Professional Documents
Culture Documents
REVUE DE PHILOLOGIE ET DE
COMMUNICATION INTERCULTURELLE
Carolina BULZ
Adela CATANĂ
Adriana-Carolina BULZ
Adela-Livia CATANĂ
Daniela MIREA
Daniela MOLDOVEANU
Andreea-Maria PREDA
Elena-Raluca ROȘU
Email: jpic@mta.ro
Literature/ Littérature
Chi Sum Garfield LAU, Celebrating the Love of Memories: Analysing Mary McCarthy’s
and J.M. Coetzee’s Autobiographies of Childhood 6
Bernard FAYE, Figure sacerdotale dans le roman francophone du XXIe siècle: Le Padre
Bonianno 16
Abderrahman BEGGAR, Histoire, amour et antiracisme dans « Nouvelle-France » de
Pierre Billon 28
Anca POPA, Marriage as Post-Traumatic Stress in My Life as a Man: A Case-Study 41
Language/ Linguistique
Olena ROMANOVA, The Choice of Love and Manifestations of the Numinous in the Second
Half of Life 70
Gaudence NIBARUTA, L’amour, fondement du développement psychique, de
l’intersubjectivité et du lien social 78
Sofia TABARI, Architecture sensorielle du jardin eternel et des images d’espoir du paysage
naturel du futur dans la pensee islamique 90
Boubé SALIFOU, Une pensee philosophique de l’espoir 101
Valentina Cosmina GOJE, L’image des normands reflétée dans les contes de Maupassant
« Tableaux pittoresques » 131
Sangita GHODAKE, The Mahabharata: Paradigm Shift in Values 137
Mihaela HRISTEA, The Woman in the Romanian Society of the Nineteenth-Century 143
Abstract: The major presumed feature that differentiates autobiographies from fictions is the
alignment of the writer (i.e., the autobiographer) with the protagonist. In the childhood biography of
J.M. Coetzee, Boyhood: Scenes from Provincial Life (1997), the narrative technique of “seal and
split” has been adapted to include a narrator who depicts the young life of a boy. This complication
reflects Coetzee’s awareness of the distance between his adult self as an autobiographer at present
and his childhood past presented through the protagonist. Being sensitive in balancing between truth
and own invention during the process of memories recollection, Mary McCarthy made
groundbreaking attempts in her autobiography Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (1957). This work
blurs and distinguishes the boundaries between facts and artifacts at the same time. It is the aim of
this article to explore the complexity of these narrative handlings in the two childhood
autobiographies selected, and to reveal the writers’ love of childhood amidst undesirable backdrops.
1. INTRODUCTION
The embodiment of facts under an actual historical and cultural background highlights
the dissimilar nature of autobiographies from literary works that are merely fictional. While
an autobiography should be a product of real experience, this genre of narrating the past self
could also be interpreted as a current resistance against bygone conformity. Dyer and
Friederich observe that, “through the process of writing, writers can recreate themselves in a
voice that writes against the definitions that society and the dominant discourse of
autobiography impose” (Dyer and Friederich 267). In theorizing the roles of facts and creative
or artistic inputs in autobiographical writings through integrating the works of James M. Cox
(1870-1957), Northrop Frye (1912-1991) and other literary icons, Louis A. Renza (1941- )
affirms the incorporation of imagination in autobiographies beyond its assured role of
narrating the past:
in selecting, ordering, and integrating the writer’s lived experiences according to its own
teleological demands, the autobiographical narrative is beholden to certain imperatives of
imaginative discourse. Autobiography, in short, transforms empirical facts into artifacts: it is
definable as a form of prose fiction. (Renza 269)
The main purpose of this article is to discuss the techniques chosen by Mary McCarthy
(1912-1989) and J.M. Coetzee (1940) in presenting past facts through their artistic works. The
discussion focuses on their strategy of maintaining the factual content of their
autobiographical works, Memories of a Catholic Girlhood (1957) and Boyhood: Scenes from
1
cslau@hkmu.edu.hk
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Provincial Life (1997), while applying their creativity as novelists. Besides, the way that they
show respect and devotion towards the childhood self would also be understood through their
choice of narrative voice.
There is the Barthes who will “eat a plum, take a piss”, there is the “R.B.”, the “he”, and the
“I”. Much is made of these four selves, but in essence Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes is
the book of the two subjects of its title - the Roland Barthes who is writing, and the Roland
Barthes who is written about. (Burke 53)
While it is apparent that Barthes serves the roles as both the writer and the protagonist,
a unique technique has been applied in distancing his present self from the dual identities
incurred by the nature of an autobiography. To exemplify further, it should be reminded that
Barthes has begun his autobiography with the preface “[i]t must all be considered as if spoken
by a character in a novel” (Barthes 1). While first-person narration aligns the narrator with the
protagonist, the treatment of the text as a fictional entity by Barthes sunders the writing self
alongside these two roles:
Once I produce, once I write, it is the Text itself which (fortunately) dispossesses me of my
narrative continuity. The Text can recount nothing; it makes my body elsewhere, far from my
imaginary person, toward a kind of memoryless speech which is already the speech of the
People, of the non-subjective mass (or of the generalized subject), even if I am still separated
from it by my way of writing. (Barthes 4)
The titles of the two texts selected for analysis in this paper have both specified the
portrayal of childhood, though which the writers’ loving memory of their earlier days is
revealed.
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This or that episode, she will suggest again and again, could not possibly have happened as
she said it did, since the iron facts were not that way at all. Her alterations are based on further
reflection, on consultation with relatives and friends, on stray clippings, conflicting records
family albums, family lore. (Poore)
For Coetzee’s book, the title carries no implication that it is an autobiography. This
title could be applicable to fictional writings. While its nature as an autobiography is affirmed
by moving on to its content, the use of a third-person omniscient narrator in the work hinders
the recognition of the text as an autobiography. Margaret Lenta studies critical reviews on
Coetzee’s two autobiographical writings, Boyhood and Youth (2002), and points out how
literary critics such as Peter Porter and Pankaj Mishra have confused them as fictions mainly
because of the writer’s uncommon narrative approach (Lenta 157). Coetzee’s choice of
adopting a third-person voice dissolves the calibration of narrator and protagonist. Lenta
assures us of “the complex relationship of intimacy and detachment which Coetzee has
achieved” (Lenta 157). For both cases, it is not hard to see that the composition of the self as a
personal reflection either requires the involvement of others in reminding one’s own past, as
shown in the case of McCarthy; or a separation from one’s old self through the creation of a
third-person narrator, as seen from Coetzee’s choice.
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challenging the credibility of her own memory. Smith and Watson (2010) confirm how the
obscurity of personal memory gives rise to transfiguration:
Memory is a means of “passing on,” of sharing a social past that may have been obscured,
thereby activating its potential for reshaping a future of and for other subjects. In sum, acts of
personal remembering are fundamentally social and collective. (Smith and Watson 26)
McCarthy’s work begins with the section “to the reader”. In this part, she expresses
the frank desire of inventing elements in her autobiography:
Many a time, in the course of doing these memoirs, I have wished that I were writing fiction.
The temptation to invent has been very strong, particularly where recollection is hazy and I
remember the substance of an event but not the details – the color of a dress, the pattern of a
carpet, the placing of a picture. (McCarthy 3-4)
The intention to create, rather than the actions of mere recalling and depicting, reflects
her imaginative nature as a writer of fiction. Being the writer of an autobiography carries the
implication that she might not be able to exert her power of invention freely. This is related to
the importance of verisimilitude in autobiographies. She could be innovative in terms of
narrative style and format. However, she is expected to be truthful to her past. In writing her
autobiography, her writing self and her other identity as a novelist are separated. As stated
previously, a major problem in this role as an autobiographer is her incapability of
recollecting the past clearly:
My memory is good, but obviously I cannot recall whole passages of dialogue that took place
years ago. Only a few single sentences stand out: “They’d make you toe the chalk line,”
“Perseverance wins the crown,” “My child, you must have faith.” The conversations, as given,
are mostly fictional. Quotation marks indicate that a conversation to this general effect took
place, but I do not vouch for the exact words or the exact order of the speeches. (McCarthy 4)
Luckily, I am writing a memoir and not a work of fiction, and therefore I do not have to
account for my grandmother’s unpleasing character and look for the Oedipal fixation or the
traumatic experience which would give her that clinical authenticity that is nowadays so
desirable in portraiture. (McCarthy 33)
McCarthy understood well enough the necessity of finishing her memoir by adding
elements or inventing dialogues. These additions reflect how her talent could be a remedy for
memory inefficiency. However, she was careful in avoiding the transgression of the
autobiographical framework. She dared not fictionalize her autobiography.
Similarly, J.M. Coetzee showed his multiple identities as an autobiographer and a
novelist in his life narrative. As a grown-up recalling the sense of isolation in his past
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childhood, he avoids the danger of imposing his mature vision upon a much younger self. The
use of a third-person objective viewpoint helps in presenting the limited vision of a boy and
his innocence. As this narrative style is rarely found in life narratives, it could account for the
confusion faced by the aforementioned critics. It requires extra effort in recognizing its genre
as an autobiography. This is because the narrative technique “seals” and “splits” the narrator
who depicts the life of a boy at present from his old past self being depicted:
Language, which operates according to a principle of division and separation, is the medium
by which and through which the “self” is constructed. “Writing the self” is therefore a process
of simultaneous sealing and splitting that can only trace fissures of discontinuity. (Benstock
29)
Coetzee’s narrating style contributes to the debatable matter of whether the narrator
could be the protagonist. However, it does not hinder the truthfulness of the autobiography:
He calls her not Mother or Mom but Dinny. So do his father and his brother. Where does the
name come from? No one seems to know; but her brothers and sisters call her Vera, so it
cannot come from their childhood. He has to be careful not to call her Dinny in front of
strangers, as he has to guard against calling his aunt and uncle plain Norman and Ellen instead
of Uncle Norman and Aunt Ellen. (Coetzee 49)
Childhood, says the Children’s Encyclopaedia, is a time of innocent joy, to be spent in the
meadows amid buttercups and bunny-rabbits or at the hearthside absorbed in a storybook. It is
a vision of childhood utterly alien to him. Nothing he experiences in Worcester, at home or at
school, leads him to think that childhood is anything but a time of gritting the teeth and
enduring. (Coetzee 14)
We shall now take a look at the way that McCarthy and Coetzee’s illustration of
childhood varies from such a typification.
In McCarthy’s text, the protagonist is the narrated ‘I’. This ‘I’ stresses on her identity
as an orphan in the early chapters of the book. Influenza takes away the lives of her parents
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and she becomes an orphan. In the chapter named “A Tin Butterfly”, details regarding her
orphanage under the harsh guardianship of Uncle Myers are recorded. It emphasizes her
identity as an orphan and her role as a sister of three younger brothers. These two kinship
connections mark her childhood experience up to a particular point. As identity is a floating
concept, when the life narrative goes on, this narrated “I” has been given new identities:
For me, a new life began, under a happier star. Within a few weeks after my protestant
grandfather’s visit, I was sitting in a compartment with him on the train, watching the
Missouri Rover go westward to its source, wearing my white-gold wrist watch and a garish
new red hat, a highly nervous child […] (McCarthy 79)
“How can you do that when children are hungry?” he would say in his bad Afrikaans; and
there would be no answer. Perhaps elsewhere in the world one can throw eggs (in England, for
instance, he knows they throw eggs at people in the stocks); but in this country there are
judges who will judge by the standards of righteous. In this country one cannot be thoughtless
about food. (Coetzee 64)
The protagonist knows well that he should not waste food even though his family can
afford him to treat food as a plaything. His young mind is still aware of poverty as a common
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issue in South Africa. The protagonist believes that it is alright to play with food in England
but not in South Africa. British people in South Africa are wealthy and authoritative. This
results in his perception towards the wealth and power of Britain. However, his national
identity as a South African gives rise to his realization that one should not play with food in
this country.
[T]hese two aspects of the self, at once so near and so alien to one another, have finally come
together (Burke 53)
It is suggested that the narrating self and the narrated self are both intimate and
alienated. Time is the chief source of their separation. The narrating ‘I’ is a present self while
the narrated ‘I’ is a past self. Other than separation by means of difference in time, one must
not forget that the experiences which occurred to the past self contribute to the formation of
the present self. This section serves to analyze whether the narrating autobiographer and the
narrated protagonist are separable or not.
McCarthy’s text features a remarkable format with paragraphs of remarks printed in
italics in between chapters to record past incidents. This special form provides a great source
of information in understanding the multiple identities as an autobiographer at present and a
protagonist involved in past incidents. The autobiographer is looking back at her past while
writing. Though the special format carries the suggestion that the chapters on past incidents
are about the narrated ‘I’ while the passages of remarks reveal comments made by the
narrating ‘I’, the boundary is in fact not as clear as the format implies. For instance, it has
been previously mentioned that McCarthy is alert of her present role as an autobiographer and
she tries to avoid being a novelist. Instead of making this announcement as a comment, it is
made in a chapter that records past events. In this sense, the narrating ‘I’ infiltrates into the
territory of the narrated ‘I’.
Having focused on her Catholic girlhood, McCarthy’s text is a proof of her journey of
growing up. It depicts a girl who goes through different stages before she becomes a young
lady. Although the work was written when McCarthy was in her forties, the use of different
tones allows the readers to “hear” her voice as a young girl. This young voice resembles the
identity of the narrated ‘I’:
I was constantly making up stories, pretending that a ring given me by a great-aunt was a
secret engagement ring, that I went out dancing regularly to the Olympic Hotel, that a literary
boy who wrote to me was in love with me - the usual tales, but I did not know that. All I knew
was that there was one central, compromising fact about me that had to be hidden from my
friends and that burned me like the shirt of the Centaur: I could not bear to have anyone find
out that I was considered too young to go out with boys. (McCarthy 173)
It may seem that the narrated ‘I’ is separated from the narrating ‘I’. This is because the
tone and mind of the self being depicted demonstrate a girlish sense. For instance, the narrated
‘I’ attempts to make herself more mature in matters related to dating and relationships through
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telling lies. Though this behavior is acceptable for a fifteen-year-old girl mentality, it could be
considered as naïve from an adult’s point of view. Without adding any judgmental comments,
it seems that the narrated ‘I’ is not affected by the maturity of the middle-aged narrating ‘I’.
The narrator and the protagonist can well be differentiated from each other. However, as the
narrated ‘I’ proclaims that she does not realize she is telling the usual lies at that time, the
multiple identities of McCarthy are exposed. She is both the fifteen-year-old McCarthy and
the mature narrator who is conscious of her past action of habitual lying. This proves that
McCarthy always possesses multiple identities, both as the writing self and the self being
written. Moving to the end of the work, it is found that the topic discussed is no longer dating
and romantic relationships. Instead, it talks about solemn issues of death and family ties.
Jokes and immature acts are not found in the final section of the book. The choice of having a
serious topic for the final chapter symbolizes that the girl depicted has now grown up. There
is an obvious change in her tone as well:
One afternoon … I found my grandmother frowning and preoccupied. There was something
the matter, and I could not make out what it was. She wanted me to get her something, the
“whatchamacallit” from her bureau. I tried nearly everything - brush, comb, handkerchief,
perfume, pincushion, pocketbook, photograph of my mother. All of them were wrong, and she
grew more and more impatient, as if I were behaving like an imbecile … “She’s forgotten the
word for mirror,” the nurse said, winking at me. At that moment, the fact that my grandmother
was senile became real to me. (McCarthy 244-245)
The narrated ‘I’ becomes a dutiful granddaughter who tries to offer assistance to the
sick grandmother. Though she is still young and a bit playful in the sense that she regards
herself as “an imbecile”, she has maturely prioritized her grandmother’s desire. This reveals
she has undergone transformation and is getting close to the identity of the narrating ‘I’. The
final statement reflects her realization that her grandmother is aging. Her tone suddenly turns
somber and she does not want to accept the cruel and sad reality. The narrator still
demonstrates having sad emotions though the years have passed, a fact which further links up
the narrated and the narrating ‘I’.
The process of growing up is also illustrated in Coetzee’s text as the protagonist grows
from an innocent boy into a young adult who starts paying attention to girls and relationships.
Unlike in McCarthy’s text, that narrator is inextricable from the protagonist, Coetzee’s text
showing that the protagonist is independent from the present self of the autobiographer. In the
latter text, the protagonist is still living in the past:
Yet he is not ignorant. He knows how babies are born. They come out of the mother’s
backside, neat and clean and white. So his mother told him years ago, when he was small. He
believes her without question: it is a source of pride to him that she told him the truth about
babies so early, when other children were still being fobbed off with lies. (Coetzee 57)
As a child, the protagonist trusts his mother’s words deeply and without any doubts,
which reflects his simple-mindedness. Readers know well that the autobiographer realized the
truth while he was writing the text. This shows that the present self and the past self are
separated. The knowledge that the present self possesses does not affect the old self, for the
old self is still an ignorant kid:
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For the sake of suspense and verisimilitude, then, the narrator must attempt to remain faithful
to how he himself as protagonist is situated in time and space. However, the closer the
protagonist and narrator’s thoughts and actions can begin to overlap. (Graham 23)
In Coetzee’s text, the protagonist is faithful in terms of his identity as a boy. This is
reflected by the narrative tone and the protagonist’s thoughts. This forms a big contrast with
McCarthy’s text in which the narrator is always indivisible from the protagonist. However,
the two texts are similar in the sense that the process of growing up is made apparent at the
end of the texts:
[…] now Aunt Annie is lying in the rain waiting for someone to find time to bury her. He
alone is left to do the thinking. How will he keep them all in his head, all the books, all the
people, all the stories? And if he does not remember them, who will? (Coetzee 166)
The protagonist knows well that past experiences will be forgotten as time passes. He
believes that he is responsible in remembering all the past incidents. The protagonist is thus
explaining the reason for having a life narrative. In this sense, the protagonist’s identity is
multiple. He is not just the boy being depicted. He is also the narrator and the autobiographer
of this work.
6. CONCLUSION
In this article, the dissimilar choices made by two writers have been analyzed. Mary
McCarthy and J.M. Coetzee projected their young selves in autobiographical works while
reflecting their love towards childhood memories. In confronting the discrepancy between
memorable events and actual details, McCarthy chose to exercise her creativity in
incorporating invented elements while revealing the problem of memorization frankly to the
reader. Being aware of his distance from his much younger past self, Coetzee’s work employs
a third-person narrator as a means of achieving objectivity. Though both writers depicted
moments of detachment, loneliness and even alienation in their respective childhoods, the
narratives form a record of their loving memories.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BARTHES, Roland. Roland Barthes by Roland Barthes. Trans. Richard Howard. Berkeley
and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press, 1994.
BENSTOCK, Shari. “Authorizing the Autobiographical.” The Private Self. Ed. Shari
Benstock. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988. pp. 10-33.
BRUKE, Sean. The Death & Return of the Author – Criticism and Subjectivity in Barthes,
Foucault and Derrida. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 1992.
COETZEE, J.M. Boyhood: Scenes from Provincial Life. London: Penguin, 1997.
DYER, Brenda and Lee Friederich. “The Personal Narrative as Cultural Artifact: Teaching
Autobiography in Japan”. Written Communication 19:2, 2002, pp.265-296.
https://doi.org/10.1177/074108830201900202
GRAHAM, Robert J. Reading and Writing the Self. New York: Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1991.
LENTA, Margaret. “Autrebiography: J.M. Coetzee’s Boyhood and Youth”. English in Africa
31:1, 2003, Rhodes University pp.157-169. https://www.jstor.org/stable/40238981?seq=1
MCCARTHY, Mary. Memories of a Catholic Girlhood. New York: Harcourt, Brace and
Company, 1957.
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POORE, Charles. “Books of the Times”. The New York Times, 18 May 1957.
https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/97/11/23/home/mccarthy-
catholic.html .
RENZA, Louis A. “The Veto of the Imagination: A Theory of Autobiography”. In James
Olney. Autobiography: Essays Theoretical and Critical. Princeton, NJ: Princeton
University Press, 1980, pp.268-295.
SMITH, Sidonie and Julia Watson. Reading Autobiography: A Guide for Interpreting Life
Narratives. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, 2010.
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Abstract: In this paper, we have conducted a study on the figure of Padre Bonianno, the catholic
priest, depicted by the senegales author Mohamed Mbougar Sarr in his fictious novel titled Silence du
choeur (2017). It must be acknowledged that the representation of the consecrated is no longer that
current in XXI century new fictions which describe characters illustrating themes that reflect certain
emergencies of the world. Thus, by having subsaharans illegal emigration as the central theme of his
work, Sarr is making diverse ideologies embodied by the protagonists prevail. In this, the figure of
Padre Bonianno is quite telling. Focusing on this character, we have established the parallel that
exists between the symbolism of his name and his socio-spiritual commitment.
1. INTRODUCTION
Publié en 2017, Silence du chœur 2 (Sarr, 2017) est un roman qui met en scène « le
drame de l’émigration clandestine » (Faye, 2021:40) des subsahariens qui vivent difficilement
leur intégration humaine et sociale à Altino, la petite bourgade sicilienne où ils ont atterri et
qui sert de cadre fictif au roman. Dans cette ville où ils sont appelés ragazzi 3, ils ne sont pas
indifférents à la population qui reste partagée à leur sujet. Si la majorité de celle-ci les méprise
à cause de leur statut de migrants, une portion d’individus évoluant au sein de l’association
Santa Marta s’organise chaque jour pour leur venir en aide. Parmi ceux-ci, se trouve le Padre
Bonianno. La représentation de ce personnage a attiré notre attention du fait de sa dimension
de prêtre. En fait, il faut le reconnaître, la peinture de prêtres catholiques est de moins en
moins notée dans les fictions africaines. Si leur présence dans les romans africains était très
courante surtout chez les premiers romanciers d’Afrique centrale, ils sont relégués au second
plan par les générations suivantes d’auteurs au profit d’autres catégories socio-
professionnelles incarnant des thèmes plus brûlants tels que la guerre, le terrorisme, la mal
gouvernance, la violence faite aux femmes, l’émigration clandestine. Mais, le bien fondé de
ce dernier thème cité fait qu’en l’évoquant dans sa fiction, Sarr fait intervenir toutes les
sensibilités qui œuvrent en faveur ou non des ragazzi. C’est dans ce contexte que le Padre
Bonianno, « prêtre humaniste et charismatique » (Acosta Cordoba et alii, 2017: 11), est mis
en scène dans Silence du chœur. Ainsi, en peignant Bonianno, le romancier le situe dans deux
univers différents: le village de F... au Sénégal et la bourgade d’Altino en Italie. Dans chacun
1
bernardfaye72@gmail.com
2
Ce roman est abrégé SC, suivi de la page citée.
3
Terme italien par lequel sont désignés les migrants africains arrivés à Altino et signifiant, à peu près, en
français, « les gars », « les garçons ».
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de ces lieux opposés, son mode de vie ou son engagement révèlent un mystère de sa
personnalité d’homme de Dieu.
Ainsi, partant de toutes ces considérations, nous tenterons d’apporter des réponses aux
questions suivantes: Que suggère le nom de Bonianno ? Ce prêtre incarne-t-il l’idéal du
sacerdoce dans toute sa perfection ? Quel lien faut-il établir entre sa mort et son engagement
auprès des ragazzi ?
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incarné. Toujours dans cette dynamique de l’origine chrétienne du nom propre, Jésus lui-
même renommera Simon, un de ses plus proches collaborateurs, d’un nom suggestif de la
force de son Église: « "Tu es Simon, le fils de Jean ; tu t’appelleras Céphas" – ce qui veut dire
Pierre » (Jn 1, 42). En donnant à Simon le nom de Pierre, celui-ci reste le symbole du roc sur
lequel est construite l’Église ; roc si solide que les « les Portes de l’Hadès ne prévaudront pas
contre elle » (Mt 16, 18).
Ainsi, cette reconstruction des faits nous a permis de constater que le nom propre,
depuis les débuts de l’Église, est lié, le plus souvent, à des considérations d’ordre spirituel. Il
permet de mieux saisir la mission, la personnalité, ou l’être même du personnage qui le porte.
Cette connotation spirituellement positive du nom propre n’est pas étrangère au nom
Bonianno. La peinture de ce prêtre fait valoir moins sa dimension spirituelle que son idéologie
chrétienne et humaniste. Ainsi, l’écrivain crée un nom qui laisse entendre ou suggérer les
qualités insoupçonnées du personnage ou son cheminement spirituel. En décomposant le nom
Bonianno, on s’aperçoit que celui-ci englobe les sèmes "bon" et "ianno". Ce dernier sème
n’ayant aucun sens en français ; sa seule présence étant de mieux faire prévaloir le contexte
italien du nom.
En fait, la première qualité que l’on retient de l’homme de Dieu après avoir lu Silence
du chœur, c’est son immense bonté. Bonianno est bon au sens chrétien du terme, c’est-à-dire
charitable. Il ne peut en être autrement pour ce prêtre que l’auteur représente dans l’optique de
faire prévaloir sa position politique dans cette ville d’Altino où chacun réagit selon ses
propres convictions, comme le note Florence Goyet: « la multiplication des personnages
permet de faire voir à l’auditeur chacune des postures possibles, chacune des possibles
politiques » (2006: 11). Si les discours fascistes, le nihilisme, le revanchisme, le cynisme sont
diverses positions politiques non humanistes dans Silence du chœur, la voie et la voix de
Padre Bonianno sont celles qui donnent espoir aux ragazzi déshumanisés par tant de camps à
Altino. Malgré ses quatre vingt ans et son handicap d’aveugle, Bonianno s’est engagé auprès
de l’association Santa Marta pour aider les ragazzi. Sa présence auprès d’eux est
humainement remarquable: « il apparaît à la fois en professionnel de l’écoute et en détenteur
des vertus réparatrices de la parole » (Acosta Cordoba et alii, 2019: 11), comme cela se fait
voir dans ses causeries:
À travers ces répétitions, le Padre Bonianno n’écoutait pas seulement des récits, des aventures,
des histoires; il écoutait aussi des hommes, des voix humaines dans les intonations, hésitations
et silences desquels il décelait les échos mêlés de mille sentiments. Il ne s’agissait pas
seulement pour lui de savoir quel avait été leur itinéraire, leurs péripéties, leurs rencontres,
leurs fortunes, les raisons ou les buts qui les avaient poussés à quitter leur pays; il voulait aussi
savoir ce qu’ils étaient devenus comme hommes après toutes ces épreuves (SC, 189).
Chargé de faire l’entretien qui permettra aux ragazzi d’avoir plus tard leurs papiers
légaux, le Padre Bonianno va au-delà d’un simple interrogatoire superficiel et routinier. Il use
de ses talents de confesseur habitué à écouter les âmes pour rassurer ces désorientés de la vie.
Ce qui l’intéresse chez eux, c’est tout leur être humain. À travers son humanisme apparaît sa
personnalité de prêtre engagé pour des valeurs authentiquement humaines et idéologiquement
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À présent, debout au pied du petit lit, il frappait et frappait sans relâche, d’une rage froide.
Aux premiers coups, la chair soulevée laissa filtrer à peine quelques gouttes de sang. Mais il
jaillit tout à coup, vermeil. Chaque fois la chaîne sifflante, un instant tordue au-dessus de sa
tête, venait le mordre au flanc, et s’y reployait comme une vipère: il l’en arrachait du même
geste, et la levait de nouveau, régulier, attentif, pareil à un batteur sur l’aire (Bernanos 1994:
105).
Depuis que le Christ a été flagellé lors de sa passion, beaucoup de chrétiens l’imitent
dans cette pratique qui, pour eux, est un moyen non seulement d’expier leurs péchés mais
aussi de s’unir à ses souffrances pour le salut du monde. L’auto-flagellation de Donissan
s’inscrit dans cette dynamique de mortification pour son propre salut et pour celui de ses
fidèles. Réellement, il donne son sang, comme cela apparaît dans sa passion ci-dessus.
Mais, le nom de Donissan n’en évoque pas moins aussi des réalités spirituelles
inhérentes à sa personnalité et à son vécu missionnaire. Par paronomase, Donissan équivaut à
bénissant. Comme homme de Dieu avéré, il est béni lui-même, mais aussi il est appelé à bénir
ses semblables, c’est-à-dire à sanctifier le peuple dont il a la charge pastorale dans le hameau
de Lumbres. Tâche à laquelle il s’acquitte avec beaucoup de bienveillance et d’abnégation:
« Au fond du pauvre confessionnal de Lumbres, qui sent les ténèbres et la moisissure, ses fils
à genoux n’entendent que la voix souveraine, au-dessus de l’éloquence, qui crevait les cœurs
les plus durs, impérieuse, suppliante et, dans sa douceur même, inflexible ». (Ibid. 205)
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Une seule chose préoccupe l’abbé Donissan à Lumbres: la conversion des pauvres
pécheurs qui ne peut se réaliser sans sa parole fervente de suppliant qui élève vers Dieu ses
prières ardentes. L’impact de sa ferveur est réel, eu égard à la manifestation de piété de la
foule « pressée nuit et jour autour du confessionnal de l’homme de Dieu comme un autre curé
d’Ars » (Ibid., 209), pour recevoir ses bénédictions. Aussi, le fait qu’il soit comparé à saint
Jean-Marie Vianney, le curé d’Ars, et qu’il soit appelé par des expressions périphrastiques
telles que « l’homme de Dieu » (Ibid., 154), « l’humble serviteur de Dieu » (Ibid., 179), le
« saint homme » (Ibid., 154) démontre-il la richesse de sa vie spirituelle dans ses dimensions
verticale et horizontale.
Cette approche comparative entre les deux hommes de Dieu, tout en laissant voir
quelques ressemblances, montre, nettement aussi, que le prêtre bernanosien est plus pourvu de
qualités spirituelles que celui sarrien. C’est parce que le plus important dans la représentation
du Padre Bonianno, c’est moins sa dimension spirituelle personnelle que son engagement
social empreint de sens chrétien. En tant que « "sel de la terre" » (SC, 244), comme le pense
de lui Carla, l’une des membres de l’association Santa Marta qui œuvre pour le bien-être des
ragazzi, le Padre Bonianno fait partie des rares personnes qui donnent encore de la saveur
spirituelle à son monde. Celui-ci a perdu les fondamentaux de la vie aussi bien sur le plan
humain que chrétien:
L’Europe est pauvre, spirituellement pauvre et vidée. On accueille ces gens grâce à nos
richesses. Mais aucune de nos propositions humaines – si on en fait ! – ne sera retenue.
L’Europe ne peut pas accueillir toute la richesse du monde, oui, c’est vrai, mais j’ajoute: parce
qu’elle est elle-même misérable. La valeur de la vie humaine lui échappe, l’effraie... Nous
sommes les premiers à prêcher la morale aux autres, nous sommes les premiers à parler de
Droits de l’Homme, mais regardons-nous ! Humanisme dégénéré. Phare brisé d’une
civilisation en tempête... (SC, 205).
Ces jugements du prêtre sarrien en disent long sur le vide du vieux continent qui n’a
plus de valeurs authentiques à donner en exemple. S’il attire encore, c’est moins à cause de sa
grandeur morale que son poids économique et matériel. De surcroît, ce qui fait le plus mal au
Padre Bonniano, c’est le fait que l’Europe n’accueille pas « pour le salut des Hommes » (SC,
205), comme elle devrait le faire. C’est pourquoi, lui qui symbolise la voie et la voix de
l’humanisme chrétien agit autrement au milieu des ragazzi, ces migrants qui, en plus de ne
pas trouver le travail qui constitue leur priorité, ont aussi très mal dans leur chair et dans leur
âme du fait de leur statut de réfugiés. Ainsi, en les accueillant avec toute l’attention
missionnaire qui sied, Bonianno épouse la figure du bon samaritain (Lc 10, 25-37) qui prend
soin charitablement de son prochain souffrant. Il sait que la meilleure façon de témoigner de
sa vie de prêtre dans ce monde déshumanisé où il évolue, c’est le fait de vivre en conformité
avec les exigences de la Parole. C’est pourquoi, il s’implique pleinement et désintéressément
dans l’accueil de ces africains qui vivent la désillusion à Altino, malgré ses insuffisances
humaines.
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Le Padre Bonianno a beau être un homme d’église incarnant avec loyauté et fidélité
l’humanisme chrétien dans Silence du chœur, il n’empêche qu’il reste un homme au sens de
celui qui assume sa condition humaine aussi bien dans sa grandeur que dans ses limites. Lui-
même, en demandant qu’on gravât l’épitaphe « moins homme d’église qu’homme » (SC, 240)
sur sa tombe, il confirme cette thèse. En réalité, le prêtre, qu’il est, est conscient du fait que le
sacerdoce, qui l’a sacralisé à travers le sacrement de l’ordre, ne fait pas de lui un homme
moins pécheur que les pauvres pécheurs dont il absout pourtant les péchés. La première limite
du Padre Bonianno se perçoit lorsque, par impossibilité d’amener à Jésus Christ les Sérères de
F..., « petite commune du Sénégal » (SC, 92) où il est le curé, il se laisse acculturer par ceux-
ci. Certes, ce fait lui a permis d’être accepté par toutes les entités du village, mais en même
temps, son honneur de missionnaire du Christ a été atteint:
Il avait été invité à passer quelques soirées au "ngel", la rudimentaire construction en bois et
en paille sous laquelle les Anciens du village se réunissaient pour parler. On l’accueillit enfin.
Le sacrificateur du village échangea avec lui. Le devin lui parla. Les femmes ne le fuirent
plus. Les griottes l’entretinrent de leurs chants et poèmes. On lui permit d’assister à certaines
cérémonies initiatiques. Soudain, l’austère curé, toujours plongé dans le texte biblique,
commença à sentir et ne plus seulement comprendre les liens entre les différents êtres, la
solidarité entre l’humain et le sacré, la signification du monde comme ngel – espace
symbolique où dialoguent les hommes entre eux et avec ceux qui les y avaient précédés,
espace où ce qui est dit compte, où la parole porte la densité sacrée d’un geste créateur. Toutes
ces choses le bouleversèrent. Sa propre foi catholique, qu’il n’avait pas abandonnée, s’en
trouva changée, éclairée d’un jour nouveau (SC, 93-94).
La situation de Bonianno à F... peut être considérée comme une ironie paradigmatique
(qui est établie sur le renversement des hiérarchies, par exemple l’arroseur arrosé), selon
Hamon (1996). En effet, venu christianiser les Sérères de F..., Bonianno se retrouve
finalement dans la posture de celui qui assimile leur tradition. Et, pour ce faire, il a fallu aux
villageois de F... l’initier à leurs rites et cultures symbolisés par l’espace initiatique qu’est le
ngel et ses officiants que sont le sacrificateur et le devin. À partir de cet instant où Bonianno
s’est imprégné inconsciemment des us et coutumes du monde sérère, tout son être s’en est
trouvé bouleversé. Surtout, un des fondements moraux sur lequel s’adosse sa caractéristique
de prêtre, et qui se trouve être la chasteté, a été offensé.
Il faut reconnaître que le prêtre est un homme qui se consacre au service de Dieu et à
celui de ses frères. Dans cette dynamique, et pour que sa mission porte les fruits spirituels
escomptés, il est tenu de respecter certains principes. Parmi ceux-ci, il y a le célibat qui reste
non négligeable. Or, celui-ci va de pair avec le vœu de chasteté qui consiste, pour le consacré,
à garder une pureté réelle aussi bien sur le plan moral que physique. Mais, il est évident que
lorsque l’on parle de la chasteté du prêtre, dans l’église catholique surtout, on fait référence
aussi à son abstinence sur le plan sexuel. Cette abstinence a été un fait avéré pour beaucoup
de serviteurs de Dieu ou tout simplement pour des serviteurs d’autres divinités. Par exemple:
« De nombreux prêtres païens pratiquaient la castration volontaire afin de ne pas être souillés
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par le contact sexuel et de pouvoir remplir, dans la pureté et la sainteté, leur rôle
d’intermédiaire entre les hommes et les dieux » (Dumortier 2015: 18). Le culte de la pureté et
celui de la sainteté sont des gages indispensables à la bonne tenue de celui qui veut servir
fidèlement les divinités ou le Dieu unique, créateur du ciel et de la terre. Dans l’entendement
de plusieurs croyances ou religions, la pureté et la sainteté ont un rapport intrinsèque avec
l’abstinence sexuelle périodique ou permanente. C’est dans cette logique que l’église
catholique, de son côté, considère la continence du prêtre comme une voie salutaire. Ces
propos de Naz apportent des éclaircissements à ce sujet:
Homme de Dieu, vers qui il fait fréquemment monter les hommages et les supplications de
l’humanité, à qui il offre le sacrifice eucharistique, au nom de qui il administre les sacrements,
le prêtre doit avoir une pureté angélique. La sublimité de ces fonctions demande de lui une
perfection très élevée, donc un très grand amour de Dieu. Par conséquent, elle l’invite à écarter
résolument et définitivement la passion charnelle qui, même légitimée par le mariage, occupe
et obscurcit l’esprit, divise et encombre le cœur (1942: 141).
Depuis les origines, dans la Bible, le prêtre a été perçu comme quelqu’un qui est choisi
et mis à part par Dieu pour être l’intermédiaire entre Celui-ci et les hommes. Cette mission
particulière qu’on lui assigne le hisse aussi au sommet de la pureté et de la sainteté, de telle
sorte qu’on le rapproche de l’ange. Or, celui-ci a la particularité non seulement de ne pas
avoir de sexe mais d’incarner la pureté elle-même dans l’entendement populaire et religieuse.
Ainsi, plus le prêtre se rapprocherait de l’ange dans cette perspective, plus il serait mieux dans
sa pastorale salvatrice, pourrait-on admettre. Seulement, tous les prêtres ne sont pas inscrits
dans cette fidélité aux idéaux de leur sacerdoce. C’est ainsi que Bonianno, désacralisé après
son passage au ngel, enfreint le sixième commandement:
La dernière année qu’il passa au sein du village fut pour lui une porte entrouverte sur le
paradis. Il rencontra Gnilaan Juuf, une cousine de son vicaire, femme d’une beauté obsédante,
extatique comme la dernière gorgée avant l’ivresse. Rire taquin. Corps vigoureux. Pécheresse
innocente. Amadeo Bonianno la confessait sans faute chaque dimanche soir, après que le
Christ, soûlé par le vin de son sang, se fut endormi au dessus-d’eux sur sa croix. Et tandis que
le Seigneur ivre et fatigué baissait ainsi la garde, le curé relevait sa soutane (SC, 94).
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Je parlerai encore de ceux que nous appelons migrants, faute d’un meilleur mot, car je crois
que même si leur voyage n’est pas fini, même s’ils migrent toujours, ils sont pour l’instant ici,
parmi nous. Je les appelle migrants, mais j’aurais bien pu dire immigrés, immigrants, déplacés,
exilés, réfugiés... Comme nous tous, j’ai du mal à les nommer, et je crois d’ailleurs que c’est
l’une des raisons pour lesquelles il y a à leur propos tant de polémiques. Avoir du mal à
nommer précisément un homme est le début du malheur... Enfin, passons. J’ai désespéré de
leur situation il y a peu. L’idée qu’ils doivent affronter ici la tragédie de l’ennui et la peur de
ne pas avoir leurs papiers après leur traversée au bord de la mort m’était insupportable. Je ne
voyais plus d’avenir pour eux ici, sur cette terre qui n’a rien à leur offrir. J’ai désespéré. Mais
je m’en repens. Mon erreur était que je cherchais un coupable. Ne vous demandez pas qui est
coupable. Tout le monde l’est dans cette affaire. D’abord, leurs pays d’origine. Ensuite, nos
pays. Eux. Nous. L’histoire. Le système. Les passeurs. La géopolitique. Le capitalisme
mondial. La colonisation. Tout cela a sa part et sa vérité de culpabilité. Mais il reste qu’à la
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fin, quel que soit le coupable, ça se termine ainsi: ils sont là, devant nous. C’est ce qu’on doit
faire maintenant qui compte (SC, 236-237).
Rappelons, avant tout, que l’homélie en tant qu’explication de la Parole de Dieu a trois
portées essentielles: dégager le sens spirituel de la Parole, l’actualiser et en tirer des
orientations concrètes. Ainsi, en centrant toute son homélie sur l’affaire de ces migrants
africains, le Padre Bonianno n’a pas dérogé à la règle. Mieux, il tient à faire voir combien
cette actualité est au cœur de toutes les préoccupations en Sicile. Dans son prêche, il note,
d’abord, les préjugés négatifs qu’ont les habitants d’Altino à l’endroit des migrants. Les
diverses dénominations à valeur péjorative qu’ils emploient pour les étiqueter tout en les
stigmatisant démontrent en même temps la distance qu’ils prennent vis-à-vis de ces citoyens
d’un autre monde. Ensuite, Bonianno n’est pas sans accuser l’humanité entière d’être
responsable de la situation de ces migrants. Enfin, il interpelle ses concitoyens par rapport à
l’attitude responsable qu’ils doivent adopter face à ces étrangers. Si le caractère d’actualité de
l’homélie se dégage dans le thème de la migration choisi pour sa prédication, le sens spirituel
de celle-ci ainsi que ses orientations sont perceptibles dans la dernière partie de l’extrait. En
bon chrétien et prêtre de surcroît, Bonianno, en invitant les siens à réfléchir sur ce qu’ils
doivent faire par rapport à leurs hôtes, pense, non seulement à certaines béatitudes (Mt 5, 1-
12) de l’Évangile, mais aussi a en esprit ces paroles du Christ: « j’étais un étranger et vous
m’avez accueilli » (Mt 25, 35). Cependant, en fin pédagogue évoluant dans un environnement
de plus en plus sécularisé, il s’adapte aux réalités de celui-ci en n’évoquant pas explicitement
la Bible, mais en appelant à l’humanisme; étant donné que celui-ci a forcément des
soubassements chrétiens.
Mais, ce qui fait que cette homélie du Padre Bonianno restera ancrée à jamais dans la
mémoire des Altinois, c’est que celui-ci meurt après l’avoir prononcée:
Le curé se tut. On attendait qu’il reprenne la parole. Le silence perdura. Et c’est au moment
où, surpris, les fidèles se rendaient compte que le sermon venait de prendre fin, que le Padre
Bonianno s’effondra au milieu de la chair. Au fond de l’église, ceux qui n’avaient pas vu le
curé tomber se levèrent et entonnèrent gravement un psaume. [...] L’on fit silence devant la
gravité de l’instant. La tempête se fit de nouveau entendre, mais elle ne hurlait plus ; son
souffle, faible, paraissait s’accorder à celui de l’agonie du curé. [...] Pour la première fois
depuis plus d’un demi-siècle, Giuseppe dit un De Profundis. Puis il ferma pour de bon les
yeux d’Amadeo, tandis que les siens s’emplissaient de larmes (SC, 238-239).
C’est en réactualisant le sacrifice du Christ à travers la sainte messe que Bonianno est
mort. Or, ce sacrifice christique a pour but le salut de l’humanité entachée par le péché. Ainsi,
en voyant de quelle manière l’homme de Dieu est mort à son tour, on peut considérer qu’il
est, lui aussi, un agneau de sacrifice pour la rédemption des migrants dont il n’a cessé de
porter la voix auprès de ses concitoyens. Plusieurs raisons nous permettent de dire qu’il est
une victime expiatoire pour les immigrants d’Altino ?
Premièrement, Bonianno est mort tout juste après avoir donné sa dernière homélie. À
cet effet, ce sermon peut être pris comme un testament. Effectivement, il en est un du fait
qu’il porte sur le seul combat pour lequel le prêtre s’est engagé depuis qu’il est retourné en
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Sicile et qui se trouve être l’amélioration des conditions de vie des ragazzi. D’ailleurs, son
testament est similaire à celui de Jésus sur la forme. Souvenons-nous que c’est en instituant la
sainte messe avant sa mort que le Christ a prononcé son testament (Jn 17, 1-26) encore appelé
discours d’adieux ou prière sacerdotale, comme Bonianno sera mort en célébrant lui aussi le
saint sacrifice. Dans son testament spirituel, Jésus prie son Père pour ses disciples en
intercédant pour qu’ils demeurent dans l’unité. Le testament de Bonianno est dans la même
logique que celui de son Maître puisque pouvant être résumé autour des deux mots que sont
l’unité et la solidarité, comme cela se fait voir dans la dernière partie de sa prédication:
Alors, oui, les accueillir est peut-être un enfer collectif, où personne ne comprend personne.
Mais ne pas les accueillir est un enfer solitaire, où on ne se parle pas, où l’on n’a donc aucune
chance de se comprendre. Entre ces deux enfers, je préfère celui où nous sommes tous
ensemble en se parlant, même sans se comprendre. Car c’est l’enfer qui offre le plus d’espoir.
L’espoir qu’un jour, une nouvelle langue commune naisse. Tout le monde a sa place au
paradis. Tout le monde a sa place en enfer. C’est la seule chose que le paradis et l’enfer ont
peut-être en commun: l’on n’y est jamais seul. Partout, il y a des gens avec soi, qu’on n’a pas
choisis, et avec lesquels il faut bien composer. Ça s’appelle vivre (SC, 237-238).
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dédicace suivante: « À Amadeo Bonianno, éclaireur dans l’ombre » (SC, 409). L’ouvrage de
Fantini peut être considéré, dans ce sens, comme un cri de cœur d’un poète, un témoignage
sur la vie de ces migrants subsahariens, ne serait-ce qu’à travers l’éloquence du titre: Ragazzi.
Au vrai, le fruit de la mort du Padre Bonianno a été ce surplus de considération à
l’égard des ragazzi. Même si l’irréparable confrontation entre eux et une autre partie des
altinois s’est produite après, certains regards ont changé à leur endroit. C’est pour dire que
« si le grain de blé qui est tombé en terre ne meurt, il reste seul; mais, s’il meurt, il porte
beaucoup de fruit » (Jn 12, 24).
5. CONCLUSION
En nous intéressant à la figure du Padre Bonianno, il convient de noter qu’en
déchiffrant son nom, nous avons réussi à établir un lien de causalité entre sa nomination et son
engagement socio-pastorale. Si le sème "bon" qui est la première syllabe du nom du prêtre
représenté par Sarr est aussi sa principale qualité, c’est que celui-ci s’est distingué à Altino
par sa charité chrétienne. Particulièrement, il a été bon pour les ragazzi qui symbolisent les
étrangers, les exclus, les pauvres dont parle l’Évangile et pour qui un traitement de faveur est
demandé. Bonianno n’est donc, dans ce sens, que le signifié spirituel de son nom, car, comme
le constate Barthes: « Le nom propre est un signe, un signe volumineux, un signe toujours
gros d’une épaisseur touffue de sens... » (1972: 125). En vivant selon la symbolique de son
nom, Bonianno est allé jusqu’au bout de son engagement d’homme de Dieu au service de ses
frères à Altino. Même sa condition humaine, qui l’a souvent humilié en le tirant vers le bas
dans le péché, ne l’a pas empêché d’aller jusqu’au bout de son amour en se donnant pour le
salut des ragazzi. Il sait qu’ « il n’y a pas de plus grand amour que de donner sa vie pour ses
amis » (Jn 15, 13), c’est-à-dire ceux qu’on aime et à qui on manifeste une bonté, comme il l’a
fait à Altino.
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DUMORTIER, Cindy-Sarah (2015). « Le célibat ecclésiastique offensé au sein du clergé
paroissial de la France septentrionale (XVIe début XIXe siècle) ». Thèse de doctorat.
Histoire. Université Charles De Gaulle – Lille III.
FAYE, Bernard (2021). « Écriture de l’étrange dans le roman africain postmoderne: Silence
du chœur de Mohamed Mbougar Sarr ». Revue de Philologie et de Communication
Interculturelle. Vol. 5, N°2, Jul. 2021. Bucharest: Military Technical Academy
"Ferdinand I" Publishing House, 40-49.
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GRANGER, Gilles (1982). « À quoi servent les noms propres ? ». Langages 66. Paris: Didier,
21-36.
GOYET, Florence (2006). Penser sans concepts: fonction de l’épopée guerrière. Paris:
Honoré Champion.
HAMON, Philippe (1996). Ironie littéraire. Essai sur les formes de l’écriture oblique. Paris:
Hachette.
La Bible de Jérusalem (1999). Rome: Les Éditions du Cerf.
La Bible en français. Louis Segond.
NAZ, Raoul, (dir.) (1942). Le Dictionnaire de droit canonique, tome III. Paris:
Librairie Letouzey et Ané.
SARR, Mohamed Mbougar (2017). Silence du chœur. Paris: Présence Africaine Éditions.
WATT, Ian (1982). « Réalisme et forme romanesque ». Littérature et réalité. Paris: Seuil,
11-46.
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Abderrahman BEGGAR 1
Wilfrid Laurier University, Canada
Abstract: This paper is about anti-racism in Pierre Billon’s Nouvelle-France (2004). This historical
novel deals with events related to life in Quebec City around the times of the Battle of the Plains of
Abraham. Our main objective is to examine how, through the power of love, the main protagonists
react to a context marked by a structural racism, fed by various forms of violence, what strategies they
adopt, how they imagine the present and the future and how they conceive national identity. Their
positioning invites the reader to dialogue with history to grasp the normative background that
nourishes and reproduces racist behaviour. While engaging in a critique of their time, these
transcultural heroes deal with issues of undeniable timeliness.
Motto: [S]'il est même utile, nécessaire, de nous retourner, en vue de l'étude de notre passé, ce n'est que
pour constater ce que nous avons été et ce que nous ne devons plus être, ce que nous avons cru et
pensé, et ce que nous ne devons plus ni croire ni penser, ce que nous avons fait et ce que nous ne
devons plus jamais faire. (Bakunine 1882: 296)
1. INTRODUCTION
Les propos de l’auteur de Dieu et l’État (1882) invitent à adopter une attitude sceptique
vis-à-vis de l’élément fondamental de toute narration historique en ciblant l’imagination de
l’être ensemble, tributaire à son tour des modes de pensée et croyances qui déterminent l’action
individuelle et collective. Plutôt que de faire l’éloge du passé et, bien entendu, reproduire les
mêmes attitudes, croyances, hiérarchies, injustices et modes de légitimation d’un système,
l’homme d’aujourd’hui se doit d’évaluer le révolu à l’aune d’une nouvelle conscience dévouée
au projet d’une société meilleure. Aux yeux de Bakunine, l’être humain a plutôt besoin
d’apprendre des erreurs du passé pour mieux maîtriser son présent et déterminer son futur. Une
telle mission ne peut se réaliser sans un traitement éthique de l’histoire, traduit par un souci
d’évaluation, d’autocritique, d’engagement, d’inclusion et de justice envers l’autre. D’ailleurs,
né de l’amour du prochain, la conscience anti-raciste correspond à une telle exigence. Du moins
de l’avis de George M. Fredrickson, à l’exception d’une opposition réduite à des cercles
restreints d’intellectuels, le raciste a toujours eu l’assurance confortable que l’histoire
corroborait sa propre vision du monde. Il a fallu l’horreur de l’holocauste pour que l’on prête
enfin attention aux effets dévastateurs du racisme. Dans ses propres mots, l’auteur déclare qu’
« Hitler, it has been said, gave racism a bad name » (Fredrickson 2015: 2).
Nous pouvons avancer, sans risque de généraliser, qu’à partir de ce moment, la
stratégie antiraciste s’appuie sur une remise en question des constructions usuelles à partir
1
abeggar@wlu.ca
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2. L’HISTOIRE ADAPTEE
Nouvelle-France participe de la « littérature patriotique » québécoise, laquelle s’est
consacrée à la vie sous la domination française, l’occupation anglaise et la résistance qu’elle a
déclenchée. Dans cette catégorie, le premier roman, en anglais, The Manor House of Villeray,
de la montréalaise Mme Leprohon (Rosanna Eleanor Mullins de son vrai nom), décrit la vie
sous le joug français. Ce livre est sorti en 1861 et traduit en français sous le titre Le Manoir de
Villerai (1892). Déjà en 1863 avait paru Les Anciens Canadiens de Philippe Aubert de Gaspé,
considéré comme le premier best-seller québécois (et aussi le premier livre de son genre à se
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faire traduire en anglais). Dès lors, cette thématique a connu un intérêt soutenu avec des
auteurs comme Edmond Rousseau, Éléda Gonneville, Laure Conan, Mylène Gilbert-Dumas,
André Mathieu, Yves Dupéré et Cécile Gagnon 1.
Dans le prélude, Pierre Billon classe son roman dans la catégorie historique. Il attire
l’attention du lecteur sur le fait qu’une bonne partie des événements racontés ont eu lieu, que
l’histoire donne un cadre temporel et événementiel à la fiction, que des êtres réels et fictifs se
côtoient, que la grande histoire nourrit la « petite », celle d’une communauté, dont la mission
est de (re)fonder, non seulement une ville (celle de Québec), mais une nation.
Ce roman tourne autour des heurts et malheurs d’un couple, Marie-Lou Carignan et
François Le Gardeur, de leur amour l’un pour l’autre et aussi pour la terre et les hommes,
quelle qu'en soit la couleur, du prix à payer pour avoir osé défier les formes de ségrégation
propres à leur temps. Surtout, le livre soulève des questions brûlantes, notamment, par rapport
au projet de naissance d’un « nouveau » Canada, passé de la tutelle française à celle anglaise.
Ce récit raconte les violences exercées et subies de tranches sociales différentes de la
Nouvelle-France. D’un côté, l’Église, l’oligarchie locale, la milice, l’administration coloniale
(française et anglaise), la hiérarchie militaire anglaise, des membres de l’intelligentsia et de la
classe politique française. De l’autre côté, les Autochtones, l’esclave Mélodie et la masse des
déshérités, ces colons que Pierre Vallières a qualifiés, des siècles après, dans une formule
choc, de Nègres blancs dʼAmérique (1968).
Soulignons d’abord que Billon est aussi le scénariste de Nouvelle-France. Cet exercice
de création repose sur la nécessité de « créer une nouvelle réalité » (comme souligné plus
haut). Tout effort d’adaptation se réalise par rapport à une situation et à un besoin de trouver
un terrain commun avec un public donné, lui-même ancré dans une temporalité et spatialité
précises. Dans leur traitement du passé, la différence entre l’histoire et la fiction est que, dans
son traitement de l’événement, la deuxième jouit d’une plus grande marge de manœuvre ; au
lieu de servir l’événement et d’en juger la vérité (dans le sens de correspondance entre le fait
décrit et son développement pragmatique) à travers l’enquête, la fiction (tant
cinématographique que littéraire) convertit l’événement en matériau pour alimenter le projet
narratif comme le signale l’auteur dans le prélude: « Vous ne trouverez donc pas dans ce récit
le propos rigoureux d’un historien » (Billon 2004: 7). Pour mieux élucider ce propos, rien de
mieux que de voir comment Pierre Billon s’est inspiré sans reproduire fidèlement la vie de
personnages historiques dans le cadre d’un pacte de lecture qui « démuséifie » l’histoire pour
l’adapter au présent en clôturant avec une promesse au lecteur: « Vous serez en bonne
compagnie. » (Billon 2004: 7)
Ses deux héros (de même que plusieurs autres personnages) ont beaucoup en commun
avec des gens qui ont bel et bien existé. Leur « adaptation » consiste, en réalité, en un effort
de recréation au service d’une lecture déterminée par un regard actuel. Au fil de la lecture,
l’évidence saute aux yeux que Marie-Loup Carignan n’est autre que La Corriveau, un
personnage légendaire, fleuron du patrimoine oral québécois, documenté pour la première fois
par Philippe Aubert de Gaspé dans l’ouvrage déjà mentionné. L’histoire tourne autour du
destin tragique de cette première figure féministe canadienne, trouvée coupable et exécutée en
1
Pour une synthèse de la littérature patriotique québécoise, voir le travail de Nathalie Ducharme (2006).
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1763 pour avoir tué son mari abusif et avoir pratiqué la sorcellerie. Ce personnage historique,
lié à un contexte légal répressif, sert de point pour illustrer le fonctionnement de la justice
militaire anglaise à la suite de la chute de la Nouvelle-France, qui découle de comportements
phobiques liés à la sorcellerie et à la tyrannie patriarcale. La Corriveau a aussi fait l’objet de
plusieurs travaux académiques, dont les derniers en date sont le livre de Catherine Ferland et
Dave Corriveau, La Corriveau: de l’histoire à la légende (2014) et l'ouvrage La Corriveau.
La formation d’une légende (2017) édité par Bertrand Bergeron et Jean-Pierre Pichette.
Quant à son amant, François le Gardeur, historiquement, il est loin d’avoir le même
poids. Dans l’entourage de l’intendant Bigot, ce patronyme est lié à deux familles, celle de
Tilly et celle de Repentigny (Routhier 1904: 180). Celui dont la vie correspond plus ou moins
à celle du héros est décrit comme un nanti héritier qui vit dans le faste et la nonchalance:
Le Gardeur de Repentigny, who since his father’s death had become the head of one of the
noblest and most highly respected families in New France. […] Le Gardeur was addicted to
drink, and it was with a view of satisfying his craving in that respect that he joined the
intendant and his friends in their revelries […] He was madly in love with Angelique des
Meloises, the most fascinating coquette, as well as the most ambitious of all the Quebec ladies
(Routhier 1904: 132).
Beau garçon, baroudeur sympathique qui n’avait froid ni aux yeux ni au cœur, joueur et
aventurier, il avait fini par se lasser des salons, des tripots et des maisons closes de la Ville
lumière et, de retour au pays, était parti courir les bois à la découverte de son immense terre
natale qui s’appelait alors la Nouvelle-France. (Billon 2004: 13)
3. POSITIONNEMENT ANTIRACISTE
Il est à souligner que, dans Nouvelle-France, Pierre Billon recrée l’histoire en situant
la question raciale dans le cadre d’une oppression structurelle, spécifique à l’ordre colonial,
autant français qu’anglais. Racisme, sexisme et autres figures d’oppression sont présentés
dans une connectivité et une articulation inhérentes, la société de l’époque étant représentée
comme un organisme dévoré par des inégalités et injustices. L’un des aboutissements de ce
climat de répression est la fin tragique de Marie-Loup, jugée (tant par les Anglais que par les
siens qui la soupçonnent de sorcellerie) et exécutée après avoir été trouvée coupable du
meurtre de son mari, Xavier Maillard, un ivrogne abusif, chef de milice, cette force constituée
de Canadiens au service de l’administration française. Quant à François Le Gardeur, il se voit
obligé de quitter le Canada, poursuivi pour avoir osé essayer de dévoiler les vols commis par
l’intendant Bigot. En son absence, son aimée n’a eu d’autre choix que d’épouser son pire
ennemi, Maillard.
L’antiracisme relève d’une volonté de pousser vers une interprétation donnée de
l’œuvre. Diégétiquement, elle se perçoit dans le choix des événements racontés et
rhétoriquement, elle consiste, surtout, dans la tendance à mettre la lecture sous l’enseigne
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d’une sensibilité partagée. L’auteur a opté pour deux héros porteurs d’un regard critique sur
leur temps et d’une « imagination de la communauté » peu commune. Ils se distinguent par
une qualité commune, source de leur perte: leur opposition à la société de l’époque. Ils
affichent, chacun, une opposition farouche à la figure dominatrice du père et aux valeurs qu’il
représente et n’hésitent pas à franchir les barrières raciales en privilégiant le rapport à des
membres de groupes exogènes.
De retour de Paris, où il a fait des études en sciences politiques, François Le Gardeur a
décidé de passer la plupart du temps dans la forêt, menant une vie de trappeur, en compagnie
d’Owashak, « un Abénaquis élevé chez les jésuites à Trois-Rivières » (Billon 2004: 13) et de
son chien Miskou, « un chien redoutable qui avait déjà mis en fuite une meute de loups » (14).
Cette vie se passe au cœur des bois, au bord d’une rivière, dans une tranquillité absolue qui
n’a rien à voir avec celle parisienne, avec ses salons et maisons closes (comme décrite au
début du roman) ni avec la haute société de la ville de Québec, dont il est originaire.
François Le Gardeur et Owashak ont développé un rapport unique, sous le signe d’une
complicité mutuelle et d’une rare entente: « Une amitié fraternelle s’était développée entre ces
deux hommes si différents l’un de l’autre, unis par une même quête » (Billon 2004: 14). Cette
fraternité s’explique par un questionnement profond de leur appartenance sociale et raciale.
Les deux personnages ont défié le cantonnement auquel la société coloniale les a forcés. Au
début du récit, François Le Gardeur boude le confort d’une vie douillette, sous l’aile d’un père
nanti, avide de gain et soucieux de faire du fils un successeur idéal. Son amitié pour les
Abénaquis se convertira en fraternité, à la suite d’un événement qui « changea du jour au
lendemain le destin de Le Gardeur » (Billon 2004: 13). Au risque de sa vie, il a sauvé une
fillette amérindienne, du nom de Lakmé, des flots enragés de la rivière Kijé Manito. À partir
de ce moment, les Abénaquis n’hésitent pas à lui ouvrir les portes d’une spiritualité dont les
Européens sont tenus à l’écart. Au seuil de la mort, le chaman (qui parle ultérieurement de
l’événement) l’accompagne dans une vision annonçant le décès du père:
Le Gardeur avança vers le lit où reposait la dépouille d’un vieil homme au visage émacié. Une
chandelle achevait de se consumer sur la table de chevet. Alors qu’il posait la main sur le front
du cadavre, une grosse blatte émergea de sous l’oreiller et fila sur le drap. Il se pencha pour
l’attraper et sursauta d’effroi: le vieillard lui avait saisi le poignet et s’agrippait à lui, les yeux
vitreux. Il fit un bon en arrière pour se dégager de l’étreinte. La main décharnée retomba sans
vie et une chevalière glissa de l’annulaire pour rouler sur le plancher. (Billon 2004: 15)
Le récit de cette aventure à deux et l’espace qui lui est propre aident à saisir le sens de
la « fraternité » déjà évoquée. Ce qui se passe est l’expression indélébile d’un idéal esthétique
sous le signe d’un partage ontologique, une identification qui efface les distances entre soi et
l’autre, un état que Bakhtine (en se référant au rapport entre l’auteur et ses personnages)
qualifie d’« esthétiques expressives », pratique liée à un état où
the aesthetic object is expressive as such, i.e., it is the outward expression of an inner state.
And what is essential, moreover, is that what is actually expressed is not something
objectively valid (an objective value), but, rather, the inner life of an object expressing itself
from within, its emotional volitional state and its directness from within itself; it is only to this
extent that there can be any question of co-experiencing (1990: 63).
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me nourrit, il m’habille. Ce n’est pas rien ça! […] C’est moi qui le touche, pour le soulager de
son poisseux. Il dit que ça l’aide à chasser les pensées impures… surtout quand il te
voit » (Billon 2004: 29-30). En toute évidence, cette déclaration invite à une réflexion sur la
position de l’Église vis-à-vis de l’esclavage. En même temps, le compte rendu de Mélodie sur
sa situation actuelle prouve combien elle est en avance sur son temps. En disant que l’homme
de religion ne la paie pas, elle définit l’esclavage à partir d’une perspective post-
abolitionniste, l’esclavage moderne étant synonyme de travail non rémunéré. Il est vrai
qu’elle ne se plaint pas, mais ses dires, enrobés de sarcasme, en disent autrement.
En soi, la candeur des propos et leur détachement positionnel constituent un acte de
contestation. Ne pas « dramatiser le drame » de la servitude relève d’une stratégie de
résistance qui vise à déstabiliser le « sérieux » dont le sens social couvre l’institution
religieuse. Mélodie expose la contradiction entre un puritanisme doublé de zèle,
caractéristiques principales du curé, et sa vie de pécheur. Gardé secret, le péché n’est que
conscience solitaire d’une faute, surtout quand, par son statut, le coupable (le curé) est aussi
juge. Or, en l’exposant, la victime remet le bourreau à sa position de prédateur, au même titre
que ses fidèles 1.
Soumis à toutes sortes de violences, sous une administration française et une
oligarchie locale corrompues, sous le poids d’une conscience malheureuse, même en temps de
pénurie et de répression par la milice, ce petit monde, ne cesse de recevoir le même message:
« J’ai toujours prêché… que l’homme est sur terre… pour gagner son ciel! » (Billon 2004: 30)
Cette répétition rituelle, qui repose sur des protocoles performatifs et une spatialité ordonnée
dans la sacralité, guide et détermine, dans une logique qui annule toute velléité de libre pensée
ou même de détachement. Ce n’est pas pour rien qu’Augustus Hopkins Strong dérive le mot
religion du latin relegěre, qui, selon lui, veut dire: « to go over again, carefully to ponder. »
(1889: 11) Le rabâchage, nourri par le principe de contrôle moral, permet à la croyance
d’effacer le croyant et de le soumettre, ad eternum, à un projet déterminé par le prêcheur. Ce
pouvoir sans limites perd consistance grâce à Mélodie qui trouve le moyen de nuire au
relegěre pour freiner sa propre reproduction. En dévoilant le secret, elle a dépouillé
l’énonciation de son assise: l’intégrité de l’énonciateur, une qualité qui transcende la
conjoncture et assure la répétition du même. Elle a partagé le secret avec son amie pour la
tenir en garde contre les désirs que le prêtre nourrit vis-à-vis d’elle. Ce dernier, au milieu du
délire de la maladie, confesse des passions frôlant la pédophilie: «Tu [Marie-Loup Carignan]
n’avais que six ans… que déjà… je savais que tu étais différente. Je me suis attaché à toi…
comme si tu étais ma fille… et davantage même que ma fille.» (c’est l’auteur qui souligne
[Billon 2004: 31])
L’agentivité des deux femmes repose sur la portée de leur regard sur le monde qui les
entoure. Marie-Loup Carignan nourrit une sensibilité écologique qu’elle partage avec les
Abénaquis doublée d’une franche qui désarme même François Le Gardeur qui, avant de lui
exprimer son amour, monologuant dans sa solitude, conclut: «À tout le moins son regard vous
pénétrait et vous mettait sur le qui-vive » (Billon 2004: 41). Quant à Mélodie, du fait de sa
1
D’ailleurs, le racisme religieux est tellement fort que, l’homme qui a tenté de violer Acoona revient, avec
succès, à la charge et, devant une Marie-Loup Carignan enragée, il répond: « Tant qu’ils sont pas baptisés, les
Sauvages, ça n’a pas d’âme. » (Billon 2004: 50)
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différence et du rapport qu’elle entretient avec le curé, elle perce les masques de l’hypocrisie
et juge son entourage à sa juste valeur. Et c’est pour cette raison que, sentant cette puissance
menaçante pour l’ordre établi, la vox populi s’acharne contre ces deux amies, comme dans ce
passage où Hortense fait savoir que: «La Carignan avec son sac à malices! Pis ça la gêne
même pas de s’afficher avec la négresse. Moi je vous le dis: elles feraient des messes noires
toutes nues dans les bois avec les sauvages que ça m’étonnerait pas! » (Billon 2004: 30).
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« contagion », un partage émotionnel et intellectuel. L’empathie affecte les mots choisis par le
narrateur qui, dans une volonté d’évaluation et de correction de l’histoire, décide de se
distinguer des personnages en rejetant la référence « sauvage ». Il se réfère aux Autochtones
comme des « Amérindiens », terme totalement atypique, si l’on prend en considération le
contexte historique en question. Ce même narrateur qui, dès le début (dans le prélude [Billon
2004: 9-11]) exprime le désir fort de se distancier du passé en décrivant l’agonie du père
Blondeau, alité à l’hospice de la Miséricorde (présenté comme un « mouroir »), dans des
termes apocalyptiques. L’atmosphère rappelle un film d’horreur, avec des « silhouettes
dénudées [d’] arbres », « des hululements de chouette », des nones à l’allure « spectrale ». Le
vent est dépeint dans des termes proches de la bestialité mythique. Dans un « sifflement
lugubre », il assaillit les lieux (« Les coups du heurtoir de bronze claquèrent dans la nuit
comme des détonations ») et devant sa rage un « vieux [prêtre] se signa avant de refermer la
porte ». Ce passage raconte comment France vient faire ses adieux au père d’église qui, avant
de rendre l’âme, lui confesse qu’il avait séparé le couple Marie-Loup Carignan et François Le
Gardeur en mentant sur le contenu de la lettre que l’amant lui avait confié avant son départ
pour la France, lettre dans laquelle il invitait son aimée à fuir avec lui et que l’homme de
religion, chargé par Marie-Loup Carignan de la lire pour elle, présente comme une invitation
à se séparer. Comme avec Mélodie, le père perd, encore une fois, ce qui fait sa force, le
monopole du secret. Le confesseur finit par confesser son propre péché dans l’abattement et la
honte: « Le vieillard leva une main décharnée et se cacha le haut du visage. Il tenta de
répondre mais, étranglé par la honte et le remords, il fut incapable d’émettre le moindre son. »
(Billon 2004: 11) Cette entrée en matière donne au récit un caractère post-mémoriel, où la
génération actuelle (incarnée par France) se penche sur le passé pour y détecter les maux qui
rongent le présent et menacent le futur.
Dans le cas de François Le Gardeur, l’expérience de l’exotopie est liée à celle de
l’émigration. On peut dire que vivre à Paris lui a donné le temps de se détacher de son milieu
et de le regarder sous un œil critique. Or, partir ne peut être le seul facteur derrière sa prise de
conscience. Un autre personnage, Xavier Maillard, rival machiavélique, bras droit de
l’intendant Bigot, chef d’une milice qui ne fait parler d’elle qu’en termes de despotisme et
d’extorsion, a aussi eu la même opportunité. Il est parti étudier à Paris pendant trois ans et
était lié d’amitié au protagoniste. Or, de retour, il a montré combien, sans empathie et soif de
justice, le départ ne peut rien contre le préjudice. De l’avis de Vivian Gornick, « The road to
actual empathy is long and hard-going and requires cultural change of a high order. » (104)
L’auteure parle d’éveil (« awakening ») et, même, d’ auto-rehabilitation (« self-
rehabilitation »), en citant les célèbres paroles de Chekhov: « Others have made me a slave,
but I must squeeze the slave out of myself, drop by drop » (2005: 104).
Dans une discussion avec Owashak, en reprenant des mots figurant dans un livre qu’il
tient à la main, François Le Gardeur parle ainsi de la raison de son départ à l’étranger: « [J]e
sais bien ce que je fuis, mais non pas ce que je cherche » (Billon 2004: 14). En réalité, ces
propos sont attribués à Montaigne par Chateaubriand. La fin de la citation (absente dans le
roman) nous éclaire sur le sens du détachement exotopique: « Si on me dit que, parmy les
estrangers, il y peut avoir aussi peu de santé, et que leurs mœurs ne sont pas mieux nettes que
les nostres, je responds que c’est toujours gain de changer un mauvais estat à un estat
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incertain, et que les maux d’autruy ne nous doivent pas poindre comme les nostres. » (1863:
281) Le séjour parisien lui a permis, grâce à l’incertitude qui accompagne le voyageur, de
s’extraire pour mieux juger. Au bout de ce périple, il saisit le motif principal du choix de
l’ailleurs: « [Je fuis] la corruption et l’hypocrisie » (Billon 2004: 14).
De retour au pays, il se rend compte que son « odyssée » n’a rien d’ullysien et que
l’Ithaque est, en vérité, le lieu propice à celui dont l’objet de la quête est le savoir. Il n’y a pas
besoin de partir pour se libérer. Ce qu’il confie à Jean-Baptiste, fidèle serviteur de son père,
qui se demande pourquoi, de retour, il a choisi de vivre dans les bois: « [Q]uelle idée de
disparaître dans les bois comme un sauvage! avec ton éducation » (Billon 2004: 17), et le
héros qui répond: « Je suis allé la compléter [l’éducation]. Pour découvrir que les choses les
plus importantes ne s’apprennent pas dans les livres. » (17)
Son ami Owashak a dû aussi quitter le bercail pour passer des années dans un
pensionnat jésuite. Contrairement au mot d’ordre de ces internats, « Kill the Indian, keep the
man », l’acculturation échoue et les violences endurées ne font que renforcer le caractère d’un
homme devenu, par la force des circonstances, un révolté endurci. Torturé par les hommes de
l’intendant Bigot, celui-ci se moque de son accent et Owashak qui répond: « Un cadeau [la
langue française] de vos missionnaires… avec la variole, le typhus, le choléra et la peste »
(Billon 2004: 68).
Marie-Loup Carignan, Owashak et François Le Gardeur ont trouvé dans la nature
(représentée par la forêt), le lieu d’exercice d’une exotopie qui alimente une réflexion
soutenue. Ils naviguent entre deux mondes et négocient constamment la ligne raciale au prix
de se voir assaillis de toutes parts. Ils sont unis par un sens de l’identité ancré dans une
dimension tellurique en même temps que sociale, dans une pratique qui montre combien leur
« imagination de la communauté » est en avance sur leur temps. Ils remettent en question les
solidarités basées sur la caste, la religion et la race en faveur d’une conscience opposée à ce
que Slavoj Žižek qualifie de « violence objective », cette force génétique « systématique et
anonyme » (2008: 13), propre au capitalisme, qui s’autoféconde et se reproduit par elle-
même. D’où, pour la définir, l’usage par Žižek du mécanisme biologique, la
« parthénogenèse ». Rien ne lui échappe, même ceux qui ne font pas partie de la minorité.
Juste pour l’avoir invité à un bal, en parlant de Marie-Loup Carignan, l’amante de l’intendant
Bigot, Angélique de Roquebrune 1, la traite comme une possession: « Bigot me l’a demandée
en cadeau » (Billon 2004: 45), et d’ajouter qu’« [i]l sait comment mater les récalcitrantes. »
Reposant sur une base religieuse, patriarchale et colonialiste, la violence objective
réduit les classes populaires en « matériau humain » au service du projet colonial. La colonie
est une sorte de microcosme structuré selon le principe de prédation, avec, au sommet, un
intendant qui a réussi, à coup de persécution et de paupérisation, à « mater toutes les voix
récalcitrantes »; ce qui est reflété, avec justesse, dans ce constat: « Bigot had no fear of the
people. They were too poor and helpless, too lacking in any voice that authority would respect
to be anything but victims » (Rutledge 1956: 433). En réalité, cette figure d’une
administration française corrompue et peu soucieuse des intérêts des Canadiens, n’est pas le
1
D’après Edward Carruthers « The evil genius of the group, the serpent in their paradise, was Angélique des
Meloizes who, while really in love with Le Gardeur, had an overweening ambition to be the social leader in
Quebec as the wife of François Bigot » (1949: 57)
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seul à blâmer ; ce mal, endémique de nature, étant enraciné dans la nature même de l’empire.
Comme disait Joseph Lister Rutledge, « Bigot followed a path already well beaten by erring
feet. It could not be said that he created depravity; he merely remodeled and expanded it. »
(1956: 484).
Dépêché en France par le gouverneur Vaudreuil (qui partage ce secret avec son
interlocuteur: « À cause des manigances de M. Bigot, on n’arrive plus à nourrir nos troupes !
Savez-vous le remède qu’il m’a proposé ? D’intensifier les combats pour diminuer le nombre
de ventres creux » [Billon 2004: 61]) pour plaider la cause d’une Nouvelle-France au seuil de
la débâcle, assiégée qu’elle est par les troupes anglaises et livrée à une administration sans
scrupules, François Le Gardeur découvre l’autre visage de la violence objective: son essence
intellectuelle. Même courte, sa rencontre avec Voltaire (Billon 2004: 109-11) est de prime
importance. On aurait dit que, par la voix de son héros, Pierre Billon veut engager le lecteur
dans un rapport dialogique à l’histoire pour corriger un tort fondamental. De cette rencontre,
l’idée de matériau, usable et jetable, se fait claire à partir du bref échange entre les deux
hommes. François Le Gardeur passe le premier à l’attaque en rappelant au philosophe: «
[V]ous avez écrit sur le Canada des mots bien cruels et, qui plus est, très injustes! » (Billon
2004: 110) Voltaire qui répond: « “Cruels”, je veux bien, car la vérité peut l’être. Par exemple
que les Antilles seraient plus profitables à la France qu’un désert couvert de neige six mois
par année! Mais “injustes” ? Éclairez-moi, je vous en prie. » La complicité de l’intellectuel
avec le pouvoir consiste en banaliser le mal en brandissant la loi de la nature et son
insoumission à l’impératif éthique. À quoi François Le Gardeur riposte en citant son
interlocuteur pour montrer combien est « boîteux » (ce même adjectif est utilisé d’abord par
Voltaire pour dissuader François Le Gardeur de contester) est son argument: « Vous ne dites
rien de l’injustice faite aux Canadiens en cette tragédie. Or, “le devoir de l’honnête homme
n’est-il pas de faire retentir le récit de toutes les injustices à toutes les oreilles” ? » (101).
5. CONCLUSION
Dans Nouvelle-France l’antiracisme consiste en une invitation à repenser des
questions identitaires, encore d’actualité. Avec ce roman, il est clair que l’auteur a voulu
revisiter la question de la solitude des peuples fondateurs soulevée, pour la première fois, dans
les années 1960 par l’écrivain McLennan, qui ne se penche que sur les clivages entre
francophones et anglophones sans prêter aucune attention aux peuples autochtones qu’il lègue
à l’invisibilité et à la négation historique. Bien des années après, Hédi Bouraoui a écrit: « la
métaphore de MacLennan n’est pas opératoire, car elle occulte la troisième solitude qui est le
peuple autochtone » (Bouraoui 111).
À l’universalisme des Lumières, Pierre Billon oppose ce que la décolonialité qualifie,
actuellement, de « polyversalisme ». Ses héros œuvrent pour un Canada inclusif d’autres
épistémologies, l’indigène en premier. Cette inclusion se fait à partir d’un esprit
intersectionnel, une volonté de contester les catégories de race, genre et de classe pour créer
des solidarités fondées sur de nouvelles bases.
L’auteur examine les tensions raciales à partir du désir de contester une certaine vision
de l’histoire en cherchant, avant tout, à montrer la vraie nature de la « colonialité du
pouvoir », comment celui-ci repose sur des valeurs et pratiques communes qui normalisent
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BIBLIOGRAPHIE
BAKHTIN, M. 1990. Édition préparée par M. Holquist et V. Liapunov. Art and
Answerability: Early Philosophical Essays. Austin: University of Texas Press.
BAKUNINE, M. A. 1972. De la guerre à la Commune. Paris: Anthropos.
BAKUNINE, M. A. 1882. Dieu et l’État, Genève: Imprimerie Jurassienne.Billon, P. 2004.
Nouvelle-France. Montréal / Paris: Leméac / Actes Sud.
CARRUTHERS, E. 1949. Untold Tales of Old Quebec. London: J.M. Dent.
CHATEAUBRIAND, F.-R. Vicomte de. 1863. Itinéraire de Paris à Jérusalem: mélanges
littéraires. Tome 8. Paris: Dufour, Boulanger et Legrand.
CORNWELL, J. 2003. Hitler’s Scientists: Science, War and the Devil’s Pact. New York :
Viking.
DE GASPE, P. A. 1864. Les Anciens Canadiens. Québec: G. et G. E. Desbakats.
DELGADO, R. et J. Stefancic. 2017. Critical Race Theory (Third Edition): An Introduction.
New York: NYU Press.
DUCHARME, N. 2006. « Raconter la Conquête: quand le passé change selon les époques. ».
Entre les lignes. 3 (1): 24–25.
EPSTEIN, M. 2004. « The Unasked Question: What Would Bakhtin Say. » Common
Knowledge. 10 (1): 42–60.
FERLAND, C. et D. Corriveau. 2014. La Corriveau: de l’histoire à la légende. Québec:
Septentrion.
FREDRICKSON, G. M. et A. Camarillo. 2015. Racism: A Short History. Princeton: Princeton
University Press.
GORNICK, V. 2005. The Solitude of Self : Thinking About Elizabeth Cady Stanton. New
York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
KENDI, I. X. 2016. Stamped from the Beginning: The Definitive History of Racist Ideas in
America. New York: Nation Books.
LACOURCIERE, L. 2017. Édition préparée par B. Bergeron et J.-P. Pichette. La Corriveau.
La formation d’une légende. Québec: Les Presses de l’Université Laval.
MASSON, G. 1898. La Lyre Française. London / New York: Macmillan.
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Anca POPA 1
Warrant Officer and NCOs Communications, Information Technology and Cyber Defense Military School,
Romania
Abstract: The present paper focuses on the construction of masculinity and the gender struggle
between the main characters. Marriage is viewed as post-traumatic disorder, the overlapping of egos
and gender roles, challenging many assumptions regarding traditional gender roles, male inviolability
and patriarchal power.
In his novel Everyman, written as Roth was coming closer to the end of his writing
career, the author expresses a cruel, yet realistic effect that old age has upon men: “Old age is
not a battle, it’s a massacre” (122). Moving back in time, to the 1974 novel, My life as a Man
when Roth was depicting in minute details the disastrous effects his first marriage had upon
his cogent sense of manhood, we could state a similar opinion, paraphrase the same quote and
use it to exemplify the main character’s condition by stating that married life is not just a
battle of the sexes, for some it turns into some sort of harrowing psychological distress, where
one is content to have escaped alive. The main character Peter Tarnopol recounts the events
that unfolded throughout his marriage as a grueling gender interaction reminding one of the
manifestations of a condition explained in psychiatric manuals as post-traumatic stress
disorder 2. The male character seems to be relieved to have escaped safe and sound from the
stereotypical character of the deceitful castrating bitch, his wife Maureen Tarnopol. In this
novel, it appears that Roth aims at indicating that “male inviolability is a myth and that female
‘toughness’ is a technique for survival. For Roth, men and women are caught together in a
trap of social conditioning that makes it impossible for either sex to escape the
interchangeable roles of victim and victimizer” (Nance, 161). In My Life as a Man, Roth sees
marriage as the manifestation of post-traumatic stress disorder, “the delayed response and/or
protracted response to a stressful event of an exceptionally threatening or catastrophic nature”
(Ralston et al 2011).
Hegemonic power and patriarchal pervasive authority in gender relations is openly
interrogated by the author himself in his eighth novel, My Life as a Man, published in 1974, at
the height of feminist upsurge and sexual freedom movements. The main character, Peter
Tarnopol provides a realistic, yet personal view on the status of the prevalent gender politics:
1
anca_popa2009@yahoo.com
2
The term was coined accordingly and studied extensively after observing the behavior of Vietnam War
veterans.
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For those young men who reached their maturity in the fifties… there was considerable
moral prestige in taking a wife, and hardly because a wife was going to be one’s maidservant
or “sexual object”. Decency and Maturity, a young man’s seriousness were at issue precisely
because it was thought to be the other way around: in that the great world was so obviously a
man’s, it was only within marriage than an ordinary woman could hope to find equality and
dignity. Indeed, we were led to believe by the defenders of womankind of our era that we
were exploiting and degrading the women we didn’t marry, rather than the ones we did.
Unattached and on her own, a woman was supposedly not even able to go to the movies or
out to a restaurant by herself, let alone perform an appendectomy or drive a truck. It was up
to us then to give them the value and the purpose that society at large withheld – by marrying
them. If we didn’t marry women, who would? Ours, alas was the sex available for the job:
the draft was on. (169)
Roth’s character sees marriage as an engulfing and restricting chore, that was meant
to uphold and substantiate the status of masculinity, as there was “moral prestige in taking a
wife” (169) proving that one was able to achieve the corresponding level of maturity and
social status in one’s prime (by the age of thirty). Otherwise, he would have been subjected to
the charge of “immaturity”, “latent” or ‘blatant’ homosexuality, he could have been accused
of being plain “selfish or frightened of responsibility” (169-170). Eventually, he concludes
that all the courtship inevitably leads to the humiliating and “ferocious alimony battles” (171),
where women appear to act as Bellovian Reality instructors to the embittered male character.
Marriage seems in Tarnopol’s perspective, a confining institution established under the
pretext of love, an entrapment from the Female Other due to the apparent “female
dependence, defenselessness and vulnerability” (170). It is surprising to note a form of male
rebellion in his musings, he rejects women’s limitations at that particular point in time that in
Betty Friedan’s famous expression equated the Feminine Mistique with women’s desire to
prove their femininity by becoming perfect and submissive housewives, whose dream was to
serve men, “to wash their socks and cook their meals and bear their children and then tend
them for the rest of their natural days” (170). He thus dismisses such form of connubial
domestic bliss, yet he admits to being attracted to women who showed signs of weakness,
who “demonstrated that sense of defenseless and vulnerability that has come to be a mark of
their sex and is often at the core of their relations with men”
By revealing to the reader and analyzing details of his disastrous marriage to Maureen
and aspects of his troublesome affair with Susan, he comes to the realization that certain
manifestations of the concept of femininity or masculinity and the power attributes in a
relationship are not delineated and stable, that he had actually had essentialist gendered views.
Taking certain presumptions for granted and the fact that apparently the women in his life
were the epitome of “the damsel in distress” (172) type, he could be able in this manner to
express his masculinity by acting as ‘The Prince Charming’’, as the protector.
As the motto of the subchapter entitled “Mariage a la mode’’ playfully suggests:
“Rapunzel, Rapunzel, Lay Down Your Hair”, women charmed the inexperienced young man
by the very appearance of vulnerability, as true embodiments of “the maiden locked in the
tower” peacefully and patiently expecting a redeeming prince to come to their rescue. He
observes that:
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there is a growing body of opinion which maintains that by and large marriages, affairs, and
sexual arrangements generally are made by masters in search of slaves: there are the
dominant and there are the submissive, the brutish and the compliant, the exploiters and the
exploited. What this formula fails to explain, among a million other things, is why so many
of the “masters” appear themselves to be in bondage, oftentimes to their “slaves” (172)
So strong was the myth of male inviolability, of male dominance and potency, not only in
Maureen’s mind but in mine, that even when I went so far as to dress myself in a woman’s
clothes and thus concede that as a man I surrendered, even then I could never fully assent to
the idea that in our household conventional assumptions about the strong and the weak did
not adequately describe the situation (172).
Peter Tarnopol realizes that their relationship is affecting his psyche. Therefore, he
reaches out to his psychoanalyst and confides in him the lurid details of his marriage and the
pathological reactions and manifestations prompted by Maureen’s manipulative behavior.
Their relationship is described retrospectively, by means of flashbacks and it is presented as a
struggle for domination triggered by Maureen’s jealousy and insecurity and acquiescent
submissive behavior in Peter’s case. He remembers being attracted to Maureen because she
embodied “the temptingly unknown creature of a young man’s erotic-heroic imaginings, an
older woman” (175). After running away from her family’s home in Elmira at the age of
sixteen she appeared to have been deceived by men. She divorced twice, first from a
Yugoslav saloonkeeper named Mezik, who seemed to have sexually abused her by forcing her
to have intercourse with a friend of his. Then she married Walker, a handsome actor who
turned out to be a homosexual.
Tarnopol realizes he could have chosen a better match for himself. He rejects Dina
Dornbusch, the daughter of a wealthy Jewish family from Long Island, with whom he seemed
to have many affinities, she was a literature and language major, she had a rich, doting father,
and although she embodied female perfection: “she was rich, pretty, protected, smart, sexy,
adoring, young, vibrant, clever, confident, ambitious” (178), she did not represent a challenge,
he considered her a spoilt girl and not an alluring woman.
The fact that he preferred an older woman, four years his senior, “with two unhappy
marriages behind her, with no rich, doting father, no gorgeous clothes, and no future” (178)
seems to embody Peter’s concept of femininity overlapping at the back of his mind with a
sense of vulnerability. She represented a challenge for the very reason that he thought he
could exert his respectable upbringing, his well-read background and assert and verify his
masculinity in her company. He soon discovered that she pretended to be a perpetual victim
who seemed to be wronged, and tricked by the possible male employers who fired her, she
would apparently label them in various manners, the acting teacher who needed an assistant
was considered “psychotic”, a different employer “ a slave driver”, the following “ a fool”,
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another one “ a lecher” (181) etc. She started being envious of Tarnopol’s zest for arduous
writing, although she admired his stories and his reputation.
But as Tarnopol realizes that “what she got through men was all she got” (181), she
starts quarrels on the grounds that Peter was the one who tried to “prevent her from writing
fiction because he was “frightened of competition from a woman (182). Tarnopol soon
discovers that although he had not been able to fight a man until then (180), as he acted upon
the prescribed notions of respectable masculinity, menschlichkeit, he had to fight back in
order to maintain his safety against this woman who seemed to have transformed herself into
a predator.
Apart from Paul Tarnopol’s accounts of his disastrous marriage, the reader of My life
as a Man is initially introduced to two fictitious stories concocted as alter ego versions
derived from Tarnopol’s real life.
In the first chapter entitled “Useful fictions”, the reader is introduced to Nathan
Zuckerman’s family, his father a diligent shopkeeper in Camden, who represented a bulwark
of stability and protection for the young man, a doting and supporting mother and an older
brother, Sherman, as a close comrade. Despite going bankrupt in the late twenties and
subsequently in the late thirties, his father ensured that his family would not go “without three
nourishing meals a day, or without prompt medical attention, or decent clothes, or a clean bed,
or a few pennies “allowance” in his pocket”. Businesses crumbled, but never the household,
because never the head of the house” (5). By 1949, his father started to become a prosperous
shop owner, as a “Mr. Z” shoe shop was opened in the nearby new Mall. During the postwar
boom, his family manages to achieve “the American dream” and buy their own house: “ranch
style, with a flagstone fireplace on a one-acre lot - the family dream come true just as the
family was falling apart” (6). It was at a moment when the elder son left the navy and Nathan
entered high school. Later on, as a college student, his mother appears to resent the distance
between her and her younger son, and calls him to ask him to decide on a colour for his room.
Nathan tries to allude to the fact that he is an adult now and he sarcastically retorts that he
wanted pink and white, a canopy over the bed and a skirt for his vanity table (6).
Unconsciously, he feels as if his mother does not acknowledge his status as a grown–up man
and somehow treats him like a sissy, a feminized, immature version of his male self. At the
same time, Nathan confesses to envisioning his mother as the illustrative paragon of feminine
ideal while realizing that has both spatially and mentally outgrown the Oedipal psychological
awe and grip/ influence she had on him:
Ah, the distance he had traveled from her since that day in 1942 when Nathan Zuckerman
had fallen in love with Betty Zuckerman the way men seemed to fall in love with women in
the movies – yes, smitten by her, as though she weren’t his mother but a famous actress who
for some incredible reason happened also to cook his meals and keep his room in order (7).
A recurrent sense of feeling bereft of maternal love seemed to have occurred when his
elder brother entered the navy for two years, only a hundred miles away, in boot camp on
Maryland, but to his surprise his mother acted as if she were a “young girl whose fiancé was
marching off to die in the front lines” (8). Nathan attempted to change her disposition by
behaving like the ideal, submissive, well-behaved son, helping her with the housework, being
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indulgent of her whims (wistfully listening to his brother’s favourite song “Mamselle” being
played on the radio). Nevertheless, he enviously resented her behavior that had the effect of a
traumatic occurrence. He ponders:
How awful her suffering was – also how odd […] But what was his mother carrying on like
this about? How could she miss Sherman so, when he was still around – and being nicer,
really than ever. Nathan was thirteen by this time and already an honor student at the high
school, but for all his intelligence and maturity he could not figure that one out” (9-10).
Sherman comes out of the navy, acting like a sexually experienced, daring fellow,
bringing dirty photographs of various women and telling stories of prostitutes “who sat on his
lap in bars around Bainbridge and let him stick his hand right up their dresses” (10). His
dream was to become a jazz musician and he found a job as a piano player in Greenwich to
the disapproval of his parents. Although Sherman boasted having a fling with June Christie,
the Kenton band vocalist and despite his brother’s perception of him leading a daring and
manly life” (10), he studied dentistry at Temple University and became an orthodontist who
conventionally married
some skinny Jewish girl from Bala-Cynwyd who talked in baby talk and worked as a dental
technician somewhere. […] He remembered those cantaloupes hanging from the leering
women in the dirty pictures Sherman had brought home from the navy, and then he thought
of flat-chested Sheila, the dental technician with whom Sherman would now be going to bed
every night for the rest of his life, and he couldn’t figure the thing out. What had happened to
his glamourous brother (11)?
Nathan, the artist of the family, attended four years at Bass College as an English
major and asserted his independence by being subsequently drafted at Fort Benning, Georgia
during the period of the ongoing Korean War. Here, as a schoolboy, Nathan tried to fit in with
his male fellow students by playing football, a sport illustrative of pure masculinity and
typical American assertion of physical prowess. Although he admits to not being well-built,
as a boy he had never been more than skin and bones beneath his shoulder pads and helmet,
and yet in the sandlot football games he played in weekly every fall [..] and he was “smart”
and could fake and twist his way through a pack of thirteen-year-old –boys built like hippos,
for all that he was a boy built like a giraffe […] so long as everybody played according to
the rules and within the spirit of the game (19).
In 1947, when one of the Irish kids came flying onto the pileup screaming (where
Nathan lay holding the ball) “Cream that Yid!”, he realized that football was not the right
option for him as there were no specific rules stated to follow “he could use what strength he
had to try to restrain someone else from going at him, he would struggle like hell to prevent
damage or disfigurement to himself, but when it came to bringing his own knuckles or knees
into violent contact with another, he just could not make it happen.” (20) After graduation and
prior to his induction in the army, he starts a relationship with Sharon Shatzky, the seventeen-
year-old daughter of Al “the Zipper King”, The embodiment of the Jewish –American
Princess, the pampered middle-class daughter of newly-rich Jewish –Americans. Nathan
seems to represent the respectable, dependable, intellectual Jew, with a literary talent, having
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graduated with honors from The School of English. Sharon’s parents befriend his parents and
they try to introduce Sharon to Nathan as an ingenuous, young girl. The “rangy Amazon, red-
headed and green-eyed” (22) does appeal to her and Nathan becomes such an intense seducer
that after losing her virginity to Nathan she transforms herself into “the most licentious
creature” (24) Nathan met until that time. Sharon Shatzky is presented as a sexually
inquisitive and open-minded partner He was perplexed by her transformation and
performance and open-mindedness that surpassed the sensuality he had noticed in other
bohemian college girls. Sharon’s metamorphosis from an innocent young girl to a woman
oozing of sexual availability appears to resemble a self-objectification, she becomes an erotic
stereotype:
it exceeded all understanding, this bestiality he had awakened in her simply by penetration,
and recalled to mind those other startling and baffling metamorphoses he had witnessed…
his mother’s transformation into the Maiden Bereft when Sherman left home for the navy,
and the descent of Sherman himself from glamour boy to orthodontist. With Sharon, he had
only to allude to some sexual antic or other, give the slightest hint of interest – for he was not
without inhibitions –for her to fall into the appropriate posture or turn up with the necessary
equipment (25).
Sharon’s lubricity does not entice him, her performance is perceived as devoid of
meaning or the proper sensuality he read about in books, “instead of acting upon him as an
aphrodisiac, her style jarred him by its banal insistence, reminding him less of Lawrence than
of those mimeographed stories his brother used to smuggle home to him from the navy” (24).
There is also a tinge of irony felt present, as Nathan recounts their sexual “developments”, in
their parents’ proximity, talking on the terrace close by, and at the adults’ suggestions, they
would apparently indulge in oversized syrup-covered portions of ice cream out of soup
bowls” (24) in the kitchen while their parents were deriding the appetite “on those two kids”
as their offspring would relish the abundance of their sexual phantasies. Roth creates here a
situation of comic irony where he overlaps two stereotypes prevalent in popular culture: the
Jewish need for abundance (a situation reminiscent of the one presented in Goodbye,
Columbus) and the transgressive, insatiable Jewish lust.
In the other story comprised in Useful Fictions, entitled Courting Disaster, the same
character seems to have chosen a different path, a different womanly stereotype. He married a
divorcee, five years his senior, the mother of a ten-year-old girl. Lydia Ketterer’s typology is
recurrent figure in Roth’s gallery of abused women 1, a woman who was twice abused by the
men in her life. First, she was raped by her father when she was twelve, because his weak
wife could not satisfy his needs and then she fled the family household for good. When she
was seriously beaten by the husband she ran off to escape the confining environment she lived
in, together with her two cold and distant spinster aunts and her frail, bedridden mother. The
deeds of the two men in Lydia’s life prior to meeting Nathan seem to indicate that raw,
mindless sexuality and brutal violence characterize Gentile men and are prevalent
1
Faunia Farley in American Pastoral has a similar life story, while Lucy Nelson in When She Was Good was
indirectly abused by the shameful and unmanly behavior of the men in her life.
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manifestations of patriarchal power. Nathan compares her background to Lydia’s and seems
unable to understand the reason for his failure in his love relationships. He realizes that when
Lydia took care of her mother and assuaged her pains, he was the apple of his mother’s eye
and that their problems indicated two different types of upbringing.
Maureen, Peter Tarnopol‘s wife has emerged from a similar background but she seems
intent on seeking revenge on the men in her life. Roth highlights through this type of gender
dialogue and interaction, the impact that a certain type of woman could have on men. It
becomes apparent that:
despite the frequent appearance in the works of such mainstream American writers as
Hemingway, Fitzgerald, and Mailer of the “castrating bitch” stereotype, “the cultural reality”
in American literature was not “the emasculation of men by women but the emasculation of
women by men” (Fetterley xx qtd in Zierler 70).
Roth has also put forward in this novel a pervasive cultural stereotype of the feminized
Jew, a concept that presents the Jew as the owner of passive, pious masculinity, a stereotype
that prevailed at the beginning of the twentieth century and still looms over Jewish identity.
The Jew was thus perceived as having feminized racial essence (Davidson 3). Tarnopol’s
behavior reminds one of the feminized Jew’s passive resistance particular to the paradigm of
the circumcised and subsequently emasculated young man.
Maureen’s attempt to blackmail Peter, when she found out that he had found another
woman as his lover, a millionaire, by threatening him to expose pages of her masterpiece
“Dressing Up in Mommy’s Clothes”, is interpreted by Peter as a brutal assault on his
masculinity and thus out of the necessity to escape from the confines of the battle for alimony,
he tries to impose the last signs of masculinity over her, by making use of manly physical
power. Beating his wife up reflected his cry for a way out of the marriage, the result of
continuous harassment of his behavior typical of the feminized Jew. By resorting to a Gentile,
violent manner of gender interaction, battering being in this circumstance a resource for
affirming “maleness” (Messerschmidt 142), Peter indicates the only manly thing to do in the
face of a Gentile system that allowed his wife to squander all his money on the simple
grounds that he made a simple mistake once: marrying her was to appropriate the
reinforcement of a patriarchal system of power enactment. He concedes that his wife is a
psychopath but he also confesses to having turned into the psychopath’s husband as some sort
of defense mechanism to impose his force upon her as the only solution to indicate that he
could not take this mockery of his ethnic status, that of the Jew as a non-violent character.
According to sociologist Messerschmidt, “violence by men in the household derives
from the domestic authority of men and is intimately linked to the traditional patriarchal
expectation (1) that men are the credible figures within monogamous relationships and (2)
that men possess the inherent right to control those relationships (Messerschmidt 138). The
explanation for this type of behavior is substantiated by Susan Schechter’s comment that “a
man beats to remind a woman that the relationship will proceed in the way he wants or that
ultimately he holds the power” (1982: 222 qtd in Messerschmidt 138). Moreover, from a
sociological perspective, this type of male behavior is triggered by a sense of insecurity
deriving both from a clash with the partner’s otherness, or a specific manifestation of
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femininity. A construction of femininity that does not comply with normative masculine
behavior is likely to produce a violent clash, or violent reaction, be it battering or rape. A man
might resort to battering or rape, as Messerschmidt explains, in order to “to overcome that
loss of power in his life and a means to construct a specific type of patriarchal masculinity
centering on heterosexual performance and the domination and control of women’s sexuality”
(144). When he finds out of Maureen’s sudden death in a car accident he is more traumatized.
As he overcomes his initial disbelief, he comes to realize that his male identity is not fully
restored if he cannot be released from the nefarious effects of this woman.
The novel ends with the emotional, traumatized male character seeking solace in the
arms of his mistress, Susan: “Then, eyes leaking, teeth chattering, not at all the picture of a
man whose nemesis has ceased to exist and who once again is his own lord an master…This
is me being me and none other!” (303). He has thus managed to find his true ego after a battle
between Jewish perceptions of manhood and the modern American assimilation conceptions
of the masculine self.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
DAVIDSON, Neil R. Jewishness and Masculinity from the modern to the Postmodern. New
York: Routledge, 2010.
FRIEDAN, Betty. The Feminine Mystique. New York: Norton Company, 1963.
MESSERSCHMIDT, James, W. Varieties of “Real Men”, Kimmel S. Michael, Aronson
Amy, eds. Gendered Society Reader, second ed. New York: Oxford University Press,
2004pp.126-150.
JONES, Paterson Judith and Nance A. Guinevera. Philip Roth. New York: FrederickUngar
publishing, 1981.
RALSTON Stuart H. Ed. Davidson’s Principles of &Practice of Medicine, Edinburgh:
Elsevier, 2018. Roth, Philip. My Life as a Man. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston,
1974.
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Irina-Ana DROBOT 1
Technical University of Civil Engineering, Romania
Abstract: This paper’s aim is to analyse the relevance of Tanka poems nowadays. Tanka poems are
Japanese poems with fixed form, five lines and 5-7-5-7-7 syllables, which have been around since the
early 7th century (Breckenridge & Clark 2017: 451). In the Meiji period (1868-1912), with the
Western influence, the need to change the form of Tanka was put forth (Zalewska 2020: 91).
Nowadays, Tanka is written in both classical forms, observing the traditional number of syllables, as
well as in modern form, without observing the exact number of syllables. It is a type of poem written
by both Japanese poets and poets belonging to other world cultures. There are international and
national communities of poets writing Tanka, and being published in magazines, as well as being
given prizes in contests. In the Romanian community, poet Magdalena Dale is famous. This paper will
focus on her Tanka poems in her bilingual (English-Romanian) volume Amurg de toamna/ Autumn
Twilight, published in 2020, at Editura Societatii Scriitorilor Romani. Tanka poems can deal with
various topics, which is why it is still practiced today. Traditionally, it was a love poem, exchanged
between lovers in ancient times in Japan. Later on, with modern times, it can deal with any topic,
including attitudes towards nature and even to express knowledge about the tea ceremony (Zalewska
2015). In her 2020 volume, Magdalena Dale uses Tanka to express feelings of love, but also of
nostalgia for the passing of youth, and her feelings for the beauty of nature.
The Japanese word “tanka” could be translated as “short poem” (Ishikawa 2016: 32)
and “short songs” (Thwaite and Bownas, eds., 2009: 564). They are “brief and lyrical poems”
(Thwaite and Bownas, eds., 2009: 564).While Breckenridge & Clark (2017: 451) claim that
the five lines, 5-7-5-7-7 syllables poem has been around in Japan since the 7th century,
Zalewska (2016: 44) states that it could be traced back to the fourth century: “The oldest
Tanka we now know of were probably composed in the 4th century, and afterwards for many
centuries Tanka have been a main poetic and even literary genre in Japan.” (Zalewska 2016:
44). Other sources mention the earliest Tanka poem appearing in the 7th century A.D., with
the appearance of the anthology Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves (Thwaite and Bownas,
eds., 2009: 564). The moment the anthology Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves appeared is
related to the moment when the “Japanese poets were just beginning to break away from the
powerful influence of Chinese literary tradition”. What is more, the Chinese influence meant
that Japanese poets were writing in Chinese, since the Japanese language was only spoken and
had no written form. With the publishing of this anthology in the 8th century, “Japanese poets
had begun to appreciate the lyrical power of their own language.” (Thwaite and Bownas, eds.,
2009: 565).
The Heian period (A.D. 794-1185) marks the usage of writing Tanka poems as “a
common ritual of court life.” It was a poem shared among lovers: “A prince would dash off a
Tanka and send it to his loved one, who would reply with her own poem.” What is more, it
1
anadrobot@yahoo.com
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tea practitioners have been using Tanka poems, either composed by themselves or borrowed
from the earlier, classicalauthors, to express their knowledge of chanoyu, and especially, to
express what they considered to be the essence of tea philosophy (Zalewska 2015: 43)
The Japanese Tanka poem is often considered a fixed form poem. However, more
modern forms have defied these rules. Especially with the Westernization of Japan, during the
Meiji era (1868-1912), the need to step away from the 5-7-5-7-7 syllable pattern was raised
(Zalewska 2020: 91). Nowadays, Tanka poems in both classical and modern forms are
written, both in Japan and in the entire world.
Tanka poems have, generally, in Japanese culture, various rules according to which
they are created. Tanka poems can be, for instance, broken down in two parts, and they each
have names. It can be divided in the 5-7-5 section, followed by the 7-7 part, which are also
signaling a break in content:
Collectively, the first three parts (5-7-5) are called the kami-no-ku. The final two parts (7-7)
are called the shimo-no-ku. In terms of content, the kami-no-ku and shimo-no-ku tend to make
a pair. (Ishikawa 2016: 32)
Although Tanka poetry follows certain rules, it also has an arsenal of devices at its disposal to
undermine them. The standard 5-7-5-7-7 meter is often intentionally broken. For example,
parts can either exceed the typical syllable count (e.g., 5-7-5-8-7; this is called ji-amari) or run
short (e.g., 5-7-5-7-6; this is called ji-tarazu). There are other ways of changing the standard
rhythm as well. Poems measuring 5-7-5-9-5 and 8-4-5-7-7 are examples of ku-ware (splitting)
and ku-matagari (straddling), respectively. Devices like these can function like fermatas or
syncopation in music. There are also cases in which there is no discernible break in content
between the kami-no-ku and shimo-no-ku. In other cases, the break can be found elsewhere in
the line (e.g., 5-7/5-7-7 or 5/7-5-7-7). (Ishikawa 2016: 32)
Just like the shorter form of Japanese poem, the haiku (three lines, 5-7-5 syllable
pattern, which can also be flexible in modern forms), has become popular in international
communities of poets, so has Tanka. It is a poem written in all languages and practiced by
poets belonging to all cultures. Naturally, because of this, culture-specific elements may be
included in these poems. For instance, symbols and references that are common to a certain
group of poets, which helps them relate to the experiences described. For example, in the
Romanian haiku and Tanka communities, references to their childhood spent in nature at their
grandparents’ house in the countryside is often alluded to or clearly spoken about. This is due
to the common culture of a certain generation of children, whose parents practiced social
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mobility to the city, especially to the capital, and whose grandparents still lived in rural areas.
They would go to their grandparents for holidays and they lived in-between traditional and
modern, changing values. As an example we could mention this recent Tanka poem by author
Ion Cuzuioc, published in the private, members-only, Romanian workshop Facebook group
Dincolo de retinǎ, on May 18, 2022:
Nopțile albe
pe file de hârtie
pline de viață -
lângă pomul înflorit
la taifas cu bunicul
White nights
on sheets of paper
full of life –
next to the flowering tree
chatting with grandpa
The group Dincolo de retinǎ is dedicated to all forms of Japanese poetry, practiced by
poets in the Romanian language. Poems are also sometimes translated and the best ones are
posted to the Wordpress blog dedicated to the authors of this group. Poems are selected from
those posted in the group, and sometimes selections are done based on themes.
Another example of cultural specificities included in Tanka poems comes from Tanka
author Magdalena Dale, as mentioned by Vasile Moldovan in his preface to Dale’s 2020
Tanka volume (17):
After in 2008, she published in collaboration a volume of renga, dedicated to one of the
Romanian poetic symbols, Fragrance of Lime (Fǎt-Frumos Publishing House, 2008),
Magdalena Dale resumes this favorite theme in the sequence In the shadow of the linden tree.
In her poems dedicated to the tree symbol of Romanian poetry, from Eminescu to our day, the
fragrance of linden appears in the summer wind, or the spring breeze, on the bright days, as
well as on the gloomy days. Linden flower fragrance takes the shape of the soul’s secret
longing, and the linden tea flavor is found on the lips of the lover. (Moldovan in Dale 2020:
17)
The following poem by Dale is given as an example of Tanka poem including the
linden tree, which is a reference to the Romanian national poet’s symbols:
Whispers of leaves,
through my open window…
linden fragrance
takes the yearning form
hidden in my soul (Moldovan in Dale 2020: 17)
The association between feelings of nostalgia related to love and the linden tree, which
is frequently found in Romania’s national poet’s work, can also be found in Magdalena Dale’s
poem above. Nature, in her poem, seems, like in Eminescu’s poems, strongly in connection
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with the poetic persona’s feelings. The yearning Dale mentions in her poem could be a
yearning for love, or it could be a suggestion of the poetic persona’s missing the presence of
his/ her lover. The linden fragrance could be a substitute for the poetic persona’s lover’s
presence, or for the moments they had spent together. This poem is an example of Tanka
poems’ ability to be adapted to various cultures’ sensitivity and also to their usual lyrical
symbolism. From the point of view of Romanian culture, Tanka poems can be very easily
adapted to what Romanian poets regard as poetry. In the above example, intertextual
references were made to classical examples of lyricism, resorting to the well-known symbol
of the linden tree and fragrance used by Romania’s national poet.
Nowadays, there are international communities practicing Tanka and encouraging
authors to post to social media groups, or submit for publication and for contests their Tanka
poems, on a variety of topics, such as love, nature, nostalgia, a.s.o. For Westerners, there is
the belief that, unlike haiku, Tanka allows lyrical means of expression. Haiku is perceived by
Western poets as an objective, austere poem (according to Moldovan, in his foreword to
Magdalena Dale’s 2020 volume), in the Facebook workshop communities, while Tanka is
seen as more permissive regarding lyricism. Thus, Tanka may seem to Western poets as
closer to their own cultural perception of poetry.
With respect to the popularity of Tanka, one can find numerous online communities
and face-to-face groups that authors willing to practice this type of poetry can join:
Tanka is familiar to men and women of all ages. All of the major newspapers in Japan print
reader-submitted poetry in Tanka columns, and a number of publications specialize in Tanka.
Recently, social networks such as Twitter have attracted many casual enthusiasts. Nonetheless,
Tanka is not always a casual matter. Many regard it as a serious art form. Some Tanka poets
prefer to hone their craft within established networks (in which the mentor-mentee relationship
is paramount) whereas others tend to make their own way, often launching new coteries and
magazines. Today, the college campus is one space in which Tanka is very much alive, and
student-run groups are highly active across the country. (Ishikawa 2016: 32)
Thus, publishing opportunities and social media popularity show the relevance of this
old type of poetry, Tanka, that is still practiced today, and also even outside Japan. Some
authors prefer to choose a mentor and then become this mentor’s students. Others are learning
as they can, through acceptance for publication or rejection from various journals. Other
authors prefer to join workshops and literary groups where they can receive feedback for their
work, and also publishing opportunities.
According to Vasile Moldovan in his preface, Dale’s 2020 Tanka volume has its title
inspired by the famous ancient haiku poet Basho’s verse Autumn Twilight (Moldovan, in Dale
2020: 18). Dale’s 2020 Tanka volume is divided in the following sections, grouping the
poems according to these topics: The Silence of the Sea, Nostalgia and Reverie, Gusts of
Wind, Hidden Longings, Droplets of Rain, Among Trees, Rustle of Leaves, and Shadows
among Silences.
Dale’s Tanka poems are linked to the usual association, at least in Romanian culture,
between the season of autumn and nostalgia, loss, and loneliness. Autumn is regarded as a
season of passage, and ultimately the passage of seasons can also be connected to the passage
of youth, a theme which is also encountered in some of her poems in this volume. All these
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usual Western associations with autumn and themes related to the autumn season in Western
poetry can work well in the poem of Japanese origins, Tanka. This is because of the common
closeness to nature, of the common wish to observe the changes in seasons, and the common
emotions felt when summer is gone and autumn approaches.
Indeed, we can notice similarities at universal level, in most poems related to autumn
in various cultures, regarding sadness, nostalgia, feelings of loss, and we could connect them
with the seasonal affective disorder, which is defined as follows:
This seasonal affective disorder could be regarded as a more difficult adaptation to the
change in season, from summer, when the sun has full power, to autumn, when the sun grows
weaker and weaker and the light decreases, together with the warmth. Very cold days can
come, after the hot days of summer, and the human organism may need some more time to
adapt to the changes. Meanwhile, man is also psychologically affected, and starts having
various sad thoughts and emotions. Such a state of mind can favor sadness regarding
memories of youth, for instance, as in this book, and also nostalgia related to the loss of a
lover’s presence, due to various reasons. One cannot help but notice the parallel between the
cold in nature which arrives with the autumn days and the cold feelings of an absent lover or
of loneliness. This parallel between man’s feelings and the movement of nature is universal,
in both Japanese and Western poetry, thus, starting from here, a closeness between these two
cultures can be created. Western and Asian cultures are, thus, to some extent, not so different
in terms of emotional expression.
The feeling of loss is visible right from the first Tanka poem present in Magdalena
Dale’s 2020 volume:
Every evening
our silences
lost in the sea…
the roar from the depths
no one can hear it anymore (Dale 2020: 23)
The chapter including this poem in its beginning is called The Silence of the Sea. The
sea can be a symbol of a love story, but at the same time it is a symbol suggesting the poetic
persona’s loneliness and troubled feelings, as well as uncertainties. The absence of
communication between the lovers in the poem is suggested by their love story being
discontinued by, perhaps, a storm at sea, in a similar way in which sailors may lose their lives
and their boats. A love story can be as uncertain as a storm at sea, causing loss.
At the same time, there is hope expressed, by the poetic persona, in the two lovers
meeting again, in the second poem in this chapter:
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This poem shows the hope of two lovers that are situated at a distance due to physical
obstacles, yet who are still united by their thinking of each other.
However, the next poem shows the issue of “a wounded heart”:
A spot of blood
on the serene sky
spreading lightly
it is another twilight
of a wounded heart (Dale 2020: 25)
In this poem, the sky is a projection of the sufferance of the lover that is also the poetic
persona. The reader can only assume that the two lovers had some personal issues which
resulted in the wounding of at least one of them.
The following poem, however, once again shows hope for the two lovers which are, as
it seems, facing issues related to the physical distance in their love story:
This twilight
is mirrored in the sea
boundless
remains my wish
to always be with you (Dale 2020: 26)
The poetic persona expresses the wish to always be with the lover. This is also a hope
that their relationship will last, as well as a promise. At the same time, we can notice the
expression of longing after the lover.
At the same time, there is anxiety related to what readers perceive as a distance
relationship. The poetic persona hopes to meet the loved person again soon, and that both
lovers’ feelings have remained the same:
The silence of the night
envelops me little by little
from far away…
the restless sea
just like my heart (Dale 2020: 27)
The sea becomes an image with which the lover’s feelings can identify. The sea is
described as “restless”, and this is followed by “just like my heart”. The emotions of the
lovers can be as strong as the sea’s movements.
From the next Tanka poems belonging to this chapter, the poetic persona feels restless,
as well as alone, and longing after the lover. This relationship is, however, faced with the
unknown:
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The love story presented in the Tanka poems in this chapter echo the love poems of
the far-away lover of the French Middle Ages troubadour poems. The lover was far away,
perhaps as far as distance was concerned, but also far-away since it was a far to be reached
ideal.
In the following section, Nostalgia and reverie, the poetic persona recalls,
nostalgically, the time spent with the lover. The hope to see the lover again does not fade, as
seen in the following Tanka:
Colors of rust
all over around me
only memories
I still waiting and hope
to see you again (Dale 2020: 34)
This feeling of hope later on turns into a feeling of longing, especially in the chapter
Hidden Longings. This is visible right from the first poem in the chapter:
In the twilight
two leaves float
between us…
the silence that vibrates
of hidden longings (Dale 2020: 53)
The longing still contains a feeling of hope, that the two lovers will be reunited
eventually. In this poem, both lovers long for each other, and they feel empathetic.
However, the last chapter suggests a sad ending. It is called Shadows among Silences.
At some point, the poetic persona feels alone:
This poem suggests that, gradually, the connection between the two lovers was
broken, or lost. The last Tanka poem in the book suggests a very sad ending, of a love story
that has been finished, due to various reasons:
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Eventually, the two lovers are no longer close, neither physically nor emotionally.
This could be a story belonging to any era, not just from contemporary times. Tanka can, thus,
help express universal feelings. In this volume, a story was suggested through the grouped
Tanka poems, of two lovers dreaming of one another, longing for each other, until their
connection is lost.
Love stories can take the same path regardless of the age they happen in. The story of
love in this Tanka poetry book may remind us of the Middle Ages amour de loin, yet at the
same time it can occur at any historical moment. Human feelings are universal.
BILIOGRAPHY
BRECKENRIDGE, Jenna P.; CLARK, Maria T. “Two to Tanka: Poetry as a duoethnographic
method for exploring sensitive topics”. Journal of Research in Nursing, 2017, 22.6-7:
451-462.
DALE, Magdalena. Amurg de toamnǎ/ Autumn Twilight.8 x 8 poeme tanka / Tanka poems.
Bucureşti: Editura Scriitorilor Români, 2020.
ISHIKAWA, Mina (translated by David Boyd). “About Tanka”. Jung Journal, 2016, 10.1:
32-36.
KURLANSIK, Stuart L.; IBAY, Annamarie D. “Seasonal affective disorder”. American
family physician, 2012, 86.11: 1037-1041.
THWAITE, Anthony; BOWNAS, Geoffrey, eds. The Penguin Book of Japanese Verse.
Poetry. Tanka. “Introduction”. 2009. Penguin Classics, USA. Available online at:
http://www.pthsenglishgarden.com/uploads/8/4/7/1/8471988/tanka_poetry_564-
570.pdf
ZALEWSKA, Anna. “Expressing the Essence of the Way of Tea: Tanka Poems used by Tea
Masters”. Analecta Nipponica, 2015: 43.
ZALEWSKA, Anna. “What makes a tanka poem a tanka?” Oriental Languages and
Civilizations, 2020: 91.
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Abstract: The act of translation is a non-unitary practice that vastly differs with each culture and
region it inhabits, in a highly globalized context, where geographic and linguistic boundaries are
transcended. Thus, translation becomes the subject of evaluation with regard to its quality and
appropriateness, to how felicitous its adaptation is in the target culture, while translation in itself still
remains lacking in regulation. This occurs especially outside institutional fields, when it concerns the
genres of fiction and Science Fiction, where the freedom of creation allows for non-standard uses of
English which have no correspondent in the target language. When the matter turns from the literary
canon to speculative fiction, i.e. to the genres of science-fiction and fantasy, this aspect of maintaining
the invisibility of the translator becomes problematic, as there already are elements of
defamiliarization for the reader of the text in the source language. The question remains, how should
the translation be approached in the translation of the foreignized source text into the target language?
The paper aims to analyze the Romanian translation of David Mitchell’s Cloud Atlas, focusing on the
narrative of Sonmi~451, and to emphasize the difference in the perceived discrepancy in the features
depicted in the same excerpts from the source and target texts.
Keywords: cultural translation, cloud atlas, David Mitchell, hybrid English, science fiction.
1. INTRODUCTION
With globalization and technology erasing the boundaries between nations, it has
become ever so effortless to experience different cultures through their literature. While trans-
cultural literature has an inherent untranslatable element to it that becomes either foreignized
or domesticated in translation, a factor that is accepted by all parties interacting with the text,
be it the translator in the process of producing the target text, or the publishing house in
editing said target language text, it is interesting to assess what are the effects of cross-cultural
translation on science fiction and fantasy, two genres which indulge in speculative futures or
alternate settings featuring hybrid Englishes and portray only facets of otherness in their
narrative, an otherness that becomes more difficult to parse and interpret fully in order for the
translation thereof to be felicitous. When it comes to this untranslatability of the SF novel into
a target language, Sun states that: “[o]ne common approach to tackling untranslatability is to
domesticate alienation and foreignness inherent in or associated with the original. But the
downside is lack of sharing and reciprocation, let alone participation and interaction.
Moreover, excessive domestication signifies the abandonment of reproduction to give way to
unqualified production.” (Sun 73)
1
alexandram.ivan@gmail.com
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When assessing translation, one must first consider by which standards, and within
which parameters the translation will be assessed. As it is a non-unitary practice that vastly
differs with each culture and region it inhabits, in a highly globalized context, where
geographic and linguistic boundaries are transcended, translation becomes the subject of
evaluation with regard to its quality and appropriateness, to how felicitous its adaptation is in
the target culture, while translation in itself still remains uncodified and lacks regulation,
especially outside institutional fields, when concerning the genres of fiction and science-
fiction, where the freedom of creation allows for non-standard uses of English which have no
correspondent in the target language.
[W]hat is acceptable or useful and what is not, remains a moot question: a text that is
comprehensible despite a large number of obvious mistakes – would it be acceptable or not?
Second, a lot depends on text type: what counts as a major defect in the translation of a novel
(for example, stylistic incongruities) might be seen as rather irrelevant in the translation of a
user manual. (Hansjörg 52)
And if these aforementioned matters might be the focus of a non-fictional text, what
happens when the assessment must be operated on a text with an element of speculative
fiction to it, and the translation is made from a source language that allows for a small degree
of agreement, compared to the target language which is highly gendered and operates on a
different system. That is to say, how does one approach a translation whose source text
focuses on a speculated hybrid variant of English, and describes a world and a context which
aims to estrange the reader, and implicitly the translators themselves.
When it comes to the translation that has an imposed limit of characters, such as when
it concerns subtitles in a different target language than the source material, overlooking
certain aspects, deemed less important by the translator, has become a norm. However, when
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we talk about fiction, where there is no time, reading, or character constraint, if figures of
speech are overlooked, or missed, and puns remain untranslated, should it be considered an
issue with the translation?
Does the translation aim to mitigate the effect of estrangement on the reader, bringing
them closer to the text by removing the obstacles of unknown words? “The “foreignness” of
language is the nucleus of the untranslatable that goes beyond the transparency of subject
matter. The transfer of meaning can never be total between differential systems of meaning”
(Sun 73).
This paper tackles the translation of a hypothetical future English, and the context it
inhabits, to show the discrepancies between the two materials, the source and the target, and
attempt to discern what choices were felicitous, and what resulted in the removal of partially
relevant information to the narrative.
When the translation alters not the untranslatable words or concepts, in order to mold
them into the target language, but the words that could easily be incorporated into the
translation, accommodated by the syntax and context, it raises the question of motivation, of
how deep does the scope of the translator go in what concerns making narrative-altering
decisions, where is the line drawn, what is the threshold for translation and the freedom of the
translator.
While some can be ascribed to oversight, it remains impossible to overlook that most
readers have no knowledge of the source material, did not come to the translation with the
knowledge of the original text and its imbued meaning.
Estrangement, as a stylistic device in speculative fiction, aims to defamiliarize the
meaning from the reader, but what is the effect on the target text in the case of the translator
by-passing this estrangement? Even more so, what is the effect of the translator deliberately
inserting defamiliarizing elements in the translation, elements which did not exist as such in
the source material?
Is it about a balancing act, with the translator attempting to correct the untranslatable
aspects of the narration into the target language, where they could be accepted by the syntax,
or where the defamiliarization would create an overarching effect over the overlooked parts of
the translation.
There are myriad practical problems to be solved. If hidden nuances in the original remain
hidden in translation, there is little chance that they will be detected by the target reader.
Consequently, this can be construed as inadequate translation, and also, ultimately, as part of
untranslatability (Sun 74).
As translation is yet to become an exact science, the effect of the translation is very
much up for the translator to choose, whether the translation is domesticated, which parts are
brought conceptually closer to the reader and which are taken farther away. There is no
uniform regulation on translation, not even at the level of the EU, outside of specialized
domains, and as such there is no categorical method of conducting an evaluation of a
translation, or an adaptation to a different medium. As such the present paper aims to
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showcase the discrepancies in the source and the target text, and illustrate the ways in which
the aforementioned skew the fictional universe.
Sun, in Translating Foreign Otherness, perfectly encapsulates the levels of
untranslatability, dividing them into “textual, extra-textual, cultural, linguistic, referential,
conceptual, and, most notoriously, untranslatability caused by wordplay in the original.”
(Sun 74)
Furthermore, in the following lines he goes to further explain the nature of
untranslatability with respect to this estranged otherness of the Source Text:
“If hidden nuances in the original remain hidden in translation, there is little chance
that they will be detected by the target reader.” (Sun 74) Therefore the translator has an
important task, one of balancing both the act of adapting the text so that it is accessible to the
reader of the Target Text (TT), and that of maintaining the nuances of the Source Text (ST) to
such a degree that there will be no inadvertent estrangement caused by the accumulated lack
of nuance within the TT. Yet Sun makes another issue visible, namely the tendency of the
translator to over-explain the nuances in adapting them: “However, if they are brought into
light, in keeping with a natural tendency towards making translation explicit to enhance
communicability, the target reader, while being thus helped, is denied the challenge, or rather,
the pleasure, of uncovering the hidden meaning.” (Sun 75)And yet again we are faced with
the many different approaches to translation. Does one deny the reader the challenge of
uncovering meaning, does one domesticate it? Or does one foreignize or refuse to intrude
upon the other’s culture, at the risk of creating an inscrutable translation?
The essence of translation is to transfer the information represented in one language into
another one. However, literary translation is not only a kind of transfer of language symbols,
but also a kind of communication between cultures (Zhang 1987 qtd in Wang: 2423)
Translation is, of course, a rewriting of an original text. All rewritings, whatever their
intention, reflect a certain ideology and a poetics and as such manipulate literature to function
in a given society in a given way. Rewriting is manipulation, undertaken in the service of
power, and in its positive aspect can help in the evolution of a literature and a society.
(Lefevre “Preface” vii)
Literary translation is, of course, a much debated subject within translation studies,
with various points of view regarding both the technique and the way of conducting such
analyses. As it stands, translation can either be foreignized or domesticated, taken further
away or brought closer to the reader respectively, wholly dependent on the approach taken by
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the translator. “<Invisibility> is the term I will use to describe the translator’s situation and
activity” (Venuti 1) - it is what Lawrence Venuti refers to when concerned with the matter of
translation. The view of Venuti is that a translator should in all possible ways make
themselves invisible in the face of the reader. That the text should read like one pertaining to
the culture of the reader: an adaptation of the text, by way of translation, to the world of the
reader.
However, these are all theories and approaches that apply best to literary fiction. When
the matter turns from the literary canon, from the so called ‘respectable fiction’ to the genres
of science-fiction and fantasy, this aspect of maintaining the invisibility of the translator
becomes problematic, as there already are elements of defamiliarization for the reader of the
text in the source language.How should the translation be approached in adapting this
foreignized text into the target language, without the explicit creative input of the translator?
Should one maintain this status of invisibility and work at making the text more
palatable to the reader? And when the defamiliarizing aspects of the novel cannot be
felicitously translated into the target language, what should the course of action be? Balancing
the scales of defamiliarization by adding elements in different places, where they can be read
and understood by the readers? Or, perhaps, by simply abandoning them and making do, for
lack of a better word, with what defamiliarizing elements can be translated into the target
language.
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“pomelnic” described in the Romanian dictionary as being a “list of people (dead or alive)
which is read by a priest during mass”. 1
No matter how we view it, the difference in meaning, from the archaic term for prayer,
a religious term reattributed within the text, one of the many relexicalizations found from the
same register, the translation thereof bears little resemblance. Perhaps the archaic Romanian
word ‘molitvă’ would have been more appropriate, bearing the meaning of “a prayer said
before confession” 2
However it is nonetheless difficult to gauge the motivation of the translator, and what
determined this specific word choice, or rather what determined the modification of a word
still in current use, by dropping the first letter, so that the word should at least mirror the word
‘orison’ in its first letter and the register from which it was taken. While this oversight could
be caused by the usage of the American edition of the novel, it nonetheless raises questions
regarding the felicitousness of the translation.
The first noticeable change in the particularities of the speech of Sonmi~451, though
not the first alteration conducted, concerns the Romanian pronunciation of the
sociolinguistically specific erasure of the letter e in first position in a word where the letter in
the second position was ‘x’. In Romanian, in order to achieve the same pronunciation of the
word with this erasure of the first ‘e’, the ‘x’ had to be isolated from the rest of the word, feat
done through the use of a hyphen, as shown through the Romanin exponent ‘X-ultare’
(Mitchell 2008: 237).
While through the use of such methods, namely the hyphen, the word becomes further
estranged from the reader, there is a certain balancing act under play as most of the translation
does not make use of the ‘ex’ words employed in the English versions of the novel.
A peculiar choice of translation arises in the translation of the fast food diner chain
where Sonmi~451 is a server, and as such ‘Papa Song’ in Romanian takes shape as ‘Tata
Song’ (Mitchell 2008: 236).
Another such choice concerns the generalization of brand names as names denoting
the entire category. As in Romania this generalization is already used in certain cases as an
effect of an initial monopoly of those specific brands on the market after the fall of
Communism, prior to the diversification of the free market, sneakers are oftentimes translated
as ‘adidaşi’, this stemming evidently from the brand name Adidas, though this is not the only
instance of relexicalization (e.g. Pampers, Rimel). As Shawn Clankie expounds in An
Overview of Genericization in Linguistics, regarding the generalization of brand names based
on novelty:
If the brand is for an innovative product, one for which no known semantic category exists,
then the association of that item with its name will become synonymous, resulting in the brand
name as both a product name and the name of the class to which it belongs (e.g. Rollerblades,
Walkman, etc.). (Clankie 29)
1
“listă cu numele persoanelor, în viață sau decedate, pe care le pomenește preotul în timpul efectuării unor slujbe
religioase sau în unele rugăciuni”. – cf. “pomelnic” (DEX)
2
“rugăciune înainte de spovedanie” - “molitvă” (DEX)
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Cloud Atlas, in its Romanian translation, curiously translates the word “nikes” when
referring to footwear, as “‘didaşi”, foregoing the initial ‘a’ in the word, and changing the
brand of the footwear. This translation choice not only alters the linguistic shift in the speech
pattern of the characters but also shifts the entire framework established by the author, as in
Romanian the word ‘Adidas’ is culturally tied to the language, even more so than the word
‘nike’. The only instance of the word ‘adidaşi’ being used in its complete form in the book
happens in the part of Louisa Rey. (Mitchell 2008: 157) This, of course, being a part of the
novel in which language had yet to begin shifting towards the future hybrid English.
This pattern of dropping the first letter of the word is encountered within the source
text only for words beginning with the ‘ex’ group of letters, including cases where the word
contains a prefix to modify the core word. However, in the translation, we encounter it several
more times, in other circumstances than the aforementioned, and as thus this rule of
speculative hybrid English loses its grammatical and lexical rules regarding word use and
construction.
The term dilution suggests that the brand name is weakening. (...) Linguistically however, this
is not the case as it is semantic broadening that is occurring, the meaning of the name is
growing, so much so that the brand is often said to be “a household name”. It is for this reason
that genericization is a more appropriate term for the phenomenon of semantic broadening in
brand names. (Clankie 28)
Clankie argues that the generalization of brand names into nouns defining the entire
category must go through a relatively uniform process, there being “cases where novel
products, particularly in technology, have entered the market and have become generics
almost immediately” (Clankie 32).However, even this process of linguistic generalization
operates within the boundaries of the culture and language in which it takes place. “The over-
all process of linguistic change may involve stimuli and constraints both from society and
from the structure of language.” (Clankie 32)
As such, the translation of the generalized brand names into other brands by the
translator becomes questionable. The shifts in the writing of the word are likewise
inconsistent and raise questions regarding the language pattern employed by the translator.
Translation is never an exact science, but for it to be successful it has to properly replicate
either the language or the idea transmitted. We recall in this particular instance Venuti’s
argument that translation into different cultures represents the core violence of translation, as
ideas and words get shaped into sometimes unrecognizable concepts, driven far away from
the original for the purpose of bridging the cultural discrepancy (cf. Venuti 547).However,
even with this in mind it is rather difficult to understand a few of the lexical changes done to
the linguistically generalized brand names employed in the novel, as will be demonstrated
below.
For the word describing the phone/television implement, named‘sony’ in the novel, the
translator chose to use a different word, specifically ‘toşiba’ after the brand name “Toshiba”
(Mitchell 2008: 243). This proves to be at least a curious choice not only because the brand
Toshiba is not as well known as Sony for producing electronic equipment, but also because
there are also changes which occur in the writing style of the word, which even in its original
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writing produces the same pronunciation in Romanian, and one would argue a name without
diacritics would be far more desirable than one with diacritics. While it is justifiable if one
postulates that verb agreement with the noun is easier to accomplish with this specific word,
as the word ‘sony’ ends in a ‘y’, still, phonetic changes could have been operated on the
original word used in English to allow it to comply with the agreement-rich Romanian
language.
Another peculiar translation of a lexically generalized word is translating ‘suzuki’, a
word used to describe motorcycles, as ‘toiota’ (after brand name ‘Toyota’), when Toyota
doesn’t actually produce motorcycles at all (with the exception of one which appeared on the
market several years after the publication of the translation), and is instead known for the
mass-production of cars. (Mitchell 2008: 266) The fact that ‘toyota’ was translated as ‘toiota’
also poses questions in terms of the choice of the replacement of the letter ’y’ with the letter
‘i’ as in Romanian both letters are pronounced /ɪ/.
The translation of the word describing movies, namely ‘disney’ into the Romanian
‘disnei’, again proves to be questionable, given that the English pronunciation of the word
disney would be /ˈdɪzni/ (Wikipedia 2019) and not /ˈdɪzneɪ/ as suggested by this shift in
writing. The only possible reasoning for choosing to use the ‘ei’ termination to the word could
be the mispronunciation of the word ‘disney’ as /ˈdɪzneɪ/, but given the corpocratic universe
of global access to sonys and the implied information, it is really implausible that this
mispronunciation could continue to exist and be in use.
Exxon is also one of the words which undergo a change in the translation process,
becoming the Romanian ‘exonă’. This loss of the double ‘x’ presented in the original makes
the reference harder to understand, even if Louisa Rey’s narrative mentions the brand,
‘Mexxon Oil’ (Mitchell 2008: 175). The appearance of the diacritic is, again, for agreement
purposes, yet it seems to serve to further foreignize the meaning of the words for the reader.
Romanian, in what pronunciation is concerned, uses the same IPA symbol for the
pronunciation of the letter ‘k’ as well as the letter ‘c’, namely /k/, with the exception of the
cases in which c is coupled with other letters to produce a different sound such a ‘che’ or ‘ci’.
‘Kodak’, a word used to describe photographs in Cloud Atlas, in Romanian has the
counterpart ‘codacă’, which for a reader not acquainted with the English version of the novel
and the lexically generalised words used in it, would be hard to pinpoint and correctly
describe.
While all of these aforementioned lexically generalized brand names have experienced
a translation into Romanian, the following, also pertaining to the same lexically generalized
category or words, were left unchanged: colt, ford, nikon, rolex, marlboro.
As such, in Romanian soap becomes syrup (‘sirop’ [Mitchell 2008: 236]), the servers,
which could have easily been translated as waitresses, since the word ’server’ does have that
meaning pertain to it, were translated as ‘servanţi’, in the Romanian dictionary described as
“a retainer with special attributions in certain institutions 1”, thus the meaning shifts visibly,
drawing the language further away from the reader through the use of archaic words.
1
. Personal translation for "om de serviciu cu atribuţii speciale în anumite instituţii" – cf. “servant” (DEX)
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‘Postgrad’ (Mitchell 2012: 187) becomes ‘postabsolvent’ (Mitchell 2008: 237) a term
not used in the Romanian language to refer to postgraduates, which in English is already
defined as “a student continuing formal education after graduation from high school or
college” (“Postgrad”, cf. Merriam-Webster). Boom-Sook Kim is a PhD student, and as such,
since the terminology in English had yet to change in the universe of Cloud Atlas, should
have been referred to as a ‘doctorand’ (‘doctoral student’) for the accurate portrayal of his
academic level.
To translate the phrase "we vend drinks" as "desfacem bauturile" (“we open drinks”)
implies a change in the style of fast food diner, as drinks are poured via vending machines in
them, not opened by servers.
As the word “tenstarred” (Mitchell 2012: 187) is translated into Romanian as
“decastelara” (Mitchell 2008: 238) – a perfect use of a compound word in Romanian, later on
in the same paragraph the translator uses for the phrase 'my first tenthday' the Romanian
'prima mea ziua a zecea' (my first tenth day), only to later shift the translation upon a later
encounter of the word into ‘decadiariu’(Mitchell 2008: 433) This inconsistency in the
translation breaks the pattern of expectation and disrupts what could have become a language
rule similar to those used by Mitchell which have not have been translated into Romanian
successfully.
Compounds raise another question regarding the choices made in the translation.
While English has a lexical habit of creating compounds out of words, which are easy to
understand in what regards origin and meaning (we can take the word ‘toothbrush’ as an
example, compounded from the words tooth and brush, to produce a word that denotes a
brush designed for your teeth).
Anglo-Saxon languages have a greater ease in producing compounds in a felicitous
manner, that would elude the defamiliarizing effect.
In the translation of the word "Dinery" (which seems to be a mix between the word
‘diner’ and the word ‘eatery’ (Mitchell 2004: 221), both used to refer to restaurants, or rather,
fast food establishments where customers may purchase food and drink, into the Romanian
"dejunariu", the translator changes the way in which the narrative is received, as the use of
archaic words (not limited to the use of religious connotation as used in the original) shifts the
narrative into a confusing universe where it is difficult to understand where the future begins
and where language was left behind.
The translation of "we input orders" to the Romanian "transmitem comenzi" (“we
transmit orders”, to translate the TT text back into English) eliminates the element of
technology involved in the process, as this inputting of orders implies a device on which the
orders are written, very similar to those of today, for which we use the verb “a tasta comenzi”
or more likely, “a bate comenzi”, which sounds the most appropriate for use in the given
context. Even the verb ‘a înregistra’, works far better than the verb ‘a transmite’ which wholly
deviates from the depicted context.
The phrase "we tray food" is part of a process of reattributing certain parts of speech
and employing them as others, called anthimeria. In the English language anthimeria is an
often-used process, especially in works of literary narrative.
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Eve and Herbert Clark postulate on the matter of anthimeria, or - as it is also known -
denominalization, in When Nouns Surface as Verbs:
When a speaker utters such a verb, he intends his listener to see that the verb picks out a
readily computable and unique kind of state, event, or process that the speaker is confident the
listener can figure out – on the basis of the verb itself, the linguistic context, and other mutual
knowledge (Clark 768).
As such, in the English version of Cloud Atlas, the phrase is not unusual. However,
when the Romanian translation of this specific phrase is concerned, such as, for
example,"tăvuim mâncarea", the entire phrase further estranges the reader of the text. The
translation of anthimeria into languages where it is not often employed hinders the reader in
the immersion into the narrative universe.
4. CONCLUSION
As Venuti states:
A translated text, whether prose or poetry, fiction or nonfiction, is judged acceptable by most
publishers, reviewers, and readers when it reads fluently, when the absence of any linguistic or
stylistic peculiarities makes it seem transparent, giving the appearance that it reflects the
foreign writer’s personality or intention or the essential meaning of the foreign text - the
appearance, in other words, that the translation is not in fact a translation, but the “original.”
(Venuti 1)
To translate grammatical structures into languages in which they are not present raises
questions regarding the felicity of the process of translation, since as stated above, a
translation is judged by its fluency, by how invisible it is to a reader. In translations of texts
that strive to make themselves visible to the reader in certain aspects, such as the hybridity of
language, the cases in which the translation ends up containing elements which distance the
reader from the core message of the narrative, thus altering the source text through translation,
modifying or removing these nuances of estranged language which we always struggle to
accurately transpose in translations; namely, those which impose a degree of adaptation and a
concurrent aspect denoting novelty and the unfamiliar.
As such, The Sonmi~451 of Cloud Atlas illustrates a vastly different universe, solely
by the virtue of its translation, which in Romanian renders the text hard to digest, superfluous
in grammatical structures that, while felicitous in English, garner a much more prevalent
element of defamiliarization by use of the language, as they are not felicitously employed
from the viewpoint of Romanian grammar.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
BITTNER, Hansjörg. Routledge Advances on Translation and Interpreting Studies 44,
Routledge, 2020.
CLANKIE, Shawn. “An overview of brand genericization in linguistics”, Proceedings of the
2nd International Conference on Onomastics Names and Naming (ICONN2), Baia
Mare, Romania, 2013.
CLARK, Eve V., and Herbert H. Clark. “When Nouns Surface as Verbs.” Language, vol. 55,
no. 4, 1979, pp. 767–811. JSTOR, www.jstor.org/stable/412745.
MITCHELL, David. Cloud Atlas. Sceptre, 2012.
MITCHELL, David. Cloud Atlas. Random House, 2004.
MITCHELL, David. Atlasul Norilor. Humanitas, 2008.
“Molitvă”, Micul dicționar academic, ediția a II-a, Academia Română, Institutul de
Lingvistică, Editura Univers Enciclopedic, 2010,
https://dexonline.ro/definitie/molitv%C4%83/1150307.
"Pomelnic." Dicționarul Explicativ al Limbii Române, 2nd Ed., Editura Univers Enciclopedic
Gold, 2009. https://dexonline.ro/definitie/pomelnic/875055. Accessed 13.10.2019.
“Postgrad.” Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-
webster.com/dictionary/postgrad.
"Servant." Dicționarul Explicativ al Limbii Române, 2nd Ed., Editura Univers Enciclopedic
Gold, 2009. https://dexonline.ro/definitie/servant/841883.
VENUTI, Lawrence. The Translator's Invisibility: A History of Translation, Routledge, 2008.
SUN, Yifeng, “Translating foreign otherness: cross-cultural anxiety in modern China”
Routledge, 2017, https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315187686
WANG, Fa-de. “An Approach to Domestication and Foreignization from the Angle of
Cultural Factors Translation.” Theory and Practice in Language Studies 4 (2014):
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ÉTUDES CULTURELLES
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Olena ROMANOVA 1
National Pedagogical Dragomanov University, Ukraine
Lettres Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
Abstract: This article discusses the choice of love under the influence of the numinous in the second
half of life. The methodological strategies of the study are: the concept of the numinous by R. Otto, the
view of the age crisis by C. Jung, the concept of the numinous as a religious awe by T. Jacobsen, and
Jungian psychoanalysis by J. Hollis. The aim of the article is to reflect the process of overcoming the
fear and horror of making a choice during the crisis of middle age, which is caused by a meeting with
the numinous forces. The author considers the issue not only from the philosophical and ideological
points of view, but also from the psychological viewpoint and outlines ways of overcoming that
blocked access to human integrity which renders it difficult to make the choice of love. In this article,
love is seen through the concept of choice as a stage in self-determination, a choice of one's own value
and the decision to be a fully-fledged master of one’s own destiny in the changing times of the twenty
first century.
1. INTRODUCTION
It is known that love is the spiritual center of human life and the highest cultural
value. In my opinion, love is always a choice. I consider the concept of “choice of love”
from the standpoint of philosophy, psychology, psychoanalysis and psychosynthesis. So, in
my opinion, the choice of love is an ethical and aesthetic concept of human existence. Such
a choice is realized by decision-making, due to which there is a transition from aesthetic
contemplation, escapism or illusory perception of reality to a personal step towards the
ethical assertion of a completely new reality: connecting the Other to yourself and yourself
to Others. The embodiment of a completely new potentiality of life and the acquisition of
the ontological experience of love, where everyone’s essence is revealed not in the
imagination or through fantasies, but in the co-creation of their own existence.
The choice of love is not primarily a choice of orientation, but a choice of partner. If
this choice is not made instinctively or affectively, it is conscious and means taking
responsibility for the partner, the relationship with him, for the family we can create with
him and for the children who will appear in this family. Such a choice of a partner always
presupposes a worldview choice, comprehension of common values with him/her and of
those values that are opposed. We have a conscious worldview dialogue that makes the
choice of love productive. As a result, the choice of love is defined as:
a situation of personal choice, with which you can spend a lifetime in community and co-
creation. It is love of all things with high sacred feelings for the Other… It means a
relationship between two individuals, which is based on understanding, compassion, trust, in
the integrity of physical, mental and spiritual principles (Romanova 2018: 116).
1
alenyshka2007@ukr.net
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Scientist C. Jung argued that the acquisition of meaning and the fateful choices of
the first half of life and the second are significantly different. The first, according to the
researcher, is subject to natural laws, the next – has a cultural purpose.
Man has two kinds of goals in life: the first is natural, that is, the birth of offspring and
everything related to caring for him, including financial security and social status. If this goal
is exhausted, another phase begins – the cultural goal (Jung 2020: 8).
The scientist also calls the period of the second half of life the afternoon period of
life, in which you need to leave the illusions of youth (because you can not turn the clock of
life back) and find support within yourself.
For many people, the transition from the natural to the cultural phase is extremely difficult and
bitter: they cling to youthful illusions or their children in order to save even a piece of youth
... What young people found and should find outside, the man of the afternoon must find in
itself (Jung 2020: 8).
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Man is faced with the need to understand the value of what was the opposite of his former
ideals, to be convinced of the fallacy of former beliefs, to acknowledge the untruth contained
in the former truth, and to feel how much resistance and even hostility was what was
previously considered love (Jung 2020: 8).
The fact of borderline situations is not an exception in this period – these are
dramatic cracks that occur in the life of an individual by accident, i.e. unplanned. Such
events can be: divorce, job loss, illness, death or death of relatives and other life incidents.
Because of the presence of these tense episodes a person is deeply immersed, finds it
difficult to cope with problematic situations, often has nervous breakdowns, suffers from
depression, all of these issues resulting in changes to the whole life structure: a set of
professional and family roles, leisure and social activities. C. Jung also points out that there
is often a kind of jumping from problem to problem (leaving one profession and gaining
another, for example, or changing one life partner for a new one), and it can be
characterized as a search for an external replacement, but not finding an internal meaning,
which is also an extreme.
The negative moment of such a radical transition is that the former way of life is pushed out,
thus creating the same unbalanced state as the previous state, when the opposites of conscious
virtues and values were still oppressed and unconscious (Jung 2020: 8).
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Both C. Jung and after him J. Hollis argued that the second half of life can not be
guided by the same principles of life as the first. C. Jung said in his work “Problems of the
soul of our time”that:
We enter the second half of life extremely unprepared; worse, we do so under the influence of
misconceptions about our past truths and ideals. We cannot live the evening of life on the
same program as in the morning, because what is a lot in the morning will be not enough in
the evening, and what is true in the morning and evening will not be so justified (Jung, 2017:
109).
Thus, in view of the above, we note that midlife crisis is an especially emotional
period, which is accompanied by painful experiences due to loss of meaning in life, a sense
of uselessness to either society or the family that was created during the years of youth
which is an indication that this pattern of coexistence has changed dramatically with the
approach of maturity. A deep dive into oneself should intensify the search for a course for
the future direction of life.
A person wants to escape from this abyss of “self-waste”, but something prevents it.
Finding a new route independently is very difficult, especially at a time when people are
disconnected from one another by computer windows. More often than not, a visit to a
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psychologist does not meet our expectations, and while the emotional wound heals, hellish
moral torments continue. The fact is that this is not just an age crisis, it is an existential
crisis, which is often accompanied by a desire to change one’s life partner. It happens when
the long-standing contradictions between the marital partners have not been resolved and
the chosen "soulmate" does not want to change further together. Feelings of hopelessness
and helplessness make a person seem to freeze, causing a loss of inner activity of existence.
The rationalization of this numinous ira, which is usually erroneously called “natural” (but in
fact completely “unnatural”) is to fill it with a rational and ethical moment of divine justice,
retribution and punishment for moral sins (Otto 2008: 5).
As we can see, the horrible trace of the numinous runs a red line throughout the
destiny of human existence and is a turning point in the second half of life, because a person
completely re-evaluates the content of the experience. A person seeks to cope with this
period of crisis, to go beyond, to release the spirit of fear and to transcend it. This numinous
state is the most sensitive to one of the stages of the numinous – “moment of energy”, as R.
Otto called it. According to the theologian, this moment of experience introduces the human
soul into a position of excessive activity, selflessness, intensity and dynamics. Note that the
choice of love under the influence of the numinous is a special state when horror and
trembling hinder the adoption of a fateful decision. That is, the numinous most often blocks
the manifestation of will, because such an individual lacks independence in decision-
making, he cannot cope with the circumstances, so he/she is overwhelmed by panic, fear,
trembling and reluctance to take a step towards freedom. Consequently, the encounter with
the numinous forces makes a person numb and prevents the choice of love, because such a
choice always causes ambivalent feelings: admiration and anxiety.
This contrast-harmony, this duality of the numinous can be traced throughout the history of
religion, beginning at least with the degree of “demonic horror”... No matter how terribly
scary the demonic-divine is for the human soul, it will be just as attractive and exciting for
him (Otto 2008: 9).
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This blockage is also connected with ingrained attitudes and despondency towards
one's own better life. Another reason, according to Jung, is that a person is afraid of change,
because he/she is frightened to accept the opposite part of his personality which contains a
negative connotation, so there is a desire to move away from belonging to own negative
character traits. “What causes them to fall into scrambling is essentially the fear of the
problem of the opposite” (Jung 2020: 8). Therefore, we can say that the experience of the
numinous is a powerful emotional charge, which a person perceives as the direction of
higher forces towards the secret desires of the soul. This charge contains an individual
religious meaning, as the human being seeks to believe in higher powers and find a little
clue with the divine contact, because the Almighty appears to him/her as an energy point
that connects everything (and everyone) in itself – the center from which the world
originated, the nucleus which gave rise to all that is female and all that is male.
This encounter with unknown forces is due to the fact that a person does not know
where to go, so they need God's guidance (in order to not to provoke the wrath of the
Almighty - because the religious man/woman fears the anger of God). It is needed as a kind
of insurance if person suddenly stumbles, commit sins and life goes wrong (for example,
break up an unproductive marriage and (get free from life with a psychopath, drug addict,
making a new choice of love, i.e., with someone who causes harm, both moral and
physical), so a person seeks God's protection from his/her own mistake or wrong solution.
The most striking aspect is, of course, the humiliation of self, the deliberate self-abasement of
the repentant sinner. He repents of his sins with all his passion... trying in every way to expose
his unattractiveness (Jacobsen 1995: 95).
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Having made this change of course – sometimes the whole second half of life will go to
change the direction of our ship, with such force the old currents continue keep pulling it
along – and again we notice that we are engulfed and supported by some living energy. This
vibrant, pulsating energy is the volitional impulse of the psyche towards individuation, which
Jung called an innate impulse to integrity (Hollis 2013: 70).
6. CONCLUSION
To sum up, worldview plays a major role in the choice of love in the second half of
life, namely - which picture of the world emerges in the mind of a person trying to reassess
the realisable. But the most important thing is the outlook and the striving to reach
communicative integrity. Consequently, the process of self-determination continues
constantly and everyone has the right of choice, but the fullness of love, its ethical and
aesthetic meaning can be understood by a person in harmony of the spiritual and soulful in
himself and in qualitative communication with Others.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
HOLLIS J. Finding Meaning in the Second Half of Life: How to Finally, Really Grow Up. –
Kogito-Centre, 2013. – 336 p. – URL: http://loveread.ec/read_book.php?id=45641&p=1
JACOBSEN T. Treasures of Darkness: A History of Mesopotamian Religion. – M.: Oriental
literature. RAN, 1995. – 293 p.
JUNG C. Essays on Analytical Psychology. Edition 3-th. – Minsk: Harvest, 2020. – 480 p.
JUNG C. Problems of the soul of our time. – Piter, 2017. – URL:
http://loveread.ec/read_book.php?id=60315&p=1
OTTO R. The Idea of the Holy. About the irrational in the idea of the divine and its relation to
the rational. SPbGU, 2008. – URL: https://www.litmir.me/br/?b=231543&p=1
ROMANOVA O. The problem of the choice of love in the history of philosophy. // Gileya:
scientific bulletin. Collection of scientific works. Collection of scientific works / ch. ed.
VM Vashkevich; MP Dragomanov National Pedagogical University, Ukrainian Academy
of Sciences. – Philosophical sciences-2018, part 2. – Vol. 138 (№ 11), Kyiv. – P. 116-
120.
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Gaudence NIBARUTA
Université du Burundi, Burundi
Abstract: Times of economic crisis as well as times of pandemics are the moments in which man
discovers his vulnerability. No one can claim to be safe from danger. Moreover, it is in these moments
of hard trials that society rediscovers its forgotten values, in this case the value of love, from which
other human values such as those of cooperation, solidarity, etc derive. Indeed, if there are realities
that are at the heart of human existence, but that are academically ignored, love is one of them.
Although this concept occupies a prominent place in the writings of poets, novelists, musicians and
even theologians, very few anthropological, philosophical and sociological writings are interested in
this theme. This is the reality that lies at the very foundation of human existence. Its success brings
happiness and prosperity, while its failure can shake human life. In what way, then, does love
constitute the foundation of human life, both at the individual and the collective level? This
contribution aims to show that without love, humanity would not exist or would disappear. For human
existence, apart from the rare cases of accidents (rape or medically assisted reproduction), has as its
origin in love. Moreover, in order to become a true person, that is to say a social being in the
Aristotelian sense of the term, one requires love, both from one’s parents and from the community.
This article proves the importance of love in the construction of oneself, of the community and of the
State.
Keywords: Love, recognition, cooperation, solidarity, intersubjectivity
1. INTRODUCTION
L’amour est un sentiment tellement précieux dans la vie que son effectivité agit sur le
cerveau et déclenche des hormones et des substances qui stimulent la sensation
d’épanouissement, de joie, bonheur et bien-être. Comme la nourriture, la santé, le sport ou
autres choses agréables ou activités fondamentales pour la vie, l’amour est une sorte d’énergie
vitale, qui nourrit l’âme et le corps, support des intentions et des actes. D’abord sous l’aspect
d’une affection ou tendresse entre les membres d'une famille: amour paternel, filial, fratrie ;
ensuite comme ouverture, dépassement et transcendance de soi vers l’autre à travers le lien
conjugal, finit par se fonder sur des valeurs solides et rassurantes comme la loyauté,
l'honnêteté, la solidarité, la coopération, etc., autant de valeurs qui apportent un sentiment de
sécurité, en couple, en famille comme en communauté. Propre aux humaines, l’amour est
« une énergie sans laquelle l’existence humaine ne serait pas possible ». Comme le montre
Canto-Sperber, « l’amour est la plus puissante et la plus caractéristique des émotions
humaines par sa capacité à donner, souvent de façon assez soudaine, un sens à la vie, à
infléchir, orienter et parfois façonner les perceptions, les pensées et même les actes ». (Canto-
Sperber 1996: 40). Ainsi, l’amour se trouve être une réalité qui se trouve au fondement même
de l’existence humaine. Son succès procure du bonheur et de la prospérité, tandis que son
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échec peut ébranler la vie humaine. Quels sont donc les fondements, les facteurs de succès et
en quoi l’amour constitue le socle de la vie humaine, de l’intersubjectivité et du lien social ?
Tel est le questionnement autour duquel va se développer la présente réflexion.
S’inscrivant dans l’axe d’éthique et de philosophie politique et morale, elle va suivre une
méthodologie analytico-critique, en trois mouvements. D’abord, il s’agira de montrer la
valeur inestimable de l’amour naturel et filial entre parents-enfants et fratrie, moment
primordial du développement psychique de l’individu d’une part, et d’autre part, sera
développé l’amour à travers la relation fondamentale entre conjoints (époux – épouse), vécu
comme union harmonieuse des contraires et socle de la perpétuation de l’espèce humaine.
Ensuite, l’analyse portera sur l’amour sous l’angle éthique, c’est-à-dire une relation d’amitié
et d’amour désintéressée affectivement, c’est à dire fondée sur le lien social et s’affirmant
dans les actions citoyennes de coopération et de solidarité au sein, de l’Etat. Enfin, une
critique sera émise autour des pathologies affectant l’amour, aussi bien dans l’éthicité
traditionnelle comme les contraintes culturelles que dans l’éthicité postmoderne à travers le
concept de « liberté négative ».
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bien pour soi et pour l’autre. Cela contraste avec la relation vers un simple objet, car le désir
est en quelque sorte orienté vers la satisfaction individuelle, avec un sens unique. A partir de
cette conception, l’on peut établir trois paliers de l’amour. De l’Eros, on peut concevoir
l’amour filial (parent-enfant-fratrie), de Philia correspond l’amour entre les aimés (amoureux)
sans filiation familiale, et enfin, Agapè correspond à l’amour ou bienveillance entre des
citoyens, considérés comme des prochains au sein de la nation moderne, sans tenir compte des
accidents de la nature et de l’histoire comme l’identité, la classe ou les avoirs matériels.
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procure à son enfant guident ses premiers pas dans son humanité et sa socialisation. Par
ailleurs, de nos jours, les études scientifiques montrent que: « En étudiant le développement
du cerveau des enfants, comment leurs gênes s’activent et leur système immunitaire
fonctionne, des chercheurs peuvent voir de quelle manière l’amour des mères influence la
santé de l’enfant jusqu’à l’âge adulte » (Ward 2020). Dans la même perspective, il est prouvé
que, d’après le docteur Silveira, neuroscientifique et pédiatre à l’Université McGill.: «Les
premières semaines sont très, très, très importantes (…) mettant la table pour la vie. Les
parents contribuent à la formation du cerveau et de ses connexions dès la naissance.» (Ibid.).
Cela prouve donc que les sujets ayant connu une belle enfance ont un plus faible taux de
problèmes de santé physique ou mentale, comme le diabète, des problèmes cardiaques ou la
schizophrénie (Ibid.). Ici, la belle enfance n’est pas celle de l’enfant gâté ni avec une
nourriture abondante et copieux ni avec du luxe, mais plutôt celle entourée de d’affection, de
tendresse et d’amour.
En effet, tout commence au stade de l’embryon: « dans le ventre maternel, le bébé est
constamment bercé par les mouvements ou le rythme respiratoire. Un massage doux,
continu, qui va s'intensifier pendant la naissance. Un monde riche de sensations infinies.
Pourtant, une fois passée la tempête de sa venue au monde, bébé va vivre au rythme
angoissant de nouvelles sensations bien moins agréables, bien plus difficiles à gérer pour lui »
(Goldschmit 2020). C’est à ce stade donc que les sentiments d’affection et de tendresse vont
contribuer à le rassurer et lui donner confiance. Après, ça sera le stade du toucher et de la vue.
Ainsi, le sourire de la mère à l’enfant, la délicatesse par laquelle elle le prend, vont lui
démonter le sentiment d’amour, un moment indispensable pour la vie future.
En 1946, le docteur René Spitz a prouvé l’importance de l’affection dans le
développement de l’enfant. En étudiant le développement de cent vingt-trois bébés placés en
pouponnière à cause de l’emprisonnement de leurs mères, il constate que ces
enfants rapidement dépressifs. Pourtant le personnel de la pouponnière nourrissait et prenait
soin des enfants. Ils étaient propres et soignés en cas de maladies. Quant à leurs mères
emprisonnées, elles aimaient leurs enfants, elles y étaient profondément attachées et faisaient
preuve d’affection envers eux. À l’inverse, le personnel des pouponnières était
totalement indifférent. Il prodiguait les soins mais de façon froide et détachée. Les enfants ne
bénéficiaient d’aucune affection. Le docteur en a conclu que c’est ce manque d’affection qui a
provoqué la dépression des jeunes enfants. Il a aussi constaté que plus la privation totale
d’affection persistait, plus l’enfant plongeait dans la dépression et pouvait même en mourir.
D’ailleurs un enfant sur trois décédera pendant l’observation du docteur. Ceux qui ont
survécus montraient des retards de développement lourds, aussi bien physiques que
psychiques. Spitz a donné un nom à cette dépression infantile: l’hospitalisme. Il ressort donc
que l’amour maternel est un sentiment que ressent une mère pour son ou ses enfants et qui
contribue à l'attachement de la dyade mère et enfant. Ce sentiment est souvent considéré
comme le moteur des attentions de la mère veillant à la protection physique et morale, et à
l'éducation de ses enfants. L’amour constitue donc la fondation de l’humanité de l’individu,
en ce sens que c’est cet état qui est à la base du développement psychique et même de la santé
de l’individu.
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1
A distinguer des cas des mariages à bien séparés ou la polygamie que nous classons dans la catégories des
pathologies de l’amour.
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obligation éthiques envers un partenaire tiers, qui a des droits, devient un élément dans
l'élévation du caractère éthique de la vie familiale. Au sein d’une famille fondée sur un
véritable amour, l’attribution des tâches n’est pas arithmétique. Elle peut même être
inéquitable, de même que les statuts. Cependant, la force de l’amour fait que personne ne se
sente lésée ou confrontée à une injustice. Il s’agit d’une expression d’un amour qui ne tient
pas compte de la matérialité, mais plutôt de l’éthicité ; un amour qui n’a rien à voir avec la
possession égoïste.
Le philosophe canadien Charles Taylor trouve dans la famille une « institution
identificatrice ». Pour lui, « entre mari et femme, entre parents et enfants, se constitue au fil
des années l’identité de chacun de ses membres » (Taylor 1994). Par l’acquisition de la
norme, l’individu apprend à vivre avec les autres, et se forge par là une identité, développe
son humanité: « je vis un rôle à l’intérieur d’une pratique ; je partage avec les autres le sens de
ce qui est à faire et de ce qui est à éviter » (Taylor 1994). Pour Taylor, en tant que véhicule
premier d’une certaine vision de la vie, la famille est une institution d’ordre moral. Les
normes qui y sont véhiculées gouvernent la pensée et l’agir de l’individu. C’est le lieu
d’émergence des jalons de l’éthicité. En d’autres termes, les droits et les devoirs des membres
de la famille ne sont pas tout d’abord le fait d’une loi écrite, ils sont inscrits avant cela dans le
cadre institutionnel de la famille qui se base sur le sentiment subjectif qu’est l’amour.
Avec l’union amoureuse, il y a une transformation du sujet individuel en un tout éthique:
D’une manière générale, l’amour désigne la conscience de l’unité que je forme avec quelqu’un
d’autre, de telle sorte que je ne sois pas isolé pour moi, mais qu’il ne me soit possible
d’acquérir la conscience de moi que par la suppression de mon être-pour-soi et par la
connaissance de moi-même comme d’une unité que je forme avec l’autre et que l’autre forme
avec moi. Mais l’amour est un sentiment, c’est-à-dire la vie éthique sous sa forme naturelle.
(Hegel 2013: § 158)
Cela signifie qu’à travers l’amour, le soi renonce à son indépendance abstraite dans le
but de gagner son indépendance vraie et substantielle dans l’union avec l’autre qu’il aime.
En définitive, par les rapports intersubjectifs qu’elle engendre, la famille constitue une
transition » (Hegel 2013: § 181) vers un autre principe, une étape supérieure de la vie éthique.
Elle constitue la fondation de l’édification d’une communauté. En se démultipliant par le biais
des sujets majeurs qui deviennent libres tout en restant liés au noyau familial, ce sont les
familles qui deviennent plus tard une nation. Les liens de réciprocité, d’échange et de
satisfaction des besoins structurent des rapports sociaux. C’est sur la base de ces rapports que
se créent un nouveau mode de la vie éthique, à savoir la citoyenneté.
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ce principe en une expression très simple est claire: « Tous les hommes sont frères » (Ghandi
1969). Un tel principe sous-tend que pour que règne l’ordre et le vivre-ensemble harmonieux
dans la société, les hommes doivent s’aimer sans autre référence. Un tel principe se trouve
même au cœur du concept de la citoyenneté au sens moderne.
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sujet vers l’autre. L’affirmation individuelle que cette relation entérine constitue le ciment des
capabilités des relations sociales ultérieures: « Parler de “l’amour”, comme d’un élément de
l’ “éthicité”, cela ne peut signifier que l'expérience d'être aimé est pour chaque sujet la
condition de sa participation à la vie publique d'une collectivité » (Ibid.: 50-51). Dans un tel
contexte l’amour participe au progrès éthique: « si l’on ne connaissait pas le sentiment d’être
aimé, le concept de communauté éthique resterait dans une certaine mesure une représentation
vide, sans référent dans l’intériorité du psychisme individuel » (Ibid.: 51). Ainsi, « seul le
sentiment d'être reconnu et approuvé dans sa nature instinctuelle particulière confère au sujet
la confiance en lui-même dont il a besoin pour contribuer, au même titre que les autres
membres de la communauté, à la formation de la volonté politique » (Ibid.: 52).
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relation d’interaction dans laquelle les sujets s’intéressent à l’itinéraire personnel de leurs vis-
à-vis, parce qu’ils ont établis entre eux des liens d’estime symétrique ». Il s’applique « aux
relations de groupes nées de l’expérience d’une résistance commune à l’oppression
politique ». Il s’agit d’un « accord essentiel sur un objectif pratique qui produit d’un coup un
horizon de valeurs intersubjectif dans lequel chacun apprend à reconnaître l’importance des
capacités et des qualités des autres ». « S’estimer en ce sens, c’est s’envisager réciproquement
à la lumière de valeurs qui donnent aux qualités et aux capacités de l’autre un rôle significatif
dans la pratique commune » (Honneth op. cit.: 157).
Dans la solidarité symétrique, les liens intersubjectifs constituent des relations de
« solidarité », « parce qu’ils ne suscitent pas seulement une tolérance passive, mais un
véritable sentiment de sympathie pour la particularité individuelle de l’autre personne: car
c’est seulement dans la mesure où je veille activement à ce que ses qualités propres, en tant
qu’elles ne sont pas les miennes, parviennent à se développer, que nos fins communes seront
réalisées » (Ibid.). Qualifier une telle intersubjectivité de « symétrique » signifie que « chaque
sujet reçoit, hors de toute classification collective, la possibilité de se percevoir dans ses
qualités et capacités comme un élément précieux de la société. C’est ce qui explique aussi que
des relations sociales comme celles que nous avons envisagées ici sous le concept de
''solidarité'' ouvrent pour la première fois un horizon dans lequel la concurrence individuelle
pour l’estime sociale peut se dérouler sans souffrance, c’est-à-dire sans soumettre les sujets à
l’expérience du mépris » (Ibid.: 157-158).
En fait de compte, les liens entre amour et solidarité se traduisent par la bienveillance
des sujets par rapport à des couches vulnérables comme les handicapés, chômeurs, les
mineurs, les veuves, les orphelins, etc.
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de soi », dans la vie communautaire, traduit une certaine exclusion juridique dont la
conséquence directe est le mépris, le déni de reconnaissance. S'ensuit un « sentiment
paralysant », suite à la honte sociale générée par la discrimination juridique, dont le
militantisme, la résistance et la lutte, constituent des formes empiriques d’affranchissement.
Les conflits pratiques, provoqués par les expériences du déni de la reconnaissance, ont pour
enjeu principal la reconnaissance du statut juridique de la personne, impliquant une exigence
de « confiance en soi », de « respect de soi » et « d’estime sociale ». L’idée traditionnelle
d’une famille fondée sur l’amour va être rejetée pour adopter l’idée d’une famille fondée sur
le droit. Dès lors, on va assister à des mariages de me genres (garçon-garçon, fille-fille), les
pacs, les mères porteuses (sans que la femme commanditaire ne soit pas incapable de
procréer, etc. Dès lors, pourra-t-on encore affirmer un amour parent-enfant quand on
revendique les droits à l’avortement ou quand on compte les jours pour amener le parent
senior dans une maison de retraite ? Qu’en est-il de l’amour entre les personnes de même
sexe ?
Dans les autres contextes comme il en est le cas en Afrique et dans certaines autres
parties du monde en dehors de l’Occident, l’amour est confronté aux contraintes des traditions
et coutumes. A ce niveau, il s’agit d’un amour au sein d’une institution traditionnelle médiée
par la culture. Les relations intimes sont vécues sous la forme d'alliances pragmatiques et ne
se réalisent qu'entre les égaux, c’est-à-dire au sein d’une même classe. L’alliance n’est pas
encore éthique. Le mariage n’est autorisé qu’entre les classes ayant le même statut. Et dans la
plupart de cas, c’est sur base des calculs et de jeux d’intérêts. Dans le couple, il y a une sorte
d’échange entre la satisfaction sexuelle de la part de l’homme et la sécurité économique et
sociale pour la femme (Honneth 2015: 206). Il s’agit autant d’une logique « d’intérêts
personnels bien compris » (Honneth 2015: 205) que d'une logique fondée sur une réciprocité
d'amour. Parfois, le mariage est arrangé sans consentement ou à l’insu des intéressés qui se
trouvent obligés d’honorer la volonté de leurs parents. L’amour dont il s’agit ici n’est pas un
amour fondé sur la liberté de conscience. Or, comme le souligne Hegel, l’amitié et l’amour ne
sauraient être dissociables de la liberté. Ce n’est qu’au cas où la relation est volontaire et libre
qu’elle devient le fondement de la confiance des partenaires: seuls "l'amitié et l'amour" nous
permettent d'être, dans cet autre, auprès de soi-même. Dans une relation intime et bien
épanouie, « l'être humain trouve sa liberté à travers une confirmation mutuelle » (Honneth
2015: 205).
En effet, le véritable amour stipule le dépassement de soi, de son individualité et de
son égoïsme, et surtout, la responsabilité envers soi, l’autre et la communauté. Il fait appel à
l’ouverture du cœur et d’esprit vers l’autre, qui qu’il soit. Sans cette ouverture, l’amour
véritable n’est pas possible. Comme le souligne Martin Luther King: « L’homme au cœur dur
n’aime jamais vraiment. Il s’engage dans un utilitarisme sordide qui apprécie les autres en
raison de leur utilité pour lui-même. Jamais il ne fait l’expérience de la beauté de l’amitié,
parce qu’il est trop froid pour éprouver de l’affection pour un autre et trop égocentrique pour
partager la joie et la peine d’autrui (…) » (Martin Luther King 1964: 20).
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5. CONCLUSION
S’il existe des réalités qui sont au cœur de l’existence humaine mais qui sont ignorées
dans les recherches scientifiques, l’amour en est une. Ainsi, ledit concept occupe une place de
choix dans les écrits de poètes, des romanciers, des musiciens et même des théologiens.
Cependant, très peu d’écrits anthropologiques, philosophiques et sociologiques s’intéressent à
ce thème. Pourtant, il s’agit d’une réalité qui se trouve au fondement même de l’existence
humaine. Son succès procure du bonheur et de la prospérité, tandis que son échec peut
ébranler la vie humaine. En effet sans l’amour, l’humanité n’existerait pas ou disparaîtrait.
Cela prouve l’importance d’une réflexion autour dudit concept. Car, l’existence humaine, en
dehors des cas rares d’accidents (viol ou insémination artificielle), a comme origine l’amour.
De plus, pour devenir véritablement homme, c’est-à-dire un être social au sens aristotélicien
du terme, l’homme nécessite le concours de l’amour, de ses parents comme de sa
communauté. C’est de cet amour que va même se développer des valeurs humaines plus
larges comme la solidarité, la coopération, la bienveillance, le respect, etc. Ainsi, que ce soit
l’amour symbiotique entre un enfant et sa mère, l’amour sensitif entre amoureux ou l’amour
rationnel à travers l’amitié, l’expérience affective permet à l’individu d’atteindre la
« confiance en soi ». L’enfant se sent rassuré par la présence d’un être qui lui est familier,
l’amoureux se sent épanoui sentimentalement, et l’être aimé se sent estimé en tant que sujet
porteur de besoins et de désirs. La satisfaction que lui procure le partenaire participe à la
satisfaction sociale des exigences personnelles. Ainsi se trouve affirmé l’importance de
l’amour dans la réalisation de soi, de la communauté et de l’Etat.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
BRUNEL, Sylvie. « Qu'est-ce que la mondialisation?».
http://www.scienceshumaines.com/qu-est-ce-que-la-mondialisation_fr_15307.html
CARRÉ, Louis. Axel Honneth: Le droit de la reconnaissance. Paris: Michalon, 2013.
DHIFALLAH, Cecile. « L’affection est un besoin vital », https://www.parents-en-
construction.com/affection-bienfaits-enfant/.
GOLDSCHMIT, Tessy. https://www.sages-femmes.lu/masser-les-enfants-un-geste-d-amour-
pour-toujours/.
HABERMAS, Jürgen. De l’éthique de la discussion. Paris: Cerf, 1992.
HEGEL, G.W.F. Principes de la philosophie du droit ; texte intégral, accompagné
d’annotations manuscrites et d’extraits de cours de Hegel. Paris: PUF, 2013.
HEGEL, G.W.F. Encyclopédie des sciences philosophiques en abrégé. Paris: Librairie
philosophique Jean Vrin, 2012.
HONNETH, Axel. Le Droit de la liberté. Esquisse d'une éthicité démocratique. Paris:
Gallimard, 2015.
HONNETH, Axel. La lutte pour la reconnaissance; traduit de l’Allemand par Pierre Rusch.
Paris: Cerf, 2000.
LUTHER KING, Martin. La force d’aimer, Paris: Casterman, 1964.
MAIWENN, Roudaut. Tolérance et reconnaissance en débat. Des Lumières allemandes à
l’Ecole de Francfort. Bordeaux: Presses Universitaires de Bordeaux, 2015.
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TAYLOR, Charles. « Les institutions dans la vie nationale », in Esprit (n° 3 – 4), Mars-Avril
1994, Editions du Seuil, pp. 90-102.
WARD, Michelle. « L’amour des mères a des effets bénéfiques sur les bébés pour le reste
de la vie», https://lactualite.com/actualites/lamour-des-meres-a-des-effets-benefiques-sur-
les-bebes-pour-le-reste-de-la-vie/.
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Sofia TABARI 1
University of Granada, Spain
Abstract: Paradise, space of the future, presents itself in a literary architecture, like a succession of
scenes of the delights of the five senses, stimulating man by reminding him of his reason for being, the
search for divine love and eternal happiness. These images describe the creation of Al-mussawir; this
name of God means creator and specifies a stage of creation that of giving images (al-suwar), without
prior model. Ikhwan al Safa analyzes the human imagination and deduces that it is: “always initially
subject to sensory perception, and cannot represent something that was not originally transmitted by
the senses”. Moreover, with experimental research Ibn Al Haytem defined the different perceptions
and their physical and natural process; the image and the body were at the center of this research.
The image of bodies (sura al-ajsam) is composed of partial concepts: structure, color, position, size,
thinness, ugliness, beauty, etc. Based on the Coranic text and the prophetic words, and on the
imagination developed by the philosophers of the Islamic period as well as research on the role of the
image and the senses in the apprehension of space, we will in this article conquer "the beyond of
space", in other words to examine the images of paradise as sensory architecture offered by the Divine
to those he loves, a set of images with an unknown spatio-temporal dimension, inciting man's hope.
Keywords: sens, amour, espoir, images, beauté, bonheur, nature, jardin, paysage.
Or on ne peut concevoir le Paradis. Par le Seigneur de la Kaʿba, il est une lumière qui scintille,
un myrte s’y agite, un palais construit, un ruisseau coulant à flots, des fruits mûrs, une jolie épouse, des
vêtements somptueux, un séjour éternel et paisible, des fruits et des légumes, un bonheur et une félicité
dans un endroit haut placé et beau (Kathir, 2009).
Au-delà de la lune et des étoiles, proche du trône du Divin, tout près du jujubier de la
limite de l’espace, le prophète Mohammed a marqué le premier pas humain, selon les
croyances islamiques. Sur le Bouraq, le prophète se déplace de la Kaʿba vers la mosquée d’al-
āqṣā puis vers le jujubier de la limite, Sidrat Al-muntaha où un extraordinaire arbre marquera
la position du paradis (sūrat al-naǧm, versets 5-18), dans une dimension spatio-temporelle
voilée à l’homme. Un lieu qui a révélé au prophète le passé et le futur et l’a invité à entrevoir
des images d’espoir et de crainte des résidences futures de l’homme: le paradis et l’enfer. Par
ailleurs un voyage spirituel instantané, vers ces deux résidences éternelles, est offert à
l’homme, grâce aux images Coraniques.
Bien que les historiens de l’art islamique affirment que le paradis eut été un modèle au
jardin islamique, selon le texte coranique et les paroles prophétiques ce jardin du futur est
plutôt un espace inconnu (Ibn al-Qayyim 2008: 593); l’homme, par conséquent, ne peut
1
stabari@outlook.fr
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l’imaginer, que par le moyen des archétypes terrestres. Le paradis, espace du futur, se
présente dans une architecture littéraire, telle une succession de scènes de délices des cinq
sens, stimulant l’homme en lui rappelant sa raison d’être: la recherche de l’amour divin et du
bonheur spirituel. La beauté de ces images du Coran fait ressentir à l’homme l’espoir et la
béatitude du futur éternel. Elles décrivent la création d’al H̱āliq, al Bāri’, al-Muṣawir, trois
noms de Dieu qui signifient créateur et précisent différentes étapes de la création des êtres,
celles de donner les puissances, les âmes puis les images (al-ṣuwar), sans modèle préalable.
Pour Aristote, « il n y’a pas de pensée sans images », idée reprise par Averroès (Ibn
Rushd) selon les explications des philosophes contemporains Benmakhlouf et Yahiya qui
poursuivent: « la conception c’est l’intellection ‘al tassawur’ », qu’Averroès substitue « à
l’imagination » plus exactement le fantasme ‘al takhayyul‘ » (2010). L’imagination c’est
l’ensemble des trois puissances ou facultés: l’imaginative, la cogitative et la mémoire (2017)
selon la pensée d’Averroès, nous précise Jean Baptiste Brenet. Ces trois facultés sont des
instruments de la connaissance (Marquet 1975: 233) déclarent Iẖwān al-Ṣafā; ils analysent
l'imagination et en déduisent qu'elle est: « toujours soumise au départ à la perception
sensorielle, et ne peut se représenter quelque chose qui n'ait été, à l'origine transmise par les
sens […]en ayant reçu, simultanément, le schéma de tout un ensemble de choses sensibles,
elle peut alors se les représenter » (234).
Par ailleurs, à l’aide de recherches expérimentales, Ibn al-Hayṯēm a défini les
différentes perceptions et leur processus physique et naturel. L’image et les corps ont été au
centre de ces recherches. Pour ce scientifique, l’image des corps (ṣūraṯ al-āǧsām) est
composée des concepts partiels: la structure, la couleur, la position, la grosseur, la minceur, la
laideur, la beauté…etc. (1986: 127). En se basant sur le texte coranique et les paroles
prophétiques, et sur le concept de l’imagination développée par les philosophes de la période
islamique ainsi que les recherches sur le rôle des sens dans l’appréhension de l’espace, et en
élaborant une lecture d’un ensemble d’images à dimension spatio-temporelle inconnue,
incitant l’espoir de l’homme nous allons dans cet article examiner l’architecture sensorielle du
paradis, offerte aux aimés du Divin, qui ont produit la beauté sur terre et ont œuvré pour
obtenir l’amour du Créateur.
« Si tu pouvais voir un tel lieu, tu verrais un lieu de délices et un immense royaume » (Al-
qūrʾān al-karīm 1983: sūrat al-insān, aya 20).
Seules les paroles divines et les paroles prophétiques, vont éclairer la définition du
jardin éternel, et révéler des indices qui puissent permettre à l’homme de ressentir cet espace
et construire son imaginaire. Le prophète Mohammed précise que « Dieu a préparé à ses bons
serviteurs, ce qu’œil n’a vu, ce qu’oreille n’a entendu et ce que cœur n’a ressenti » (Ibn al-
Qayyim 2008: 593). De là on peut démarrer avec l’hypothèse que notre imaginaire du jardin
éternel ne peut se construire que sur la base d’éléments de jardins ou de paysages terrestres
déjà perçus. Chaque fantasme ou imagination dépend donc de la culture et de l’éthique
acquise. Les images du paradis éternel sont des scènes qui font rêver, qui donne de l’espoir et
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du plaisir, une énergie qui alimente l’homme pour entreprendre sa mission: l’entretien et le
développement de la terre pour acquérir l’amour divin. Telle une géographie littéraire, le texte
coranique et les paroles prophétiques attribuent au paradis une géométrie, un repère, des
parcours et plusieurs concepts permettant à l’homme de voyager dans ce jardin, grâce à son
imaginaire. Johann remarque que: « L’espace devient interprétable quand il a perdu ses
repères habituels, quand nous sommes confrontés à des distorsions spatiales de sens, quand
s’offrent à nous des espaces inconnus, étranges ou étrangers» (2020).
Le jardin eternel malgré qu’il n’ait été ressenti, qu’à travers la parole divine, chacun a
la possibilité de l’imaginer. En effet, le « moteur intrinsèque » qui permet à l’homme
d’intelliger « quand il le veut est donc l’image individuelle » une image abstraite et interne
pense Ibn Rushd (Brenet 2017: 5-8). Cette image n’est construite que par « les sens » qui
sont les ”premiers instruments de connaissance» (Marquet 1975: 230). Les frères de la pureté
affirment que « les cinq sens » sont des « facultés de l’âme animale; comme toute « faculté
sensitive », ces facultés ne sont « pas une partie de l’âme, mais l’âme elle-même, dont le nom
varie selon l’acte » qu’elle fait, en utilisant un membre donné (Marquet 1975: 231, 232). Le
jardin est une chose sensible et selon Iẖwān al-Ṣafā,
les choses sensibles sont des accidents corporels intervenant dans les corps et qui
impressionnent les sens par modification de leur tempérament ; que les sensations sont dues à
un mouvement dans les sens, ou plus précisément à cette modification dans l’équilibre de leur
tempérament ; que la sensibilité est la conscience qu’en ont les facultés sensitives (232).
Jean Baptiste Brenet explique: « pour tous sens, la sensation est ce qui est capable de
recevoir les formes des sensibles sans leur matière » (Brenet 2020). Sentir c’est recevoir la
chose séparée de sa matière, abstraite d’elle, simplement la forme, commente Ibn Rushd
(2020). Le transfert, le passage (intiqāl) comme le nomme al-Farābī est le déplacement du
corps sensible à sa forme motrice du sens, c'est-à-dire au concept (maʿna) comme le nomme
Avveroès, ou état spirituel (rawḥānī) comme l’exprime Ibn Bāǧa, détaille Jean Baptiste
Brenet. (2020)
Percevoir et lire le jardin eternel, sans l’avoir déjà vu c’est faire appel aux trois
facultés de l’imagination ou facultés de l’âme. Marquet traduit ainsi la pensée d’Iẖwān al-
Ṣafā: « Grâce à la noblesse et à la subtilité de sa substance, à « son intense spiritualité », l’âme
(qu’il s’agisse des facultés imaginative, cogitative ou de le mémoire) est particulièrement
réceptive à la forme et reçoit facilement dans son essence le dessin des objets de
connaissance: sa substance lui permet de se passer des sens quand les choses sensibles sont
hors de la portée ; l’image de ces dernières, dépouillée de leur matière, y reste représentée,
comme le sceau dans la cire» (Marquet: 231). Cependant le paradis eternel n’a été ni perçu, ni
entendu, ni ressenti par l’homme, seules les paroles sacrés divines et prophétiques, le
décrivent. Conséquemment, entre en scène « l’imaginative, étant indépendante de la réalité »,
grâce à elle « l’homme peut donc imaginer aussi les idées qu’on lui décrit par le langage »
(234).
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1
Voir la definition d’el-jenna dans Tabari, S. (2022) « El-Jenna, Home et l’imagination de l’homme dans la
pensée islamique. Le paysage du bonheur entre nature, art et science ». JPIC Vol VI February 2022 ; Military
Technical Academy “Ferdinand I” Publishing House.
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1
Dans les croyances islamiques l’être le plus aimé est le prophète Mohammed.
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d'écartèlement et la géométrie évidente de cette dialectique nous aveugle dès que nous la
faisons jouer dans des domaines métaphoriques» (Bachelard 1961: 237). Dans le paysage
coranique, le dehors est plutôt une architecture de graduation du plaisir, vers le plaisir eternel
du dedans.
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suspendus, des eaux qui sillonnent, des lits confortables dressés, des coupes préparés, des
coussins rangés en ordre et des tapis étendus (Al-qur’ān al-karīm: sūrat al-ġāšīyya, ayāt
10-16), ainsi se présente l’architecture du paradis par des concepts, où règnent ordre,
verticalité, horizontalité, hauteur et surélévation.
1
L’appellation al-firdaws a reçu également, plusieurs comparaisons aux jardins terrestres. Ibn Manḍūr le qualifie
d’al-hadīqa dans le paradis et rapporte qu’al-Sirafi l’assimile à al-rawḍa. Quant aux habitants du Sham, ils
nomment les figuiers et el-basātīn (pluriel d’el-būstan), al-faradis (pluriel de firdaws). C’est al-būstan avec
vignes, pour le théologien al-Tabari, ou des arbres sont enlacés le plus souvent par la vigne.
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portée de leur main ». Il y aura aussi deux autres jardins « d’un vert sombre », irrigués par
« deux sources jaillissantes », avec « des fruits, des palmiers et des grenadiers » en abondance
(sūrat al-Raḥmān, ayāt 46-78). Ce principe de dédoublement de jardins, de sources et
d’espèces de fruits, est relatée, également, par le prophète décrivant la présence de deux
jardins: en or et en argent (Ibn Kathir: sūrat al-tawba, aya 72). Ce même principe est remarqué
dans l’image des jardins terrestres, de Saba et des jardins de sahib el-Jenna. La monotonie
provoque l’ennui qui est une émotion à éviter pour ses effets psychologiques négatifs.
Différentier, varier le paysage et ses constituants, le rend impérativement vivant et agréable.
7. OMBRES ET LUMIERE
Des ombres épaisses et eternels (Al-qūrʾān al-karīm: sūrat al-insān, verset 14),
couvriront les récompensés de la félicité. Bien reposés « sur des lits d'apparat », ils ne verront
plus le soleil brûlant et encore moins le froid glacial (verset 13). Les ombres sont eternels,
elles ne périssent jamais. Sous l’ombre d’un arbre, le parcours peut durer cent ans, sans que
l’ombre ne s’épuise (Ibn al qayyim: 352). D’ailleurs, la citation de la couleur vert sombre (Al-
qūrʾān al-karīm: sūrat al-raḥmān, aya 64) des jardins, renforce l’importance de l’ombrage, une
image qui procure une scène de fraicheur. La couleur verte est proche du noir, c’est « une
matière dominée par une humidité terreuse », pour cela la lumière lui arrive
« imparfaitement » (Marquet 97).
Dieu a crée le paradis blanc, « c’est une lumière qui scintille » (Ibn al-qayyim: 291). Si
« par son origine et son principe, la lumière est parmi les plus nobles des substances
précieuses » (Marquet 97), l’ombre a des significations remarquables dans le Coran. L’ombre
couvre les résidents du paradis et leur procure une ambiance heureuse, fraiche et reposante.
Sur terre l’ombre dépendait de la lumière. Au paradis, elle devient eternel (Al-qūrʾān al-
karīm). Le sens de la perception visuelle est lié à la lumière et à l’ombre pense Pallasmaa.
C’est l’ombre qui définit l’espace, et lui donne une certaine profondeur. Ainsi l’ombre donne
la vie à l’environnement (2010). Enfin, le texte coranique nous invite à une mixité des espaces
ombragés et illuminés du paradis.
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détachés de leur collier » (sūrat al-insān, verset 19). L’odeur qui accompagne le décor est
particulièrement durable, et le chant des vierges (al-hūr), est d’une beauté inconnue (Ibn Al-
Qayyim: 544)
Ici l’architecture est présentée par des scènes de mouvements, de gestes et d’émotions,
ce qui rappelle la définition de l’architecture de Miess: L’architecture n’est image qu’en
dessin ou photographie. Dès qu’elle est bâtie, elle devient la scène et parfois le scénario de
parcours et gestes, voire d’une succession de sensations» (Meiss 2007: 27). Ces images de
beauté luxueuse que Dieu a réservée à ceux qu’il aime provoquent des émotions en suscitant
des espoirs instantanés. Ces paysages d’espoirs vivifient continuellement l’amour que
l’homme cultive envers le Divin. Elles se présentent telles des éléments indispensables à la
construction de l’image de soi ou paysage de soi.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
---. Al-qūrʾān al-karīm, Beyrouth: Dar kitab al-islami, 1983.
AL-FARABI. Rissalt al tanbih ala sabil al-saada. Revisé par Sahban, K. Amman,
Manchourat al-djamiaa al-ourdounia, 1987, première édition.
BENMAKHLOUF, Ali. et YAHYIA, Mohiddin. La pensée classique arabe. Barcelone: Fuoc,
2010.
BACHELARD, Gaston. La poétique de l’espace. Paris: Les Presses universitaires de France,
1961. Collection Bibliothèque de philosophie contemporaine.
BLED, Grégory. « Espace, Perspective et Fragmentation. Se jouer de l’œil ou pas. Entre
modèle et imaginaire », Entrelacs, https://doi.org/10.4000/entrelacs.2049, 2017.
BRENET, Jean-Baptiste. Je fantasme, Averroès et l’espace potentiel. Lagrasse: Editions
Verdier, 2017.
BRENET, Jean-Baptiste. « Du corporel au spirituel Averroès et la question d’un sens
agent », https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-01509162, 2020
BODDICE, Rob. « L'histoire des émotions », Revista de Estudios Sociales,
http://journals.openedition.org/revestudsoc/939, 2017.
BOUTAUD, Jean Jacques. L’esthétique et l’esthétique. La figuration de la saveur comme
artification du culinaire. Paris: éditions Sorbonne, 2012.
HALL, Edward Twitchell. La dimension cachée. Paris: Seuil, 1971.
IBN AL-HAYTHEM, Al-Hasen. Kitâb al Manadhir. Koweit: al-silsila al-thurathia, 1986.
IBN AL-QAYYIM, A. Hady al-arwah ila bilad al-afrah. Djeddah: Dar alem al-fawaid, 2008,
volume 01.
IBN KATHIR, I. Tafsir al-quran al-qarim, Beyrouth: Dar al-kotob al-ilmiyah, 2009.
JOHANN Michel. « L’interprétation et le problème de l’espace», Methodos, Doi:
https://doi.org/10.4000/methodos.6651, 2020.
LE GOFF, J P. « De la représentation perspective à une idée certaine de l'infini actuel».
Journal français de psychiatrie 2002/2 (no16), pp 11-14.
MARQUET, Yves. La philosophie des Ihwan Al-Safa. Alger: études et documents, 1975.
MEISS Pierre Von. De la forme au lieu: Une introduction à l’étude de l’architecture.
Lausanne: Presses polytechniques et universitaires romandes, 2007.
DEHOORNE Olivier et THENG Sopheap . « Étudier le luxe » Études caribéennes
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https://doi.org/10.4000/etudescaribeennes.7505, 2015.
PALLASMAA, Juhani. Le regard des sens. Paris: éditions du linteau, 2010.
TEYSSOT, Georges (2005). « A topology of threshold ». Home cultures, V02, 01, pp 89-116.
https://doi.org/10.4000/entrelacs.
TABARI, Sofia. « Les jardins et les paysages du Coran », pré-mémoire remis au laboratoire
Art-Dev Cnrs, 2011.
TABARI, Sofia. « El-Jenna (“home”) et l’imagination de l’homme dans la pensée islamique.
Lepaysage du bonheur entre nature, art et science ». JPIC, Vol.VI, Military Technical
Academy “Ferdinand I” Publishing House. February 2022.
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Boubé SALIFOU 1
Nantes Université, France
Abstract: Reflecting on hope is above all questioning the present. The idea of hope always implies a
tacit or overt rejection of one’s present situation. It translates the momentum towards a better future
full of optimism. In our text, we will develop a philosophy about hope. This philosophy intersects with
and goes beyond the utopia and dystopia dychotomy. It offers a third way, a path that bears on the
departing point of hope or despair.
1. INTRODUCTION
S’interroger sur la notion de l’espoir conduit vers un horizon riche et complexe à
exploiter. Cette notion est omniprésente dans l’espace théologique, sociologique, militaire,
sociopolitique voire individuel. Elle traduit la relation de l’individu ou du collectif avec sa
situation présente, mais aussi avec le futur. Elle exprime la tension constante qui règne chez
chaque humain qui se questionne sur ce que sera l’issue du temps présent. Succès ou échec, la
question d’espoir mobilise une énergie et une émotion. Singulièrement dans les moments de
guerre, de dépression économique, l’espoir reste et demeure le mot aux lettres d’or qui
gouverne les esprits.
Dans notre étude, nous travaillerons sur cette notion. Loin du débat philosophico-
spéculatif, notre démarche portera sur le dialogue constant entre philosophie et
l’anthropologie. Ce dialogue permettra de donner une consistance pratique à l’approche
théorique de la philosophie, mais aussi d’éclaircir, en s’appuyant sur des concepts
philosophiques, les données pratiques –issues des traditions. Pour cette raison, nous établirons
progressivement le lien entre la notion d’espoir et la nature humaine. Par la suite, nous
observerons l’implication sociopolitique de ce lien.
1
yacbousal@yahoo.fr
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Cette conclusion montre que toute philosophie de l’espoir, selon l’auteur, repose sur
l’altruisme. En d’autres termes, elle repose sur une perception positive de l’autre ainsi qu’une
ouverture sincère, humble et généreuse à son égard. Cette ouverture n’est pas unilatérale. Elle
implique aussi un élan positif de l’autre envers soi. Un élan qui permet au sujet agissant et à
son autre de vivre dans une communauté paisible. Au-delà, de former une identité nationale
harmonieuse. Dans ce registre, la philosophie de l’espoir concerne à la fois l’altruisme au
niveau individuel et l’altruisme au niveau collectif.
En plus de cette symbiose possible qu’elle dessine, la philosophie de l’espoir ne jette
pas aux oubliettes les conditions concrètes de la réalisation de cet espoir. À ce niveau, Fried
de Valois rappelle la nécessité de créer les conditions sociopolitiques de cet espoir. En
fustigeant la situation d’un peuple affamé et fatigué, il souligne la nécessité qu’un peuple soit
dans des bonnes grâces pour songer à un quelconque espoir.
A bien analyser cette deuxième partie de sa conclusion, on peut se demander si
l’auteur ne confond pas la projection d’un peuple opulent et l’espoir que peut nourrir un
peuple. En effet espérer, c’est avant tout se poser des questions sur les incertitudes vis-à-vis
du futur – à partir des difficultés que l’on traverse au présent. Un peuple opulent et paisible se
pose rarement la question sur ce que sera le lendemain. Au contraire c’est l’angoisse du
présent, produite par des situations de guerre, de sècheresse ou de pandémie, qui pousse un
peuple à se poser des questions sur ce que sera « demain ». Contrairement à ce que soutient
l’auteur, c’est plutôt le statut d’affamé, d’épuisé, voire de pauvre, qui pousse un peuple à
l’espoir d’un futur meilleur. Les grandes révolutions sociopolitiques ne se réalisent pas
lorsqu’un peuple vit l’opulence. C’est en revanche le résultat d’un règne de corruption, de
favoritisme, de despotisme et de la tyrannie. Or la révolution sociopolitique incarne la soif du
changement et l’espoir par excellence d’un peuple. Elle incarne aussi le rejet du présent et
l’orientation vers un avenir plein d’espoir.
De plus, l’idée de l’altruisme que défend l’auteur est essentiellement abstraite. Elle ne
prend pas en compte la réalité humaine. Elle est plutôt centrée sur la projection d’une société
que les politiques ont la charge de « façonner » pour le bien-être des individus. Seulement,
cette conception de l’auteur ne prend pas en compte la place et le rôle de chaque individu. Or,
établir un lien entre « espoir » et « altruisme » c’est avant tout chercher leur connexion au sein
l’individu en question. Autrement dit, c’est par une compréhension profonde de la nature
humaine que l’on peut nouer un lien entre altruisme et espoir. Dans cette logique, la
philosophie de l’espoir doit dépasser la spéculation pure de Valois pour devenir une
philosophie pratique de l’espoir. Pour effectuer ce dépassement, nous introduirons une
nouvelle conception. Elle sera centrée sur une source concrète de l’espoir pour s’orienter,
après, vers une piste pratique de la philosophie de l’espoir.
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1
C’est une reprise de Ricœur. Il s’agit d’arraisonner la pensée philosophique dans un espace culturel donné. Ce
processus permettra de mener une dialectique entre théorie et pratique. Aussi, de continuer le dialogue entre
philosophie et sciences humaines, entre autres.
2
Le cousinage à plaisanterie est une pratique culturelle ouest-africaine. Elle se présente comme un rapport
privilégié et est basée sur un humour convivial entre les communautés. Les membres des communautés – qui
sont liées par le cousinage à plaisanterie – sont appelés cousins plaisants.
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C’est la forme de la parole que les Dogons estiment indispensable entre mari et femme pour
qu’ils se désirent mutuellement et procréent ensemble. (1965: 320-321)
Exemple 1. « Si la femme est en retard pour apporter le repas aux hommes qui travaillent aux
champs, le mari l’accueille par ces mots: ‘‘Aujourd’hui le repas vient de bonheur!’’ »
Exemple 2. « Le mari va chercher du bois et en rapporte trop peu; la femme
s’exclame: « Aujourd’hui il y a trop de bois; qui t’a chargé?’’, laissant entendre que la
charge est trop lourde pour qu’il y ait pu la mettre seul sur son dos. »
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4. LA SOCIETE D’ESPOIR
Dans cette troisième phase de notre philosophie de l’espoir, nous nous intéresserons au
corps sociopolitique. En gardant cette logique d’ouverture de la philosophie à l’égards des
sciences humaines, nous verrons comment une société peut espérer en s’appuyant sur la
dialectique entre intelligence rationnelle et intelligence émotionnelle. Pour ce faire, nous
introduirons la notion de théâtralisation du cousinage chez Denis Douyon (2006: 883-906.).
Pour commencer, notons qu’après la mort d’un individu ou l’intronisation d’un nouveau
chef, les membres de la famille du défunt ou de la société produisent un spectacle. Il s’agit
d’une mise en scène qui fait partie intégrante de la pratique du cousinage en question. Dans le
cas de la mort de l’individu, selon Douyon, les cousins plaisants participent activement au
processus des funérailles. Lors de ce processus, ils présentent une sorte de pièce de théâtre
dans laquelle ils retracent de manière synthétique la vie du défunt, qui est dans la logique
des choses une personne âgée. En plus de la détente de l’atmosphère, le spectacle a
pour objectif de mettre en relief l’image positive du défunt. Il s’agit de montrer ses
qualités, son intégrité vis-à-vis des valeurs sociales, et surtout, de dénoncer les
injustices qu’il a subi toute sa vie durant. C’est donc une manière de plaider pour le
défunt, de demander réparation ici-bas, et montrer en quoi il mérite d’être parmi les
ancêtres.
La démarche de théâtralisation ne se limite pas exclusivement aux funérailles.
Elle concerne aussi des cérémonies d’intronisations. Toujours dans son article,
Douyon s’intéresse particulièrement à la cérémonie d’intronisation du Hogon. Lors de
ce rite, les cousins plaisants présentent un spectacle digne d’une pièce de théâtre. Dans
ce spectacle, ils reproduisent la société concernée. Non seulement ils démystifient le
pouvoir politique du Hogon – qui est la plus haute autorité spirituelle de la société dogon –
mais aussi ils mettent en relief la nature du pouvoir, ses détenteurs ainsi que les abus. Le
pouvoir appartient à Dieu et aux ancêtres. Les premiers à représenter et incarner ce pouvoir
sont les prêtres. C’est par l’intermédiaire de ces prêtres que le Hogon détient son pouvoir
politique. Ce dernier joue le rôle d’intermédiaire entre les prêtres et la population ; une
passerelle entre les gouvernants et les gouvernés. Il n’est donc pas le détenteur du pouvoir, il
est le premier instrument et victime du pouvoir.
En plus de cette démystification, Douyon montre que le Hogon, dans
l’exercice de son pouvoir, se soustrait de la vie quotidienne dans la société, il s’isole
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pour mener une vie quasi monastique, et cela jusqu’à la fin de sa vie. L’auteur précise
que parfois, le Hogon est tellement isolé qu’il lui arrive de se faire dévorer par des
bêtes sauvages à l’insu de tout le monde. Cette situation est décrite, dans le spectacle,
comme étant un manque de liberté du Hogon voire comme une sorte de mort
symbolique. C’est pour cette raison qu’on lui fait déjà les rituels des funérailles
pendant son intronisation. Finalement, son pouvoir est peint comme étant une prison
en lieu et place d’être un privilège.
Cette phase de la théâtralisation du cousinage fait perdre au pouvoir
son prestige, tout comme il réduit l’écart entre gouvernants et gouvernés. Les cousins
plaisants font alors apparaître une autre facette du pouvoir en général. Il s’agit des
difficultés que vivent les détenteurs dudit pouvoir: la solitude, la responsabilité des
décisions prises, les ratés dans les jugements, la possibilité d’abus, auxquelles ils sont
constamment exposés en tant qu’humains. De l’autre côté, le spectacle met en évidence
et suscite l’envie de la vie des gouvernés. La simplicité de la vie quotidienne, la
sécurité et la méconnaissance de l’angoisse du pouvoir.
Dans la même lancée, le spectacle met en relief l’abus dont sont victimes les
gouvernés. C’est le moment de donner la parole aux victimes d’abus de venir exposer leurs
problèmes à l’auditoire, cela dans le respect des valeurs et des gouvernants. C’est donc
l’occasion de dénoncer cet abus, de plaider la cause des victimes et de demander réparation. À
titre illustratif, l’auteur évoque la situation d’une orpheline et de sa mère qui ne sont pas prises
en charge par les oncles, conformément à la loi communautaire. Celle-ci vient parler de ses
difficultés et de sa relation avec ses oncles. Aussitôt les cousins plaisants ont repris les
problèmes et interpellé lesdits oncles. C’est donc une sorte de moment d’expression du non-
dit, du tabou et de tout ce qui entrave la bonne marche de la société en question. Et cette
théâtralisation s’effectue dans le rire, la joie et parfois la dramatisation, mais nullement
dans une sorte de jugement sobre et sérieux.
Ce qui est important dans ce parcours de la théâtralisation, c’est l’articulation
entre la réflexion et l’émotion au sein du cousinage à la plaisanterie. De manière générale,
le spectacle se fait avec humour. Il s’effectue par des chants, des mimiques, les cousins
plaisants touchent l’émotion des membres de la société: gouvernants et gouvernés. Loin
de susciter le sentiment de mépris, de haine et de rejet, les cousins plaisants donnent
une qualification positive de la vie sociale. Celle-ci est faite des hauts et des bas, des
peines et des joies, de succès et d’échecs, de justice et d’abus. Mais, l’émotion qui est
en jeu ici est celle qui concilie, pousse à la réparation des torts et encourage l’harmonie
du groupe. Ce n’est donc pas un sentiment de dégoût, de mépris voire du rejet des
responsables d’abus qui est visé. C’est juste une démarche qui consiste à rappeler à
chacun sa nature humaine, susceptible de commettre des erreurs et des abus. C’est une
manière d’interpeller chaque membre de la société sur les difficultés du vivre ensemble,
conscientiser les gouvernants sur la réalité des gouvernés, les amener à se corriger et à rendre
meilleur la société en général. L’intérêt de cette théâtralisation réside dans la catharsis qu’elle
suscite. En touchant l’émotion collective et individuelle, les cousins plaisants purgent
la société entière et chaque membre des mauvais affects. C’est dans cette optique que
Marcel Griaule (1948) préfère traduire le Mangu par l’expression « alliance cathartique » en
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lieu et place du cousinage à plaisanterie. Ce dernier étant une pratique qui vise,
particulièrement, à décharger le cousin plaisant de ses mauvaises affections.
Cette conception n’est pas sans rappeler la philosophie aristotélicienne. Dans son
ouvrage intitulé « Poétique » (1996: 100-104) celui-ci soutient que la représentation des actes
qui suscitent la pitié et la frayeur permettent de purger les spectateurs desdites affections. La
pitié porte sur la bonne personne atteinte par un malheur. Quant à la frayeur, elle concerne
l’image du semblable. Plus, la catharsis a ce pouvoir, selon toujours Aristote, de transformer
les mauvaises affections en des bonnes, et cela, par la décharge que facilite la tragédie.
Cela témoigne de l’importance de celle-ci dans la tradition de la Grèce antique. Elle
consistait à purger, et purifier tant religieusement que politiquement et médicalement
la société, selon Jean-Michel Vives (2010).
Conformément à cette approche, la théâtralisation du cousinage semble
donner raison à Marcel Griaule. En représentant les abus et les injustices sociales, les
cousins plaisants touchent évidemment les sentiments de pitiés et de frayeurs tels que
nous venons de les définir avec Aristote. Mieux, par la théâtralisation, les cousins
plaisants purgent et purifient la société comme le faisaient les Grecs de l’antiquité. Ils
transforment, dans la foulée, les mauvaises affections en des bonnes. Par cette théâtralisation,
la société libère aussi son potentiel en intelligence rationnelle. En étant complémentaire à
l’intelligence émotionnelle, celle-ci vient sublimer l’optimisme qui germe au moment de la
théâtralisation.
Elle est aussi une invitation à réfléchir sur la société en question. Pour tirer
cela au clair, revenons sur le contenu du spectacle. Nous avons vu que les cousins
plaisants abordent la question du pouvoir en soi, ainsi que son impact dans la vie
sociale. Ils évoquent les origines du pouvoir sociopolitique. Ils mettent en lumière les
personnages qui l’incarnent, tout en déclinant les difficultés que rencontrent ceux-ci.
Ils font aussi la peinture des abus et injustices que subissent les gouvernés, sans oublier
les difficultés qui existent dans les interactions quotidiennes entre les membres de la
société.
Ainsi décrit, le contenu significatif du spectacle montre d’emblée que la
théâtralisation est avant tout une œuvre rationnelle. Elle n’est pas une cérémonie
cultuelle qui se limite à des séances de rites qui transcendent la raison. La théâtralisation est
en réalité une manière d’inviter chaque membre de la communauté/société à se détacher de
celle-ci, à l’objectiver et à s’interroger sur ses propres actes ainsi que sur le fonctionnement de
la société. Cette invitation concerne et les gouvernés et les gouvernants. Elle concerne tous les
sexes et les âges. C’est donc un moment de mise entre parenthèses de l’ordre social
notamment l’appartenance à une famille, à un corps socioprofessionnel voire au corps
sociopolitique.
De plus, ce contenu significatif montre un double visage de la société. Faut-
il le souligner, dans le spectacle, les cousins plaisants évoquent deux catégories
principales de la société. Il s’agit évidemment des gouvernés et des gouvernants. Par cette
catégorisation, la théâtralisation rejoigne la théorie marxienne de lutte de classes – avec
comme instrument de domination l’idéologie. Et c’est dans l’optique de libérer la masse de la
domination idéologique que Bertolt Brecht (1970: 22-25.), par exemple, pense le théâtre
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5. CONCLUSION
Penser l’espoir dans un contexte sociopolitique, c’est questionner le présent en
constante tension avec le futur. En s’appuyant sur l’anthropologie, on découvre des éléments
clés pour mener à bien une philosophie de l’espoir. Loin de toute forme de spéculation, penser
l’espoir revient effectivement à saisir la nature humaine – qui porte à la fois l’espoir et le
désespoir. Composée de deux couples – intelligence rationnelle et intelligence émotionnelle
via mésintelligence rationnelle et mésintelligence émotionnelle – la nature humaine offre, au-
delà de l’individu, à tout le corps sociopolitique la possibilité d’être optimiste ou bien
pessimiste.
Sans pour autant s’engluer dans le débat être utopie et dystopie, notre réflexion
s’inscrit dans une troisième voie que nous pouvons baptiser de « dogmatopique ». Fusion du
dogme – défini comme sens anthropologique 1 – et de topos ou lieu, la « dogmatopie » est cet
espoir qui jette ses bases dans le présent. En effet, malgré le rejet du présent, force est de
constater que c’est dans le sens commun: religion, miracle, force interne que jaillit la lumière
de l’espoir. Ce n’est donc pas une mise entre parenthèses par le rêve que l’espoir nait, ce n’est
non plus par la peur de l’avenir. C’est plutôt par la croyance à l’existence des facultés
humaines positives que l’on espère. C’est donc par la force de ces deux intelligences que l’on
peut bâtir le futur avec optimisme. D’ailleurs, les penseurs des Lumières ne pensent-ils pas
que l’humain est perfectible?
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
ARISTOTE, Poétique, Paris, éditions Gallimard, 1996.
BRECHT, B. Petit organon pour le théâtre, suivi de Additifs au petit organon, Paris,
éditions L’Arche, 1970.
DE VALOIS, Rasamoel Paul Fried. Philosophie de l’espoir, https://la-
philosophie.com/philosophie-de-lespoir.
DOUYON, Denis. Le discours diplomatique et démagogique du cousin plaisant au Mali, in «
Parentés, plaisanteries et politique », Cahiers d’Études Africaines, éditions de l’école des
hautes études en sciences sociales.
GRIAULE, Géneviève-Calame. Ethnologie et langage. La parole chez les Dogon., Paris,
éditions Gallimard, 1965.
1
Nous entendons par sens anthropologique l’ensemble de croyances, des opinions qui constituent les vérités
admises dans une société. Ces vérités s’incarnent dans l’héritage culturel et constituent une sorte d’esprit ou âme
de la communauté ou d’une nation. C’est une sorte de déjà-là culturel qui facilite le consensus général.
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VIVES, Jean-Michel. La Catharsis, d’Aristote à Lacan en Passant par Freud, une approche
théâtrale des enjeux éthique de la psychanalyse, https://www.cairn.info/revue-
recherches-en-psychanalyse-2010-1-page-22.htm.
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Alexa VISARION 1
România
...Pe vremea când, la Brașov, profesor fiind scriam cartea despre sfinți, Shakespeare era
singurul scriitor pe care îl citeam masiv. Și, deodată, am luat o hotărâre; n-am să mai stau de
vorbă decât cu el. Era absolut limpede ceva cu desăvârșire nebunesc; și așa s-a petrecut. Exista
în oraș o cafenea tare plăcută, amintind întru totul de atmosfera vieneză. În fiecare zi, după
prânz mă duceam acolo. Și, după ce luasem această hotărâre năstrușnică, mă aflam la masa
mea când a apărut un coleg, profesor de gimnastică. A întrebat: Pot să mă așez? – Eu: Cine
sunteți? Sunteți Shakespeare? – Știți foarte bine că nu sunt Shakespeare. – Nu sunteți
Shakespeare? Atunci cărați-vă! A plecat ofensat și le-a povestit tuturor că am înnebunit. Eram
atât de împătimit de Shakespeare, încât socoteam că nu are nici un sens să am de-a face cu
altcineva. […] Am fără îndoială dreptul să mă compar cu Macbeth și nu-i voi ierta niciodată
că a spus ceea ce, după cum îmi închipuiam, mie mi s-ar cuveni să spun.
Da, mă compar cu Macbeth, cu toate că nu am omorât pe nimeni, am însă aceleași trăiri ca și
el, ceea ce spune aș fi putut la o adică să spun și eu. În accesele mele de megalomanie îl
socotesc plagiator… Haideți să nu luăm lucrurile chiar întocmai; e cazul să nuanțăm totuși un
pic. Când mă gândesc la Macbeth, mă identific cu el, însă chiar și când nu mă gândesc la el
rămâne fratele meu. Însă nu acesta e esențialul. Ceea ce spune el e neîndoielnic legat de
crimele lui, însă merge mult mai adânc și mult mai departe. E un gânditor, așa cum și Hamlet
este unul. Într-o măsură mă pot compara și cu Hamlet; îl înțeleg dinăuntru, pătimesc ce a
pătimit și el. În felul acesta îl înțeleg, firește, și pe Shakespeare și tocmai în virtutea acestor
mari personaje îl venerez imens.
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ce se află viu, etern și tainic în tot ceea ce se vede. Înțelepciunea se naște continuu din
acțiunea piesei călăuzită și împlinită de poezie. La Shakespeare neverosimilul nu contează și
imaginația este un personaj ambiguu, dar o prezență de vizionară întrupare. Interesul vieții
constă în faptul că nu există răspunsuri… Nu există certitudini… „Istoria este un epos
demențial, […] este ironia în mers”, ne spune Cioran, „unde viața este kitsch-ul materiei… un
plagiat stăpânind plictisul abisal. [...] iar esențialul nu vine niciodată dinafară…” Fiecare
reprezentaţie shakespeariană modernă sau postmodernă reprezintă un echilibru între trecutul
scenic a textului şi viitorul său existent în acel trecut. Uneori experienţe recente în arta
spectacolului pot adăuga o nouă dimensiune, sau chiar un imperativ major, poveştilor
originale.
Opera shakespeariană este făcută din acelaşi material real ca şi visul, în care ordinea şi
haosul stau sub dominaţia unui anumit caracter vizual-intuitiv, organizat în totalitate de magia
ascunsă a realităţii. Shakespeare are un sens multiplu, litera şi înţelesul sunt strâns legate,
caracterul senzorial al cuvintelor nu se poate traduce decât prin joc actoricesc. Abundenţa
metaforelor potenţează tensiunea şi energia rostirii. Acţiunea se întâmplă când Shakespeare
scrie, dar el scrie înainte şi înapoi în cuvântul ce se naşte din starea minţii, a gândului şi a
sufletului, devenind astfel centrul vital al operei. Este cu neputinţă să re-creezi opera lui
Shakespeare fără a aduce la nivelul conştiinţei fapte care au acţionat în cursul procesului
zămislirii acestei opere, rămânând însă pe de o parte în interiorul operei, aşa cum se reflectă
ea în noi şi pe de altă parte privind-o din afară, aşa cum trăieşte ea în timp. Această
străluminare prin re-creare a textului shakespearian nu poate însă rămâne nici în afara
dimensiunii conştiente, nici a dimensiunii inconştiente. Restabilirea simplităţii, vitalităţii şi a
puterii primei impresii, îmbogăţită însă de sensuri nebănuite la nivelul raţiunii, permit
deschiderea textului spre şi înspre o interpretare în care noutatea nu deturnează în nici un fel
nucleul unicităţii shakespeariene. Nu poate oricine înţelege cu adevărat pe Shakespeare în
acest mod existenţial şi autentic ce-şi are rădăcinile elective prin asimilarea vieţii trăite în
viaţă-imagine. Există „arta de a-l citi pe Shakespeare.” (Brecht) Opera sa readusă la viaţă fără
imaginea ascunsă eliberată de text nu acceptă o posesie plenară, ci doar pătrunderi frivole sau
segmentate ce sărăcesc viziunea globală prin alterarea centrului ei vital.
De-a lungul timpului, au fost interpretate şi reinterpretate marile texte shakespeariene,
ele rămânând totuşi mereu neatinse şi intacte. „Există prin urmare întotdeauna ceva mai mult
decât o interpretare finală care încearcă să spună ultimul cuvânt în legătură cu ceva despre
care ultimul cuvânt nu poate fi spus”. (Peter Brook) Omul, actorul propriei vieţi, este
condamnat la libertate, viziunea unei lumi spectacol în care omul se pierde în jocul fără sens
al vieţii, stârnit de mirajul existenţei, este o relaţie între fiinţă şi fiinţare, predestinarea, decide
Heidegger. Conceptul de existenţă şi existent va pune în discuţie şi problema conştiinţei
fiindcă, spune filosoful, numai omul este existent, căci are conştiinţa morţii.
Expresie a iraţionalităţii, existenţa nu poate fi explicată, dar, ca exprimare a
iraţionalităţii, se poate pune întrebarea, este ea un fenomen ce poate fi creator, ce poate aduce
cunoaștere? Pluralitatea interpretărilor şi proteismul manifestărilor se cereau a fi atenuate,
corectate, ca mai puţin estetice. Dincolo de netăgăduitul scop estetic vedem prin acest motiv
chemarea unor adâncuri umane arhetipale, mărturisirea timidă a acelei mirări, spaime în faţa
misterului existenţei, căci fiecare om îşi poartă masca, îşi poartă ceea ce anticii numeau
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vinovăţie. „[...]Marea problemă a timpului este conflictul. Condiţia umană - Natura umană...
Dar dacă există într-adevăr o natură umană, care-i originea ei?” (A. Camus)
Măştile sunt prezentate ca motive ale alienării, ca instanţe estetice, dar şi ca diverse
ipostaze ale Devenirii Destinului existent în adâncul fiecărui personaj, figuri ce-şi au
paternitatea heraldică pot fi considerate şi încifrare/descifrare a Eului, un alt cod posibil de
lectură, dublul fiind mereu la cumpăna egoului cu persoana. Omul şi masca: imaginea
dublului, dar e nevoie de textul pe care mereu lumea îl va reface, aşa cum e nevoie de Iov
pentru ca Goethe să se gândească la a-l transforma în Faust.
Dacă spun, aşadar, că Shakespeare este cel mai mare dintre intelecte, am spus totul cu privire
la el. Dar în intelectul lui Shakespeare este mai mult decât am văzut până acum. Este ceea ce
eu numesc un intelect inconştient; există mai multă virtute în acesta decât îşi dă seama el
însuşi. Novalis are o frumoasă remarcă la adresa lui, spunând că dramele acestuia sunt şi
produse ale naturii, adânci ca natura însăşi. Găsesc mult adevăr în aceste cuvinte. Arta lui
Shakespeare nu este artificiu; meritul ei cel mai de preţ nu se află acolo datorită unui plan sau
precugetării. El creşte din adâncurile naturii prin acest suflet nobil şi sincer, care este un glas
al naturii. Generaţiile de pe urmă vor afla noi înţelesuri în Shakespeare, noi elucidări ale
propriei lor fiinţe umane: armonii noi cu structura infinită a universului; concordanţe cu ideile
din urmă, afinităţi cu forţele şi simţirile mai înalte ale omului. Acest lucru merită chibzuire.
Cea mai înaltă răsplată a naturii pentru un suflet mare, simplu şi sincer este ca acesta să ajungă
să fie pe o parte din ea. (Thomas Carlyle)
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(N. Berdiaev) Pe acest teren se plămădeşte tragedia fără ieşire a iubirii. Cezura dintre mas-
culin şi feminin, acest semn al căderii omului – face ca tragedia iubirii să fie iremediabilă.
În Macbeth eroul își naște tragedia… imaginația în structura lui este flacără în toate
nervurile trăirii sale. Nu ceea ce face Macbeth e Macbeth, ci ceea ce este în el, ce naște gândul
și spaima… o permanentă răscolire și răzvrătire erotică ce dă chemare crimei ca desăvârșire a
„altei chemări”, a fi alesul, mirele, stăpân al vieții. Puterea prin coroană e nașterea închipuită a
bucuriei de a fi. Viața erotică a acestui cuplu e o alertă a simțurilor cu potențele inversate…
Lady Macbeth gândește fierbinte, senzual, activ, posesiv, cu furie hormonală, iar Macbeth
arde pătimaș și tânguitor în adâncimea sufletului cufundându-se în posesia făpturii ei ca într-o
pătrundere de sine. El și Ea atrași obsesiv de o tainică neîmplinire erotică. Macbeth își
întărește continuu puterile vitale prin imaginație supus de Ea ca de un destin cosmic, iar Lady
Macbeth dominată de concretul desăvârșirii erotice sublimează în voință, dincolo de bine și
rău, tăriile misterioase ale feminității sale autocrate. Ea îi cere să se cuprindă în El ca
mistuire, ca flacără fără de stingere. Cuvintele străpung și ard – De vrei să înșeli o lume, fii ca
lumea…Firea ei și otrava închipuirilor lui sunt urzeala unei gândiri tragice ce se întreține în
lumea de întuneric spiritual animată de culorile vii ale morții, mascate de inconștient cinic,
dar pătrunse de o adâncă poezie elegiacă. Există o cuprindere și o revoltă de necuprins în
această lume în fierbere, aprinsă de orgolii și aflată sub amenințare, o lume a trădării și a
căutării puterii care să-i supună pe ceilalți. O lume a haosului: ,,Un înger e în iadul celuilalt.
Așa îmi pare…” (Sonetul CXLIV) Întrupând o visare anarhică, un delir, Macbeth caută sensul
morții în iubire și crimă. ,,Omul singur nu se poate lăsa în pace pe sine.” (C. Noica) Macbeth
înseamnă foame; foamea dragostei înfrățită cu crima care poate să-l cuprindă oricând pe om.
Unele suflete au dinți. Nu le stârniți foamea… Esențială este acea percepere intuitivă a
asemănării în neasemănare de care vorbește Aristotel. Ceva până acum necunoscut apare
dintr-o dată drept cunoscut, atât de rar remarcat de noi și, astfel capătă însemnătatea unei
revelații. O noapte prelungă și un nesomn dezlănțuit. „Profunzimea din Macbeth, neegalată în
nicio altă piesă.” (Caroline Spurgeon)
În Macbeth nu există prezențe vizuale limpezi; se evocă imagini şi sugestii colosale,
care îşi estompează contururile datorită puternicelor trăiri ce le-au stârnit. Imaginile sunt astfel
tot timpul vagi, dominate de pasiuni; înţelese, dar nevăzute. Operele lui Shakespeare sunt
nenumărate priviri spre adâncimea dinăuntrul ființei. Sensibilitatea și greșelile – înțelegerea și
cinismul, toate sunt agerime și oboseală, emotivitate și tărie, fragilitate și violență. Gândirea e
un grai aparte. „Metafora e la fel de elementară ca însăși vorbirea, iar vorbirea la fel de
elementară ca gândirea”. (J. Middteton-Murry). Metafora shakespeariană - născută din cele
aproape 33.000 de cuvinte ale operelor - e un adevăr transfigurat care „tună și râde”.
„Personajele sale sunt ca niște ornice cu cadran de cristal transparent; îți arată ora ca și
celelalte, dar mecanismul lăuntric este și el vizibil.” Goethe
Personajele și situațiile ne explică pe noi nouă înșine și ne descoperă un sens al
prezentului nostru pe care nu îl pricepem întru-totul. Duhurile vieții puse în mișcare și
indiferența lor sarcastică proiectează tronul invidios. Imaginația înseamnă profunzime, ea
pătrunde și sapă cel mai adânc în spirit. Poetul gândește când creează din închipuire și are
toată realitatea în stăpânirea sa. Macbeth se cufundă în disperare când tot ce i s-a spus e doar o
farsă, o ghicitoare născocită pentru a amăgi încrederea în tine. Umorul negru din întunericul
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durerii mai dă o undă de vioiciune minții răzvrătite. Echilibrul pătimaș al vieții lui se frânge
când află că regina s-a sinucis. El, ce s-a răstignit deasupra unei găuri negre, stăpânit de crimă
și înfrățit cu gândul neliniștii, nu mai are decât un suflet părăsit de viață. Atât. Orice timp
rescrie poezia nopții macbethiene… întărindu-i virtuțile sau asfixiindu-i suflarea.
Aproape c-am uitat ce-nseamnă frica. Pe vremuri, auzind în noapte-un strigăt/Aș fi-
nghețat./La-auzul suferinții/Mi se zburlea, ca-nsuflețit, tot părul. Dar sunt sătul de grozăvii.
/Nici spaima - Tovarășa gândirii ucigașe - Nu mă mai mișcă...
Cine a strigat?
Regina a murit, stăpâne!
Ea trebuia să moară mai târziu,
Aveam răgaz s-ascult astfel de veste.../Dar mâine și mâine, și iar mâine,/Cu pas mărunt se-
alungă zi de zi,/Spre cel din urmă semn din cartea vremii/și fiecare „ieri” a luminat/Nebunilor
pe-al morții drum de colb./Te stinge dar, tu, candelă de-o clipă! Că viața-i doar o umbră
călătoare, Un biet actor, ce-n ora lui pe scenă/Se zbuciumă, si-apoi nu-l mai auzi./E-un basm
de furii și de nerozie/Scornit de-un prost și făr' de nici o noimă. (Macbeth)
Shakespeare este un poet generos. El poate fi călăuză în multe direcţii înainte de a ne
rătăci de el. Uneori, punând accentul pe un anume aspect al unei piese decât pe altul, se poate
obţine o nouă perspectivă asupra acesteia în întregul ei.
O concepţie regizorală este o imagine care există încă dinainte de prima zi de lucru, pe
când un „simţ al direcţiei” se cristalizează într-o imagine abia la sfârşitul întregului proces.
Brook nota că: „regizorul are nevoie de o singură concepţie – pe aceea i-o oferă viaţa, nu arta
– care se formează din întrebările pe care şi le pune sieşi despre ce rol are actul teatral în
lume, de ce există, de ce trebuie să existe.”
Unele epoci l-au înţeles şi interpretat pe Shakespeare simplificându-l şi exaltând în el
propriile lor erezii. „Universalitatea” sa, dacă se poate numi aşa, a constat exclusiv în felul de
a rămâne el însuși în unicitatea sa.
„La Shakespeare nici o grijă pentru a se face înțeles. Străbate în două cuvinte distanțe
uriașe și ajunge într-o clipă la capătul lumii. Shakespeare zboară și noi ne târâm.” (H. Taine)
Răsturnarea valorilor, dezordine nefirească, aparențe înșelătoare... Rupturile și
contrastele dau o violență conținută în adâncimea poetică a textului. O lume părelnică precum
nălucile. Macbeth, sau sensul vieții prin crimă și iubire...
Ce repede a făcut noaptea semn morții. Dar, la ce oare nu te face Shakespeare să te
gândești…
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sbranson986@gmail.com
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At about 4 a.m., I woke up, plagued by jet lag, and decided to get some tea. Liz had
already woken up at one a.m., and was reading with her itty bitty book light when I
approached her apparition-like out of the dark and almost scared her to death. We started
making tea very quietly, but Genny, the eternal mother, was a light sleeper. No doubt she
didn’t want to miss any of the fun. So we played Scrabble until it was time for breakfast. I
remember feeling whenever I saw Genny running, or picking up a heavy suitcase, or, now, not
sleeping through the night, that she was very fragile, in remission, her breast cancer only held
at bay for so long by her indomitable Pinion spirit. She took after my mother’s family in this,
and in many other ways. I wanted her to sleep, but of course, I couldn’t suggest it.
She never let her vulnerability show. She had conquered the British Isles as a poor but
brave college student, and in her financially secure but physically challenged middle age, she
was determined to do so again. In addition, she wanted to show it to Liz, as it was our
younger sister’s first trip to London. Genny had been back several times in the intervening
years, once with my ex-husband and I, and more recently on a trip with me playing nanny to
her then thirteen-year-old twins on their first trip abroad. She had been fiercely protective of
her children on the latter trip, and on this one, she was fiercely protective of her younger sister
Liz.
In fact, a strange dynamic arose among the three of us. Genny needed desperately to
bond with Lizzie, who had always been closer to me. She needed to compete with me, in all
discussions and decisions, and to win. We were less than two years apart in age, and had
always been very close, but had very different personalities, and different functions in the
huge Catholic family we grew up in. I was the peacemaker; she was the rabblerouser. We had
terrific fights as children, and the occasional spat in high school. But we had been roommates
in Chicago during one year of college, and as adults we got along well. So I resented the
bullying and rancor which now developed. But, being me, I didn’t call her on it….
After staying up all that early Sunday morning playing Scrabble, we were exhausted
but eager to milk this trip for all it was worth. We had played until dawn, watching the sky get
brighter, watching the moon fade, each writing postcards when it wasn’t our turn. Lizzie later
said that many times over the next two weeks, she thought to herself, “You know, this trip
with my sisters, nothing like it would ever happen again.” Of course she couldn’t have known
that Genny would be dead seven months later. But then, maybe she did.
We dragged ourselves down to the elegant hotel dining room for our first English
breakfast, making sure to pocket a few tiny jars of jam for souvenirs, and because they were
so cute. Then, we set off for Kew Gardens. Liz was so excited. Years ago she had bought a
book about Kew, filled with a hundred years of picture postcards, some in color, some in
sepia tones, and she had looked at it all the time, dreaming about it, and it seemed now as if it
was leading up to this moment, when the three of us would spend a few glorious hours
wandering all over the place, savoring its natural beauty, its sadly nostalgic sense of past
empire.
The day was beautiful, warm, with a cloudless blue sky. Near the end of our trek, I
wanted to rest, so Liz and Gen left me at a bench with a view of the pavilions and the lake,
and vigorously hoofed the last section of the park to see the last historic gate. Genny was
Liz’s history mentor, and she loved the history of the place as much as Liz did, I’m sure.
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They couldn’t let even an inch of the vast gardens remain untrodden. She was such a goer,
Genny was. An inspiration, a sister, a mother, a friend.
We ended our Kew odyssey dropping lots of money at the gift shop, and then made a
mad dash back to London for luggage left at the hotel, finally boarding the little train to
Cambridge, and Downing College. When we had first talked about lodging, Genny stated that
she really didn’t want to stay in the dorms at all, but eventually she agreed to get a room with
a private bath. Liz and I were sharing a cheaper room, with a toilet down the hall. But I had
assumed, as had Genny perhaps, that our rooms would be close by. It turned out at check-in
that she was in a separate, newer building across the courtyard. Well, at least we would eat
our meals together. They were huge, interesting meals in a neat old dining hall with three-
story windows on three sides.
In the evening, after a wonderful, formal welcoming supper, we decided to play
Scrabble again in the floor-to-ceiling paneled room which adjoined Liz’s and my little
bedroom. Our suite reminded me of one in Dickens’ time–I could well imagine Scrooge
eating gruel at just such a fireplace, dark curtains covering the currently bare second-story
windows. The college was quiet, there being no students to speak of, and not many
conference participants. At the conclusion of the game, Genny dropped the bomb. She asked
whether it would be all right if Lizzie slept with her in her room that night instead of sharing
mine as planned.
“Why?” I asked, instantly pissed off that Genny wanted company in her pretty,
modern room when I would be left alone in this Victorian mausoleum. Even now the dark
shadows of the room were gathering around us.
“There is a ghost in my room,” she responded.
“What?!?” Liz and I both exclaimed.
“A ghost. As I was changing for dinner, I heard moaning. It sounded as if someone
was in the room, but of course, I was alone.”
Now, keep in mind that our family is no stranger to ghosts. We grew up in an old,
haunted Victorian mansion, wherein each of us (even our grandmother) heard or saw
disembodied spirits. We told each other what we had seen or heard, and eventually put
together a theory about why and by whom we were being visited. But even before we moved
into that house, I had always been obsessed by the supernatural. I read everything on ghosts,
factual or fictional, that I could get my hands on. I watched scary television shows, and
endless late-night Hammer films. At the age of 47, my interest was, if anything, even more
acute. I study ghost stories, especially ghost stories written by women, and I write them
myself.
In addition, Genny and I had had ghost experiences together before. When we were
teenagers, we moved into the basement bedroom that had been our brother’s until he left for
the Air Force Academy. One cold December night, a robe that had been hanging over the post
of the upper bunk caught on fire (from a space heater), and, if Genny had not been a light
sleeper, we would both have been goners. As it was, she woke me when the fire was about an
inch from my mattress. Though the entire family of twelve (and one little dog) managed to
escape the fire, we were all obliged to run out into the snow barefoot and seek refuge with
neighbors. Our room (well, what had been our brother Peter’s room) and all of our clothes and
belongings were burned. It was deemed a supernatural event because the summer before
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Lizzie and Jackie had consulted the Ouija board regarding our ghosts, and they were told that
the house was haunted by a little boy, and a woman named Kate. They were also told that
there would be a fire.
Of course, I wasn’t thinking about any of that at that point. What did it matter that
Genny had once saved my life; I didn’t believe her, in fact. In the throes of family dynamics,
both positive and negative, and faced with a night alone in the creepy dorm I presently found
myself in, I was sure that Genny had simply made up the story about the ghost out of spite.
True, even if it had been a ploy, it was unusual for Genny to admit to being afraid of anything,
but that alone did not convince me.
Lizzie of course agreed to go with her, though she seemed a little frightened. So, I just
went down to the wc by myself, quickly made my ablutions, hurried back to the room and
popped under the covers. I tried not to think ill of Genny, or to imagine ghosts.
In the morning, when I met them for breakfast, the matter of the haunting was
temporarily eclipsed by the urgency of preparations to speak in the very first session of the
conference. Liz had suggested to Genny that the noise had been made by the pipes or
something, and Genny was satisfied with that explanation. When I picked them up quite early
at the pavilion-like building, I was dismayed to see, however, that Genny had been up for a
long time already, revising her talk. Note cards lay in piles all over the twin beds. Twenty-five
years earlier, when we shared an apartment as students in Chicago, Genny had experienced
considerable, sometimes debilitating anxiety over written projects. Was she freaking out now?
Putting together a panel of sisters was my idea. Was it proving to be too much of a strain on
Genny? We would soon find out.
After breakfast, Liz, Genny and I walked up the winding staircase to the Music Room,
the charming venue for our panel. A reasonably large audience had gathered to hear us,
despite the early hour. I introduced myself and my sisters, and gave my talk about women’s
colleges. Next, Lizzie presented her talk about the mostly deleterious effect of online
education. Finally, it was Genny’s turn to speak. I had mostly read my talk; Lizzie had both
read and spoken hers. Gen got up without her copious notes, stood in front of the speaker’s
table, and explained that she would offer a spontaneous response to the two previous talks,
exploring the common theme of academic revolution as it was played out in her field of
library science.
I think that both Lizzie and I were horrified by this extemporaneous notion, but our
horror was short-lived, as Genny did a great job. She had been a middle school teacher at one
time, and although most of her adult life was spent at home with the kids and her husband
Marty, she seemed at ease with public speaking. Afterwards, numerous people asked
questions, mostly of Liz and Gen, and they both fielded them effortlessly. I was relieved, and
very proud of my smart, savvy sisters. The gamble succeeded. Our work was complete; now
we could just enjoy ourselves.
It was only much later, after Genny died, that Liz told me what really had happened
that night:
Genny and I lugged my suitcases to her dorm. I was a little depressed because I was so
tired, and didn’t cherish spending the night in a haunted room. Genny was not one to get
scared easily or make up stories, so I knew this must be serious, and there was no question
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about letting her go it alone. My fate was sealed. Reluctantly, but trying to be brave and
protective of my older sister, I trudged along.
We got to the room and started unpacking. It was a beautiful, bright, modern room, in
French blue and yellow, not one lending itself to ghostly imaginings. And so as Genny went
into the en suite bathroom to get ready for bed, I started undressing, thinking about our
presentation on the morrow, feeling more relaxed by the minute. Then I heard it. Right next
to my left shoulder, a female voice, half sighing, half moaning. There was no mistaking that
sound. I gave a loud yelp, ran into the bathroom and practically jumped into Genny’s lap.
‘I heard it, I heard it,’ I wailed, no longer caring about matters of privacy.
‘Heard what?’ asked Genny. I told her. We stayed together after that.
Laying in bed, exhausted, we tried to think about rest, while dreading the next
utterance of the ghostly presence. We kept hearing it from time to time, unable to fall asleep.
Finally, a couple of hours later, I asked Genny if she was still awake, and she answered me. I
got up to go to the bathroom, and suddenly I had an inspiration.
‘Genny, do you know what’s making the sound? It’s the pipes! We’re hearing the
sound of people in other rooms turning the taps on and off. Or it could be the doors creaking.’
I obligingly demonstrated with the bathroom door.
‘Oh, that’s it, that’s it,’ Genny mumbled, hysterically tired and sounding half-drunk.
Thus armed with a likely explanation and mightily relieved, she immediately drifted off into
sleep. But I remained wide awake.
I lay like that for what seemed like the longest night of my life, very sad, doubting
whether I would live to see the dawn. I listened for hours to sounds from the street nearby–
cars, people still out late on a Sunday night–into the wee hours of the morning, trying to
connect with the sounds of this world.
I may have fallen asleep eventually, or perhaps not, but I looked at the clock at about 2
a.m., and then faced the wall, the room behind me. By the sound of her breathing, I
determined that Genny was still asleep, when suddenly I heard the most incredible, horrifying
sound. It was not the half-sighing, half-moaning woman next to my shoulder. This was a
sound coming from what I can only describe as another dimension, far off but not outside,
some half-way world of tortured souls. It was an unearthly sound, a man’s voice this time, a
long, pitiful cry of utter torment.
I was so petrified that I could not move, much less bring myself to free my profusely
sweating body of the winter-weight down comforter, my only defense against a possible
manifestation of that spirit, whose countenance, judging from his wail, would have been
horrible indeed. I wondered what this poor soul could possibly have suffered in life to
produce such a cry. I did not move again that night.
The next morning at breakfast I told Steffie that the mystery had been solved, having
fobbed Genny off with the creaking pipes/door story. I was determined that Genny should
never find out that I did not believe my own explanation, much less what I had heard later that
night. After all, she still had five more nights alone in that room. I did not want her to be
frightened, all alone. I wonder in the end if she really did believe me, or if she later heard
anything else to make her frightened. If she did, she never said. And I never told her. I wonder
if she knows now.
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Bianca JALBĂ
Debut Author, Romania 1
Today was definitely one of those days when my strength left me. I feel my head
heavy, I have the mood of a zombie and everything I do seems hopeless. I shed tears at the
slightest mistake. I want to sleep and never wake up again. To have a beautiful and eternal
dream.
This is exactly how I define the days when my brain is simply too overwhelmed by
daily problems. And what do I do on such days? In fact, I always do that, but especially now.
I read, listen to depressive music, cry and sleep.
I had just entered the house, threw my boots in a corner, and started crawling, with the
school bag in one hand and the long, thick black jacket in the other, when I heard my father's
voice coming from the bathroom.
“I'm not staying for lunch today, so see to what food you’re preparing for yourself. Oh,
let's not forget!” he adds. “The courier has to come a little later. Make sure you take the
order.”
I go there to tell him that I don't have time, because today I have the personal
development course - the one he or my mother doesn't know about, because they would
criticize me terribly, saying that I spend my time doing nonsense - when I look at the door of
my room wide open, where a person stands. An unknown face sitting carelessly in my bed.
“Um ... father” my lips whisper, but the sound seems more like a breeze.
Obviously, my father doesn't hear anything. Without realizing it, when my legs lead
me closer, I cross the threshold and I am stunned. With his face to the ceiling, his arms under
his head, his body outstretched and his legs on top of each other, there stands a boy. God, he's
the most beautiful boy I've ever seen! He has a nonchalant posture, which accentuates his
biceps, and somewhere on his left forearm there is a tattoo, a skull or a mask, I can't tell for
sure. His honey-colored hair is tangled on my navy-blue pillows, and only then do I notice his
light complexion. He has his eyes closed and shows no signs of hearing me enter, but his
posture assures me otherwise.
I take a step back, unsure of what I see and what I should do next, but determined
enough, so that the floor makes a slight sound when I place my foot on it, which causes the
boy to open his eyes and to turn his face to me.
I am struck by a pair of black eyes, so black that I couldn’t distinguish the iris from the
pupil, and the boy gets upright. From the way the white T-shirt and the worn leather jacket fit
over his body, it is clear to me that he is not much older than I am, but his muscles are
sculpted, as you can only see in those movies with incredibly good-looking actors. He keeps
looking at me blankly, until the corners of his mouth rise in a mocking grin and, for the first
time, he speaks to me:
1
bianca.jalba@gmail.com
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"Are you going to keep your mouth open and try to get words out that don't want to
come?"
He's right, I'm staring at him and I'm unable to say anything. But this is my room, my
oasis of peace, the place where I cry every time I feel lost and where I store my deepest
secrets. I can't let him take control, not when he's the one here as if just fallen from the sky.
And then I remember. If my father sees him, it'll be bad, very bad. I need to do
something and quickly.
"And you're going to stay like this is your room, and I'm just some kind of visitor
here?" I retort.
Again, he looks at me from head to toe.
"You don't look upset if I do," he throws the words at me with the same indifference.
He's just not ashamed. I'm not bothered, moreover, I'm wildly irritated and I feel my
nerves start to get more and more unstable.
“How did you get here?” I give up any other argument I have in mind and ask the
question that has bothered me since I saw him.
"I knew that the first question you ask a stranger in such situations would be his name,
not the way he got where he is. By the way, I’m James.”
“In such situations?!” That's it, my nerves are on edge. This boy is deliberately
mocking me. “What’s normal in this situation? Tell me, do you often trespass girls'
bedrooms? And when they find you, do you have a passionate match, and in the end, you
leave as if you were just a myth?”
I can't believe that he still doesn’t react in any way.
"First of all, I don't do this often, and I'm not here to sleep with you. Then the myth
part, well, it's kind of true, but we'll get back to that later.”
I'm starting to think that he's crazy, or I'm hallucinating, since I was in such a bad
mood earlier, when all I wanted was to sleep and forget about everything. Now, I'm more
awake than ever and all I want are answers. Many answers.
“Look,” I'm starting. “If you leave right now and never come back, without harassing
me or anything like that, I'm not going to call my dad or the police. So, in the name of God,
GET OUT OF MY HOUSE!”
This time, he seemed genuinely hurt by my words and bothered to get to his feet, at
which point my knees began to tremble in protest at his beauty. He wears jeans and boots,
both black, and in combination with his upper body, where his hair falls on his ears, with
wavy ends, he is simply an angel in the flesh. I'm surprised by the gesture, which makes him
have fun again.
"I thought you wanted to know how I got here. You're not so sure what you want, do
you know that?”
Officially, he doesn’t take me seriously again.
"Right now, I just want you to disappear," I say through my teeth.
“Oh, come on! You can’t be serious. We just met. Besides, you didn't tell me your
name.”
I can’t take it anymore, so I go to him, like to slap him, punch him in the face, I don't
know, anything, just to make him shut up, to tell him to go back where he came from ...
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But he's faster than me. He grabs my right wrist and turns my back on him, sticking to
his body, so he has control over my other arm, and I am incapable of any movement. I try to
free myself when I become aware of the positions we are in, but I can't, because a wave of
dizziness envelops me, and in the next second I don't see the furniture in my room or the
walls.
*
The sunshine blinds me, and a cold wind makes me understand where I am. It's a big
city, like I've never seen before, but where, for the first time in my life, I feel like I really
belong.
It's a strange feeling, which I only dreamed I would have the opportunity to feel, but I
never imagined the possibility of achieving it in such a short time, hoping that it will be a
future in which I will have my own income, I will move away, and I will no longer feel
constraints of any kind.
But that's exactly how I’m feeling now, when I don't know where I am or how I got to
this place. Then I put my feelings on the pause mode for a few moments and begin to
remember, little by little, everything: me, coming from school, the unknown boy with angelic
features in my room, the position in which he immobilized me...
I'm basically close to him, like I've never been so close to a boy in my life. I can feel
his heartbeat so fast, like we've run this far over here, when, in fact, we haven't even taken a
single extra step. I wrestle myself free from his grip, and this time he lets me go. Then I turn
nervously to face him, wanting, for the second time today, answers.
I'm looking for the same black eyes, blond hair and worm leather jacket, but ... I'm
alone. He’s disappeared. I look across cars, buildings and dozens of people passing by the
gigantic boulevard, but I can't see him anywhere. Slowly, the momentary shock evaporates
and I realize that I don’t know how to go back. In addition, the wind is quite cold, which
makes me rub my forearms. I wear black knee-high boots, a short leather skirt and a slim
cherry blouse. I'm still in the school clothes.
I have to move, try to find out where I am and, with a bit of luck, get some money. I
don’t even have the phone, because it laid on the floor, in my jacket pocket, next to my
schoolbag, on the doorstep of my room, as I got closer to see better who the person in my bed
was. How strange! This looks like Sleeping Beauty, replaced by a boy, and none of us are
from a royal family. At least not me.
I think I've been in this place for a while, because three guys seem to be hanging
around me, and that scares me. As a result, I choose a certain direction and hurry to the
nearest store, where I'm going to find out what this place is and maybe get a phone.
The three dubious ones started moving at the same time as me and almost surrounded
me. I am perfectly aware of the presence of two of them on my left and my right respectively,
and I have no doubt that the third one is behind me. Going forward, I notice with stupefaction
that there are no shops here, only skyscrapers and other business buildings, as if made only of
glass, in which the rays of the afternoon sun almost blind me, if I look in their direction. In
fact, I was wrong about the man behind me, because right now he's getting in front of me and
blocking my progress, while the rest are approaching.
"Look at how beautiful you are!"
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The man in front of me talks, and the smell of cigarettes and sewage hits me hard. I
still try to avoid him, to get past him, but he understands the movement and doesn't give up.
“Wait, I haven't finished talking. If you still don't have a job elsewhere, wouldn't you
want to come with me to a nice place? I know one that’s perfectly good for someone like
you.”
He tries to smile at me, but I can see it very clearly, that carnal pleasure that flows
from his eyes, just like a madman. But this man is not crazy and he knows very well what he
is looking for, and I am the perfect victim. Meanwhile, the other two are beside me, with the
same insatiable grins. When they put a hand on my forearms, fear floods my every nerve, and
for a split second, all I hear is the frightened pounding of my heart. I tell myself I need to
calm down and that's exactly what I'm going to do.
“I don’t want anything!” I manage to swallow, and my voice trembles, much more
frightened than I thought.
"How can you not," the man on the left begins, with shabby clothes and beady eyes.
“Come with us, we'll show you the way” he says, pulling me lightly so he can move me.
I manage to slap him. My gesture seems to really irritate them, and now their faces are
distorted with rage. Out of the corner of my eye, I catch the man on the right sticking his
trembling hand into my blonde hair left down and I tend to move my head in the opposite
direction.
Bad idea. A pain tears my scalp, and streams of tears begin to flow down my cheeks.
When I look to the right again, the man holds something I can't see, because my eyes are
drowned in tears. Staring at that point, I could make out a kind of ball. Hair. He just ripped
me off all that hair! A sharp sound reaches my ears. I scream. I don't know how long, but no
passers-by intervene.
"Take her faster!" I hear one of the three say.
In try to resist in vain. I'm one against three, and the only weapons I have are my nails
and feet. I managed to make a pretty nasty scratch on one’s cheek and try to hit the other's
sensitive area with my knee when some cold hands tighten around my neck. I feel like I can't
breathe because the tightness is intensifying. For this reason, I force myself to move the hands
away from my throat, fixing all my strength and concentration on this action, so that I notice a
few seconds too late that the man smelling strongly of cigarettes walks his fingers on my
thigh, up, to below my skirt.
Fortunately, he doesn’t complete his move, because a fist in his jaw makes him stagger
on his feet, then fall on the sidewalk. Only now does our small group seem to have caught the
attention of passers-by, but still, no one stops. I see a black leather jacket and blond hair, and
my soul suddenly begins to hope that I will get out of there alive. It's James and he's even
metamorphosed from who knows where to save me. A knife appears in his hand, which he
uses to threaten the other two, but considering the way he holds it, I'm sure he'll be ready to
kill them with it.
My followers are not very brave, it seems, and they even show an extraordinary
cowardice. After seeing their friend on the ground, they walked away and forgot about me,
and when the knife appeared, they actually ran away.
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I look at James, to thank him with my eyes or to see if he's okay too, but all that stands
out are those fierce black eyes, still staring in the direction the man on the sidewalk took,
walking with his head bowed. But he doesn't look back at me the same, he just puts his hand
on my shoulder and closes his head to my ear, when he is sure that the danger no longer
exists, and his soft voice activates my last crumbs of adrenaline.
"We should go to a place more secluded."
A secluded place? my subconscious whispers. Normally, I wouldn't go with someone I
don't know anything about in a secluded area, but given to what happened, staying here would
be the most uninspired thing possible, so I let him lead me on along several side streets.
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Irina LAZĂR 1
Cercetător independent, România
Abstract: The present essay takes us on a short journey into the meaning of love, what is love, why we
need to be in love, how the absence of love affects people, how people relatedto the aspects of love
during time, love in art, a few examples that influenced my point of view and my vision as a child and
later, in adult life, poetry. Eros and Thanatos are the two basic facets of love in human life and sexual
instinct is a fundamental factor of procreation and creation. I will further focus on the biological
aspects of love in the beginning of humanityand how these aspects remain vivid despite economic
progress and civilization, its connections with aggression. Regarding marriage and happiness, many
married couples end up in divorce, since our society does not presently encourage a traditional way of
life. Unhappiness is a key word of many relations because we have the wrong projections about our
partner. Sexuality remains an important component of relations in society and love is a bond between
people. I will conclude with several considerations on sexuality and religion, mysticism as part of
ritual initiation and love as a connection with the divinity and also dwell on love, forgiveness and
kindness as vital components of spirituality. Last but not least, I will discuss love and great prophets.
Ca să cauți ceva trebuie mai întâi să știi ce vrei să găsești, să știi ce e iubirea. Iubirea
pare a fi un fel de „mesaj în sticlă” pe care ni l-a trimis cineva din înalt și pe care nu am reușit
să-l descifrăm nici până acum. Avem totuși destule exemple în artă, în literatură, muzică,
sculptură, cinematograf ș.a.m.d., care ne pot oferi variante de răspuns la această eternă
întrebare. Și dacă privim un tablou precum „Ivan cel Groaznic și fiul său”, pictat de Ilia
Repin, renumitul pictor rus, în 1885, putem să ne dăm seama de sentimentele extreme la care
se ajunge în această căutare. De obicei, oamenii care comit crime, care ajung pradă depresiei,
alcoolismului, care nu suportă singurătatea sau nu se suportă pe ei înșiși, sunt oameni lipsiți
de iubire. Pentru că absența iubirii naște la rândul ei atâta disperare, încât duce la anihilare și
moarte. Și aici am surprins deja cei doi poli, Eros (Iubire) și Thanatos (Moarte), două centre
magnetice ale existenței umane, cărora le-au fost dedicate râuri de cerneală, acești poli aparent
opuși, fiind în esență atât de aproape. În mod paradoxal, iubirea te apropie de moarte, fizic și
spiritual (Cine oare nu știe legenda lui Orfeu care a coborât în Infern pentru iubita lui
Euridice? Orfeu era la rândul său un poet!) Iar suferința nu reprezintă la rândul ei o moarte,
morți succesive pe care le traversăm în despărțirea de cei iubiți? „Nu credeam să învăț a muri
vreodată/Pururi tânăr, înfășurat în manta-mi/Ochii mei înălțam visător la steaua/Singurătății”,
ne spune Eminescu în Odă (în metru antic). Sărutul pe malul mării, un afiș al filmului
Malvinei Urșianu, „Trecătoarele iubiri”, în sala unei biblioteci, pe când eram doar un copil și-
a pus definitiv amprenta asupra felului meu de a percepe legătura cu celălalt, iubirea. În film,
era o iubire defectă, abia mai târziu am aflat. Iubirea nu are nevoie de explicații și nici nu se
justifică, ea depășește prin amploarea generozității sale orice manifestare a răului.
1
irina31@gmail.com
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Îndrăgostirea pare o magie, o vrajă, dar și un proces chimic, care antrenează cu sine un întreg
cor de procese asemănătoare unei beții. Desigur că am dori să trăim la infinit această beție, o
simfonie a endorfinelor, o euforie care ne face pe toți să fim mai frumoși. Și totuși…Iubirea e
conștientă sau vine din alte zone? Unele care țin de a împărtăși și de a face parte dintr-un lanț?
Și dacă faci parte dintr-un lanț, unde ești tu și unde sunt ceilalți? Cui să oferi? Primesc cei din
jur ceea ce le dai, sunt gata și ei de iubire sau lanțul e blocat? Și dacă există cineva care îți
întoarce spatele, ce ar trebui să faci? Ar trebui să-l tragi de mânecă sau să completezi lanțul cu
primul disponibil, capabil de a primi și de a da? Și dacă cineva doar primește? Nu e treaba ta,
e treaba Universului. Iubirea față de iubitul tău e iubire sau doar o combinație chimică, o
compatibilitate funcțională? Este echilibrul Universului iubire? Poate că da, la un nivel
inaccesibil nouă. Ce ar trebui să facem ca să simțim iubire? Când îți dai seama că e iubire?
Când îl privești, atunci când îl vezi în situații umilitoare? Când îți vine să pleci, dar n-o faci?
Și oare asta e iubire sau e altceva sau e dependență? Și oare dragostea față de copilul tău e
iubire sau pur și simplu o condiționare a naturii, așa cum animalele își cresc puii? Și oare
faptul că plângi la moartea unui prieten ce înseamnă? Te plângi pe tine sau pe el? În toate
astea e vorba de ceilalți sau de tine? Pe acest drum, adesea, și perfect explicabil, poți să
greșești.
Putem să vedem acest lucru în „jungla” relațiilor care ne înconjoară, atât ale altora, dar
în primul rând ale noastre. Câți dintre noi se pot lăuda cu o căsnicie fericită? Căsnicia fericită
e mai degrabă un mit, la care în prezent se renunță treptat, pentru că indivizii aleg să aibă alte
forme de conviețuire. Ni se pare că alegem cu inima, dar de fapt alegem propriile proiecții, ne
uităm de fapt într-o oglindă, în care am spera să ne vedem tot pe noi înșine. Necunoscându-ne,
alegem în orb. Mai tragic e când ajungem să repetăm obsesiv greșelile părinților, în timp ce
încercăm disperat să ne distanțăm de ele. Iubirea părinților, la rândul ei, este de multe ori
defectă, afectată de traume, iluzii și dezamăgiri. Copiii odată ajunși adulți se reped în aceleași
scheme, intrând într-un cerc vicios.
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O motivație puternică pentru cultivarea legăturilor derivă din impulsul sexual. Acesta este cel
puțin la fel de vechi ca și impulsul agresiv; probabil cel mai vechi, având în vedere că până și
organismele unicelulare i se supun. Este, deci, justificat să te întrebi, dacă nu cumva la baza
legăturilor de lungă durată stabilite între indivizii aparținând aceleiași specii nu stă tocmai
acest impuls sexual. Interesant este că rareori se poate vorbi de o asemenea motivație. Una
dintre excepții este omul. Animalele sălbatice fac într-adevăr apel la formele ritualizate ale
repertoriului sexual pentru a diminua agresivitatea congenerilor lor, dar o legătură durabilă
stabilită din motive de ordin sexual se întâlnește cu adevărat numai la om și la încă alte câteva
specii de primate, iar acest fenomen a evoluat cu siguranță în mod secundar și adițional, cu
scopul accentuării legăturii originare. (Eibl-Eibesfeldt, 1998: 140)
Instinctul sexual a fost cel care ne-a „mânat în luptă”, ca să zic așa, fiind un adevărat
motor al speciei, atât în probleme sentimentale, cât și în ceea ce privește creativitatea, care
este până la urmă o formă de manifestare a instinctelor și relațiilor și conexiunilor, așa cum
apar ele într-o anumită perioadă, filtrate prin cultura societății respective. Nu o să facem o
trecere în revistă a ritualurilor de împerechere existente pe tot globul, în diverse societăți
civilizate sau mai puțin avansate, deși este interesant de urmărit în continuare limbajul
trupului unor cupluri îndrăgostite, ca să nu mai vorbim de explozia de culoare și sexualitate
care derivă din tot acest apanaj instinctual.
Mai departe, sentimentul iubirii transcende această zonă fiziologică, explicabilă chiar
chimic, dacă e să luăm în considerare studii științifice, și ajunge în zona superioară a
metafizicului. Acest lucru nu înseamnă că am reduce actul sexual, că i-am reduce importanța,
ci dimpotrivă, rolul său rămâne primordial în evoluția oricărei ființe umane, dincolo de
procreare, și chiar accederea în zone spirituale este condiționată de înzestrările unui anumit
individ de felul cum energia acestuia se poate conecta prin sexualitate la dimensiuni mai
înalte. Referindu-ne în continuare la iubirea în sensul sexual, lăsând la o parte celelalte
manifestări ale iubirii, Julius Evola consideră de exemplu în Metafizica sexului, că se pornește
în mod greșit de la considerarea actului sexual ca fiind ceva pur animal, biologic, și că
dimpotrivă această concepție este de fapt o decădere în care a ajuns societatea actuală, prin
fetișizare, prin ultra promovarea femeii ca obiect sexual, prin excesiva mediatizare și
demonetizare, ceea ce el numește o pandemie a sexului (cf. Evola, 1994: 35). În acest sens,
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Julius Evola se referă în cartea sa, printre altele, nu la acuplarea obișnuită, ci la acuplarea
magică, la acuplarea ritualică, în care rolul femeii, ca simbol al pământului, al fecundității,
este primordial. Se face astfel o trecere în revistă a actului procreării ca act sacru în diferite
religii, de celebrare chiar a facerii lumii, de asemenea se vorbește despre prostituția sacră, care
este ceva cu totul diferit față de noțiunea de prostituție așa cum o considerăm în sensul banal.
Dacă e să ne îndreptăm spre zonele abstracte, să o facem și mai mult, acolo unde de fapt se
atinge esența acestui sentiment al iubirii. Și în acest sens avem adorația religioasă de exemplu
care este una dintre manifestările unei iubiri lipsite de elementul material și ține de năzuința
umană de a atinge intangibilul, o exprimare a sacrificiului și a renunțării la sine. De aceea,
marii profeți ai omenirii, cum ar fi Iisus Hristos, Mahomed, Buddha, sunt văzuți în primul
rând prin prisma acestei iubiri și renunțări la ispitele lumești, prin de-corporalizare, ridicare
spre ceruri și lumină veșnică, într-un cuvânt, prin nemurire.
Cei care presupun că experiența mistică este doar conștiința înălțătoare a existenței divinului
în această lume, perceperea acelei „alte fețe” a lucrurilor, încălzirea la razele luminii increate,
nu fac decât să se joace cu realitatea. Adevărata împlinire mistică este cea mai completă și mai
dificilă expresie a vieții posibilă în clipa de față pentru om. Este în același timp un act de
iubire, un act de renunțare și un act de percepție supremă, o trinitate de experiențe care
corespunde celor trei activități ale sinelui și le satisface. (Underhill, 1995: 145)
BIBLIOGRAFIE
BRUCKNER, P. Finkielkraut, A., Noua dezordine amoroasă, traducere de Luminița
Brăileanu, Editura Nemira, 1995.
EIBL-EIBESFELDT, I. Iubireși ură, traducere de Carmen Strungaru, Editura Trei, 1998.
EVOLA, J., Metafizica sexului, traducere de Sorin Mărculescu, Editura Humanitas, 1994.
GASSET Y, J. O. Studii despre iubire, traducere de Sorin Mărculescu, Editura Humanitas,
1995.
UNDERHILL, E. Mistica, traducere de Laura Pavel, Editura Biblioteca Apostrof, 1995.
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Abstract: This article was written to draw attention to the portrait of the Normans in Guy de
Maupassant's short prose. We first turned our attention to the Norman aspects of his prose such as:
rural environment, nature, surroundings, peasant house and peasant yard, and then we analyzed three
stories, where we have highlighted the typologies of characters, as well as their moral portrait, that
refer to the reality of the 19th century.
Que voulez-vous qu’on dise de ce conteur robuste et sans défaut, qui conte aussi aisément que
je respire, qui fait des chefs-d’œuvre comme les pommiers de son pays donnent des pommes ?
Que voulez-vous qu’on dise sinon qu’il est parfait ? (Lemaître 1896: 10).
Au fur et à mesure du temps, les opinions critiques qui visaient à la fois l’écrivain
normand et son univers littéraire ont été diverses, mais incontestablement, la grandeur de son
écriture a été reconnue dans la littérature, surtout durant le XXe siècle, quand il est placé dans
le canon littéraire. L’écrivain s’est beaucoup efforcé de donner à ses lecteurs une image
parfaite et quasi similaire de son pays d’origine, qu’il a beaucoup aimé en tant que Normand.
L’avantage d’être un bon observateur de la nature, y compris des paysages environnants lui a
donné la possibilité de faire revivre la Normandie dans tous ses aspects: la vie intime de cette
province, les paysans et leurs activités primordiales, le climat, ainsi que la beauté des
alentours. En plus, dans ses ouvrages, Maupassant a toujours su comment utiliser un style à la
fois pittoresque et rustique qui donne l’impression aux lecteurs d’être transposé même dans le
cadre rural des paysans. Le tissu vivant du monde de la campagne normande s’anime dans les
contes de l’écrivain, qui hantent la plupart de son ouvrage. En fait, c’est la Normandie qui lui
a fourni l’essentiel de son ouvrage. Elle a été la principale source d’inspiration, qui devient
également un personnage collectif - une sorte de mère pour les paysans.
Guy de Maupassant ne se contente pas de décrire seulement le côté beau de son région
natale, mais il décrit aussi le côté mauvais, c’est-à-dire le climat rude de la région. Qui plus
est, grâce à son esthétique réaliste, il dépeint des portraits inoubliables des paysans normands,
1
goje.valentina@yahoo.com
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sans idéaliser la réalité dont ils vivent. Dans la Préface de l’ouvrage Boule de Suif, Marie-
Claire Bancquart mentionne ce côté ambivalent de l’écrivain normand: « Son but n’est point
de nous raconter une histoire, […], mais de nous forcer à penser, à comprendre le sens
profond et caché des événements » (1984: 11).C’est ainsi que Maupassant nous apprend à la
fois les vices et les vertus d’une société caractérisée par une vie laborieuse, qui meurt dans
une manière stoïque et qui laisse place aux générations qui suivent. La plupart de l’action des
contes normands vise les vastes fermes cauchoises, isolées à l’intérieur de la campagne, où
l’écrivain nous promène dans la cour des fermes, dans les alentours et même dans la vie des
paysans ; le lecteur arrive donc à « s’asseoir » à table avec le paysan normand, qu’il découvre
au détail.
Maître observateur, Guy de Maupassant « figure », grâce à ses personnages, des
typologies qui renvoient à son époque vivante - il s'agit du paysan dans sa vraie nature. Dans
Le Fermier par exemple, nous assistons à un tableau des personnages qui incarnent la race des
paysans normands: le premier type évoque l’homme très bien bâti, qui est gros et qui a un peu
de ventre et, à l’opposé, c’est le type d’homme vraiment maigre et sec, qui est décrépit par la
vieillesse.Voilà l’ambivalence du paysan cauchois. En règle générale, dans ses contes, le
paysan est le maître absolu de sa propriété et de sa famille, lorsqu’il s’agit d’une décision à
prendre, c’est le chef de la famille qui fait le choix et ensuite, la femme et les enfants doivent
y obéir. C’est ainsi que, nous décelons le portrait d’une femme soumise à son mari, qui se
préoccupe plutôt de la famille et des tâches ménagères. D’ailleurs, en Normandie, à cette
époque, la paysanne a eu une place secondaire dans la famille, parce qu’elle s’occupait
uniquement des soins de la maison, des enfants et parfois des animaux. Guy de Maupassant
propose le portrait de la paysanne normande dépourvue des qualités qui a une vie morne,
monotone et triste. Parfois, l’image de la femme semble barbare tout aussi comme celle de
l’homme, car les femmes étaient obligées à travailler les terres de la même manière que les
hommes le faisaient. C’est aussi l’ambivalence de l’image de la femme au XIXe siècle.
Toujours dans l’univers rural, une autre typologie incarnée par les personnages de Maupassant
est celle du prêtre, voire de l’abbé, mais dont l’image est en totale opposition avec sa fonction,
comme dans le cas du conte Le saut du berger, où le narrateur dénonce la contravention
ecclésiastique. Clair de lune est une autre histoire qui évoque le côté « noir » du prêtre, par le
thème du fanatisme. Dernièrement, nous retrouvons l’image du chasseur inné, voire sadique,
qui se passionne pour la tuerie des animaux. Dans des contes comme La Roche aux
Guillemots, La Bécasse, Le loup, L’âne, Coco, etc., le thème de la chasse suggère le côté
bestial des humains.
Outre le portrait du cauchois, dans ses contes, Guy de Maupassant met également en
évidence les moments le plus importants de sa vie et, dès lors, le lecteur assiste aux
évènements principaux de la vie des paysans, tels que: le baptême, le mariage, des naissances,
ainsi que des funérailles.
À vrai dire, Maupassant a beaucoup écrit et décrit à la fois la Normandie et ses
paysans, sans les idéaliser mais sans les dénigrer non plus. Ces personnages, qui ne sont ni
agréables ni désagréables, restent signifiants parce qu’ils personnifient le portrait de la société
d’une époque. L’écrivain a construit tout cette réalité de son époque au ralenti et il a illustré le
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mieux possible la simplicité et la compréhension. On peut donc dire qu’il était un Normand
par excellence, mais aussi un vrai sociologue, par l’air d’authenticité de son œuvre.
On entra dans la ferme. La cuisine enfumée était haute et vaste. Les cuivres et les faïences
brillaient, éclairés par les reflets de l’âtre. Un chat dormait sur une chaise, un chien dormait
sous la table. On sentait, là-dedans, le lait, la pomme, la fumée, et cette odeur innommable des
vieilles maisons paysannes, odeur du sol, des murs, des meubles, odeur des vieilles soupes
répandues, des vieux lavages et des vieux habitants, odeur des bêtes et des gens mêlés, des
choses et des êtres, odeur du temps, du temps passé. Elle était très grande, pleine de pommiers
antiques, trapus et tortus, et couverts de fruits, qui tombaient dans l’herbe, autour d’eux. Dans
cette cour, le parfum normand des pommes était aussi violent que celui des orangers fleuris sur
les rivages du Midi. (Maupassant, t II, 1979: 814)
C’était un Normand pur, haut et large, un peu ventru, de la vieille race des aventuriers qui allaient
fonder des royaumes sur le rivage de tous les océans. Il avait environ cinquante ans, dix ans de moins
peut-être que le fermier qui nous conduisait. Celui-là était un maigre, un paysan tout en os couverts de
peau sans chair, un de ces hommes qui vivent un siècle.(Maupassant, t II, 1979: 814)
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soir de neige » ; « un soir de pluie » (817). Un dernier aspect évoqué dans ce conte c’est la
typologie du chasseur. Outre l’histoire d’amour impossible entre Louise et le fermier,
l’histoire dénonce également la passion avide des Normands pour la chasse. C’est à l’occasion
de l’ouverture de la chasse que le baron René du Treilles raconte l’histoire du fermier qui a
beaucoup souffert. Le Fermier est un conte qui décrit minutieusement la vie simple des
paysans normands, illustrant un tableau parfait qui fait revivre la société d’autrefois.
Les fermes normandes semées par la plaine semblent, de loin, de petits bois, enfermées dans
leur ceinture de hêtres élancés. De près, quand on ouvre la barrière vermoulue, on croit voir un
jardin géant, car tous les antiques pommiers, osseux comme les paysans, sont en fleurs. Les
vieux troncs noirs, crochus, tortus, alignés par la cour, étalent sous le ciel leurs dômes
éclatants, blancs et roses. Le doux parfum de leur épanouissement se mêle aux grasses
senteurs des étables ouvertes et aux vapeurs du fumier qui fermente, couvert de poules.
(Maupassant, t I, 1974: 823)
Cependant, le charme du cadre n’est pas en harmonie avec l’état d’esprit de la famille.
Pour la première fois, nous découvrons un décor plus intime, familial, par l’image de la
famille réunie à l’occasion du dîner. Le nombre de membres de la famille est assez grande, six
personnes, deux servantes et trois valets, chose qui ne nous étonne pas car, à cette époque, les
familles normandes étaient nombreuses. L’atmosphère lors du dîner est, paraît-il, très tendue
et angoissée et nous avons l’impression que les personnages souffrent d’une peur accablante:
« On ne parle guère. On mange la soupe, puis on découvre le plat de fricot plein de pommes
de terre au lard » (823). En vérité, Guy de Maupassant nous transpose dans un univers d’une
famille terrorisée par l’idée de la guerre - les nombreuses vies perdues durant la guerre, ainsi
que la peur d’être les victimes prochaines terrifient la famille: « Le pays fut terrorisé. On
fusilla des paysans sur une simple dénonciation, on emprisonna des femmes; on voulut
obtenir, par la peur, des révélations des enfants. On ne découvrit rien » (824).
Sans compter ce silence morbide et l’ambiance de guerre, l’écrivain nous fait
connaissance avec le personnage principal, le père Milon, dont l’image conçue attire
l’attention sur un portrait inoubliable du paysan normand âgé - ses mains et tout son corps
sont déformées à cause du travail ardu: « Il avait soixante-huit ans. Il était petit, maigre, un
peu tors, avec de grandes mains pareilles à des pinces de crabe; La peau brune et plissée du
cou montrait de grosses veines qui s’enfonçaient sous les mâchoires et reparaissaient aux
tempes » (824). Ces détails, qui reconstruisent le portrait du vieillard, sont essentiels car ils
suggèrent la dure histoire du paysan, ainsi que ses efforts d’entretenir sa famille. De toute
façon, Guy de Maupassant n’envisage uniquement des vertus du personnage, mais nous
découvrons également des défauts. La scène monstrueuse où il tue impitoyablement les
soldats ennemis traduit la haine, la sauvagerie et le côté animal qui hantent le personnage
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depuis l’amorce de la guerre, comme il l’avoue d’ailleurs dans ce qui suit: « “Tuer des
Prussiens !” Il les haïssait d’une haine sournoise et acharnée de paysan cupide et patriote
aussi » (826). Tous ces défauts se retrouvent contre lui et le paysan est fusillé à la fin.
À travers ce conte, Guy de Maupassant souhaite dénoncer l’image d’un paysan
normand dans sa vraie nature. Il ne propose un personnage à l’admiration de tous, ne
l’idéalise pas, mais le laisse se manifester à son bon gré, subissant ainsi les conséquences de
ses actes.
Tout cela vivait péniblement de soupe, de pommes de terre et de grand air. À sept heures, le
matin, puis à midi, puis à six heures, le soir, les ménagères réunissaient leurs mioches pour
donner la pâtée, comme des gardeurs d’oies assemblent leurs bêtes. Les enfants étaient assis,
par rang d’âge, devant la table en bois, vernie par cinquante ans d’usage. Le dernier moutard
avait à peine la bouche au niveau de la planche. On posait devant eux l’assiette creuse pleine
de pain molli dans l’eau où avaient cuit les pommes de terre, un demi-chou et trois oignons ;
et toute la ligne mangeait jusqu’à plus faim. La mère empâtait elle-même le petit. Un peu de
viande au pot-au-feu, le dimanche, était une fête pour tous ; et le père, ce jour-là, s’attardait au
repas en répétant: Je m’y ferais bien tous les jours. (Maupassant, t I, 1974: 607)
Par contraste, le couple riche qui traversait le village en voiture devient l’image
antithétique de famille, grâce aux nombreuses ressources financières dont ils disposaient. La
vie misérable et infame, le manque d’argent et de nourriture poussent une des deux familles à
vendre leur cadet pour une somme de cent francs par mois. À travers l’image des deux univers
familiaux antinomiques, Guy de Maupassant brosse à nouveau le portrait d’une société où les
différences flagrantes de statut social affectent indubitablement le mode de vie.
3. CONCLUSION
Au fil de ses contes, Guy de Maupassant nous présente des paysans dans leur vraie
nature et relation avec la campagne. En général, nous découvrons des paysans qui sont très
attachés aux travaux des terres, qui s’occupent de leurs fermes et de leurs animaux, qui vont
au marché et qui négocient leurs produits pour gagner des sous, des paysans âpres ou des
paysans calmes qui aiment leur famille, tous créant l’identité de la Normandie. Les membres
de la famille, ainsi que leurs relations sont aussi décrits très attentivement. Parmi les
typologies récurrentes qui renvoient au milieu rural, nous rappelons: le paysan âpre, dur et
solide qui est dévasté par le travail des terres dont il est très attaché, le paysan maigre et sec
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qui est dépourvu des pouvoirs physiques, le paysan maître absolu chez lui qui s’engage à
prendre les dernières décisions dans la famille, la paysanne soumise à son mari, la paysanne
préoccupée uniquement par ses enfants et par les soins de la maison, les enfants qui obéissent
leur famille, le paysan avare, le paysan dépourvu des valeurs morales, ou le paysan qui prend
soin de sa famille. Qui plus est, le milieu rural, les alentours, la maison de campagne et la
cour de ferme sont aussi portraitisés à merveille par Maupassant, ce qui nous donne
l’impression de voyager à la fois dans le temps et dans l’espace.
Fin observateur du milieu social, l’œil sociologue de Guy de Maupassant dépeint donc
à la fois des univers sociaux aristocratiques et de ceux faisant partie des bas-fonds, traçant
ainsi des typologies caractérisées par un éventail très large des mœurs sociales.
BIBLIOGRAPHIE
BANCQUART, Marie-Claire. « Préface », Boule de Suif, Guy de Maupassant, Paris: Albin
Michel, 1984.
LEMAÎTRE, Jules. Les contemporaines, Études et portraits littéraires, 5ème série, Paris:
Deuxième édition H. Lecène et H. Oudin, 1892.
MAUPASSANT, Guy. Contes et Nouvelles Tome I. Pari: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade,
Gallimard, 1974.
MAUPASSANT, Guy. Contes et Nouvelles Tome II. Paris: Bibliothèque de la Pléiade,
Gallimard, 1979.
Ouvrages critiques
URL: http://obvil.sorbonne-universite.site/corpus/critique/Lemaître_contemporains-05, page
10, consulté le 26/03/2020.
Sitographie
http://maupassant.free.fr/
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Sangita GHODAKE 1
Pune University, India
Abstract: The ancient epics have played a significant role in introducing a set of values and ethics to
youngsters. Lord Ram or Lord Krishna are known to today’s generation through comics, animation
and the audio-visual. Their rational minds raise doubts about morals, ethics, culture of old times.
They are not at fault because the text that they are reading or watching does not exist in the modern
world. They are taught to respect it as a holy book, but they try to defend it in their own way. These
old classics are represented in an innovative and experimental combination of the old and the new.
The present paper is a humble attempt in which the researcher tries to show how ancient values have
been followed in modern terms. Values and ethics are permanent and unending, but ancient values are
difficult to inculcate in modern times. The old set of values and ethics have been altered by the
cultural practices of the present day. The Mahabharata has always raised controversy due to the
conection between of fiction and reality. It is now accepted as a fictitious story written by Sage Ved
Vyasamuni. It gives fundamental knowledge of Good and the dichotomies: virtues vs. vices, law vs.
crimes, purity vs. impurity, morality vs. immorality, dignity vs. respect and so on. Considering the
length of a research article it is difficult to throw light on all virtues and values depicted in the
Mahabharata. The researcher has decided to deal with the popular ‘Game of Dice’ through which the
changing paradigm shift in understanding, analyzing and interpreting the old value system and its
modern alterations are shown. The game of dice provoked the Kauravas and Pandavas to fight the last
battle for ‘Justice and Victory of Dharma over Adharma’ on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. The
researcher expresses deep sense of gratitude to age-old beliefs and values inculcated through epics,
but modern outlook has to be taken into consideration given the beginning of a new scientific era.
Keywords: Paradigm Shift, the Mahabharata, The game of Dice, The Kauravas, the Pandavas,
Kurukshetra.
Every society has been passing through constant change in cultural practices. The old
value system has to be molded according to the changing way of living. The basic difference
between the animal being and the human being is human’s rational thinking and use of
conscience. Human beings prefer to live in a civilized society in which certain codes and
conducts are mandatory to follow in order to live a comfortable and happy life. Every society
has its value system that has come into practice as per the need of the hour. The concepts of
virtue and vice must have been deliberately introduced to conquer the demon within us.
Values and ethics are permanent, unending and are an integral part of our civilization.
However, ancient values are difficult to inculcate in modern times. Since the Ramayana and
the Mahabharata are ancient epics, they are popular among students. We refer them as
examples to teach values and ethics. The twenty-first century students raise queries about
unscientific and illogical illustrations and interpretations of these epics. Foreign teachers and
students are also very curious about the mythological stories which are difficult to believe.
1
sangita.ghodake@gmail.com
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Although it is a fact that ancient epics and religious holy books are written according to
social, religious and cultural practices of a certain moment in time, they have been transferred
from one generation to the other. In the age of the remix and gimmicks, old classics, songs,
arts and fine arts have once again become popular due to their representation in modern style
through adaptations, animation, audio-visual and so on. Rational scrutiny helps us to
understand them in a better way. The present paper is a humble attempt in which the
researcher tries to show how ancient values have been transformed in modern times. Ancient
epics have played a significant role in introducing a set of values and ethics to youngsters.
Lord Ram or Lord Krishna are popular heroes of today’s generation due to comics, animation
and audio-visual. Their rational mind raises doubts about morals, ethics - the culture of the
old times. Authors try to defend and represent the old classics in innovative combinations of
the old and the new. The old set of values and ethics have been altered and modified as per
the conditions of the present day. We are living in a transnational, cross cultural and
cosmopolitan era. We have accepted and loved modern adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays
due to their universal themes. New interpretations and insights of the old epics should be
received as a healthy and rational practice of contemporary society. Let us consider the
importance of a value system by referring to a few men of the millennium. Mahatma Gandhi
has rightly pointed out the importance of values and ethics. In his view: “Your beliefs become
your thoughts, your thoughts become your words, your words become your actions, your
actions become your habits, your habits become your values, your values become your
destiny”. On the other hand Albert Einstein’s values are reflected in his simple ideology of
rejecting possessions, outward success, publicity and luxury. He says: “To me these have
always been contemptible. I believe that a simple and unassuming manner of life is best for
everyone, best for both the body and the mind”.
Except for Indian readers, everyone else needs at least a brief introduction to the old
classic and Hindu religious epic The Mahabahrata. The Mahabharata has always remained a
controversy due to the combination of fiction and reality. It is now accepted as a fictitious
story written by Sage Ved Vyasamuni, before it actually happened. Since it is a holy book of
Hindu religion that deals with practical aspects of life, it has been translated into almost all
languages of the world. It can be described as an epic of fables that can be applied to both the
ancient and the modern civilization. Shrimad Bhagvad Gita, originally written in Sanskrit is
considered as an ancient Hindu religious text that is known as the highest kind of literature
and philosophy. Bhagvad stands for God and Gita is a pious song of the Hindu religion.
VyasaMuni describes Lord Krishna as the common man from a backward class who plays
several roles like a lyricist, a singer and a philosopher, who sings this holy song on
Kurukshetra. The value of the book lies in its principle of social equality through which
anyone from a high caste or a low caste can read it anywhere, at any time. It is a story of
Kauravas and Pandavas developed within 100000 shlokas. The Bhagvad Gita is a part of the
Mahabharata and includes 700 shlokas which offer guiding principles about the way in which
life should be lived. The Mahabharata is a tale that aims at teaching four Purusharthas namely
Dharmam, Ardham, Kamam and Moksham. The book has inspired many great and noble
souls of modern times. Mahatma Gandhi, for instance, practiced the virtue of selfless service
and the philosophy of Karma. Sir Arobindo used it as a spiritual guide. Swami Vivekanand
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learnt yogic techniques based on it. Aldous Huxley regarded it as a book that generated
human values. Jawaharlal Nehru based his duties of life on it. J Robert Oppenheimer
considered it the philosophy of life. Ralph Waldo Emerson underwent a transcendental
experience due to it. Lord Waren Hesting described it as a sublime thought. Sunita Williams
learned the Mantras of time and space. Rudolf Steiner followed purification of soul. The text
provides the fundamental knowledge of good vs. evil, virtues vs. vices, lawsvs. crimes, purity
vs. impurity, morality vs. immorality, and dignity vs. respect and the list may continue.
The Mahabharata is an ancient epic that has been compared to Homer’s Eliad and
Odyssey in grandeur of thought and action. The epic is under strict rational scrutiny in modern
times due to the unscientific and fictitious imaginative tales. If it is considered as a literary
text and the characters as literary figures then there is no point in defending it, but if it is
considered as a holy book then we become blind followers. We do not want to raise an
objection against a holy book. Students all over the world, however, are innocent readers and
they do dare to raise their doubts to their teachers. There are several versions of the epic that
differ in story line, style, narration and so on. Today modern readers try to deconstruct these
texts based on a rational way of looking at things. Nevertheless, the Mahabharata has left
everlasting impact on the minds of the audience of all ages. The epic is best known as the
book that has taught values and ethics of how to live life practically, happily and successfully.
Shrimad Bhagvad Gita is accepted as a book of practical answers given to all queries of all
ages. We want our children to be like characters such as Arjun, Karna, Eklaywa, Bhima or
Yayati. But, children are children and they cannot be like somebody else. Considering the
length of a research article it is difficult to throw light on all virtues and values depicted in the
Mahabharata. Although there are several stories that can be scrutinized from a modern
perspective, the researcher has concentrated on one very important event known as ‘the game
of Dice’. This particular incident has provoked the Kauravas and Pandavas to fight the last
battle for ‘Justice and Victory of Dharma over Adharma’ on the battlefield of Kurukshetra. A
brief idea of the game is given further on.
The dice game from the Mahabaharata can help us understand the way in which
ancient values change over time. The dice is an ancient game in which two parties / opponents
are involved. One has to choose a particular number and if the dice shows the same number, it
is a sign of victory. Gambling that provokes the person to test his/her luck. Life is a journey of
catching the uncatchable fruit called ‘hope’. No one has ever succeeded in doing so. At the
same time, life would become meaningless if hope dies. This hope of gaining everything
easily with the help of a dice determines Yudhishthir play with his dishonest cousins.
Shakuni, the uncle of Duryodhana and the brother of Gandhari is the cunning mind behind the
game. He knows that his nephew cannot defeat Pandavas on the battlefield, so he decides to
defeat the brave and powerful opponents like Pandavas in dice. He has made the dice from his
dead father’s bone. This should make thighs work in his favour. The game is planned when
Yudhishtir’s brothers are away from Hastinapur. Yudhishtir loves the game so he easily
agrees to play. He, initially, loses his wealth - his kingdom - and then, he even loses his
brothers in the game. Yudhishtir is asked to quit the game and is promised to live in
Hastinapur as a common man. But, his greed for winning forces him to continue the game. He
is challenged by his cunning cousins to keep his wife Draupadi as his only possession. He
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accepts the challenge and plays in the name of Drupadi. Five Pandavas along with their wife
Draupadi become the slaves of Kauravas. Although Yudhishtir loses everything he is
challenged one more time time. He once again loses and is asked to spend twelve years in
Vanawasa and one in Adnyatwas. The incident can be analyzed and interpreted though
various angles. Let us analyse its main characters.
Yudhishtir, known as Dharmaraj, is a man who always stands for truth and honesty.
However, he has a tragic flaw in his character. He trusts people very easily. He likes to fulfill
the wishes of his family members and his subjects. His word is considered as a final word in
any complicated situation. Bhagwan Vyas has depicted this character with saintly qualities,
whose chariot moves ‘one foot up’ from the ground due to his trustworthiness and his
righteous behavior. He loses his senses due to his passion for winning and gambling that turns
the table in losing everything. From the point of view of a modern critic, gambling is a kind of
unethical and immoral act. In ancient times, however, this was completely ethical. Children in
modern times may raise various questions. What if Draupadi’s husbands fought for their
wife? What would have been the ending of the story then? It is quite obvious that that this
would have lead to a history of rebellions. There are also chances that students might have
read Spartakas’s story, the slave who rebelled against the existing system. Today, we have
been taught to rebel against injustices so it is difficult to ask students to follow the foot prints
of Pandavas. Though their behaviour may have been proper during the ancient times, we
wonder nowadays, how can the five helpless inactive husbands in this story be male models
for modern boys and girls? The old value of obeying the orders of the elders is challenged by
the new value system of ‘tit for tat’. Yudhisgtir is known for his justice and, ironically, he
keeps his obedient brothers and wife on hold in the game. He forgets to treat them as
individuals and does not bother to take their consent. His tragic flaw is so dominating that he
continues to be tempted by the Dice. In ancient times, Dharma meant doing right things at a
right time. Today, this word is employed more in reference to bad practices. In the old times,
younger brothers used to follow their eldest brother, but today hierarchy is dismantled. The
righteous one has to be followed.
Duryadhana and Karna are portrayed as Pandavas’ enemies. Though they defeat
Yudhishtir in the game of dice, they fail to understand that ‘the blood is thicker than water’.
Duryadhana wants to become king, so his revengeful behavior can be justifiable. Karna, being
the eldest Pandava, should be neutral, but he tries to support his friend Duryadhana. Their
behavior is condemned as unethical both in ancient and modern times. Draupadi’s
‘Vastraharan’ should be understood as ‘everything is fare in love and war’. Readers
experience a Cathartic effect as they feel pity for Pandavas and fear that this can happen to
anyone in the anarchic kingdom of Hastinapur.
Shakuni, Duryodhana’s uncle, can be blamed for his tragic flaw of lust for power. He
is smart enough never to challenge Pandavas in a battle. He shrewdly entraps him in the game
of dice. Passion for power is a common characteristic of all ages, but remains a tragic flaw. If
the dice game would not have been played in the Mahabharata, it would have been a story of
with a different ending. His revengeful attitude turns into complete tragedy of the Kauravas.
Cunning characters such as Shakuni can be blamed in the past as well as nowadays. ‘Forget
and forgive’ is the policy that works as a viper on our bosom.
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Draupadi, the wife of five Pandavas, loses her dignity in front of her five husbands.
Modern generations may have an objection of holding her as an object in the game. In ancient
time wives were the possession of their husbands. Draupadi had no choice, but to follow the
decision of her husband. Modern girls would have a different stand. They would criticise the
idea of submitting themselves to the wrong decisions taken by her husbands, especially if they
would encroach their independence and freedom. Today, personal freedom and the ‘individual
space’ have become our prime concerns. In the game of dice, however, the will and the space
of the marginalized are never taken into consideration. Still, Draupadi is shown bold enough
to challenge all the seniors in the assembly regarding their passive roles. She dares to raise her
voice against the patriarchal rule. Through the lenses of modern criticism, Draupadi could
have avoided her tragedy, if she would have stopped following her unethical husbands.
Children may get confused about the concepts of Dharma and Adharma in modern times,
because Dharma is a very subjective subject.
Arjun, the hero of the Mahabharata, the idol of bravery, does not dare to disobey his
eldest brother. He takes a stand on the battlefield that he does not want to fight against his
relatives but he is passive during the game of dice. He is portrayed as changing impossible
into possible. His bravery becomes useless when he does not save his wife. Modern criticism
scrutinizes his inactiveness as his defeat. The following battle could have been avoided, if he
had taken a stand in spite of all the adversities.
Lord Krishna is the most celebrated king and the lord of the Mahabahrata. According
to the Holy Scriptures, this God was born on the earth when law and order were in danger. He
comes to save the world from complete anarchy. Lord Krishna is an incarnation of Lord
Vishnu who comes in human form to save the world from Adharma. God appears when the
hundred pots of vices would be filled by the villains; he comes and saves the world by killing
demon. The very idea of God and Demon is under rational scrutiny today. If Lord Krishna
had not been portrayed by Vyasmuni, what would have been the end of the Mahabharata? In
this case, let me invoke the example of Shylock. Sometimes we feel that Shylock in
Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Vice has his defense in society. The Christians who have
many charges against a Jew such as Shylock are not exeamed from criticism either. How
could they capture so many slaves in seventeenth century? Are they not equally greedy?
Shylock is punished because he belongs to a minority. Karna supports his friend during the
game which is unethical, but Yudhishtir’s gambling and losing everything canot be
considered unethical.
To conclude, values are bound to be invented and reinveted in each society. There can
be numerous individual values, group values, social and moral values too. One must be free to
choose his or her values and ethics. Whatever used to be right in the past may not be right in
the present. Debates, discussions and arguments are the signs of a healthy and happy society.
It is a learning experience for all of us. Let us consider the Mahabharata as a literary text and
explore it using modern criticism. Let us reconstruct or rewrite the text in a new perspective.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
SWARUPANAND, Swami. Srimad Bhagvad Gita. Trio Press: Kolkata, 2004.
THAROOR, Shashi. The Great Indian Novel. New Delhi: Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.,
1989.
SWAMI Prabhupda, Bhaktivedanta. Bhagavad-Gita as it is. (second edition), The
Bhaktivedanta Pub.: Mumai, 1986
Mahabharata Podcast. http://mahabharatapodcast.com/.
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Mihaela HRISTEA1
Dimitrie Cantemir Christian University, Romania
Abstract: In the Romanian society of the nineteenth-century, the woman was allotted a traditional
role. She dedicated herself to her family, giving birth to children, raising and educating them. In some
cases, this restriction of the woman’s role to the traditional one led to genuine drama s- the woman
becoming the victim of man because of her ignorance, weakness and incapacity of fighting back the
social bias. Yet, at the same time there was also the type of the voluntary woman, respectively, the
widow, who was compelled to raise and support her children alone. She had access to both the private
and the public space, the latter being reserved almost exclusively to man, and she took over both the
role of mother and father. By the end of the century, we witness the woman’s emancipation following
the model from abroad, that is, the model of the single woman capable of deciding her own destiny
and pursuing unabashed her studies or career. The worst-case scenario took place in towns, where
very poor women were forced to prostitute themselves in order to gain their living.
Until the second half of the nineteenth-century, precisely until 1875 the women living
in the Romanian Principalities were not allowed to pursue higher education in order to build a
career. They were often forced to marry a man in order to secure her existence or to live with
her parents until her death. The public space was reserved to men, while women had to stay at
home, therefore in a closed space near their families, raising and educating children. The real
world was known only by the men who were meeting people at work, or in the village, while
women were often living in an imaginary world, or a deformed reality, known from the
discourses of their husbands or other relatives. Women could rarely spend time in society. Not
only that public events such as parties were rare, but they cound only attend them while being
accompanied by their relatives or their husbands. Most of them were spending their days in
the same closed environment, shifting at most between their homes, the work in the fild and
church. The woman was supposed to have children, which she had to raise and educate, and to
be loyal and faithful to her husband. Very few women succeed in having a career, especially
until the second half of the nineteenth-century, when they started to assert themselves as
teachers, professors, writers, actresses or governesses.
I will bring in some illustrative examples from the Romanian literature and reveal the
female image, position and role in the Romanian society of the nineteenth century. First, I will
emphasize the traditional role of women that is well described in Ion Creangă’ Childhood
Memories, Ioan Slavici’s The Lucky Mill, Nicolae Filimon's novel The New and the Old
Boyars, Duiliu Zamfirescu's novel Tănase Scatiu and Mihail Sadoveanu’s The Place Where
Nothing Happened.
1
mihaela.hristea@ucdc.ro
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1
Chera is the courtesy title used in the 18th -19th centuries in the Romanian Country.
2
Banul is the Title that the governor appointed by the king wore in the nineteenth century in the Romanian
Country.
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wedding is patronized by Grigore Ghica himself, a Romanian ruler, a good patriot, who
rewarded the honest and fair.
In Filimon's novel the women generally nag their husbands, they entreat them to take
them out into the world. Going to the theatre, for instance, is not only an oportunitiy of going
out, but also one which requires new garments and jewlery; one which allows them to show
of their luxury (Filimon 123). Duduca is a beautiful woman who loves the luxury, but also a
liar full of ambitions; an unreliable creature who lacks moral sense and cruel. She leaves her
children and runs away with a Turkish when Dinu Păturică, her husband, is sent to prison.
But, after she cheats on her new lover, Duduca is thrown into the Danube. In a real social
fresco, the image of the capital is a novelty evoked through a blending of native and Greek-
Oriental elements, the author capturing with real flair the daily facts, the gestures, the
language of the people and the environment they were living in. In addition to Filimon's
boyars, a rapacious middle class surpasses the old middle class in decline. The classic Dinu
Păturică had been the pioneer of this type of character, being followed, in hundreds of copies
by Duiliu Zamfirescu’s Tănase Scatiu. The type of woman who falls victim to man's behavior
(who marries her for her money) is presented in Duiliu Zamfirescu's novel, Tănase Scatiu.
In Mihail Sadoveanu’s story The Place Where Nothing Happened, the woman is also a
victim of the man. She cannot live outside the traditional pattern. If she is left by her husband,
the woman has no means of supporting herself or coping with the cuel ways of society and
resorts to suicide. The Romanian society, which actually does not accept the manifestation of
love except within the frame of marriage, blames her and places her in a no-way-out situation,
assigning her a tragic fate. Sadoveanu emphasizes in The Place Where Nothing Happened the
inferior position of the woman who kills herself out of despair. The woman becomes victim of
a free acquiescent relationship with the son of a boyar, who does not share her feelings and
deceives her. This is a common image. In a small town called Paşcani, which is depicted by
the author as a mythical space, there takes place the drama of a girl who hopes for a love
marriage which is impossible to achieve (Sadoveanu 136).
I will emphasize in the following passages that the widow’s space and her role in the
Romanian society that is well described in the novel Mara of Ioan Slavici, in The Hatchet
(Baltagul) by Mihail Sadoveanu and in Fefeleaga of Ion Agârbiceanu. The novel of Ioan
Slavici, Mara, although it has as main theme the family, being rather a book about love,
according to the specific of the traditional societies, also includes aspects concerning the
family and the existence of the family as a determinant of the characters’ lives. Slavici
describes Mara with sympathy, as being a faithful, dynamic, hard-working, active and widow
woman. The description of her children reveals broadly, the figure of the omniscient and
omnipotent mother. She considers that the only way to succeed in life and to earn people’s
respect is having financial power. The woman remained a widow with two children, but she
was still brave and hard-working. Mara is a genuine business woman, living after the specific
rules of the market economy (Slavici 13). She is a loving mother, who is proud of her
children. Persida, Mara's daughter, is one of the most successful feminine figures of the
Romanian literature, being pursued in her development from childhood to maturity by the
narrator. Based on direct characterization, the omniscient narrator sketches her physical
portrait. The girl’s delicate features suggest moral attributes such as purity, candour,
tenderness, and have surprising effects on the surrounding people.
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Throughout the novel, Ioan Slavici captures the specific atmosphere of the
Transylvanian space concerning all aspects of human life. With an impressive talent for detail
the author builds suggestive images of the ethnography, habits and traditions. The author
underlines the mentality and ethnic differences of the groups who cohabit in the same ethical
space.
Mara is the type of headstrong woman, who due to her status of a widow, has access
to the public space. She is wise except for her exaggerated parsimony. She does her accounts
every evening, she puts money aside for the safety of everyday life and for the future. Mara is
authoritative, she has a great working power and a pragmatic intelligence. Energetic and
ambitious, Mara hides great sensibility under the mask of severity. She suffers every time her
children are going through difficult situations, being always on their side. When Persida's
marriage is in decline, Mara stands by her side, being a permanent moral support for her
daughter, encouraging her to get over the everyday burdens and over the violent and
humiliating behaviour of her husband.
When Mara has enough money, her self-assurance increases, the confidence in her
own power changes her attitude and her behaviour (Slavici 280). Mara is a faithful woman, a
real Christian, she goes to the church, she teaches her children to believe in God. She is
worthy of admiration, since after her husband's death, she becomes “pater familias”. An
authoritative nature, Mara assumes her destiny role regarding her children. Persida's love for
Hubărnaț disturbs her because it ruins her dream of marrying her daughter to a theologian.
But fate has its own way: Persida marries Națl secretly, then the couple spends some time in
Vienna. When the two of them return, Mara lives a high-pitched disappointment give the fact
that her dream of a good marriage for her daughter was ruined.
As the time passes by, Persida becomes more and more like Mara. Watching her
daughter being beaten and humiliated by Națl (who was also repudiated by his parents)
awakes various feelings in her mother’s soul: hate against her alcoholic son-in-law, hope that
Persida will leave him, regret at her own mistakes. Slavici captures in this volume the portrait
of the widow, and in the same time, the portrait of an independent, headstrong woman.
A similar woman can also be found in Mihail Sadoveau’s Baltagul. In this latter novel
we meet the type of the redeeming woman, who wants to make justice in the case of her
husband who was murdered by some shepherds. Sadoveanu depicts Vitoria Lipan as the
embodiment of the traditional Romanian village woman. Being faithful and educated in the
spirit of tradition, Vitoria fulfills all the religious rituals before going in the search of her
husband’s earthly remains (Sadoveanu 39). The Romanian peasant in Sadoveanu’s novel is
characterized by a keen sense of justice, by reverence for the life principles established from
immemorial times, by an abiding loyalty to the old, archaic and patriarchal world and last but
not least, by the conventional faith, deeply rooted in the soul of every traditional Romanian.
Before setting forth to find her husband, Vitoria, who has two children, Minodora and
Gheorghiţă, puts her house in order. She takes her daughter to the monastery, she sells some
of her goods in order to get money. Besides wishing to find out the truth about her husband's
death, Vitoria plans to return to the place where he has been murdered, for the forty days
requiem and she wants to bring her daughter to see her father's grave. The mother still has to
take her own decisions regarding the fate of her children. The end of the novel shows the
same lucid woman, who thinks that she cannot let Minodora marry the son of a village
teacher. Vitoria combines the fundamental qualities of the simple country woman, who
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worships truth and justice, and abides by the ancestral rules and traditions, fitting the
definition of the traditional realistic character. The moral portrait of the heroine emerges in an
indirect way from her thoughts, actions and words. The woman is determined to find out the
truth and to revenge the death of her husband. Vitoria accomplishes her duty and carries out
justice, proving substantial spirit, intelligence, lucidity, self-control, devotion and unshaken
determination in respecting the old customs and traditions.
In the Ion Agârbiceanu’s Fefeleaga, we meet the type of a widow who in order to
survive has to take over her husband’s work and raise her children simultaneously. In this
story the author reveals the hard life of the widow who is forced to carry mountain stone with
the horse in order to support her family. The name of the woman is Maria, but people call her
Fefeleaga. When her husband Dinu, a miner who used dynamite powder to break stone, was
alive, she had five children. Their children were skinny and sick, although they had enough
food. The man usually abused and blamed them for not being able to work hard. Fefeleaga, on
the other hand, was a kind mother and took their side, embrased them and kissed their cheeks.
After five years of widowhood, the woman had only two children left, the others having died
when they were fifteen. Villagers regarded their deaths as a relief thinking that this way the
widow could provide better for the children who remained alive. However, she was deeply
tormented by the death of her children. This tragic experience turned her into an introvert,
who could not share her emotions anymore. After each funeral that took place in her family,
the woman found support only in her horse, Bator, the only one which could truly help her.
The horse was working very hard and she treated it with much kindness (Agârbiceanu 91).
Fefeleaga’s drama take the form of a paroxysm. The death of her husband and five
children are so paintful that turn her heart into stone. The woman did not want to remarry, like
the villagers had urged her to. She drudged all her life to raise her children, and she never felt
this burden, except when her last child died and she had the feeling that she will not have for
whom to work anymore since there was no one alive in her family anymore. Consequently,
she decides to sell her horse in order to have money the funeral of her last child (Agârbiceanu
95).
By the end of the century, we witness woman’s emancipation following the model
from abroad, that is, the model of the single woman, capable of deciding her own fate and
having the right to study and build up a career that would ensure her subsistence. The worst-
case scenario was to be met in towns where the women who were extremely poor had to
prostitute themselves in order to gain a living.
The woman was compelled to live a family life, to stay with her parents and depend on
their financial resources until her death or to marry someone who would support her until old
age. If she came from a poor family, her only means of existence were the manual labor she
could provide and her fertile womb that could bear her husband’s offsprings. This ancestral
role became an compulsory for women, even more so, a burden. In addition, if the woaman
was too poor, she could not be an attractive match for men, who also sought to marry well.
Money was a stronger incentive for marriage than love or beauty and this also explains
numerous family dramas. Many girls whose love was unrequited committed suicide out of
despair or went mad because the men they had hoped to marry failed to meet their
expectations. The woman’s dowry was an important issue for the men who wanted to marry.
Military men were not allowed to marry women without a substantial dowry, precisely
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because they had to be able to offer their family a good material situation, to advance on the
hierarchical scale and to face all the vicissitudes of life.
In the nineteenth-century Bucharest as well as in other Romanian towns, women who
did not have any means of subsistence were forced to prostitute themselves. Unlike other
women in the world, especially in America, a Romanian woman who engaged herself in such
practices in order to to earn her living usually remained in the shadows. In Europe, and mostly
in America, there was a wider awareness due to the freedom of the media that informed the
audience on this subject („Cât costă o femeie” 551). In our country women could not follow
academic studies in order to become independent financially, the way it occurred abroad in
the same period of time („Femei profesoare de universitate” 131). Woman’s emancipation in
the world and in Romania also, gave her the right to study at the University starting from
1875 („O ardeleancă …” 323). Very few women succeeded in becoming financially
independent.
The Romanian woman was forced to live in the traditional style for a long time. Her
emancipation unfolded slowly and gradually. Women were secluded and often the victims of
both their husbands and the communities they were part of.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
AGARBICEANU, Ion. Fefeleaga, Antologie, Postfaţă şi bibliografie de Mircea Vaida,
Minerva, Bucureşti, 1971.
CREANGA, Ion. Amintiri din copilărie, Postfaţă de Mircea Tomus, Minerva, Bucureşti,
1978.
FILIMON, Nicolae. Ciocoii vechi şi noi. Postfaţă şi bibliografie de Ion Rotaru. Minerva,
Bucureşti, 1990.
SADOVEANU, Mihail. Baltagul. Paştile Blajinilor. Ochi de urs. Bucureşti: Editura pentru
Literatură, 1969.
SADOVEANU, Mihail. Locul unde nu s-a întâmplat nimic. Bucureşti: Editura pentru
Literatură, 1969.
SADOVEANU, Mihail. Venea o moară pe Siret, Bucureşti: Editura pentru Literatură, 1969.
SLAVICI, Ioan. Moara cu noroc. Prefaţă şi tabel cronologic de Mioara Adina Avram. Iaşi:
Editura Moldova, 1991.
SLAVICI, Ioan. Mara. Bucureşti: Minerva, 1973.
ZAMFIRESCU, Duiliu. Viaţa la ţară, Tănase Scatiu. Bucureşti: Editura Eminescu, 1985.
---. „Cât costă o femeie” în Familia, Pesta Oradea-Mare (1893), nr.46: 551.
---. „Felurimi. Purtatea unor oameni față cu femeile” în Familia, Pesta Oradea-Mare (1893),
nr.42: 503.
---. „Femei profesoare de universitate” în Familia, Pesta Oradea-Mare (1900), nr.11:131.
„O ardeleancă licenţiată la Universitatea din Bucureşti” în Familia, Pesta Oradea-Mare
(1899), nr.27: 323.
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Abdelouahed HAJJI 1
Université Sidi Mohamed Ben Abdellah de Fès, Maroc
Le nouvel ouvrage du Professeur Atmane Bissani, intitulé Ecriture et infini. Essais sur
la mystique en littérature, publié aux éditions Sagacita (Tanger) dans la collection
« Questions de littérature », se propose d’examiner la trace mystique dans la littérature, une
stratégie de déconstruire les visions folkloriques et simplistes liées aux mystiques. Le poète
et écrivain Bernoussi Saltani note dès les premières lignes de sa préface qu’Atmane Bissani
nous « offre un ouvrage qui peut orienter les esprits assoiffés d’humanisme et de fraternité
humaine vers une sortie du religieux orthodoxe, myope, dogmatique, sectaire et
suprématiste. » (11) Effectivement, la mystique revisitée par l’auteur opte pour un
questionnement spirituel de la barbarie humaine tant par la réhabilitation de l’amour que par
la dénonciation de la doxa religieuse en particulier et culturelle en général. Cela permet de
faire connaître les échos intimes qui existent entre le soufisme de l’Orient et l’univers spirituel
et poétique de l’Occident. Ainsi, l’auteur De la rencontre (2009) interroge des auteurs-
passeurs et des œuvres, ayant fait de la mystique leur matière première, ce sont des auteurs
travaillés intensément par la trace mystique et soufie, et qui réactivent surtout en nous l’amour
de l’humanité à travers l’amour de Dieu.
Atmane Bissani soumet à son analyse des œuvres d’Abdelwahab Meddeb, de Juan
Goytisolo, de Driss Chraïbi, d’Abdelkébir Khatibi, de Zakia Zouanat dans un dialogue
perspectiviste avec un héritage des Renaissances de l’Orient et de l’Occident. Son approche
est loin d’être réductrice, d’autant plus que l’auteur inscrit ses méditations dans l’infini tant
recherché par les mystiques que par les poètes. Conscient que l’inter peut révéler l’essence
d’une « chose », Atmane Bissani nous rappelle avec justesse qu’il n’y a pas une
« connaissance qui puisse se traduire pleinement sans passer par l’expérience du lien, de la
relation, du contact ». (21) Une telle vision peut libérer l’imaginaire soufi et mystique de
l’orthodoxie religieuse; c’est notamment dans l’entre-deux que peuvent être actualisées les
énergies. Les mystiques optent pour le nomadisme en vue d’obtenir un dépassement de soi,
c’est-à-dire de l’égocentrisme pour faire régner la tradition du Xvarnah, soit la lumière divine.
L’auteur ne cesse de rappeler tout au long de son ouvrage que la mystique dont il s’agit est
d’obédience nietzschéenne et heideggérienne, c’est-à-dire une mystique « irréligieuse » pour
reprendre un terme de l’écrivain Bernoussi Saltani. Ce dernier en poète perspicace et
Professeur émérite voit que les auteurs analysés par Atmane Bissani sont conscients que le
1
abdelouaheddhajji@gmail.com
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folklorisme est incompatible avec la quiddité de soufisme, lequel cherche à sonder les secrets
les plus abyssaux de l’existence par l’instrument de l’amour divin qui se manifeste dans ses
créatures, d’où l’importance de l’épiphanie et de l’incarnation chez eux. La mystique renvoie
d’ailleurs étymologiquement aux mots « secret » et « mystère ».
Au fil des pages, l’auteur révèle qu’il y a chez les auteurs proposés à l’analyse un
penchant pour la Weltlittratur où chaque langue parle les autres et où chaque culture ne
réprimande aucune autre puisque il n’y a pas une culture pure et originale. Autrement dit,
toute culture est habitée par d’autres cultures. La littérature mystique est foncièrement
interculturelle, une littérature qui travaille dans les marges de la pensée, raison pour laquelle
les thèmes omniprésents dans ces œuvres sont, à titre d’exemple, liés à la sagesse, au voyage,
à la bi-langue, à l’écriture, à l’étrangeté, à l’exil, au même, à l’altérité, à la folie, à l’amour, à
la divinité, à la lumière, à l’épiphanie, etc. Ce sont particulièrement des motifs qui reviennent
chez les mystiques, ayant pour but de cristalliser l’appartenance de ces derniers à la tribu des
Awliyâ Allâh, les attenants de Dieu, lesquels sont en quête de la lumière divine à travers la
présence humaine. La contemplation de l’image de la femme par exemple leur octroie la
vision théophanique. C’est dans cette perspective qu’Abdelwahab Meddeb essaie d’examiner
dans son œuvre, Phantasia ‒ comme présence de la chose en l’absence de sa matière (Al
Kindî) ‒ à travers le recours à la figure épiphanique d’Aya. Ce roman est tributaire de
l’héritage soufi, ce qui explique que le personnage-narrateur établit des rapports avec la figure
épiphanique, Aya, en vue d’atteindre la lumière divine, mais aussi une stratégie de
rapprochement des cultures à travers le recours à des thématiques du rêve, de l’illusion, de la
présence-absence, etc. Le personnage-narrateur est partagé entre plusieurs cultures et il
représente ainsi ce que Meddeb appelle la « double généalogie », une façon de déconstruire la
« maison du dogme » (30). L’objectif est de révéler la vérité divine par le biais de sa créature
incarnée par Aya. L’incarnation s’avère un fondement de soufisme comme nomadisme de
l’être en quête de l’Absolu. Selon Atmane Bissani, le mérite de Phantasia est d’avoir exploité
l’héritage soufi dans un moule romanesque tout en réactivant, à travers un personnage-
narrateur appelé à habiter à la croisière des cultures, une sagesse soufie qui consiste à
promouvoir le dialogue et la paix dans le monde, celui-ci est déchiré par des conflits culturels
et religieux. Le personnage de Meddeb destitue toute origine, d’autant plus que son texte est
hanté par plusieurs idiomes faisant de lui un « support matériel qui accueille toutes les
graphies. » (37) En d’autres termes, Meddeb ouvre son texte à l’expérience de l’hétérogénéité
dans une structure polyphonique et élastique. Cette hétérogénéité fait écho au sens japonais du
titre, c’est-à-dire une trame complexe, comme nous le rappelle l’essayiste, Atmane Bissani.
Celui-ci considère que le philosophe tunisien, Meddeb, insiste sur le fait qu’on ne peut pas
séparer l’islam de toutes les traditions dont il s’est nourri. En tant que civilisation, l’islam ne
peut se réduire au dogme et c’est cela que Phantasia et d’autres romans de l’auteur comme
Talismano essaient de consacrer.
Barzakh de Juan Goytisolo est le deuxième roman analysé par l’auteur en raison de sa
dimension mystique omniprésente. Il attire l’attention dès l’abord que ce roman fait de la mort
une expérience mystique dans un style « sépulcral » (48). En créant une confusion entre
l’imagination et la réalité, Goytisolo introduit son personnage dans un monde de transe, lequel
lui permet de rencontrer son amie morte et qui lui « fait découvrir les dédales de l’au-delà »
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Carolina BULZ 1
Military Technical Academy, Romania
The volume under discussion has just been released by a team of editors from the
University of Gävle, Sweden, being based on research conducted with the occasion of the
2019 national symposium organized by the Department of Humanities at the aforementioned
university and entitled ‘Populism, Democracy and the Humanities’. It is a collection of
selected lectures on the topic, organized into four main parts: Populism and the Democratic
Culture; Populism and Social Change; The New Media and Populist Communication;
Populism and the Public Imagination. This selection endeavors to single out the contribution
that Humanities might be making to the present field of interest, given the fact that the impact
of this branch of studies has been lessened lately by competition from Sciences. However,
when applied to the field of populism, the editors believe that such an approach might achieve
a “bottom-up” perspective on “major societal issues” and thereby demonstrate the relevance
of a non-holistic integrative vision typical of recent developments on the humanistic side. As
the editors contend in the Introduction, “It is natural to think that, in comparison with social
science research, humanities scholars have ‘smaller-scale’ ambitions, namely to explore in
different ways the intricate connections that exist between all the human expressions that
today are referred to as ‘populism’.” (xiii) Thus, the humanistic research in the field is
promoted as complementary to (and equally justified as) the social scientific vision, whose
exclusivist approach may lead the academia on a superficial and even counterproductive quest
in the analysis of populism.
The first part of the present study, entitled Populism and Democratic Culture opens
with a political science overview of the concept of populism by Ann-Cathrine Jungar 2, which
provides a welcome comparative perspective and instrumental background to the humanistic
approaches following it. It delves into the historical instantiations of this enduring “shadow of
democracy”, explaining how it has flourished in the gap between the pragmatic and idealistic
sides of mainstream politics. According to Jungar, its distinguishing feature would be the anti-
elitism which manifests itself mainly by extolling the virtues of ordinary people and
incriminating the corrupt ruling classes. It is also defined as “thin” in political consistency and
therefore associated with nationalistic, socialist or conservative movements (i.e. agrarian
populism). As such, populism is authoritarian and supportive of family values and
isolationism, which causes it to run against immigration or multicultural policies, being
frequently used as a means of obtaining or maintaining political acumen. Paradoxically,
populism was seen along the ages as “both a force for democratic revival (Laclau 2005) and
as a threat to democracy (Taguieff 1995; Müller 2016; Abts and Rummens 2007)” (11), yet is
remains an anti-liberal, anti-globalization discourse with cultural roots that the author of this
chapter duly investigates in the rest of the essay. In the second and third chapters of the book,
1
carolinabulz@yahoo.ro
2
senior lecturer and associate professor at Södertrön University in Stockholm, Sweden
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Henrik Bohlin 1 discusses populism, econocracy and their connection to the humanities as “a
lost art of democratic debate”, while Jari Ristiniemi 2 takes into account the possibility of an
alternative world starting from Orwell’s considerations about totalitarian thought and
individuality.
The essays in the second part of the present study, Populism and Social Change,
approach populism increasingly from the social sciences perspective. From the standpoint of
the philosophy of education, Daniel Pettersson 3 critiques the present-day generally accepted
view of education as quantified and quantifiable, an academic vision in which populism,
statistics and technocracy go hand in hand. Alternatively, Signe Jernberg 4 discusses the
institutional production and dissemination of knowledge from the standpoint of organizational
theory, while she equally scrutinizes the flawed approach of academic instrumentalism seen
as a rational strategy “for the advancement of a pre-defined notion of social good” (xxiv). The
theoretical alternative she puts forward consists of turning the universities into “nodes in
scientific and disciplinary networks, structural formations based on collegial decision-making
and sites where the social good is collaboratively constructed and continuously negotiated”
(idem). Finally, authors Malena Granhall Lahiki 5 and Sarah Ljungquist 6 discuss the challenge
posed by gender equality policies to hegemonic masculinity, which engenders on behalf of the
latter a populist reaction perceived as essentially anti-democratic.
Part three of the present study focuses on The New Media and Populist
Communication, the contributions moving away from the epistemic and towards the political
side. Jan Sjölund 7 investigates the communication strategies of political populism, while
Markus Heide 8 analyzes Donald Trump’s mediatic campaign and the facilitation of
infotainment during his subsequent administration, focusing mainly on the coverage of the
U.S.-Mexico border events. The former contribution is more theoretical, while the latter is
appreciated by the editors in their introduction as a successful application of the cultural
studies approach to the agenda of political populism.
Part four of the present study, entitled Populism and the Public Imagination, is also
divided into two subchapters, the first of which is dedicated to the influence that televised
programs have on people’s awareness of societal change. In “The Case of the Lost Sobriety:
TV Documentaries and Society in Sweden in the Twenty-First Century” (Chapter 9), Per
Vesterlund 9 investigates whether there is any reason to associate moving pictures (more
precisely, documentaries) to the broad notion of populism and in what ways these respective
spheres may be said to interfere. From mitigating political campaigns to bringing back in
court the case of an atoned criminal, the so-called objective genre of the documentary is
revealed as cultivating clichés that appeal to the emotions and unsettle the conscience of TV
viewers, determining them to ultimately make demands upon the governing and judiciary
structures of the state, thereby exposing “a national media culture where documentary films
1
professor of intellectual history at Södertörn University in Stockholm
2
professor in Religious Studies at the University of Gävle, Sweden
3
professor of Education at the University of Gävle
4
assistant professor of Business Administration at the University of Gävle and affiliated researcher at Uppsala
University
5
lecturer and researcher in gender studies at the Centre for Gender Studies, a multidisciplinary research centre at
the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Karlstad University, and an affiliated researcher at the University
of Gävle
6
senior lecturer and researcher in Gender Studies and Literature at the University of Gävle
7
lecturer in writing and communication at the University of Gävle
8
associate professor of American literary and cultural studies at the University of Hildesheim and affiliated
researcher at the Swedish Institute for North-American Studies at Uppsala University
9
senior lecturer in Media and Communication Studies at the University of Gävle
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often constitute the engines of societal phenomena.” (Vesterlund in Cănănău &Thalen: 178)
The tenth and final chapter of the volume under discussion, “Fictionalisations of American
Populism from Edward Bellamy’s Utopia to Angie Thomas’s Black Lives Matter”, by editor
and scholar Iulian Cănănău 1, is a comprehensive analysis of the principles and varieties of
populism as detected in three main works of fiction, whose direct impact on American social
life is considered relevant. The chapter opens with an introduction into the essentials of this
much disputed political movement, “a contested concept with a special place in U.S. history”
which “has its roots in the late nineteenth-century progressive agrarian and labour
movements” (Cănănău in Cănănău &Thalen: 183) and which, “from the 1930s onwards,
would be increasingly associated with the far-right ideology and anti-intellectualism” (idem).
Ordinarily reviled, the relevance of populism for American politics has been permanently
boosted by its allure of progressivism – so much so that nowadays leftist scholars have been
urging American left-wing politicians to reclaim their populist roots. The three novels under
discussion are analyzed for the incentives they might contain and constitute case studies in a
literary history that reflects American society’s populist tendencies, the intention of the author
being to focus more on the “demand” side of this type of politics, namely the popular need for
populist policies and political agents. According to the author, Edward Bellamy’s utopian
protest novel, Looking Backward 2000–1887, helped “crystallize the populist movement and
exerted influence on the political agenda and organization of the People’s Party in the early
1890s.”, while It Can’t Happen Here is a realist dystopia written by Nobel Prize laureate
Sinclair Lewis in 1935, “an epoch marked by the successes and failures of the New Deal and
the rise of totalitarian ideologies in the United States and abroad” (Cănănău in Cănănău
&Thalen: 184). The last narrative to be taken into consideration, The Hate U Give (2017) by
Angie Thomas, is a young adult realist novel about African Americans’ victimization through
police brutality and systemic racism which is revealed to have been connected with the racial
upheavals leading up to the notorious Black Lives Matter (BLM) protests of 2020.
Eventually, assuming a de-polarizing role in academic debates is the challenge that,
according to editors Cănănău and Thalen 2, present-day humanities must embrace in order to
move forward and “become an interesting co-player, a kind of uncomfortable voice, in the
effort to solve societal challenges” (xxx). Therefore, the role of the present volume is intended
as both informative and critical, aiming to instruct the humanistic authors into liberating their
analyses of “all forms of epistemic populism” (idem). Last but not least, mention must be
made of the great team of scholars that have worked on the project, the diversity of their
perspectives being compensated by the common point of reference being the University of
Gävle, where the vast majority of them conduct research and teach classes. Furthermore, I
consider that the work of the editors deserves double praise in this respect since they had to
deal with the selection and revision of the scholarly work of their peers and colleagues - a
demanding task, not devoid of pitfalls, which, however, the editors have shrewdly eluded.
1
senior lecturer in American Literature at the University of Gävle
2
professor of Religious Studies at the University of Gävle, Sweden
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Alina BOTTEZ 1
Universitatea din București, România
Când mi-a propus studentul meu, Matei Dimonu, să iau cuvântul la lansarea cărții lui,
am fost surprinsă, onorată, dar mai ales extrem de bucuroasă. Bucuroasă că există în
continuare tineri de douăzeci de ani care își petrec timpul liber – care nu e foarte mult –
scriind cărți, gândind, creând.
Când am început să citesc povestirea “Pălăriile sunt excepționale” publicată la Editura
Tracus Arte, mi s-a întipărit un zâmbet mare pe față: un cal începe să cugete, sare gardul și
evadează pentru că tânjește după o pălărie! M-am identificat instantaneu cu patrupedul atât de
poetic numit Ilie...
Cartea s-a lansat la Muzeul Țăranului Român (cu contribuții din partea directorului
Muzeului Literaturii Române – Ioan Cristescu, a scriitorului Vasile Ernu şi a Maiei
Morgenstern, care a citit un capitol) în ziua comemorării nașterii lui Hans Christian Andersen,
dată care a prilejuit apariția Zilei Internaționale a Cărții pentru Copii. Așa că m-am așteptat să
fie o carte pentru copii. Dar, când am deschis coperta, m-a întâmpinat... un puzzle, pentru că
lui Matei Dimonu îi plac puzzle-urile: unele piese sunt de povești pentru copii, altele sunt de
literatură fantastică, altele sunt de teatru al absurdului, altele de parodie, de umoristică, de
western și altele, poate, chiar de filosofie... Izbit de cugetări dostoievskiene, Ilie se întreabă
sub imperiul Dubiului: „Ce fac aici? Oare e bine ce fac?” (12, cap. 3) Romantismul siropos
este luat peste picior: „autostrada cerească vopsită tuci și iluminată de milioane de felinare
divine” (11). E adevărat că multe basme, poate ale lui Andersen chiar mai mult decât altele,
sunt – de fapt – menite pentru oamenii mari și așa este și povestirea „Pălăriile sunt
excepționale”.
Și am pornit la drum citind cea mai frumoasă dedicație – „Pentru mama și tata”. Ei
sunt cei care ne oferă întâi țarcul, ovăzul, apa și tihna; și tot ei, călcându-și pe inimă, trebuie
să ne lase să vedem pălăria și să ne facă să înțelegem că putem sări gardul.
Așa face și Ilie. Probabil că numele lipițanului alb a fost ales pentru că era simpatic,
improbabil, neverosimil. Dar mie mi-a adus imediat în fața ochilor minții imaginea din popor
a Sfântului Ilie care mână un car tras de cai de foc.
Înainte de a merge mai departe, trebuie să recunosc că poate cel mai mult mi-au plăcut
notele de subsol. Preferata mea rămâne nota 2, care clarifică referirea din text la „jumătate de
minut” și explică: „30 de secunde”. Dar îmi place și definiția Nevadei din nota 16: „Al
treizeci și șaselea stat din componența Statelor Unite ale Americii. Este 90% deșert și 10%
hotel) (27). Nota 21 este de metaficțiune: „Am căscat când am scris asta” – scrie autorul (36).
Iar nota 20 m-a lăsat total pe gânduri: ea explică astfel centimetrul: „Unitate de măsură
superioară inch-ului”. Superioritatea lui este, probabil, calitativă sau – de ce nu? – poate chiar
morală!
1
alina.bottez@gmail.com
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Așadar, mirajul unei pălării albe cu boruri largi de pe capul unui trecător rătăcit –
prima pe care o zărește Ilie vreodată – declanșează pofta lui cotropitoare de acoperitoare de
țeastă.
Ar fi simpatic și dacă ceea ce l-ar atrage irezistibil ar fi aspectul șic – sau, în termenii
contemporani, cool – pe care i l-ar da pălăria. Dar nu. Ce-l vrăjește pe el e să poată fi ferit de
soare toată ziua, oriunde ar merge, mult mai bine decât sub copacul lui chel, la umbra căruia
ar fi nevoit să stea fix. Așadar, motivul este de ordin practic. Și acest lucru îl face să difere
radical de pălăria Micului Prinț. Ilie nu este un copil visător cu imaginație bogată, ci un
patruped trezit la gândire, care face un raționament practic și ia o decizie matură. (Iar eu, care
am și ceva din Ilie și foarte mult din Micul Prinț, încerc să înțeleg, de când am citit primele
pagini, de ce fermierul din deșert nu avea pălărie. În fapt, acest lucru se face vinovat de toată
aventura. Dacă Ilie ar fi văzut pălării din fragedă pruncie, nu ar mai fi avut o asemenea
epifanie!)
Călătoria inițiatică a lui Ilie – un soi de Bildungsroman ironic – nu copiază nimic, dar
aduce unui omagiu multor tradiții literare – alegoria, fabula, romanul picaresc, parabola,
pildele de tip Coelho sau specia dramatică medievală numită moralitate, și aici mă refer cu
precădere la piesa anonimă englezească de secol XV Everyman. Ca și acolo, protagonistului i
se alătură, pe traseul său, personaje simbolice. Primul care apare, în capitolul 3, este
„Dubiu[l], un personaj aproape antagonic, asta dacă nu făcea parte din Ilie” (12), urmat
îndeaproape de prietenele lui, Lipsa și Grija. În capitolul 5 își face apariția și Curiozitatea. În
capitolul 13 sunt introduse Dezamăgirea, Rușinea, dar și Speranța.
În capitolul XVIII, traiul bun de care se bucură Ilie aduce după sine Mulțumirea, iar în
capitolul XXI apare Amarul, de care din fericire Ilie se descotorosește la sfârșit precum calul
lui Făt-Frumos de bube și răpciugă.
Fundalul geografic și social al povestirii se conturează și el foarte interesant, tot pe
principiul puzzle-ului, piesă cu piesă. Întâi aflăm că ferma lui Ilie e în deșert. Apoi că
pământul e roșu. Abia în capitolul 10 aflăm că este vorba de deșertul Mojave, deci în Statele
Unite ale Americii. Toponimele care apar în carte sunt Orașul Apropiat, Orașul Îndepărtat și
Oaza de Lumină. Când dai să crezi că Oaza de Lumină e Las Vegas din Nevada, apare
toponimul Valea Paradis, folosit întâi ca metaforă, și-ti dai seama că e vorba de Paradise
Valley din Arizona. Așadar, cititorul trebuie să fie și puțin detectiv. Are de lucru când citește.
Tot așa se construiește și imaginea prietenului uman al lui Ilie. După ce aflăm că are
haine negre și murdare, ochi căprui și că poartă ghete măsura 46, aflăm și că pe Ilie nu-l
impresionează câtuși de puțin aceste detalii: calul nu are ochi decât pentru pălăria omului.
Este un portret clădit efectiv din bucăți. El este continuat de elementul definitoriu al faciesului
său – „o bărbie formidabilă”, care, deși autorul a mărturisit că nu cunoaște aceste personaj,
amintesc de Lucky Luke 1 sau chiar de marele musculos din Pantera roz 2, cunoscut sub multe
nume – Manly Man, Avery Bravery, Clutch sau King Regis. În ipostaza sa de Lucky Luke,
anonimul cu pălărie are și un șold misterios: „șoldul drept al omului era extrem de ciudat: mai
umflat decât celălalt, mai greu și avea o curbă ce ieșea înspre spatele lui” (17). Se deslușește
astfel silueta pistolului de la brâu. Ea este completată de imaginea „obiectului lucios de pe
pieptul prietenului său biped” (18). Aici am fi neputincioși dacă nu ne-ar ajuta Nicoleta
1
Protagonistul unei cunoscute benzi desenate umoristice belgiene de tip Western create în 1946 de desenatorul
Morris, căruia i s-a alăturat mai târziu celebrul scenarist René Goscinny, renumit pentru seria Astérix.
2
Personajul Pink Panther își are originea în genericul animat al seriei de unsprezece filme inițiate în 1963, care-l
avea ca protagonist pe incapabilul Inspector Clouseau. Succesul acestui generic creat de Hawley Pratt și Friz
Freleng de la firma de animație DePatie–Freleng Enterprises pe celebra temă muzicală semnată de Henry
Mancini a dus la lansarea unei serii de desene animate pentru televiziune în 1964.
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Stoian, talentata ilustratoare plină de umor a acestei cărți, care ne vine în ajutor, pictând
alături steaua de șerif american. Mai târziu Ilie chiar spune că se gândește la steaua din
pieptul lui. Dar rămânem nelămuriți, pentru că, în rest, personajul anonim nu este numit șerif,
ci polițist, polițai, curcan, sticlete, copoi sau gabor, poreclele animale fiind exploatate hazliu
prin alăturarea cu cabalina: „Curcanul se uită la cal” (26). În plus, polițistul este vânător de
recompense, mânat în luptă de dorința de a răpune rău-făcătorii, drept care e mereu plecat de
acasă, ceea ce e în neconcordanță cu poziția de șerif.
Matei Dimonu se amuză să folosească o puzderie de epitete de tip homeric:
„inspectorul mâncător de ovăz”, „aventurier pe 4 copite” (15), „cel cu bărbie mare” (51).
Se amuză și cu axiome sentențioase: „Când ești patruped, nu porți ceas” (12, cap. 3).
Paleta e completată de anticlimax, ironie, umor negru, paradox și pseudo-proverbe:
„Gânditorul cu mintea goală ajunge departe, dar nu se bucură de peisaj” (p. 14). Amarul –
personajul alegoric – spune: „E rău și putea fi mai bine” (52). Acest adevăr profund mi-a
amintit de zicala lui Creangă din Amintiri din copilărie – „Pielea rea și răpănoasă ori o bate,
ori o lasă”.
Un detaliu care poate trece neobservat, dar e foarte important, este că atunci când îl
vede pe călător prima oară, Ilie nu îi ia pălăria. Ulterior fură două, dar instinctul lui inițial nu e
de hoție, nici de invidie. Iar omul lansează ideea câștigării pălăriei prin muncă – idee puritană,
în ton cu deșertul american.
Capitolul 10 se cheamă „12”. Aproape că mi-a părut rău, când am ajuns la Capitolul
12, că nu se cheamă „10”! (Acesta – capitolul 12 – este cel care dă numele povestirii.)
Umorul este văzut ca terapie, ca strategie de supraviețuire. Ilie este primul cal cu
simțul umorului, iar râsul unui cal este considerat miracol. Polițistul îl obișnuiește cu glumele
și, după episodul pălăriei furate, îl întreabă, ca să-l mai aline: „Ce-i cu fața asta lungă?” (29)
Rușinea îl apostrofează pe Ilie: „Nu-ți e cum mă cheamă?” (32) Comparația e și ea folosită în
mod comic: 12 polițiști fac un cordon „ca o linie de finish albastră și foarte prost-dispusă”
(40).
Metaforele sunt foarte numeroase: trenul este numit „crucișător” (31), „miriapod de
metal” (33), dar și „șarpele de lemn, oțel, cărbuni și abur” (37).
Ilie ajunge la un mare nivel de înțelepciune și conștientizare: „Știa să recunoască un
drum către un loc cu pălării (31) sau „Dacă e vreo pălărie de luat, mă duc acolo unde se dau”
(32).
Și simțul măsurii contribuie la înțelepțirea lui: „Dacă nu făcea nimic ar fi fost prea
puțin. Dacă țipa și scheuna în agonie pentru lipsa lui de împlinire ar fi fost prea mult. Oftatul i
se părea suficient” (52).
Trebuia să se manifeste și marca secolului al XXI-lea în această povestire: conform
clișeelor actuale, în Ilie se dă o luptă între gândurile negative și Palatul Pozitivității!
Textul este presărat cu imagini vizuale adesea surprinzătoare, bazate pe comparații sau
metafore improbabile de tipul celor folosite de poeții metafizici 1 din secolul al XVII-lea și
numite conceits în limba engleză. Astfel, cactusul, folosit pe post de spătar, este un fotoliu
prost ales (15), iar „gările pot avea frumusețea unui templu atenian modern”, care include,
cum bine știm cu toții, „tonete cu ziarele cele mai foșnitoare” (37).
Abundă și imaginile cinetice și cele tactile – în special referitoare la arșiță sau răcoare;
chiar și cele legate de gust sunt apăsătoare atunci când Ilie și polițistul străbat deșertul răpuși
de sete. Dar extrem de important este elementul auditiv: tumultul sonor al vieții omenești îl
preocupă mult pe autor.
1
Precum John Donne, Andrew Marvell sau George Herbert.
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În Capitolul XVIII, Ilie este găzduit în grajdul Poliției, unde primește ovăz și apă, are
acoperiș deasupra capului, tovarăși, iar în depărtare aude muzică. În primul moment, cititorul
este tentat să creadă că aventurosul Ilie, numit erou în carte, ajunge să se mulțumească cu
nivelul de bază al piramidei nevoilor gândite de Abraham Maslow. Dar el apreciază muzica
și, când devine cal de curse și are parte de adăpost și hrană, muzica și tovărășia omului sunt
ceea ce îi lipsește.
Evadarea finală și descotorosirea de Amar se fac dând foc circului în care evoluează
ca animal dresat. În loc de „după noi potopul”, calul gândește, probabil, „după noi incendiul”.
Trebuie să distrugi ca să reclădești. Focul are, în mod evident, funcție purificatoare.
În capitolul final, nevasta polițistului întreabă retoric: „Cui îi trebuie ambiții când are
de mâncare?” Filosofia ei pragmatică pare să deprime și cel mai avântat optimist. Dar nu și pe
soțul ei, care se întâlnește cu Ilie și îi dă o pălărie. Dar nu una alba cu boruri mari, ci una de
dans, care nu ține umbră. Piramida lui Maslow e depășită cu mult, iar calul înțelege:
„Imaginează-ți că vezi un cal mare și frumos cu o pălărie de dans pe cap, venind din deșert.
Ți-ar fi așa de drag de el încât i-ai oferi umbră, apă și mâncare fără întârziere” (58). Se trece,
deci, la gândirea anticipată, la prevedere. În loc de a obține gratificare imediată, se dobândește
cheia spre gratificarea perpetuă.
Povestirea se încheie cu elanul debordant al polițistului, care afirmă despre Ilie cel
regăsit și pierdut pe veci: „Este înarmat cu ambiție, libertate, o vastă cunoaștere a speciei
umane și, în sfârșit, o pălărie. Nimic nu îl mai poate opri” (58). Iar asta este, într-adevăr, o
poveste de adormit copiii...
Matei Dimonu și Nicoleta Stoian, doi tineri care au încetat recent să mai fie copii, dar
care – cu puțin noroc – vor rămâne puțin copii toată viața, au creat o poveste plină de culoare
și de vervă, de umor și de inedit. Mai mult decât atât, s-au întâlnit pentru a le da cititorilor
speranță.
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