cider
Hanseniaspora sp. French cider þ Alcoholic fermentation phase, maturation phase
Hanseniaspora uvarum French cider, UK cider, þþþ Cider must, oxidative phase
Spanish cider
Hanseniaspora valbyensis French cider, UK cider, þþ Cider must, oxidative phase or late stages
Spanish cider
Issatchenkia occidentalis French cider þ Water for apple transport, cider must, oxidative
phase
Issatchenkia terricola French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Kloeckera sp. French cider, Spanish cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Kluyveromyces marxianus French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Lachanceae cidri (formerly French cider þþ Alcoholic fermentation phase, maturation phase,
Zygosaccharomyces cidri) bottled cider
Metschnikowia pulcherrima French cider, UK cider, þþ Cider must, oxidative phase
Spanish cider
Meyerozyma guilliermondii (formerly Pichia French cider, UK cider, þþ Cider must, oxidative phase
guillermondii) Spanish cider
Pichia delftensis French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Pichia fluxum French cider, Spanish cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Pichia membranifaciens French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Pichia misumaiensis French cider, UK cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Pichia nakasei French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase
Rhodotorula ingeniosa French cider þ Water for apple transport, cider must, oxidative
phase
Saccharomyces uvarum French cider, UK cider, þþþ Alcoholic fermentation phase, maturation phase,
Spanish cider bottled cider
Saccharomyces cerevisiae French cider, Spanish cider, þþ Alcoholic fermentation phase, maturation phase,
UK cider bottled cider
Saccharomycetes sp. French cider þ Water for apple transport, cider must, oxidative
phase
Torulaspora delbrueckii French cider þ Cider must, oxidative phase

Dominance based on studies available in the literature and unpublished data (French ciders). þ, punctually identified; þþ, regularly present; þþþ, dominant species.
a
Filamentous fungi.

sugar concentrations are reached (in the UK: dry, in France: <
28 g l1 for ‘Brut,’ between 28 and 42 g l1 for ‘Demi-Sec,’
and >35 g l1 for ‘Doux’ ciders). Malolactic fermentation
is monitored by the follow-up of malate and lactate
using classical biochemical methods (ex. paper thin layer
chromatography).
Postfermentation Treatments
After fermentation, different operations are performed before
bottling. In most cases, cider is racked from the lees to clarify
and stabilize the product. If not, a limpid and stabilized
product is obtained by fining, centrifugation or filtration oper-
ations that can be combined or applied individually. Fining
consists of adding proteins that interact with polyphenols and
form complexes to entrap matter in suspension while settling
out. Typical fining agents correspond to gelatin (animal pro-
tein) or chitosan (prepared from crab-shell chitin); however,
bentonite, a negatively charged absorbent clay, can also be
added to accentuate sedimentation. Filtration is performed
using either kieselguhr, an unconsolidated form of diatomite,
or plate filtration or microfiltration. For traditional ciders,
fining and filtration are not performed, thus leading to yeast
haze and deposit in the bottle.
124 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture

Table 2 LAB biodiversity in cider during the various production steps

Species Dominance Fermentation stages when species can be found

Lactobacillus brevis þ MLF fermentation phase, maturation phase

Lactobacillus buchneri þþ All stages
Lactobacillus casei/paracasei þ Early and late phases
Lactobacillus collinoides þþþ All stages
Lactobacillus diolivorans þ Occasionally identified
Lactobacillus mali þ All stages
Lactobacillus pentosus þ All stages
Lactobacillus sp. þ Maturation phase
Lactobacillus fermentum þ All stages
Lactobacillus plantarum þ All stages
Leuconostoc mesenteroides þþþ Early, oxidative phase, less frequent in late phases
Oenococcus oeni þþþ Dominant during alcoholic, MLF, and maturation phase, can be present in all stages
Pediococcus ethanodurans þ Occasionally identified
Pediococcus parvulus þ All stages
Pediococcus pentosaceus þ All stages

Dominance based on studies available in the literature and unpublished data (French ciders). þ, punctually identified; þþ, regularly present; þþþ, dominant species.

1.00E+08
1 2 3

1.00E+07

1.00E+06
M. pulcherrima

1.00E+05 S. uvarum
CFU/ml

H. uvarum
1.00E+04
P. membranifaciens M W A D0 D3 D7 D15 D30 D60 D120 D180
1.00E+03 C. pomicola
H. uvarum
Hanseniaspora sp. H. uvarum
1.00E+02
Hanseniaspora sp.
1.00E+01

C. pomicola
1.00E+00
1 4 7 29 60 123 180
Day M. pulcherrima
(a)
P. membranifaciens

1 2 3
1.00E+08

1.00E+07 S. uvarum
1.00E+06 M. pulcherrima
Lactobacillus
1.00E+05 mali
M. pulcherrima
CFU/ml

1.00E+04 Leuconostoc
mesenteroides
1.00E+03 (c)
Oenococcus
1.00E+02 oeni

1.00E+01

1.00E+00
1 3 7 15 24 64 119 180
Date
(b)

Figure 2 Examples of microbial dynamics during cidermaking observed using culture-dependent (PCR-RFLP for yeast (a) and ARDRA for LAB (b)) and
culture–independent (using TGGE for yeast (c)) methods. All methods showed a decrease in biodiversity leading to the dominance of S. uvarum
for yeast (responsible for alcoholic fermentation) and O. oeni for LAB (responsible for malolactic fermentation). 1, 2, 3 correspond to fermentation
stages; W, water used to transport apples; and A, apples in silos.

Ciders are then blended based on the experience of the and Spain, British and French ciders are expected to be effer-
cidermaker. Noteworthy, although limited additions are vescent. In industrial or artisanal ciders, carbonation is per-
allowed in most countries (see detailed legislations), in the formed to saturate the liquid with ca. 5–6 g l1 CO2. Natural
UK, water is added to reach the desired alcoholic level. effervescence is obtained through a supplementary step, called
Other additives permitted include sweetening agents such as prise de mousse in French, and is usually performed during the
sugar, but also acids, coloring agents, and preservatives to maturation phase. To do so, indigenous yeast fermentation, or
obtain expected organoleptic qualities. Unlike in Germany inoculation of active dry yeasts in bottles or in tanks is
 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture
performed. The yeasts naturally ferment residual sugars to form
CO2. Temperature, yeast counts, and residual amino nitrogen
will be the main factors affecting effervescence in the final
product.
Finally, the product is bottled in glass or PET bottles or kegs
using an isobarometric filling machine to preserve product
effervescence. Pasteurization is possible according to product
type and nature of the container (tunnel pasteurization after
filling for glass bottles, flash pasteurization and chilling before
bottling for PET bottles). Although the temperature and dura-
tion applied for microbiological stabilization are not necessar-
ily high, due to pH and alcohol content, this step may still
impact the organoleptic characteristics of the final products
(typical cooked apples or caramel flavors). The product is
then commercialized.
Cider Spoilage
Different types of spoilage can occur during cidermaking and can
arise from either the presence of undesirable microorganisms or
specific physicochemical parameters. A survey performed in
2004 among French cidermakers showed that microbial spoilage
was of greater importance. In terms of frequency and economic
impact, the main microbial spoilages are
• Phenolic off-flavor: This organoleptic defect is due to volatile
phenols usually associated with ‘animal,’ ‘leather,’ ‘phenolic,’
or ‘spicy’ aromatic notes. This spoilage has been extensively
studied in wine and to a lesser extent in cider. It has been
shown that Brettanomyces spp. yeasts are responsible for the
transformation of hydroxycinnamic acids into volatile phe-
nols via vinyl phenol intermediates (these reactions are
mediated by hydroxycinnamate decarboxylase, and vinyl-
phenol reductase activities). However, in wine as in cider,
hydroxycinnamic acid mainly exists in an esterified form
(with tartaric acid in wine and quinic acid in cider) that
Brettanomyces cannot metabolize. In wine, it was shown
that commercial enzymatic preparations, containing a cin-
namoyl esterase, were mainly responsible for hydroxycin-
namic acid production. In cider, it was recently shown that
Lactobacillus collinoides could metabolize the main hydroxy-
cinnamic ester, chlorogenic acid (¼ caffeoylquinic acid), and
produce the caffeic acid precursor. This precursur can be
further metabolized into ethyl catechol by either L. collinoides
or B. anomala species.
• Cider-sickness: This spoilage, known as ‘framboisé’ in
France, is less frequent but can have a severe economic
impact. It mainly concerns sweet ciders. It occurs in
tanks or in bottles and is characterized by an excessive
production of acetaldehyde (often above regulatory limits,
see following). This leads to unpleasant flavors (rotten
banana, vegetal aromas), haze formation, high pressure in
bottles, and excessive foaming. This spoilage is associated
with the development of the Gram-negative bacterium,
Zymomonas mobilis (the subspecies pomaceae is associated
with British cider-sickness, whereas the subspecies francensis
is associated with French ‘framboisé’ ciders). It vigorously
ferments sugars into multiple end products including exces-
sive amounts of acetaldehyde and CO2. Favorable factors
are residual sugars, absence of SO2 addition, pH >3.75,
125
and high amino nitrogen. Acetaldehyde levels are regulated
in France (<100–120 mg l1).
• Acrolein spoilage: This spoilage is mainly associated with
ciders fermented to dryness and used for apple brandy
production. Spoilage is associated with LAB able to degrade
glycerol (including L. collinoides, although this trait may be
strain-dependent). Glycerol is produced (ca. 5 g l1) by
yeast during fermentation and provides roundness to the
product. Glycerol is degraded via a glycerol dehydratase
into 3-hydroxypropionaldehyde (3-HPA). This molecule is
a precursor for acrolein and can be nonenzymatically
formed via spontaneous dehydration in acidic conditions.
It leads to pepper flavors and a strong bitter taste.
• Lactic acid spoilage: This is due to the natural metabolism of
LAB, associated with their early development before alco-
holic fermentation is complete (in the presence of ferment-
able sugars). It can be easily detected as malolactic
transformation only leads to L-lactate while lactic acid spoil-
age is associated with both D- and L-lactate isomers. Acetic
acid is also formed by heterofementative LAB. The eco-
nomic impact of lactic acid spoilage is rather low.
The following microbial spoilages are less frequent:
• Ropiness: This spoilage is characterized by abnormal viscos-
ity associated with the presence of exopolysaccharides
(sugar polymers). The type of exopolysaccharides depends
on the producing microorganism. Responsible microorgan-
isms in cider have been associated to LAB (e.g., Pediococcus
damnosus, Lactobacillus sicerae), or sporulating bacteria
(Bacillus licheniformis).
• Acetic acid spoilage: This alteration is easily recognizable due
to its characteristic acidic taste and vinegar flavor. It is
associated with the development of acetic acid bacteria
(e.g., Acetobacter, Gluconobacter spp.) that metabolize etha-
nol in the presence of oxygen. Acetic acid can then react
with ethanol to form ethyl acetate, another off-flavor mol-
ecule. Therefore, maintaining the product in anaerobic
conditions will prevent this spoilage.
Concerning, physicochemical spoilage (‘casse’ in French), they
are observed when cider is in contact with air and thus, as
stated earlier, can be controlled by using anaerobic conditions.
In the presence of oxygen, polyphenol oxidation occurs
conferring product instability and color change. This reaction
is observed in the presence of metals (iron or copper)
that contribute to polyphenol complexation. Oxidative
spoilage is associated with the polyphenol oxidase enzyme,
linked to overripened or moldy fruits. Finally, protein haze,
characterized by deposits in bottles, is associated with
protein–polyphenol combinations. Noteworthy, protein con-
centration being low in cider, it is rarely observed.
Cider Composition, Organoleptic Qualities and
Health Impact
Composition
Cider composition (Table 3) first depends on apple juice com-
position and thus not only on the apple varieties but also culture
conditions, fruit maturity, and physical (cracks and bruises) or
126 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture

Table 3 Physicochemical parameters determined for 150 ciders representative of French cider production

Total
Mass Alcohol L-Malate D-Lactate L-Lactate Acidity Volatile Sorbitol Fructose Glucose Sucrose sugar
1 1 1
density (%vol) pH (mg l ) (mg l ) (mg l ) (mequiv. l1) acidity (mg l1) (mg l1) (mg l1) (mg l1) (mg l1)

All cidersFrom 1000.9 1.4 3.28 0.00 0.04 0.04 1.11 0.03 3.1 8.2 0.1 0.0 8.0
To 1040.2 7.2 4.22 6.79 1.53 4.35 7.09 1.11 14.1 62.7 20.8 11.8 82.3
Mean 1017.4 4.1 3.74 1.29 0.24 1.61 2.63 0.42 6.3 34.5 7.1 0.4 39.6
Median 1016.6 4.2 3.76 0.45 0.16 1.79 2.29 0.43 6.0 34.2 5.8 0.0 37.2
Dry From 1000.9 2.9 3.43 0.00 0.06 0.04 1.26 0.03 3.7 8.2 0.1 0.0 8.0
To 1023.4 7.2 4.03 5.05 1.53 3.14 4.37 1.11 14.1 61.4 20.8 2.4 78.1
Mean 1011.3 4.9 3.75 1.25 0.27 1.48 2.27 0.54 6.5 25.7 4.0 0.1 28.3
Median 1010.6 4.9 3.75 0.67 0.18 1.71 2.01 0.53 5.8 25.5 3.5 0.0 27.0
Semisweet From 1010.4 3.0 3.28 0.00 0.05 0.12 1.11 0.04 3.1 22.7 2.3 0.0 24.9
To 1028.2 5.5 4.22 6.79 0.69 4.35 5.77 0.89 10.5 52.0 15.2 1.1 59.1
Mean 1018.4 4.2 3.77 1.14 0.19 1.94 2.25 0.44 6.4 37.1 7.2 0.1 42.1
Median 1018.3 4.2 3.80 0.38 0.14 2.15 2.09 0.50 6.5 36.9 7.1 0.0 42.1
Sweet From 1014.0 1.4 3.35 0.01 0.04 0.13 1.20 0.04 3.7 30.4 3.7 0.0 11.6
To 1040.2 5.2 4.06 4.19 0.57 3.45 7.09 0.67 7.3 62.7 18.6 11.8 82.3
Mean 1025.2 3.1 3.70 1.93 0.18 1.32 3.47 0.24 5.3 45.3 11.7 2.3 53.8
Median 1025.4 2.8 3.70 2.60 0.14 0.85 3.18 0.15 5.3 46.3 12.4 1.0 54.3

(Source: IFPC)

biological (molds, worm holes) damage. Then, the process and
microbial activity during fermentation impact the product.
Apple juice is mainly constituted of water (80–90% w/v) but
also contains various soluble compounds:
• Sugars: They are the principal component of the soluble
matter, representing from 75% to 90% (80–170 g l1). They
are encountered in various forms: mono-, oligo-, and poly-
saccharides (amylose, amylopectin, pectins). However, the
main sugar is fructose. It is the only one present in the final
fermentation phase, as other fermentable sugars (glucose and
the disaccharide: sucrose) are rapidly metabolized into fruc-
tose during the first two-thirds of the fermentation. Notewor-
thy, glucose can still be found in semisweet or sweet ciders. At
the end of fermentation, all or part of these sugars are trans-
formed into ethanol (generally 2–8% but up to 12% ABV –
alcohol by volume). In ciders, residual sugar concentrations
are generally situated between 8 and 67 g l1. Moreover,
sorbitol, a nonfermentable sugar alcohol, ranges from 3 to
14 g l in cider.
• Acids: The main acid, as noted earlier, is malic acid. It
can occur at concentrations between 1 and 10 g l1, accord-
ing to apple variety (ca. 85% of total acidity). Citric, acetic,
quinic, and citromalic acids can also be detected. Galac-
turonic acid can be detected when enzymatic preparations
have been used due to pectin degradation. In ciders, lactic
acid is detected if malolactic transformation has occurred.
• Polyphenols: Cider phenolic compounds are (1) flavan-3-ols
(composed of the monomers (þ)-catechin et ()-epicatechin
and their corresponding polymer: procyanidin; 2–5 g kg1),
(2) hydroxycinnamic acids (caffeic, p-coumaric and ferulic
acids), and their esters (chlorogenic acid or 5- caffeoylquinic
acid being the most represented; 0.3–2.5 g kg1), (3) dihy-
drochalcones (phloridzin, phloretin et phloretin-20 -O-
xyloglucoside; 0.02–0.10 g kg1) as well as (4) flavonols
(e.g., quercitrin, hyperin, or avicularin) and anthocyanins in
smaller quantities.
• Nitrogenous compounds: They are only present in small
quantities, although their content may vary considerably
according to the considered cultivar (40–150 mg l1).
Yeast-assimilable nitrogen substances are of interest as
they will condition fermentation speed and achievement
(as noted earlier, keeving can be used to control amino
nitrogen content in apple juice). They mainly correspond
to amino acids, in particular asparagine but also aspartic
acid (ca. 50% and 5% of total nitrogen, respectively).
• Vitamins: Vitamin C is the main vitamin found in apple
juice, but is generally lost during the process. Vitamin C
may be added in some productions.
• Minerals: Iron, potassium, as well as calcium and sodium,
are present in both apple juice and cider.
• Volatile compounds: These molecules are either varietal (orig-
inating from the fruit) or fermentative (originating from
microbial metabolism). They belong to various chemical
families: alcohols, esters, ketones, aldehydes, phenols, sul-
fur compounds, and organic acids.
Organoleptic Qualities
Concerning cider taste, the three main components that interact
to give the overall perception in the mouth are sugars, acids, and
polyphenols. Sugars contribute to sweetness and roundness
perception. In this context, fructose, and to a lesser extent sor-
bitol, largely contributes to the sugary flavor of the final product.
Acids contribute to cider flavor and directly influence sweetness
perception. A positive acidity perception is associated with prod-
uct freshness. Finally, polyphenols contribute to several product
traits: bitterness, astringency, and color. Concerning aroma,
many volatile molecules contribute, according to their sensory
perception threshold, to cider aroma. Although some cider
aromas are already present in apple juice (apple cultivar aromas
such as hexanol, ethyl 2-hydroxycaproate, ethyl lactate, or dia-
cetyl), a large majority are produced during fermentation. The
molecules correspond to alcohols like propanol, isobutanol,
isopentanol, benzylic alcohols, and 2-phenylethanol (known
for its rose aroma). Yeasts also produce esters during the alco-
holic fermentation (e.g., ethyl 3-methylbutyrate, 2-phenylethyl
 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture 127

acetate, ethyl hexanoate, ethyl octanoate, ethyl decanoate
among many others). Terpene derivatives, sulfur-containing
compounds, and lactones can also be detected.
All these compounds contribute to the aromatic complexity
of the final product and rely on a subtle balance between them
(Table 4). As stated earlier, this balance can be affected by
several metabolites (e.g., volatile phenol, acetaldehyde, lactic
acid, acetic acid) originating from spoilage microorganisms.
Moreover, this can also be affected by aroma compounds
present at much higher levels than their sensory perception
threshold. Noteworthy, the amount of effervescence, bubble
size, and persistence will also affect overall product perception.
Health Impact
Like any other food product, a ‘benefits and risks’ approach
should be considered. The first aspect to consider is the nutri-
tional value of the product. As stated earlier, there is not one
cider but many ciders; thus a range of nutritional values can be
observed according to the considered cider. Examples of values
for French dry and sweet ciders are as follows: water 92.70 and
94.1, carbohydrates 2.35 and 3.21, fibers 0.5 in both types,
alcohol 3.2 and 1.9 g/100 g, respectively. No fat, starch, or
proteins are found.
Potential Benefits
• Microbial safety: Due to its intrinsic characteristics (low pH,
presence of alcohol and polyphenols – exhibiting bacterio-
static effects – and anaerobic conditions) and, in some
cases, the cidermaking process (pasteurization), cider does
not contain pathogenic bacteria or permit their growth.
Reported cases of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (serotype
O157:H7) have been reported in the literature, but are
actually associated with the nonfermented and unpasteur-
ized North American nonalcoholic product called cider (by
opposition to hard cider).
• Antioxidant effect: Cider (like apples and apple juice) is rich
in polyphenols that exhibit antioxidant properties. These
dietary molecules have been recognized as having health
benefits by inactivating free radicals (O2 and other reactive
oxygen species) naturally produced in the body. In this
context, like other polyphenol-rich food and beverages,
cider and related apple products may contribute to

Table 4 Organoleptic descriptors associated with cider

Family Group Descriptor Family Group Descriptor

Tastes Acidic Sensation Sparkling

Bitter Astringent
Sweet
Aromas Fresh fruit Apple Aromas Floral White flowers
Pear Honeysuckle
Quince Violet
Apricot Acacia
Peach Honey
Grapefruit Rose
Lemon Spices Clove
Pineapple Cinnamon
Passion fruit Pepper
Mango Anis
Banana Resin
Raspberry Cedar
Strawberry Pine
Blackcurrant Grilled Roasting
Cherry Toasted bread
Complex fruit Crystallized fruits Sweet bread
Cooked fruit Licorice
Applesauce Smokey
Almond Woody Undergrowth
Hazelnut Fresh wood
Chestnut Humus
Fig ‘Brown’ Butterscotch
Prune Caramel
Vegetal Grass Chocolate
Mushroom Vanilla
Hay Mineral Flintstone
Mint Silex
Moss Milky Milk
Tobacco Butter
Yeast Animal Leather
Tea Musk
128 Cider (Cyder; Hard Cider): The Product and Its Manufacture
lowering risks of some chronic medical problems (particu-
larly cardiovascular diseases and cancers).
• Minerals: Apple cider is a good source of potassium and
iron. It is also low in sodium, making it compatible with a
sodium-restricted diet.
• Low calorie content: Ciders possess low calorie contents,
compared to other alcoholic beverages (especially wine).
For example, in France, whereas 79 kcal/100 g were deter-
mined for average wine, the following calorie contents have
been determined for average cider, dry cider, and sweet
cider: 30.2, 32.8, and 27.1 kcal/100 g, respectively. Dry
ciders have more calories than sweet ciders due to the fact
that, for a same quantity, ethanol represents more calories
than sugar (7 vs. 4 kcal g1 for ethanol and sugar,
respectively).
• Gluten-free: Cider is a gluten-free fermented beverage and
thus can be an alternative to beer for gluten-intolerant
people. This is especially used as a marketing argument in
North America, where a higher percentage of the popula-
tion is concerned with celiac disease.
Potential Negative Aspects
• Alcohol: Although ciders possesses low alcohol contents
(generally ranging from 2% to 8%) and observational stud-
ies suggest that moderate alcohol consumption is linked
with lower risks of coronary heart disease, cider should be
consumed in moderation like any other alcoholic beverage.
This is especially true for white ciders (7.5 ABV), an almost
colorless product made either by processing dessert apples
and pomace or by using apple concentrates with glucose or
corn syrup addition for alcohol production. This product,
although often containing little apple juice, falls under the
UK regulation cider definition (Customs Notice 162).
• Sugar: According to the amount of residual sugars or sugar
added, cider may contain little to high amounts of simple
sugars (up to more than 8 g per 100 ml). Therefore, this
should be taken into consideration in a balanced diet.
• SO2 : As stated earlier, sulfites are added during the produc-
tion process to control microbial growth. However, SO2 can
also be considered as an allergen to some individuals. In
Europe, labeling is compulsory if concentrations of more
than 10 mg kg1 or 10 mg l1 (expressed as SO2) of sulfur
dioxide and sulfites are present (Directive 2003/89/EC).
• Patulin: This mycotoxin is a secondary metabolite produced by
a number of fungal species (Aspergillus, Byssochlamys, and Pen-
icillium) with Penicillium expansum being the most frequent.
Although patulin can be found in apples and apple juice,
studies suggest that it is metabolized by Saccharomyces spp.
during alcoholic fermentation to form (E)- and (Z)-ascladiol,
apparently less toxic compounds. Although ciders are less at
risk, similar to fruit juices, concentrated fruit juices and other
fermented drinks from apples or containing apple juice, patu-
lin content is regulated to maximum levels of 50 mg kg1 at the
EU level (Commission regulation (EC) N
1881/2006).
• Biogenic amines: These molecules result from the metabo-
lism of living organisms (LAB in cider), mainly through the
decarboxylation of the corresponding precursor amino
acid. Histamine, tyramine, as well as putrescine and cadav-
erine, can be encountered. They are undesirable due to their
physiological activity, especially in sensitive consumers
(with natural or drug-related mono-amine oxidase deficien-
cies). No legislation exists limiting the presence of these
metabolites in cider.
See also: Alcohol: Metabolism and Health Effects; Alcohol: Properties
and Determination; Apples; Beverage: Health Effects; Beverage: Patterns
of Consumption; Lactic Acid Bacteria; Yeasts.
Further Reading
Dürr P (1986) The flavour of cider. In: Morton ID and Macleod AJ (eds.) Food flavours:
part B: the flavour of beverages, pp. 85–97. Amsterdam, Netherlands: Elsevier.
Jarvis B (2014) Cider (Cyder; hard cider). In: Batt CA and Tortorello ML (eds.)
Encyclopedia of food microbiologyVol. 1, pp. 437–443. Elsevier.
Jolicoeur C (2013) The new cider maker’s handbook: a comprehensive guide for craft
producers. White River Junction, USA: Chelsea Green Publishing Co.
Lea AGH and Drilleau J-F (2003) Cidermaking. In: Lea AGH and Piggot JR (eds.)
Fermented beverage production, 2nd ed., pp. 59–88. New York, NY: Kluwer
Academic/Plenum Publishers.