Class 2:

Energy, work,
heat transfer,
enthalpy, entropy,
efficiency

Launch of US Air Force early

warning satellite - conversion of
internal (chemical) energy into
kinetic energy
(Courtesy USAF)

G.G.M. Stoffels Thermal Engineering, University of Twente

 Recapitulate Class 1
• What is thermodynamics? → science on using heat and power,
• Systems and boundaries conversion of different forms of energy
• Open / closed / isolated systems
• Properties
• Extensive / intensive / specific
• States and State Postulate
• Equilibrium and quasi-equilibrium
• Processes and cycles
• Isobaric / isotherm / isochoric / adiabatic
• Process diagrams
• Metric system and fundamental units
• Volume and density
• Temperature and the zeroth law of
thermodynamics
• Pressure (absolute and gauge pressure)
• Systematic method for solving problems
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 2
 Content Class 2
• We have seen what is thermodynamics
• In class 1 we have introduced
• Thermodynamic definitions and concepts
like systems and system boundaries,
different kinds of properties, states,
processes and (quasi) equilibrium Conservation of mechanical
energy, potential energy
• Fundamental en derived units transforms into kinetic
energy and visa versa
• In Class 2 we will do
• What is energy?
• Introduction of different forms of energy
• Energy transfer across system boundaries
• Work / heat transfer / flow work
But where does the potential
• New properties: enthalpy and entropy
energy go in this case? Is the
• State and path functions energy not conserved?
• Efficiency
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 16
 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy
• Concept of energy and various forms of energy
• Internal, kinetic and potential energy
• State and path functions
• Mechanisms of energy transfer
• Heat and heat transfer
• Work (electrical and several forms of mechanical work)
• Flow Work (Pv)
• The rate of doing ….. work / heat transfer / mass transfer
• The first law of thermodynamics
• Energy balance
• New properties
• Enthalpy
• Entropy
• Efficiencies of energy conversion processes
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 17
 Energy within a system boundary: KE & PE
• Kinetic energy (KE) and potential energy (PE)

Fixed reference
frame at vref = 0 v
m

z = distance from horizontal re-

ference plane to center of mass

• Kinetic energy:
• Potential energy:
• KE and PE: related to a reference frame in the
outside world, macroscopic forms of energy

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 18

 Energy within a system boundary: KE & PE

• Kinetic energy:
• Potential energy:

• KE and PE are extensive properties and can be

made specific properties, ke and pe

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 19

 Energy within a system boundary: U
• Internal energy (U)

Translational Rotation Vibrational Chemical,

Nuclear &
Electrical
• Internal energy (U): energy related to matter, including boun-
ding energy and energy related to the movement of the mole-
cules (temperature dependent) of which the matter exists
• Microscopic form of energy (not related to the outside world)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 20

 Energy within a system boundary: U
• Internal energy (U) is an extensive property, like kinetic and
potential energy

• Total internal energy, U: Joules [J or kJ]

• Specific internal energy, u=U/m: [J/kg or kJ/kg]

• Internal energy can not be measured directly

• It can be determined but always a reference state should be
chosen
• Can often be looked up in tables

• In thermodynamics only changes in internal energy are

important
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 21
Energy within a system boundary: KE, PE & U
• Kinetic energy, potential energy and internal energy
can be converted into each other

Three types of energy:

potential, kinetic and internal
http://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energie
U  KE  PE  Potential, kinetic and strain (internal) energy
1 are successively converted into each other
mv2  mgh till the motion stops and all potential energy
2 is converted into internal energy
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 22
 Change of energy of a system
• The total energy of a system is the sum of all
different forms of energy within the system:

E = U + KE + PE [in Joule, J or kJ]

• Or specific:

e = u + ke + pe [in J/kg or kJ/kg]

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 23

 Change of energy of a system
• The energy of a system can change by transferring
energy across the boundary

1. Work (W)
• Compression (PdV)
• Mechanical e.g. shaft
• Electricity

Q, W
E(P,T)
2. Heat transfer (Q)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 24

 State and path functions
• Energy is a state function, this means that the energy of
a systems depends only on the state the system is in

• Between two states of the system an energy difference

∆E can exists

• If the system returns to its original state the energy has

not changed

∆E = E1 – E2
E1(P1,T1) E2 (P2,T2)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 25

 State and path functions
• Work and heat transfer are path functions, this means that
the work or heat added or subtracted from a system depends
on the path (the process) the system has followed

• Between two different paths a difference in work or heat

can exist
• If a system returns to its original state work and/or heat
delivered to or from the system are not zero
• To go from one to another state a certain amount of work
or heat is needed, this is not a difference in work or heat,
therefore ∆W and
∆Q do not have Q, W
a meaning E1(P1,T1) E2 (P2,T2)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 26

 Path and state functions and hinking
• Energy → height & potential energy (State functions)
• Work and heat → way & distance (Path functions)

• The potential energies of state R and B depend on the height (property)

only and are always the same, also the difference is constant

• By travelling from state R to state B and back the potential energy will
change during the travel but at the end there is no change in potential
energy State B

• Traveling from R to B can go State R

via different paths, the
distance travelled is different, Path 2
the work performed is different

• Returning to the original state

does not mean the distance
Path 1
travelled (the work) is zero Height B
however the potential energy Height R
is not changed
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 27
 Energy transfer across a boundary: Work
• Energy transfer by work:

• F = Force [N]
• S = Path over which force acts [m]
• Units: Work, W in [N.m = J]
Specific work, w = W/m in [J/kg]

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 28

 Energy transfer across a boundary: Work
• Energy transfer by work:
v=0

• Does this man perform work?

→ No work since dS = 0
→ No area in F-S diagram

• Does this man perform work?

→ Yes, depends on mass and distance
→ Work = area under F-S diagram

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 29

 Boundary work (PdV)
• Boundary work is the work needed to change the volume of a
compressible substance (e.g. in a piston – cylinder device)

• Work = area under P-v diagram

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 30

 Boundary work (PdV)
• Boundary work is the work needed to change the volume of
a compressible substance (e.g. in a piston – cylinder device)

• Therefore boundary work in thermodynamics is defined as:

W = P dV or w = P dv

• Win: Work added to the system from surroundings

• Compression → dV negative → Win = negative
• Wout: Work taken from the system to surroundings
• Expansion → dV positive → Wout = positive

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 31

 Boundary (PdV) work in Diesel engine
• Example of energy transfer by boundary work

• Step 1 → 2: Boundary work added to the engine

• Step 2 → 3 and step 3 → 4: Boundary work extracted from the engine
• Net work is the area enclosed in the PV diagram by the curve: 1-2-3-4-1

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 32

 Example P-V (Indicator) diagram
• Old steam engine
In the steam engine shown on the right, high
pressure steam is fed from the boiler into the
piston-cylinder. The expansion of the steam in
the cylinder pushes the piston out. The linear
displacement of the piston is used to drive the
wheels of the locomotive using a series of
linkages. Thus the expansion of the steam in
the piston-cylinder is used to do boundary
work against the piston and drive the
locomotive. The engineer in the picture is
testing the performance of the steam engine by
producing a P-V diagram, which is also called
an indicator diagram. A pipe connects the
cylinder to a pressure gauge, allowing the
pressure inside the cylinder to be easily
determined. The volume inside the cylinder is
measured using a linear linkage that provides
a measurement proportional to the
displacement of the piston. The area under the
resulting P-V diagram shows the net work
done in single or multiple cycles.
Indicator diagrams for piston-cylinder engines
provide useful diagnostics for the correct valve
settings, possible valve and seal leakage or
other problems.

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 33

 Example P-V (Indicator) diagram
• Old steam engine
Area under P-V diagram
= Boundary Work

Boundary
Work
V1 V V2

• W = P dV
V2
WOUT ,1 2   PdV
V1

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 34

 Different types of work
• Mostly three different types of work are concerned:
1. Boundary work (also called volume work) → w =Pdv
2. Mechanical work (e.g. shaft work, spring work)
3. Electrical work

• To identify the presence of shaft work: draw a system

boundary around system, if any rotating shafts crosses the
system boundary, shaft work is present.

• Shaft work common for:

• Pumps
• Compressors
• Blowers
• Engines

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 35

 Energy transfer across boundary: Heat Transfer
• Besides by work the energy of a system can change by
transfer of heat across the boundaries

• Heat Transfer: Energy crossing the system boundary

because of a temperature difference between the system
and the surroundings
• Spontaneously the energy always goes from high to low
temperature

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 36

 Energy transfer across boundary: Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer can carry energy into, Qin, or out of, Qout, the
system, depending on whether the system has a lower or
higher temperature than the surroundings

• Qheat-transfer = Qin - Qout

Out Heat

• Units
• Heat transfer: Q in [J or kJ]
• Specific heat transfer:
q = Q/m in [J/kg or kJ/kg]
In Heat

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 37

 Modes of Heat Transfer
• Heat transfer can occur by 1: Conduction
2: Convection
3: Radiation
• Note that a detailed study of heat transfer is fairly complex and beyond
the scope of thermodynamics classes → next year module 7
• In thermodynamics, we will be concerned with how heat transfer relates
to work and energy, and not on the fundamental mechanisms that control
heat transfer Elephants rely on their ears to cool their
blood. Heat transfer from their ears to the air Radiation
Conduction occurs by convection. The large size of the
ears (large A) serves to increase the heat
transfer rate. As the weather gets hotter, the
temperature
difference between
the elephant's ears
and the ambient air
decreases (smaller
T). The elephants
compensate by
flapping their ears,
which increases the
A well isolated house losses less velocity of the air
heat through conduction through the passing by their
walls and the glass ears (larger h).

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 38

 Heat transfer: Conduction
• Conduction heat transfer is heat transfer associated with a random
molecular motion and occurs in gases, liquids, and solid
• Joseph Fourier first published the phenomenological rela-
tionship that governs heat transfer by conduction in 1822
• Fourier found that the rate of heat transfer is proportional to the
temperature difference across the material of interest, and is inversely
proportional to the thickness of the material
• The constant of proportionality between the heat transfer rate per unit area
and the temperature gradient is called the thermal conductivity, k [W/mK]
• In a differential sense, the heat transfer rate divided by the
area can be written as:

• The heat transfer rate per unit area, Q/A, is called the heat flux
• The thermal conductivity is a property of the material and
can vary with the local temperature of the material
• In general, for the three phases of matter, gasses have the smallest
(Extra information,
values of thermal conductivity and solids the largest not part of the exam)
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 39
 Heat transfer: Convection
• Heat transfer from a surface to a moving fluid occurs by convection
• The rate at which energy is transferred between a solid object and a
flowing fluid is proportional to the temperature difference between the
surface and the fluid
• The law governing this transfer process is called Newton’s Law of
Cooling
• The constant of proportionality between the heat flux and the
temperature difference is the heat transfer coefficient, h [W/m2K], which
is a function of the fluid properties and the flow
• The rate of convection from a surface at temperature, Ts to a fluid at
temperature, Tf is governed by the equation

• Liquids tend to have higher heat transfer coefficients than gases and
heat transfer coefficients tend to increase with the velocity of the fluid.
Elephants rely on their ears, to cool their blood heat transfer from their
ears to the air occurs by convection.

(Extra information, not part of the exam)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 40

 Heat transfer: Radiation
• Heat transfer by electromagnetic waves is called thermal radiation
• All substances with a temperature greater than absolute zero emit radiation
• The following equation can be used in many cases as a first approximation
to estimate the amount of heat transfer due to radiation

• Here  is the emissivity of the surface,  is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant

(5.67 x 10-8 W/m2·K4), A is the surface area of the body, T1 is the surface
temperature of the body, and Ts is the temperature of the surroundings
• Heat transfer due to radiation is often negligible until temperatures much
greater than room temperature are reached
• Radiation is the only of the three modes of heat transfer that can occur in a
vacuum (i.e., in the absence of matter, such as in space)
• Examples of heat transfer by radiation include all of the energy that reaches
the earth from the sun and the majority of the energy that is emitted by a
heat lamp
• The emissive power of a blackbody is spread across a spectrum of  ‘s
(Extra information, not part of the exam)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 41

Heat transfer and work in a steam power plant

Steam power plant

• See the shaft work and heat transfer in the steam power plant
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 42
 Power: The Rate of Doing Work
• Speed determines how quickly we can travel a certain
distance → m/s

• Power determines how quickly we can do a certain amount

of work or heat transfer → J/s

• Power = Rate of doing work

• Power denoted by a dot on the variable, or

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 43

 Power: The Rate of Doing Work
• Power = Rate of doing work or heat transfer

• Lightning has a lot of power. However,

it occurs so rapidly (small t) that,
relative to its power, it cannot do a lot
of work:

• Also the rate of heat transfer:

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 44

 Energy Transfer: Work and Heat
Symbol Definition Units
W Work kJ
w Specific work = work per kJ/kg
unit mass, w = W/m

W Power = rate of work* kW (= kJ/s)

Q Heat transfer kJ
q Specific heat transfer kJ/kg
= heat transfer per
unit mass, q = Q/m

Q Rate of heat transfer* kW (= kJ/s)

• NOTE: Rates are denoted by a dot on top of the variable.

• However, sometimes these dots are hard to see in PowerPoint.
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 45
 First law of thermodynamics
• First law of thermodynamics: the total energy is conserved
• Energy can not be destroyed but it can be transformed to a
different form of energy (with a different quality)

Energy
cannot be
created or
destroyed; The increase in the energy of a
it can only piece of steel in an oven is equal to
change the amount of heat transferred to it.
forms.

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 46

 Energy balance
• The net change (increase or decrease) in the total energy of
the system during a process is equal to the difference between
the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the
system during that process:
Ein - Eout = Esystem

The energy change of a system

The work (boundary) done on an during a process is equal to the net
adiabatic system is equal to the work and heat transfer between the
increase in the energy of the system. system and its surroundings.

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 47

 New properties
• Enthalpy: combination of energies

• Entropy: necessary to describe natures behavior

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 48

 Energy Transfer by Mass Transport & Enthalpy
• Flow Work (Pv), work required to push mass across the
system boundary into the open system

Wflow = Fdx = PAdx = Pd(Ax)

= PdV = Pd(vm) = Pvdm [J or kJ]

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 49

 Energy Transfer by Mass Transport & Enthalpy
• Flow Work (Pv), work required to push mass across the
system boundary into the open system
Wflow = Pvdm [J or kJ]

• Energy (due to mass) inside system boundary

dEIN,MASS = (u + ke + pe) dm

• Energy crossing system boundary with mass transfer (energy

inherent to mass + flow work)
dEIN,TOTAL = (u + Pv + ke + pe) dm = (h + ke + pe) dm

• Enthalpy by definition: h = u + Pv (Units: like energy [J/kg])

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 50
 Direction of processes
• Which direction will the process go?

State 1 State 2

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 51

 Direction of processes
• A spontaneous process always goes in one direction

• A spontaneous process always reaches a state of equilibrium

in which ‘things’ (mass, heat) are distributed more evenly
throughout the system

• How to understand and describe this theoretically?

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 54

 Entropy
• In the 19th century a lot of scientist looked for a property that
could be used to describe the direction of processes

• It was Clausius who in 1865 the key concept of thermo-

dynamics discovered: a new thermodynamic property

• The ‘mystery’ property is called entropy (S), [unit J/K]

• Entropy is an extensive property

• It can be made specific: specific entropy s = S/m [unit J/kgK]

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 55

 Entropy
• Entropy is an abstract property that is difficult to understand
and best understood by its use in engineering processes

• Understanding is mostly intuitively based on expected

direction of processes in combination with order and disorder

• Entropy always increases in a spontaneous process and is at

a maximum in equilibrium when disorder is at a maximum

• The second law of thermodynamics is based on entropy

(Class 5)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 56

 Efficiency of energy conversion
• Efficiency indicates how well an energy conversion or energy
transfer process is accomplished

Efficiency of a
water heater:
The ratio of
the energy
delivered to
the house by
hot water to
the energy
supplied to the
water heater.

Efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of

the energy (heat), delivered to the plant
through burning the fuel to the energy
(work / electricity), produced by the plant
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 57
 Efficiency of combustion
• The efficiency of combustion equipment can be characterized
by the combustion efficiency


• Heating value of the fuel: The amount of heat released
when a unit amount of fuel at room temperature is
completely burned and the combustion products are cooled
to the room temperature
1. Lower heating value (LHV): When the water in the
combustion gases leaves as a vapor
2. Higher heating value (HHV): When the water in the
combustion gases is completely condensed and thus the
heat of vaporization is also recovered

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 58

 Efficiency of an energy installation
• Thermal efficiency of a power plant: The ratio of the net
electrical power output to the rate of fuel energy input

• Generator: A device that converts mechanical energy to

electrical energy
• Generator efficiency: The ratio of the electrical power output
to the mechanical power input
• Overall efficiency: Combination of the individual efficiencies

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 59

 Energy: What is it?
• Energy is a word that is very
difficult to grasp into a precise
definition, it is hard to describe
and understand
Energy is any quantity
that changes the state
of a closed system
when crossing the
system boundary
An amount of energy
• For an open system also mass equivalent to 100-megaton
crossing the boundary of the hydrogen bombs is released
system can change the state of when a solar flare occurs
the system

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 60

 Recapitulate class 2
• Energy within system boundaries
• Kinetic / potential / internal energy/total energy
• State and path functions
w = Pdv
• Mechanisms of energy transfer across system boundaries
• Work
• Boundary work, W = PdV or w = Pdv
• P-v diagrams (compare to F-s diagram)
• Mechanical work
• Heat transfer, due to a temperature difference
• Flow work (Pv), energy transfer due to mass transport across the
boundaries of an open system
• The rate of doing work (power) / heat transfer / mass
• First law of thermodynamics (conservation of energy)
• Energy balances, Ein - Eout = Esystem
• New properties
• Enthalpy, h = u + Pv, open systems
• Entropy
• Efficiencies of energy conversion processes
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 61
Next Class 3: Phase-change processes: Water
• How can we get values for properties
• Pure substances
• Physics of phase change processes
• Phase change and P - v - T surface (P-v, T-v, diagrams)
• Liquid - steam - mixture
• Saturation and quality
• Tables / diagrams to obtain
thermodynamica proporties of water
• Specific heat of water

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 62

 Keep in mind: Important formulas
• Specific volume v=V/m [m3/kg] and density =1/v=m/V [kg/m3]
• Volume work w = Pdv or W = PdV
• Enthalpy h = u + Pv, where u is internal energy,
P is pressure
v is volume (and not velocity!)
• Conservation of energy (first law) Ein - Eout = Esystem

• Efficiency

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 63

 Volume Work: An Example
A gas in a piston-cylinder device undergoes a process that
obeys the relation:

• The initial volume is V1

• Determine a relation for the work if
the gas is compressed from P1 to P2

a: for n =1
(= Isothermal as for ideal gas Pv=RT)
b: for n = 1.4

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 64

 Volume Work: An Example
Determine a relation for the work if the gas is compressed from
P1 to P2 for n =1:

a: Solution for n=1

Elaboration of the integral

Used is: P1V1 = P2V2. Use of P1, P2 is

preferred above using V1, V2 as P1, P2
are given. Furthermore C = P1V1 (= P2V2)
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 65
 Volume Work: An Example
Determine a relation for the work if the gas is compressed from
P1 to P2 for n =1.4:

b: Solution for n=1.4

Elaboration of the integral

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 66

 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
A gas in a combustion engine (= a piston-cylinder device) is
compressed from point 1 to point 2 via three different paths

Path a: Isobaric expansion, followed by isochoric cooling

Path b: Expansion with dP/dV constant (=linear expansion)
Path c: Adiabatic expansion with PV5/3=constant

• Draw the paths in a Pv diagram

• Determine the change in internal energy between 1 and 2
• Determine the amount of work and heat transfer for three
different paths

Point 1: P =32 Bar, V = 1 liter Point 2: P = 1 Bar, V = 8 liter

Note: the internal energy is a state function and U = Q + W

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 67

 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
• Pv diagram combustion engine (= a piston-cylinder device)
35
30
Pressure (Bar)

25 a: combination
20 b: linear
15 c: PV5/3
10
5
0
3.5
1.5

2.5

4.5

5.5

6.5

7.5
0.5

Volume (Liter)
Path a: Isobaric expansion, followed by isochoric cooling (red)
Path b: Expansion with dP/dV constant (green)
Path c: Adiabatic expansion with PV5/3=constant (blue)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 68

 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
• Change in internal energy between point 1 and 2?
• The internal energy U is a state function therefore the
difference between U2 and U1 is the same for every path
• Path C is adiabatic which means no heat transfer, Qc = 0
• As U2 – U1 = U = Uc =Wc + Qc → U = Wc

• Path C:
Qc = 0
Wc = 3600 J
U = 3600 J
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 69
 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
•Path A isobaric expansion followed by isochoric cooling
Two different parts to analyze
• Isobaric → constant P → dP = 0
• Isochoric → constant V → dV = 0
• W = PdV therefore the work is 0 for the isochoric part, where
dV = 0, only the first part has to be calculated with constant P
8.10- 3
2
WA,1® 2 = ò PdV = P ò dV =
1
V = 1.10- 3

8.10- 3

32.105 [V ]1.10- 3 = 32.105.(8 - 1)10- 3 = 22400 J

D U = U 2 - U1 = QA + WA,1® 2 = QA + 22400 = 3600 J

• Path A:
QA  U  WA,12  3600  22400  18800 J QA = -18800 J
WA = 22400 J
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 70
 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
• Path B dP/dV is constant → P=a+bV linear expansion
8.10- 3
2
W1® 2 = ò 1
PdV = ò (a + bV )dV =
V = 1.10- 3

8.10- 3 8.10- 3

é 1 2ù éæ 31ö 1 31 ù
êaV + V ú = êçç32 + ÷÷V - . V 2
ú = 11600 J
êë 2 úû1.10- 3 êëèç 7ø÷ 2 7 úû1.10- 3

D U = U 2 - U1 = QB + WB ,1® 2 = QB + 11.6.103 = 3600 J

QB  U  WB ,12  3600  11600  8000 J

• Path B:
QB = -8000 J
WB = 11600 J
Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 71
 Work, Heat transfer, Internal energy: Example
35
• Evaluation 30

Pressure (Bar)
25
• The internal energy change 20
is U = 3600 J for every path 15
as U is a state function 10
5

• Path A: 0
a: combination

3.5

7.5
1.5

2.5

4.5

5.5

6.5
0.5
QA = -18800 J b: linear
WA = 22400 J c: PV5/3 Volume (Liter)
• Path B:
QB = -8000 J • It is seen that the change in internal energy does not
WB = 11600 J depend on the path as U is a state function
• Path C: • The work and heat transfer do depend on the path
• Path C requires the least energy. In the other case
Qc = 0 more work has to be added. This extra work is rejected
Wc = 3600 J as heat by heat transfer (this is why Q is negative)

Class 2: Energy, work, heat, enthalpy, entropy, efficiency GGM Stoffels 72