David Hume (1711-1774) a Scottish philosopher

from Edinburgh and a prime mover in western

philosophy. He was known for his insights on the
psychological basis of human nature where he
posited that passion rather that reason governs
human behaviour. He posited that all human
knowledge is ultimately founded solely in
experience. He perceived that experiences are
derived from internal and external stimulus and they
create impressions on the individual.” Self” and
“one’s mind” according to him is a machine that can be turned on and off as they are only active when
one is conscious.

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) a great contributor in

modern western philosophy. He asserted that it is
the human mind which creates experiences. Human
experiences make up our persona according to
logical effects provided by certain causes. Hence, the
development of individuality and the self is a result
of unique human experiences as it forges significant
learning within the person. According to him the
“inner self” comprises the intellect and psychological
state while the “outer self” is made up of the senses
and the physical self.

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) was a neurologist

from Austria. He established psychoanalysis, a school of thought revolving around the role of
psychological conflicts within the unconscious which is relevant in the development of human behavior
as well as personality. According to Freud, there are three components in the mind that interact to
produce the individual persona. The id (pleasure principle) and the superego (societal norms) are in
constant conflict brought about the differences in their desire. The ego (reality principle) maintains the
balance and harmony within the individual.

Gilbert Ryle (1900-1976) a British philosopher. He

described a distinction between mind and body as the “dogma of the ghost in the machine” where he
explained that there is no hidden entity or ghost called “soul” (also understood as mind or self) inside a
machine called “body”. He asserted that sensations, thoughts and feelings do not belong to a mental
world separate from physical world. Knowledge, memory, imagination and other abilities or disposition
do not reside “within” the mind as if the mind were a space in which these could be stored or located.

If Ryle believed that the concept of a distinct “self” is not real, where do we get our sense of self? Ryle
asserted that it is from our behaviors and actions. For example, you think of yourself as a kind person
because of your acts of kindness. In Ryle’s view, your actions define your own concept of “self” (who you
are).

Paul Churchland (1942) from Vancouver, Canada. He is a

modern-day philosopher whose studies greatly focus on the workings of the brain. He argued that
“nothing but matter exist, heard, touched” in other words, if something can be seen, felt, heard,
touched, or tasted, then it exists. There is nothing beyond the sensory experience. Thus, soul/self does
not exist because it cannot be experienced by the senses. He insisted that the idea of a mind or soul is
not in consonance with the physical changes that have occurred in the hereditary characteristics of the
human species over successive generations.

Maurice Merleau-Ponty was a philosopher and

author. His idea of “self” is an embodied subjectivity. He rejected Cartesian mind-body dualism and
insisted that mind and body are intrinsically connected. He asserted that human beings are embodies
subjectivities, and that the understanding of the “self” should begin from this fundamental fact. He
argued that the body is part of the mind, and the mind is part of the body; that although there could be
stand-alone mental faculty that perceives what the senses experience, it needs the body to receive
these experiences, act on its perceptions and communicate with the external world.