Fortified Wine

Fortified wines, like sparkling wines, are the result of a process beyond simple vinification.

Fortified wines are manipulated through the addition of neutral grape spirit, in order to
strengthen the base wines for the purpose of added body, warmth, durability or
ageworthiness. Through centuries of effort, the world's premier fortified wine regions have
developed unique regimes of production and aging; these methodologies—or manipulations
of the base material—have become inextricably linked to the "terroir" of the wines. Port,
Madeira, and Sherry represent the three great archetypes of fortified wine, yet each is utterly
distinct. Sicily's Marsala; France's vin doux naturel; many of Greece's OPE wines; Portugal's
Setúbal, Carcavelos, and Pico; Sherry's close cousins Málaga, Montilla-Moriles, and
Condado de Huelva; the many fading traditional styles of the Iberian peninsula—Tarragona
Clásico, Rueda Dorado, etc.—and a myriad number of New World adaptations constitute the
remaining stratum of fortified wine styles. Vermouth and quinquinas, fortified wines flavored
by maceration with additional herbs and spices (cinchona bark is essential to the flavor of
quinquinas) are properly considered aromatized wines.

There are three general methods of fortification. A wine's fermentation may be arrested
through the addition of spirit while sugars remain (as in the case of Port) or the wine may be
fortified after the fermentation has concluded (as in the case of Sherry). The latter method
produces a dry fortified wine, although the winemaker may restore sweetness by the addition
of sweetened wine or grape syrup. The third method, in which grape must is fortified prior to
fermentation, produces a mistelle rather than a fortified wine. This category was once
exclusively known as vins de liqueur (liqueur wines), but the EU has extended its definition
to include all fortified wines. The popular connotation reigns in France, where many grape-
growing regions are associated with a style of vin de liqueur: in Champagne, there is Ratafia;
in Cognac, Pineau des Charentes; in Armagnac, Floc de Gascogne; in the Jura, Macvin du
Jura.

Port
Port, the famous fortified wine of Portugal's Douro Valley, enjoys the protection of one of the
world's oldest appellations—the Douro was first demarcated in 1756—yet has become one of
the world's most co-opted wine styles. Fraud and the appropriation of unique regional
identities has been an endemic and ongoing struggle for many of the world's most process-
driven wines, particularly Champagne, Sherry, and Port. "Port" is now a protected term in the
EU; the production of Port is overseen and enforced by the Douro Port Wine Institute, or
Instituto dos Vinhos do Douro e Porto (IVDP) a regulatory body that absorbed the powers of
the Commissão Interprofessional da Região Demarcada do Douro in 2003, which in turn
replaced the Casa do Douro in 1995. The Casa do Douro, a syndicate of growers' guilds
established in 1932 that assumed control over the regulation of viticulture, lost many of its
regulatory functions after it bought controlling shares in Royal Oporto, a port shipper and the
surviving remnant of the Companhia Geral dos Vinhos do Alto Douro, the original oversight
"company" established in the Douro in 1756. Today, the government-run IVDP supervises
the promotion, production, and trade of all Porto and Douro DOP wines. Both growers and
shippers must submit to its authority. The IVDP requires Port houses to maintain compliance
with the lei do tergo ("law of the third"), a decree restricting sales of Port to one-third of a
house's total inventory annually. In addition, the IVDP guarantees label integrity and age
designations, and samples all appellation wines for authenticity.

Terraces at Quinta do Noval, Photo:David Glancy, MS

The IVDP grants each grower's beneficio authorization—the maximum amount of wine that
may be fortified in a given year—based on a matrix of twelve factors. Each factor has a
minimum and maximum point score associated with it, and there are a total of 2,361 points
available. Vineyards that score over 1,200 are awarded an "A" grade, "B" vineyards score
between 1,001 and 1,200 points, and so on through "F", the lowest grade. Seven soil and
climate factors are scored: location, altitude, exposure, bedrock, rough matter, slope and
shelter. The next five factors relate to the vine itself: type of vine, planting density, yield,
training system, and vine age. Maximum yields in the Douro for red grapes are set at 55
hl/ha; for white grapes the maximum yield is 65 hl/ha. For Porto, the preferred red grapes are
Touriga Nacional, Touriga Francesa, Tinta Roriz, Tinta Cão, Tinta Barroca, Tinta Amarela,
Tinta Francisca, Bastardo and Mourisco Tinto. They must constitute a minimum 60% of the
blend. Preferred white Port grapes include Gouveio, Malvasia Fina, Viosinho, Rabigato,
Esgana Cão, and Folgasão. Many of the Douro's vineyards are planted on steep, terraced
slopes—although one new planting system abandons traditional terraces in favor of planting
vines in vertical rows leading directly up the slopes (Vinhos ao Alta). Patamares—wider
terraces that can be navigated by tractor—are more common. Grapes are harvested by hand.

After the harvested fruit arrives at the winery, the grapes are destemmed (fully or partially)
and crushed. Traditionally, grapes were foot-crushed and fermented in low, open granite
troughs called lagares. Smaller quintas may continue this practice, sometimes set to music for
the benefit of both worker and tourist, but most large Port houses have switched to more
modern means. Autovinifiers, an Algerian vinification technology in which the fermenting
wine would be pumped over the cap by virtue of its own buildup of gas, became more and
more common during labor shortages in the 1960s and 1970s. Powered only by their own
internal pressure, the original autovinification tanks were a useful tool in the remote Douro
Valley, although temperature control and other improvements are now widely incorporated.
Automated treading machines, designed in the 1990s, and open-top fermenters with pump-
over systems are newer alternatives for the region. Ultimately, the goal of the short, two-to-
three day Port fermentation is to maximize extraction of color and flavor in the limited
available time. Once the winemaker has reached the desired amount of residual sugar, the
fermenting wine is pressed off the solids and prepared for fortification. Beneficio—the
fortification of wine with spirit—occurs when approximately one-third of the sugar content
has been converted to alcohol. The wine is fortified to 19-22% abv by the addition of
aguardente—"burning water"—a 77% abv neutral grape spirit. The spirit is raw and
uncomplicated; it is a young, fiery alcohol that contributes nothing to the character of the
wine, rather it imparts the robustness necessary for the new Port to reach a proper maturity.
The process of beneficio (known to the French as mutage) halts fermentation, killing the
yeasts and preserving sweetness in the Port. The winemaker relies on a complex series of
calculations to determine the amount of aguardente to add to the base wine. For most Port,
aguardente will be added to the fermenting wine in a 1:4 ratio, although lower alcohol (and
drier) styles of white Port are produced. White and rosé Ports—the latter a category
pioneered in the late 2000s by Croft—are made with lesser degrees of maceration, but
otherwise all Port wines essentially follow this guideline of production. The choices
following fortification, namely the length of aging and the type of vessel, determine the final
style of the wine.

A pipe, the traditional barrel used for both aging and shipping Port wine, varies in size: pipes
used in the Douro Valley usually hold 550 liters, whereas pipes in Vila Nova de Gaia may
often contain 620 liters. The size of a pipe used for shipping Port is set at 534.24 liters,
although pipes used for shipping Madeira or Marsala are smaller.
Styles of Port
There are two broad, fundamental styles of Port: Ruby and Tawny. Ruby Ports, which
include Vintage Ports, are bottle-aged. With the exception of well-aged, venerable Vintage
Ports, Ruby Port wines will display darker color, more youthful fruit and spice tones, and a
more aggressive, fiery character. Tawny ports are cask-aged, and develop more complex,
mature tones of toffee, dried fruits, and toasted nuts with time. Tawny Port, naturally,
develops lighter, amber tones of color as it ages in wood. Aging has historically occurred in
the Port lodges of Vila Nova de Gaia, a suburb of Oporto, although this ceased to be
mandatory in 1986. While the cooler air of coastal Oporto is preferable to the warmer Douro
DOP for long-term maturation, modern climate control makes this a moot point. Today, many
smaller quintas choose to age their Port wines at their facilities in the Douro Valley.

Ruby
•Ruby Port: Ruby Port is often aged in bulk (in wood, cement, or stainless steel) for two to
three years prior to bottling. The wine is uncomplicated, deeply colored, and inexpensive.
Ruby Port does not carry a vintage date.
•Ruby Reserve Port: Ruby Reserve, or Premium Ruby, replaced the term "Vintage Character"
and offers more complexity and character than a basic Ruby Port.
•Vintage Port: Vintage Port is the most expensive style of Port to purchase and constitutes
approximately 1-3% of production. A Port house will usually declare a vintage year only in
exceptional harvests—often a given house will, on average, declare a vintage three years out
of every decade. Vintage Port must be authorized by the IVDP, and is aged in cask before
being bottled by July 30 of the third year after harvest. Vintage Port will continue to develop
in the bottle for decades, shedding brash fruit in favor of more complex attributes, although
many bottles are consumed in their youth—particularly in the US. Mature Vintage Port
requires decanting, as it will develop a significant deposit in the bottle. Quality is a chief
factor in determining a vintage year, and a house will utilize the best vineyards available to it
when creating a vintage blend, yet market concerns also play a role. Back-to-back, or "split"
vintages are rare, as few shippers want to flood the market lest prices plunge.
•Single Quinta Vintage Port: A single quinta Vintage Port is the product of one estate's
harvest. Often, if a Port house cannot confidently declare a vintage, it may nonetheless
showcase the fruit of one of its better estates as a vintage wine. In a vintage year, such an
esteemed estate would usually provide the backbone of a shipper's Vintage Port. Examples
include Warre's Quinta da Cavadinha, Taylor's Quinta de Vargellas, and Dow's Quinta do
Bomfim. Many smaller quintas release their own vintage wines as well. Single quinta wines
are made in the same fashion as other Vintage Ports, and will improve with additional bottle
age.
•Late-Bottled Vintage Port: Late-Bottled Vintage Port (LBV) spends between four and six
years in cask prior to bottling. Thus, the wines obtain some of the mellowed tones of a Tawny
Port, while retaining the youthful fruit and directness of a Ruby Port. LBV Port is always the
product of a single vintage, but quality may vary greatly. The majority of LBV wines are
filtered prior to bottling; they will not require decanting and do not usually improve with
additional bottle age. However, superior styles may achieve quality nearer that of a true
Vintage Port and improve with bottle age, although they will always reach full maturity
sooner than a Vintage Port. Such styles are often unfiltered, and may be labeled as
"Envelhecido em Garrafa", indicating an additional minimum three years of bottle aging.

Tawny
•Tawny Port: Many wines labeled as "Tawny Port" do not undergo the extensive cask aging
that is critical to the style, but are simply paler wines—due to the provenance of grapes, a
less-thorough extraction, or the addition of white Port to the blend. Lesser vineyards and
vintages constitute these wines, which are a popular aperitif in France.
•Reserve Tawny: Reserve Tawny Port ages for at least seven years prior to bottling. Reserve
Tawny wines are blended from several vintages, and retain some youthful freshness while
gaining a hint of the creamy, delicate nature of a true old Tawny. Tawny Port will not
improve with additional bottle age.
•Tawny with Indication of Age: Tawny Port may be labeled as 10, 20, 30, or 40 Years Old.
These wines show a progressively more concentrated and developed character, reaching a
pronounced oxidative, rancio state by forty years of age. Tawny Ports that display an age
indication result from high-quality fruit, and are matured in seasoned wood. Typically, such
Ports are racked once annually, often freshened with additional spirit or wine as evaporation
takes its natural course, and are finally blended together prior to bottling. The age indication
is not an average age of the blended wines in the bottle, but rather an approximation: for
example, the IVDP deems a Port labeled "10 Year Old Tawny" to taste like a 10 Year Old
Tawny, regardless of the wine's actual age. Many Port connoisseurs prefer Tawny Port at 20
years of age, when the balance of fruit and mature characteristics is even, the spirit is finely
integrated and the wine is not overtly oxidized.
•Colheita Tawny: Colheita Tawny Port is a vintage-dated Port that spends a minimum of
seven years in cask—many stay in cask for decades. Some producers, such as Calem, a Port
house that specializes in the Tawny style, will not bottle Colheita Tawny Ports until an order
is received. Thus, Colheita Tawny Port from a particular vintage may vary in character from
bottle to bottle.
Madeira
The fortified wines of Madeira, a subtropical island rising sharply from the Atlantic nearly
625 miles off the coast of Portugal, are among the longest-lived wines in the world. The
wines of Madeira originally developed their distinctive character on lengthy ocean voyages
through the tropics, where the wines would be subjected to repeated heating and cooling. The
torna viagem ("round trip") is approximated today by heating the wine during the production
process. When coupled with lengthy cask aging, the resulting wine is nearly indestructible—
the ravages of heat and air are embraced, as they impart Madeira's distinctive character!

Madeira DOP wines may be produced on Madeira itself, or on the neighboring Porto Santo,
the only other inhabited isle in the Madeira archipelago. On Madeira itself, walls of basalt
stone sustain terraces known as poios; they ring the island's perimeter like steps on the nearly
vertical mountainside, and support viticulture on the vertiginous incline. Vines, bananas,
sugarcane, and even passion fruit trees grow in close proximity in the island's fertile volcanic
soils. Most of the vineyards are trained in a pergola system, with vines suspended on low
trellises known as latadas, in order to combat the dangers of fungal disease in the damp
subtropical environment. Madeira rises to a high altitude, and the perpetual cloud cover over
its mountainous interior results in abundant rainfall on the higher peaks, which feeds a system
of levadas, or canals, and makes agriculture possible. Mechanization is essentially impossible
in Madeira's vineyards: the obstacle of terraces and the small size of vineyard holdings render
mechanical harvesting unworkable. The average grower's estate is 0.3 hectares, often
separated among several plots; thus, production is concentrated in the hands of several large
companies. As the IVDP oversees and regulates production of Port in the Douro Valley, the
Wine, Embroidery and Handicraft Institute of Madeira (IVBAM) regulates harvesting and
production methods of Madeira wines.

There are three types of companies involved in the Madeira wine trade. The production
companies make the wine, and most are based in Funchal, Madeira's capital. There are
currently eight production companies registered with the IVBAM, but only six actively
export wine. Vinhos Justino Henriques is the largest company today in Madeira, and is
responsible for half of the island's exports. The Madeira Wine Company, which was formed
as an association of exporters and producers in 1913, commands the second largest market
share and produces recognizable brands such as Blandy's and Cossart Gordon. Henriques &
Henriques is the largest independent producer, as well as the only company that relies on
estate vineyards, rather than purchased fruit. Shipping companies trade wine, rather than
make it, and are usually based in London. A shipper will select wines from a producer, who
will then bottle the wine under the shipper's brand. Broadbent Selections, a company founded
by Bartholomew Broadbent (son of Michael) that selects wines produced by Justino's, is an
example of a Madeira trader. Partidistas, who store wine and sell it at maturity to other
traders for a profit, make up the third category. Partidistas are similar to the almacenistas of
the Sherry trade.

Madeira Production Companies

•H.M. Borges (founded 1877)
•Henriques & Henriques (founded 1850)
•Madeira Wine Company (originally formed in 1918 as the Madeira Wine Association, the
MWC formally changed its title in 1981)
•Pereira D'Oliveira (founded 1850 as a partidista)
•Vinhos Barbeito (founded 1946)
•Vinhos Justino Henriques (founded 1870)
•Faria & Filhos (founded 1949)
•Artur de Barros e Sousa (founded 1922, does not export)

The principal noble white grapes of Madeira today are Sercial (Esgana Cão), Verdelho
(Gouveio), Boal (Bual, Malvasia Fina), and Malmsey (originally Malvasia Candida, now
more commonly Malvasia Branca de São Jorge). However, these four grapes account for only
a small minority of the total production on the island. Tinta Negra (formerly called Tinta
Negra Mole) is the island's workhorse, accounting for nearly 85% of its total production. The
grape has been vilified in the wine press time and again, but it is capable of producing good
quality wines across a wide range of sweetness levels. Old or new, Madeira wine without a
variety on the label is likely the product of Tinta Negra. In fact, Madeira regulations are a
tacit acknowledgement of Tinta Negra's poor reputation, as the DOP prohibits using the name
of the variety on labels. If another variety is included on the label, the wine must contain a
minimum 85% of the stated grape if the wine is a multi-vintage blend, or 100% of the stated
variety if a vintage is indicated.

The incursion of phylloxera in 1872 served as a precursor to many significant and long-
lasting changes to the Madeiran viticultural landscape. Tinta Negra displaced Verdelho as the
island's most planted grape in the decades after its arrival. In the 19th century, Verdelho held
a similarly mundane reputation, yet critics now accord it noble status; perhaps Tinta Negra
will likewise evolve in stature. American hybrid grapes (Cunningham, Jacquet, Isabella, and
others) were introduced to the island during the crisis, and two great noble varieties of the
19th century, the red Bastardo and the white Terrantez, were not replanted. Terrantez, which
delivers a miniscule yield and is difficult to graft, is prized today but commercially
insignificant. Bastardo is virtually extinct on the island: In 2010, 4.5 liters were produced.
When combined with the coming economic difficulties of the 20th century, phylloxera's most
disastrous effect on winegrowing in Madeira was one of scale: prior to the 1870s, as many as
3000 hectares of vines existed on the island; today there are just under 500. Bananas fetch
growers a higher wage.

The varietal wines, in order from sweetest to driest, are as follows: Malvasia, Boal, Verdelho,
and Sercial—the latter a piercingly acidic dry wine that can often require decades to soften.
The rare Terrantez, unrelated to Argentina's Torrontés, also produces compelling Madeira
wines at a level of sweetness comparable to Verdelho. Sercial and Verdelho are actually
harvested last, and are separated from their skins prior to fermentation, whereas Boal and
Malmsey are picked first, and may undergo a shorter fermentation on the skins. For fine
wines fortification with 95% abv grape spirit, imported from France, will occur during
fermentation if a sweeter style is desired. Malvasia may only ferment for a few hours prior to
fortification, so that most of the sugar remains. If a medium dry or dry wine is the goal, a
winemaker will allow fermentation to continue for a longer period of time, but even the "dry"
wines of the island contain significant amounts of residual sugar. After fortification, the
young wine is then subjected to either the Estufagem or Canteiro process, the two modern
heating methods that lend Madeira its distinctive character. Most wines are transferred to the
estufa, a stainless steel vat that warms the wine by circulating hot water through serpentine
coils inside the tank. In this method, the wine is heated to a temperature of 45-50° C (113-
122°F) and held there for at least three months; during this period sugars in the wine will
slowly caramelize and give the estufa wine its distinctive character. Once the Estufagem
process is completed, the wine enters a period of rest (estágio) for a minimum 90 days before
being transferred to cask for aging. Estufagem wines may not be released until two years after
the harvest. A more delicate variation on the Estufagem process involves placing the wine in
armazens de calor, rooms warmed by nearby tanks or steam pipes rather than the direct heat
of the estufa. This variant technique, chiefly utilized by the Madeira Wine Company, utilizes
lower temperatures over a longer period of time—sometimes up to one year. Finally,
producers use the Canteiro method for their best wines. In this process, the wines are cask-
aged for a period of at least two years in lodge attics. In this manner, the wine is exposed to
the gentler, natural warmth of the sun as it undergoes a much slower process of maturation,
preventing the burnt caramelization of sugars and resulting bitter flavors associated with
rapid heating. Although Canteiro wines may be bottled at a minimum three years of age, the
best Vinhos de Canteiro will remain in cask for 20 years or more, developing into the rarest
and most treasured wines of the island: Frasqueiras.

Main Varietal Styles of Madeira

•Sercial: The driest varietal Madeira, Sercial displays searing acidity and, over time, its
youthful citrus notes evolve into a more complex almond bouquet. Sercial is a suitable
aperitif, and often a good accompaniment to light soups and consommés. While considered
"dry", these wines may still contain around 40-45 grams per liter of residual sugar.
•Verdelho: Verdelho produces a medium dry wine of high acid, with a smoky, honeyed
character. The wines are slightly fuller in body than Sercial.
•Boal: Boal produces a medium sweet, rich style of wine, in which the acidity is still
powerful enough to dominate the finish. Highly aromatic, the wines tend to display classic
chocolate, roasted nut, and coffee notes. With age, Boal tends to be the darkest Madeira wine
in color.
•Malvasia (Malmsey): The Malvasia wines represent the sweetest and softest style of
Madeira. On the nose, Malmsey evokes toffee, vanilla, and marmalade aromas. The wine can
frame a cheese course or dessert flavors of nut, caramel, and dried fruits equally well.

Madeira Multi-Vintage Blends

•Rainwater: A popular style in the US, Rainwater Madeira is usually 100% Tinta Negra, and
the youngest wine in the blend is a minimum three years old. The wine is medium dry, and
light in style.
•Seleccionado: Such bottles are often labeled "Finest", "Choice", or "Select", and include a
blended wine that is at least 3 years old (but below five years of age). These wines are
dominated by the Tinta Negra grape, heated in Estufagem and aged in tank rather than cask.
•Reserve (Reserva): Madeira that is 5 years of age or older (but below 10 years of age) may
use this designation.
•Special Reserve (Reserva Especial): Madeira that is 10 years of age or older (but below 15
years of age) may use this designation. Wines of this category (and all older designations) are
often made of a single noble variety, heated by the Canteiro method.
•Extra Reserve: Madeira that is 15 years of age or older (but below 20 years of age) may use
this designation.
•20 Years Old, 30 Years Old, Over 40 Years Old
•Solera: Madeira wines produced by fractional blending and the Canteiro method. The EU
does not permit its production, but the wines are still available on the island. A maximum
10% of a solera's stock may be drawn off each year, and only 10 total additions may be made
to each solera. Solera wines will be bottled with the starting date of the solera, but wines
added to the solera may actually be older than the original wine—a solera on Madeira often
served to extend the lifespan of a particular vintage, when there was little or no wine to sell in
the following year. To accomplish this, producers refreshed soleras with stocks of older,
rather than younger, wines.

Madeira with a Vintage Date

•Colheita (Harvest): Colheita Madeira is produced from a single vintage (85% minimum
required) and is aged for a minimum 5 years prior to bottling. It may be a blend or a single
varietal wine. Colheita offers the consumer a "vintage" Madeira without the extended cask
aging, complexity, or cost of a true Vintage Madeira, or Frasqueira. The word "harvest" is
sometimes used in place of "Colheita", but producers are not allowed to use the word
"vintage" on labels.
•Frasqueira: Vintage Madeira aged for a minimum 20 years in cask. Frasqueira, like Colheita,
may be produced from a single variety or a blend. Since only a minimum 85% of the vintage
is required, these wines are topped up with younger wines throughout the aging process.
Vintage wines are produced by the Canteiro method and may be aged for additional time—
sometimes decades—in glass demijohns after the period of cask aging. Frasqueira is the
epitome of Madeira, and one of the world's legendary and long-lived wines.
•Vinho da Roda/Vinho da Torno/Vinho da Volta: An exceptional rarity, wines so labeled
underwent an ocean journey across the equator. Shortridge Lawton, now a brand of the
Madeira Wine Company, produced wines in this traditional style as late as the early 1900s.
Sherry
Sherry is a fortified wine from Andalucía on the southern coast of Spain. It reached its apex
as a British favorite by the 1870s, and it became one of the first protected Spanish
appellations in 1933 with the establishment of a Consejo Regulador. Jerez, the hottest wine
region in Spain and the home of Sherry production, is located within the coastal province of
Cádiz, flanked by the Guadalquivir River to the northwest. The town of Chiclana de la
Frontera marks the southeastern border of the roughly triangular region. The three towns of
Jerez de la Frontera, El Puerto de Santa María, and Sanlúcar de Barrameda are at the center
of Sherry production, and DO regulations require Sherry to be matured in and shipped from
one of these three municipalities. Sherry is the product of two DO zones: Jerez-Xérès-Sherry
and Manzanilla-Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The two DOs share an identical production zone and
similar production guidelines, but the latter must be aged in the seaside town of Sanlúcar de
Barrameda. On the coast, the cool Atlantic breezes alleviate the heat of the region, but the
effect quickly dissipates as one moves inland: summer average temperatures may be nearly
20° F higher in Jerez de la Frontera than in Sanlúcar de Barrameda. The hot, dry levante wind
intensifies the region's heat. Said to drive men mad, the howling levante blows from the east
and essentially cooks the grapes on the vine during ripening. The humid Atlantic poniente
wind alternates with the levante, and promotes the growth of flor, a film-forming yeast
necessary in the maturation of Sherry.

Towns of Sherry production (9)

•Jerez de la Frontera (Cádiz)

•El Puerto de Santa María (Cádiz)
•Sanlúcar de Barrameda (Cádiz)
•Chiclana de Frontera (Cádiz)
•Puerto Real (Cádiz)
•Rota (Cádiz)
•Chipiona (Cádiz)
•Trebujena (Cádiz)
•Lebrija (Seville)
Three principal soil types characterize the Jerez region: albariza, barros, and arenas. Albariza,
a chalky, porous, limestone-rich soil of brilliant white color, produces the best Sherry. The
moisture-retentive albariza retains water from autumn and winter rains, while the friable soil
structure allows vine roots to penetrate deeply in a search for water trapped beneath its baked,
impermeable surface during the arid growing season. The snow-white albariza soils are
concentrated on the gentle slopes of Jerez Superior, a sub-region between Sanlúcar de
Barrameda and the Guadalete River, which flows into the Bay of Cádiz just to the south of
Jerez de la Frontera. 80% of the appellation's vines are located in Jerez Superior, and most
pagos (vineyards) are located within the area of Jerez de la Frontera, including Macharnudo,
Añina, and Carrascal. Macharnudo, at over 2000 acres, is the largest pago in Jerez. The more
fertile—but more difficult to work—Barros soils have a higher proportion of clay and are
prominent in low-lying valleys. The sandy arenas soils are most common in coastal areas.

Albariza Soil, Photo: Tim Gaiser, MS

Three white grapes are authorized for the production of Sherry: Palomino (Listán), Pedro
Ximénez (PX) and Moscatel (Muscat of Alexandria). Palomino, a neutral grape that usually
yields lackluster, low-acid table wines, is overwhelmingly preferred for Sherry and
constitutes approximately 95% of the vineyard acreage in Jerez. Two sub-varieties, Palomino
Fino and Palomino de Jerez, are encountered in the region, but the former is more prevalent,
prized for its higher yields and disease resistance. Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez are
predominantly used for sweetening Sherry; varietal bottlings of either grape are extremely
rare in Jerez. Moscatel is mainly cultivated in the arenas soils near Chipiona. Plantings of
Pedro Ximénez in Jerez have diminished so greatly that the Consejo Regulador has granted
special dispensation allowing producers to import Pedro Ximénez must from the nearby
Montilla-Moriles DO. Generally, growers submit both varieties to the soleo process for a
period of one to three weeks, in which grape bunches are dried in the sun on esparto grass
mats prior to pressing. Palomino may also be "sunned", but rarely for longer than 24 hours
and often not at all.

In Jerez, each vine is commonly trained in the traditional manner of vara y pulgar, in which
growers prune alternate spurs each year: one year's vara (stick) will be pruned back after
harvest to become the following year's pulgar (thumb). Today, the harvest typically occurs in
late August, and many of the region's vineyards are harvested by machine. Maximum yields
are set at 80 hl/ha in Jerez Superior and 100 hl/ha elsewhere in the region. Although modern
mechanical methods now reign, grapes were traditionally crushed and pressed under the feet
of pisadores (laborers) wearing zapatos de pisar—cowhide boots with angled nails on the
soles. Palomino Fino, the grape used for the majority of Sherry wines, must be pressed
quickly after picking as it is prone to rapid oxidation. A maximum 72.5 liters of juice may be
pressed from 100 kg of grapes; any additional amount is relegated to the production of non-
classified wines or distillate. The must (mosto de yema) is divided into three stages of
quality: the primera yema (free-run juice, accounting for 60-70% of the total mosto de yema),
segunda yema (press wine), and mosto presna (poorer quality press wine for distillation). The
free-run primera yema and pressed segunda yema are fermented separately. Before
fermentation commences, the must is acidified—Palomino provides a notoriously low-acid
must—and sulfured, then allowed to settle. Traditionally, producers adhered yeso (plaster) to
the grapes prior to pressing, which aided clarification and—when combined with cream of
tartar—produced tartaric acid. Today, most producers add tartaric acid directly and utilize a
system of racking (desfangado) to clarify the must before fermentation begins. Classically,
Sherry base wines underwent alcoholic fermentation in new American oak butts of 600 liters,
a seasoning technique that would both impart tannin to the wine and leech oak flavor,
neutralizing the wood before it was employed in the aging processes. Today, however, most
Sherry is fermented in temperature-controlled stainless steel tanks of 50,000 liter capacity. In
either case, the fermentation is divided into two stages: the tumultuous fermentation, a hot
and vigorous initial phase lasting up to a week, and the lenta, or slow fermentation, in which
high temperatures subside and any remaining sugar in the wine is converted to alcohol over a
period of weeks. The delicate base wine of 11-12.5% abv is then separated from its lees, and
the process of transformation begins.

Two divergent paths of biological and oxidative aging divide Sherry wines. At the conclusion
of fermentation, the wine is classified: each tank is either classified as palo and marked with a
vertical slash, or as gordura, marked with a circle. Wines marked as palo are fortified to 15-
15.5% abv and are destined to become the more delicate Fino or Manzanilla styles. Wines
marked as gordura are fortified to 17-18%—a high level of alcohol that will not permit the
growth of flor—and will become Oloroso Sherries. Neither wine is fortified directly with
spirit, rather a gentler mixture of grape spirit and mature Sherry, mitad y mitad, is used to
avoid shocking the young wine. Both sets of wines are transferred to old Sherry butts of
American oak. Fino and Manzanilla styles undergo biological aging, whereas Oloroso Sherry
undergoes oxidative aging. At the heart of the biological aging process in Sherry is the film-
forming yeast known as the flor del vino—the "flower". While the normal yeasts responsible
for alcoholic fermentation die as the wine's sugar is wholly consumed, a specialized set of
yeast species (of the genus Saccharomyces) arrives to metabolize glycerin, alcohol, and
volatile acids in the wine. Humid air carried on the poniente wind, a moderate temperature
between 60°-70° F, an absence of fermentable sugars, and a particular level of alcoholic
strength (15-15.5% abv) are prerequisites for the development of flor. As flor requires contact
with oxygen, it forms a film on the surface of the wine that will protect the liquid from
oxidation. The flor grows vigorously in the spring and autumn months, forming a frothy
white veil over the wine's surface; in the heat and cold of the summer and winter it thins and
turns gray. In the past, the growth of flor determined a particular wine's future; it was a
mysterious gift. Today, producers are much more aware of the process, and plan each wine's
future accordingly. Wines destined to undergo biological aging are sourced from grapes
grown in the finer albariza soils, and are produced from the primera yema, whereas those
destined for the oxidative aging path of the Oloroso are produced from the pressed segunda
yema must.

Once a wine has been marked to become Oloroso, its future is certain. Wines that develop
under flor will enter an intermediary stage, the Sobretablas, for a period of six months to a
year, during which the course of the wines' evolution may be redirected. The wines, now kept
in used 600 liter American oak butts, will be monitored and classified for a second time. The
classifications are as follows:
•Palma: Fine, delicate Sherry in which the flor has flourished, protecting the wine from
oxidation. Such wines will generally develop as Fino styles.
•Palma Cortada: A more robust Fino, which may eventually emerge as Amontillado.
•Palo Cortado: A rarity. Although flor is still present, the wine's richness leads the cellar
master to redirect the wine toward an oxidative aging path. The wine will be fortified after
Sobretablas to at least 17% abv, destroying the veil of flor that protects it from oxygen.
•Raya: Despite its initial promise, flor growth is anemic, or the protective yeast has died
completely. The wine's robust character is reinforced by further fortification to 17-18%, and
the wine emerges from Sobretablas as an Oloroso.
•Dos Rayas: The wine's flor has disappeared, but its character is rough and coarse.
Characterized by high levels of volatile acidity, these wines are either blended and sweetened
for lower quality Sherry or removed from the Sherry-making process, often finding new life
as Sherry vinegar.

After the second classification, the Sherry wines are ready to begin the long aging process. In
2010, authorities decreased the minimum solera aging required before bottling from three
years to two. Rarely are Sherry wines marketed as vintage wines; most enter a system of
fractional blending known as the solera, wherein new añada (vintage) wines enter an upper
scale, or tier, of butts known as a criadera. Several descending criadera scales separate the
young wines from the solera—the tier of butts from which wine is drawn and bottled. There
may be as few as three to four criaderas, or as many as fourteen. For every liter of wine
drawn from the solera, two (formerly three) must remain; thus the solera butts are only
partially emptied, and refreshed with wines from the first criadera in movements of wine
known as trasiegos. The first criadera is then refreshed with wines from the second criadera,
and so forth. In this manner a solera—derived from the Latin solum, or "floor"—will
theoretically continue some small portion of its original wine, regardless of its age. Solera
wines are often marked with the year the solera was started. The solera system is integral to
biological aging, as flor requires certain nutrients and oxygen to survive. The movement of
wine from one butt to another provides oxygen; the addition of añada wines provides a
constant influx of nutrients for the flor to prosper. While not necessary for oxidative aging,
many Oloroso wines are nonetheless aged in their own solera systems.

Amontillado Solera, Photo: Tim Gaiser, MS

Fino Sherry is a light, delicate, almond-toned style characterized by a high concentration of

acetaldehydes, a salty tang, and a final alcohol content of 15-18%. As Fino matures, the flor
may finally disappear. In this case, the Fino begins to age oxidatively, taking on a more
robust, hazelnut character and slowly increasing in alcohol. If the loss of its protective veil is
not ruinous and the wine is of good quality, it has the capacity to evolve into a Fino-
Amontillado, finally becoming an Amontillado as its flavor, strength and color deepen. The
final alcohol content of Amontillado must be between 16% and 22%. The production of true
Amontillado is a laborious process, and soleras devoted to the wine are expensive to
maintain. The darker Oloroso, meaning "fragrant", demonstrates spicy, walnut tones and a
smooth mouthfeel. Oloroso must range from 17% to 22% abv. The rare Palo Cortado
combines the rich body and color of an Oloroso with the penetrating yet delicate bouquet of
an Amontillado, and is greatly prized by Sherry aficionados. These styles—Fino,
Amontillado, Oloroso, and Palo Cortado—are generoso wines, totally dry in character.
Sanlúcar de Barrameda has its own classifications for generoso wines: Manzanilla Fina,
Manzanilla Pasada, and Manzanilla Olorosa. Manzanilla Fina is similar in style to Fino,
although the harvest occurs about a week earlier, and the resulting wines are lower in alcohol
and fortified to a lower degree. In addition, Manzanilla wines are entered into—and moved
through—the solera more quickly than a standard Fino. Manzanilla Pasada, like Fino-
Amontillado wines, lose the protection of flor and begin to show some oxidative
characteristics.

Generoso Sherry Styles

•Fino
•Amontillado
•Oloroso
•Palo Cortado
•Manzanilla Fina
•Manzanilla Pasada
•Manzanilla Olorosa

Although Sherry may be bottled as a dry generoso wine directly from the solera, it is more
likely to be sweetened and blended before sale. The final blend is assembled on a small
scale—often in a glass or test tube—and then applied proportionally to the wine at large. This
process is known as the cabeceo. Base wines entered into the cabeceo must have a minimum
abv of 17.5%. Several sweetening agents are available to the Sherry producer: dulce pasa,
dulce de almíbar, and mistela produced from the must of "sunned" Moscatel or Pedro
Ximénez grapes. Pedro Ximénez is preferred, but expensive. Dulce pasa—mistela produced
from "sunned" Palomino—is the most common sweetening agent in modern Jerez. Dulce de
almíbar, a blend of invert sugar and Fino, is rare. A Sherry house may also adjust the color of
the final wine with vino de color, a non-alcoholic concoction produced by a combination of
boiled, reduced syrup and fresh must. If reduced to one-third of its original volume, the syrup
is called sancocho; if reduced to one-fifth, the syrup is called arrope. Vino de color, naturally,
also adds a level of sweetness to the wines. Generoso Liqueur wines produced by this
blending process include Pale Cream, a lighter, fresher style blended from Fino wines;
Cream, a darker, denser product of blended Oloroso; Dry, a paler style that actually contains
a fair amount of sweetness; and Medium, a rich amber Sherry that may include Amontillado
in the blend. Producers may legally label Medium Sherries with additional traditional terms,
such as "Golden", "Milk", or "Brown". Such terminology reinforces the longstanding
importance of the British market—and the historic British control of the shipping houses and
bodegas of Jerez. In the past, shippers relied heavily on almacenistas when configuring their
blends. Like the partidistas of Madeira, almacenistas would purchase young wines, age them,
and sell the wines to shippers at proper maturity. The role of almacenistas today is minor, and
the term itself has been trademarked by Lustau.

Although the role of Moscatel and Pedro Ximénez in Sherry production is often supporting,
wines produced solely from "sunned" grapes are occasionally sold as Vino Dulce Natural, or
"naturally sweet wine". The moniker is misleading, as the wines are fortified after a partial
fermentation. Sugar content for both wines ranges from 180 to 500 grams per liter.

In 2000, the Consejo Regulador for Jerez created two new categories for Sherry Wines of
Certified Age: VOS and VORS. VOS—Vinum Optimum Signatum, or "Very Old Sherry"—
may be applied to solera wines with an average age of over 20 years. For every liter of VOS
Sherry drawn from the solera, at least 20 liters must remain. VORS—Vinum Optimum Rare
Signatum, or "Very Old Rare Sherry"—may be applied to solera wines with an average age
of over 30 years. 30 liters must remain in the solera for every liter withdrawn. A tasting panel
certifies all VOS and VORS wines, and only Amontillado, Oloroso, Palo Cortado, and Pedro
Ximénez wines are authorized for consideration. Approval to use either label only applies to
an individual lot of drawn wine, not the entire solera. The Consejo Regulador may certify an
indication of age of either 12 or 15 years for use on a label; in such cases the certification
applies to the entire solera, not just a particular lot of wine.

The Sherry-making process is a complicated venture, littered with many tiers of

classification. The above information is best digested over a glass of Fino, properly served in
a copita, with some of its traditional tablemates: olives, Iberian ham, almonds, and a plate of
shellfish, grilled sardines or Spanish mackerel.
Marsala
Marsala is a fortified wine from the island point of Sicily, first manufactured in 1773 by the
English Port and Sherry merchant, John Woodhouse. Marsala wines are fortified with grape
spirit either during or after fermentation, depending on the desired level of sweetness. The
addition of either mosto cotto (cooked must) or sifone, a mistelle produced by fortifying the
unfermented must of overripe grapes, are used to adjust both color and sweetness. Marsala
DOC wines are available in three colors: ambra, oro (golden), and rubino. The ambra and oro
styles are produced from the white grapes Grillo, Catarratto, Inzolia (Ansonica), and
Damaschino. Grillo and the more delicate Inzolia are preferred; Catarratto and Damaschino
are high-yielding grapes of less interest. The ambra style is of lower quality and is the only
style that permits the practice of concia: the addition of mosto cotto. Rubino wines are
produced from Perricone, Calabrese (Nero d'Avola), and Nerello Mascalese. White grapes
may comprise a maximum 30% of the rubino production. The three colors of Marsala will
also have their sugar content defined on the label: secco indicates a maximum 40 grams per
liter of residual sugar, semisecco indicates 40 to 100 g/l of residual sugar, and dolce indicates
a minimum 100 g/l of residual sugar.

Marsala is further classified by the time it spends in cask: one year for Fine, two years for
Superiore, four years for Superiore Riserva, five years for Vergine, and a minimum ten years
for Vergine Stravecchio. Vergine Marsala is fortified after fermentation and the style does not
permit the addition of either mosto cotto or sifone; thus, it must be secco in style. Solera
versions also exist, and must spend at least five years in the solera prior to bottling. Cremovo
Zabione Vino Aromatizzato, a sweet egg-flavored concoction, is permitted by DOC
regulations, provided the product contains at least 80% Marsala and a minimum 200 grams
per liter of residual sugar. The DOC also allows for other Marsala-based products to be
labeled "Preparato con l'impiego di vino Marsala", provided they contain a minimum 60% of
the wine. Such allowances only reinforce the modern notion of Marsala as wine for cooking,
rather than a wine of meditation. Marco de Bartoli, one of the most revered producers of
Marsala, releases his Vergine-quality "Vecchio Samperi" as vino de tavola due to its lack of
fortification. Vintage Marsala does exist and the vintage refers to the year of fortification.