Ancient Greek Alive - Paula Saffire

ANCIENT G R E E K ALIVE
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THIRD EDITION
A N C I E N T G R E E K ALIVE
PAULA 5 A F F I R E A N D CATHERINE FREI5
T H E U N I V E R S I T Y O F NORTH C A R O L I N A P R E S S
CHAPEL HILL AND LONDON

© 1999 The University of North Carolina Press
All rights reserved
Manufactured in the United States of America
Second revised edition copyright © 1992 by Paula Reiner.

Published by The Aldine Press, Ltd.
The paper in this book meets the guidelines for permanence and durability
of the Committee on Production Guidelines for Book Longevity of the
Council on Library Resources.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Saffire, Paula, 1943- Ancient Greek alive / Paula Saffire and Catherine Freis.
—3rd ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 978-0-8078-4800-5 (pbk.: alk. paper)
i. Greek language—Grammar—Problems, exercises, etc.
2. Greek language—Readers. I. Freis, Catherine. II. Title.
PA258.S2 1999 488.2^421—0021—98-46276 CIP
ii 10 09 08 7654
T H I S BOOK IS D E D I C A T E D TO
GOOD S T O R Y T E L L E R S E V E R Y W H E R E .
vu
CONTENTS
Sections Readings
(Cultural Essays in Bold; (Story Titles in Italics;
Organizational Chapters in Capitals) Boldface indicates Greek Original)
Acknowledgments xiii
Words to Students xv
Words to Teachers xvii
Chronology xxii
Map xxiiii
SCRIPTS FOR CLASSES 1

The Alphabet Grows 13
The Doctor Comes 17-18
Greek Writing and Literacy 7
Greek Medicine 20
VOCABULARY REVIEW 25
Lesson 1. The A-Group (f] aSe^q, f] yXoo-rra) 26 Nasrudin and the Letter (Nasrudin) 28-29
Cases
Lesson 2. The O-Group (6 a6EA<pcx;, TO ^l^Xlov) 30 Nasrudin Eats with his Fingers
Neuter Plural Subject + Singular Verb (Nasrudin) 32
The Article (6, f\, TO)
Lesson 3. Accents 33 Your Handwriting is Bad 35
Lesson 4. QUTCK; as Pronoun 36 Heraclitus #1-4 224

6 QUTOC; as "Same" Looking for the Ring (Nasrudin) 38
Accent Review
Nasrudin and Socrates 39
LessonS. Use of Cases 41 Nasrudin Gives Figs (Nasrudin) 44

Double Negatives
Articular Infinitive
Lesson 6. Masculine A-Group Agent Nouns 45 New Testament #1 221

(6 aTpcmd>Tr|<;)
Feminine Nouns with 3 after E,i,p (f\ oiicia)
Feminine O-Group Nouns (f\ 6560
Lesson 7. O-A-O Adjective (npa>To<;,r|,ov) 46 New Testament #2 221

Agreement Feeding the Cloak (Nasrudin) 48
Alpha Privative
Two-Ending Adjectives (a5iKo<;,ov)
Adjective with Noun Understood
Lesson 8. Bound vs. Unbound Position 49 New Testament #3 221

Emphatic CXUTOC (Unbound) The Name Dropper (Nasrudin) 51
Intensive icai
Lesson 9. £,i,p Adjectives (£9<Sio<;,a,ov) 52 Heraclitus #5 224

Indirect Discourse ol yiv lirn^cov 53
6 IJEV / 6 SE
VU1
Sections Readings
Lesson 10. peya<; and noXu<; 54 (Game: Coming Into Baghdad 55)
Uses of EOTI
Participle with -opevcx;
Lesson 11. Comparatives and Superlatives 56 Heraclitus #6-9 224

Genitive of Comparison or Same Case with q Sun or Moon? (Nasrudin) 57
ox; or OTI + Superlative A Lamp for Others (Nasrudin) 57
Two Ionian Philosophers 58
VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 1-59) 60
Lesson 12. Relative Pronoun: &;, q, o 62 Heraclitus #10-12 224

Subordination Supreme Tact (Nasrudin) 64
Lesson 13. oO-rcx;, EKE?VCX;, oSe 65 The Soup of the Soup (Nasrudin) 67
Translationese
Lesson 14. The Third-Group (6/f\ Scupcov 68 Walk Through a Greek Graveyard
TO uScop) #1-3 227
Mosquito's Buzz (Armenian) 70
Lesson 15. Adverbs in -ox;, -ox; 71 Mosquito's Buzz (Nigerian) 72

jjaXa, jjaAAov, (jaAiora + Adjective
Comparison of Adverbs
PARSING 73
Lesson 16. Third Group: One-Syllable Stems 77 Graveyard #4, 13 227, 228
and Family Terms The Oath (Part 1) (Nigerian) 79
|jaXa, paXXov, |jaXiaTa with Verbs
Lesson 17. Third Group Adjectives (Eu6afpcov t ov) 80 Graveyard #11 228
3-A-3 Adjectives (Tra^,Traaa,nav Heraclitus #15-17 225
E!<;, |jia, EV The Oath (Part?) 81
ouSefc;, ouSEîia, ouSEv)
Lesson 18. Participles (paivcov, ouoa, ov) 82 New Testament #4-5 222
(9iXoov,ouaa,ov; 6poov,<iaa,cov) Who is Poor? (Part 1) (Ghana) 84
The New Testament 85
Lesson 19. TIC;, TI / TK;, TI 87 New Testament #6 222

Interrogatives and Indefinites Famous Sayings #1 232
Adverbial Accusative Who is Poor? (Part 2) 89
Articular Infinitive
Lesson 20. Proclitics and Enclitics 90 Who is Poor? (Part 3) 91
Lesson 21. Third-Group Comparatives and Superlatives 92 Heraclitus #13

(ap£ivojv,ov; &piaro<;,r|,ov) Graveyard #12, 27-28
Superlative as "Exceedingly" Who is Wiser? (West African)
Special Words for Pairs
IX
Sections Readings
Lesson 22. Neuter EO- Stem Nouns 95 AiSuicc piv & ocX&wa 95
(TO yEvo<;, TO pepcx;, TO TtXoO
EOT Stem Adjectives (aXq0q<;,e<;)
Lesson 23. Personal Pronouns % Heraclitus #14 225

(eyco, au, etc. New Testament #7 222
EîauTov, ocauTov, sauTov, etc.) Turtle Wings (Part 1) (Nigerian) 97
Lesson 24. cov o5aa, 6v 98 Graveyard #6-7 227

Possessive Adjectives (spcx;, oo<;, etc.) Diogenes #1-2, 5 234
Generalizing pf| Turtle Wings (Part 2) 100
Inner and Cognate Accusatives
Turtle Tales 101
REVIEW OF GRAMMAR and SYNTAX 103
VERB OVERVIEW: ASPECT and TENSE 108
Lesson 25. The Continuous Stem (Xdnoo, E'XEITTOV) 109 The Lazy Man (Part 1) (Armenian) 111
Lesson 26. The E/O Aorist (E A ITTOV) 112 Graveyard #8, 10, 14 227 and 228
Famous Sayings #2 232
The Lazy Man (Part 2) 114
The Bride of Death 115
Lesson 27. The a-Aorist (aa or Aa) 117 Graveyard #5,15-17, 23

(Eirauaa; qyysiXa) 227, 228, 229
The Ingressive Aorist The Blind Men and the Elephant (India)
119
Lesson 28. The Genitive Absolute 120 Famous Sayings #3-4 235
Special Aorists (E'Pqv, EaTqv, fc'yvoov) Diogenes #20 235
Graveyard #19, 24 229
Climbing the Stairs (Nasrudin) 121
Collecting the Fine (Nasrudin) 122
Lesson 29. The Future (XEiyoo) 123 New Testament #8-9 223
The Helping Hand (Nasrudin) 125
Lesson 30. £<*> Verbs (y\\iu>) 126 Diogenes #6 234

The Earth's Treasure 127
(Aesop paraphrased; scrambled fable)
Xpuo&v &v/|p cupciv 127
You're Rightl (Nasrudin) 128
Lesson 31. aco Verbs (TIJJOCO) 129 Graveyard #21 229

Use of npiv Diogenes #3-4 234
The 99% Principle Never Enough (Parti) (Nigerian) 131
Diogenes 132
X
Sections Readings
Lesson 32. Contrary-to-Fact Conditions 133 Heraclitus #18-19 225
Xenophanes #5 226
Graveyard #22 229
Never Enough (Part 2) 135
Lesson 33. Indirect Discourse in Greek and English 136 Heraclitus #20-22 225
The Gnomic Aorist
Lesson 34. More on Indirect Discourse 138 Xenophanes #1-6 226

The Death of the Pot (Nasrudin) 140
PRINCIPAL PARTS 141 Weighing the Elephant (Chinese)
VERB OVERVIEW: MOOD 146
Lesson 35. The Subjunctive 147 Famous Sayings #5 232

(Hortatory, Deliberative, Diogenes #12-13 234-235
Prohibition, Purpose, Fearing) An Old Man's Advice (Part 1) (Siberian)
149
Lesson 36. More Uses of the Subjunctive 150 Graveyard #18 228
Forms of Eipi Diogenes #7-8 234
oc, T£TTI£ 151
The Personal Muse 152
Lesson 37. The Perfect (nEirauKa; XcXoiTra) 154 New Testament #10 223
Graveyard #26 230
Famous Sayings #6 232
Diogenes #21 235
An Old Man's Advice (Part 2) 157
Lesson 38. oaric ryn<;, 6 TU 158 Famous Sayings #7 232

Perfect as Present Tk 5i Pfcx; 159
oT5a
Lesson 39. The Optative 160 Graveyard #34-36 231

(Wish, Potential, in Past Sequence, Famous Sayings #8 232
in Optative Sequence) Diogenes #14 235
Lesson 40. The Series: (Asking, Shrugging, 163 Graveyard #30 230
Relating, and Pointing) Famous Sayings #9 232-233
n6Ai<; and paoiXeuc; Diogenes #9 234
Lesson 41. Optative of elyi 166 Diogenes #10 234

Periphrastic Perfect (Subj. and Opt.)
Optative in Conditions and Indirect Discourse
POETRY REVIEW 168 'AonfSi ptv Zoucov 168

XI
Sections Readings
Lesson 42. The Imperative 169 Graveyard #20, 40 229, 231
Imperative of eipi Diogenes #22 235
REVIEW OF VERB FORMS 171
REVIEW OF CONDITIONS 172
VERB OVERVIEW: VOICE 173 Famous Sayings #10 233
Lesson 43. The Indicative Middle 175 Famous Sayings #11-12 233
Primary and Secondary Endings Diogenes #15-16 235
Deponent Veibs The Gift of Gold (Part 1) (Armenian) 177
The Human City 178
Lesson 44. The Perfect Middle 179 Diogenes #17 235

All Forms of eipf Graveyard #9 227
The Gift of Gold (Part 2) 181
Lesson 45. Middle Imperatives 182 Graveyard #25, 37 230, 231

Impossible Wishes The Gift of Gold (Part 3) 184
U-Stem Nouns
U-A-U Adjectives
Lesson 46. The Middle: All Forms 185 Heraclitus #23 225
Graveyard #38 231
The Gift of Gold (Part 4) 187-188
Lesson 47. The Passive System 189 Famous Sayings #13-14 233
uno + Genitive Graveyard #31-32, 39 230, 231
Verbal Adjectives Ending in -Tcx;,r),6v Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare!
(Part 1) (Yiddish) 191
Lesson 48. The Aorist Passive 192 Graveyard #41 231

Passive Deponents Famous Sayings #15 233
Dative of Agent with Perfect Passive Diogenes #11, 18 235
Did the Tailor? (2) 194
Lesson 49. The Passive Voice: All Forms 195 New Testament #11-12 223
Did the Tailor! (3) 197
Lesson 50. Regular -pi Verbs (SeiKvujji) 198 Did the Tailor*! (4)

xu
Sections Readings
Lesson 51. Contract Verbs: -EO>, -aco, -6co 206 Graveyard #33 230
HIPPOCRATIC OATH (Part 1)
209
Lesson 52. Continuous Forms of ETjJi, EIJJI, and 9nH« 210 Diogenes #19 235
Aorist System of E'Pnv, Eorqv, k'yvcov Famous Sayings #16 233
Verbals ending in -TEo<;ta,ov HIPPOCRATIC OATH (Part 2)
212
Three Medical Symbols 213
Lesson 53. TiOqpu Vripi 214 Graveyard #29 230

Mqviv ftci&c, 6c& 215
TROJAN WOMEN 216
(Hecubafs Speech)
Lesson 54. VaTr|M'» SiSoapi 217 Famous Sayings #17 233

OEDIPUS TYRANNOS 219
(Oedipus and Teiresias)
THESAUROS 221
PARADIGMS 237
PRINCIPAL PARTS 249
GREEK-ENGLISH DICTIONARY 251
ENGLISH-GREEK DICTIONARY 258
INDEX 263
APPENDIX: Embroidery in Conversation 269

xiii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Manuscripts with Sheikh Nasrudin stories go back to the thirteenth century C.E. For a good selection of Sheikh
Nasrudin stories, the reader may consult especially Tales of the Hodja by Charles Downing or "The Subtleties of
Mullah Nasrudin" in The Sufis by Idries Shah. Nasrudin stories belong to an oral tradition that is alive,
constantly being revised and enlarged. Many collections of Nasrudin stories are available in Turkey today.
For permission to use MThe Helping Hand" (originally "The Tax Collector"), taken from The Subtleties of the
Inimitable Mulla Nasrudin, I thank Idries Shah.
For other stories, I thank the following storytellers and publishers:
Chinua Achebe, author of Things Fall Apart, copyright © 1957, from which "Mosquito's Buzz" and "Turtlewings"
were adapted; used with permission of William Heinemann, Ltd.
Kwadwo Anokwa, author of "Who is Poor?," copyright © 1992; used with permission of the author.
Harold Courlander with Ezekiel A. Eshugbayi, Olode the Hunter, copyright © 1968, from which "Never Enough"
(originally "Ijapa Cries for His Horse") and "The Oath" (originally "Ijapa and Yanrinbo Swear an Oath") were
adapted; used with permission of the author.
Mirra Ginsburg, translator and editor of The Kaha Bird: Tales from the Steppes of Central Asia, copyright ©
1971, from which "An Old Man's Advice" (originally "The Golden Bowl") was adapted; used with permission of
the author.
Blanche Serwer, Let's Steal the Moon; illustrated by Trina Schart Hyman, text copyright © 1970 by Blanche L.
Serwer, illustrations copyright © 1970 by Trina Schart Hyman, from which "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?"
was adapted; used with permission of Little, Brown, and Company.
Virginia Tashjian, Three Apples Fell from Heaven, copyright © 1971, from which "The Gift of Gold" and "The
Lazy Man" were adapted; used with permission of the author.
Vicki Kondelik, former Greek student, author of "Your Handwriting Is Bad," written in 1990; used with
permission of the author.
Some stories are told without the citation of an author. Either these stories are known worldwide ("The Blind Men
and the Elephant" and Nasrudin stories) or I was unable to track down the author ("Who is Wiser?" and "How to
Weigh an Elephant").
For the text of AE&UKE ycv a aeXavva, see "AeBuKE pcv a aEAavva: The Pleiades in Mid-Heaven," by Paula
Reiner and David Kovacs, Mnemosyne (1993).
For the excerpt from Sophocles' Oedipus Tyrannos, the following notice is required: Excerpt from "Oedipus Rex"
from SOPHOCLES: THE OEDIPUS CYCLE, AN ENGLISH VERSION by Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald, copyright ©
1949 by Harcourt Brace & Company and renewed 1977 by Cornelia Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald, reprinted by permission
of the publisher. CAUTION: All rights, including professional, amateur, motion picture, recitation, lecturing, public
reading, radio broadcasting, and television are strictly reserved. Inquiries on all rights should be addressed to Harcourt
Brace & Company, Paralegal Group, 6th Floor, 6277 Sea Harbor Drive, Orlando, FL. 32821.
I salute the labor and learning that went into Smyth's Greek Grammar and Watkins's dictionary of Indo-European
roots in back of the American Heritage Dictionary (1971); they were my constant companions as I prepared this
book.
Heartfelt thanks go to my parents, Sylvia and Joseph Grossman, for starting me on the road to competence, and to
Jean Pearson Schoales for teaching me ancient Greek.
Paula Saffire
Figure 1. Scene from an Athenian school, with pupils receiving instruction in music, writing, and poetry. Line
drawing of half of a fifth century Attic kylix by Duris.
XV
SOME W O R D S TO S T U D E N T S
This book was inspired by an experience I had in my eighth month of graduate school: I "clicked
in." For the first time in my life reading Greek seemed natural: I did it without the sense of
mentally decoding. Of course I still needed to look up words and struggle over hard sentences.
But there were some sentences I could read automatically, as I read in my own language.
The reason this happened was that I was reading Greek, happily, about eight hours a day,
because of Harvard's most powerful teaching tool, the Reading List. (Read all of Aeschylus, all
of Sophocles, all of Homer, seven by Euripides, and so on.) I had begun taking Greek because
I fell in love with Plato and wanted to read him in the original, but in the end I fell in love with
almost everything I read in ancient Greek.
Years later I began teaching Greek myself. I taught with sentences and paradigms, the way I had
been taught by the most inspiring teacher of my life, Jean Pearson Schoales. But soon I decided
I wanted to give my students more of a sense of ease, the sort of ease I had when I "clicked in."
How? The only way was to provide lots of easy Greek. My aim was that there should be a
sense of naturalness, that students would be relaxed reading ancient Greek, and feel more as if
they were sitting down with a letter from a friend than taking a math exam.
Since there was almost nothing easy in original ancient Greek, readings would have to be made
up. What should I use? Being a purist I was unwilling to water down or otherwise distort Greek
material. I admired the Greek texts for their beauty and vigor, and did not want to tamper in the
least. What then? I went to the children's library-my children were young then and I was
reading stories aloud to them-and ransacked the shelves, picking out any stories I thought were
funny, intriguing, or both. These I translated into ancient Greek.
At the time I picked the Sheikh Nasrudin stories because I thought they were intensely amusing—
as I hope you will. Only later, hearing a talk by a meditation teacher from India telling stories for
enlightenment, did I realize that Sheikh Nasrudin was a Sufi teaching figure! As for the other
stories, they are at least interesting. I hope you will be propelled forward as you read, wanting to
know more, as I still am when revising.
So much for explanation. All that is left is my good wish: May you learn with joy.
This was my purpose in writing the bode.
Paula Saffire
Butier University, 1999
Figure 1. Scene from an Athenian school, with pupils receiving instruction in music, reading, and poetry. Line
drawing of half of a fifth century Attic kylix by Duris.
xvu
SOME W O R D S TO T E A C H E R S
Ancient Greek Alive has been used since 1972. It offers you, as a teacher, a textbook that is a
great student favorite and fun to teach, imparting a solid and thorough mastery of introductory
Greek.
The book approaches the learning of Greek traditionally. Students are expected to master and
generate paradigms, explicate grammar and syntax, and translate from Greek to English and
(occasionally) from English to Greek.
At the same time the book has some unusual features that enhance student learning. In particular,
it assumes that you are willing to use ancient Greek conversation for the first two weeks of class.
This will take some boldness on your part, which will be amply rewarded by student enthusiasm.
We present below the features of the book. We would be glad to talk to you (or write or e-mail)
should you wish further discussion.
Hearing and Speaking
Students find the conversational method the most natural and least intimidating way to begin
ancient Greek, and they always remember what they learned through speaking. You may wish to
continue with conversation beyond the first nine classes (although, except for occasional
moments, we do not). Our students always regret when we drop conversation, and far into the
second semester they tell us they wish we were still speaking Greek.
In the first nine days of the course students learn ancient Greek through conversation, a story, a
poem that they memorize, and a skit that they read and perform many times.
Having students converse first and then read what they have already heard (and possibly spoken)
allows them to work on the skill of converting sign to sound without at the same time figuring
out new meanings. Sudents are reassured by their first readings and become confident and
competent at reading Greek aloud.
The oral approach allows students to learn a large vocabulary in a short time without strain. This
means they can be reading passages of some complexity early in the course without the burden of
copious glosses.
Most importantly, the dialogues of the unit introduce students to material that will be covered
more systematically in the rest of the year: gender, case, declension, mood, tense, aspect, -co
verbs, contract verbs, -pi verbs, and deponents, as well as accents, enclitics, and even meter.
Because students have already encountered these features of Greek in speaking and reading, they
are well prepared to learn them systematically during the remainder of the course.
Some student comments:
Everything I learned by speaking I remember.
It's a wonderful technique, to learn so much in the first two weeks and then spend the rest
of the time discovering all the things you already sort-ofknow. It was very scary, coming
in every day and having to pay such close attention and learning with our ears. I'm not an
auditory person, and I felt panicked, but it was worth it in the end. It made everything that
was to come later seem less threatening and overwhelming.
It's comforting to see that nothing will sneak up on you. When approaching a new
chapter you can honestly say that you've seen the material, even if only in one word.
XV111
Scripts for classroom conversation are provided. They give a "skeleton" for conversation and
make it easy for teachers who have never attempted to "speak" Greek to do so; the format and the
responses are already written. As you become more comfortable, you may wish to expand upon
the scripts. (For a sample of expansion, see "Embroidery in Conversation," pp. 269-271.)
We recommend that you write transliterations as necessary on the board from the first day on,
using any system that suits you. On the third day you will teach the alphabet and can begin
writing in Greek script.
Some students find auditory learning difficult. They need to be told that they are acquiring
important skills and that the work of the course will soon be primarily visual. If you are inclined
to make tapes of the scripts, students enjoy practicing with them.
It is possible to use Ancient Greek Alive without conversation by teaching the alphabet first and
then reading all scripts with your students. But we hope that you will try the method we have
outlined above. Although neither of us was taught Greek in this fashion, we both find it easy
and worth doing because of the high level of student enthusiasm and learning.
Grammar and Syntax
Once students complete the first conversational section, the lessons that follow present the forms
and concepts of classical Greek. The presentation is meant to be clear, logical, subtle, and
thorough.
The book falls into two nearly equal parts. The first part teaches all important noun, pronoun and
adjective systems, ending with a comprehensive review chapter. Students have a sense of
closure and mastery that sets them up well for the rest of the course.
The second part presents the Greek verb system. It has been said that the structure of the Greek
verb is a great achievement of intellectual order, like the Divine Comedy or Newton!s Principia.
This book makes great effort to insure that students grasp that structure. As each new piece of
the paradigm is given, it is shown embedded in the system of what has already been learned. In
this way old material is constantly being reviewed as new material is learned. You can see how
intensely systematic the verb presentation is by glancing at the format of the verb chapters and the
schemata (pp. 154, 166, 173, and 200).
From the very beginning (even in the oral introduction) attention is paid to verb aspect versus
tense. That attention is never dropped. Only after students are fully comfortable with the -co
verb do they go on to learn the full pattern of contract and -pi verbs in a systematic way.
Because their control of the -co verb is secure, they can more easily absorb what differs.
Exercises
Contained within each chapter are short exercises that immediately follow the presentation of new
materials. These lead students to learn by small, ordered steps, mastering one bit of information
before they go on to the next. A chapter will typically introduce new forms, give a short exercise
on the forms, provide further information, and then give an exercise that asks them to use that
information, focusing on features that are likely to be problematic.
Exercises are supplied for every new item. These may be done during class or assigned for
homework. We have included more than you might want to use so that you can choose
according to your preference.
Stories
Ancient Greek Alive has an abundance of stories composed in ancient Greek for the sake of
teaching Greek grammar. (As far as we know, it was the first ancient Greek textbook in the
United States to use this method, in 1972 as Beginning Ancient Greek by Paula Reiner.) The
search for stories, drawn from world folklore traditions, was described in "Words to Students."
Stories were selected for their charm, interest, and humor. The result is a set of stories that
students love, remember, and even retell to their children. This is because the stories have
XIX
dramatic shape and are complete as small units, drawing the students to work eagerly through
them. Their folkloric form allows a natural repetition, which helps students learn even difficult
vocabulary and constructions. Students sometimes laugh out loud in class at a story.
The stories are easy in the beginning. As time goes cm they become harder, but gradually, so that
students are never overwhelmed. The last three stories (spread over many chapters) are quite
challenging. In fact, when students finally come to lengthy passages in the original Greek, they
are relieved to find that the first, the Hippocratic Oath, is syntactically easier than these stories.
They are ready to make the transition to the Greek authors.
The Thesaurus
Ancient Greek Alive contains copious short passages of original Greek. These are found in the
Thesauros or "Treasure House," a section of the book which has selections from the New
Testament, Heraclitus, Xenophanes, Diogenes, various sayings by the famous and not-so-
famous, and a group of lively Greek epitaphs and thoughts about death. Almost every chapter
has some reading from the Thesauros for inspiration and a change of pace.
The Thesauros readings have been gathered in a separate section of the book to allow for
elasticity in timing. You may do them in the order indicated, or you might skip some readings
and catch up later, as time allows. Bold print indicates the relevant grammatical points. Students
will need your help in doing the Thesauros readings. Hearing the words "Open your Thesauros"
should be a happy occasion for you and your students, which means you should not test on
Thesauros passages. (And most will be too difficult to assign for homework.)
Vocabulary
Students acquire a substantial vocabulary-over 600 words. The conversational opening of the
course primes them to pick up Greek vocabulary with greater ease than other methods. And they
encounter familiar words over and over again in the stories.
Vocabulary is introduced in the reading passages so that students read a word before learning it,
rather than the other way around. Thus students are learning the method they will be using in
their subsequent reading courses.
To help students master the vocabulary and to underline the importance of this work, there are
major vocabulary reviews that organize all new words by category.
Memorization of Poems
Students are asked to memorize sections of poems from the lyric poets. These highlight
important grammatical items. The Anacreontic "It is difficult to love." introduces them to
articular infinitives. After learning the opening of Sappho 31, they find 01 pcv, oi 5e clauses
natural. We ourselves still remember all the poetry we learned in first-year Greek. And students
have told us that it is wonderful to be able to recite and discuss these poems if someone should
ask them why they are learning Greek. (All the poetry can be found at a glance on p. 168.)
Cultural Essays
Short essays, all keyed to something the students have read, are found at intervals throughout the
book. They are not meant to provide a full overview of Greek culture, but rather they present a
series of openings to engage students with some important ideas and to draw them into further
Greek studies. Some themes are Greek medicine, lyric poetry, the pre-Socratic philosophers of
Ionia, a comparison of Nasrudin and Socrates, and Greek turtle tales. By the end of the year
students who have worked through the essays, along with the map and chronological outline,
will have some sense of the flow of Greek culture from the Bronze to the Hellenistic Age.
Terminology and Method
The book attempts to present material in accordance with the way that students learn best. That is
why, in a book with fifty-four lessons, we have also included ten organizational chapters
including four vocabulary reviews and two verb overviews. We know that only by consolidating
information at intervals do students truly learn a language.
XX
Throughout the textbook, we are willing to change customary teaching patterns if students will
learn better. For example, we teach uncontracted forms first because our experience is that
contracting makes better sense to students when they are acquainted with uncontracted forms.
Similarly, the declension order is nominative followed by accusative because nominative and
accusative forms are often the same or similar and it is easier for students to learn them if they see
them together.
The following is a list of some of the principles of our approach.
Anticipate the system. Grammatical concepts and forms should be used if possible before
they are introduced systematically. This is the key behind the oral introduction. For instance,
students can remember that -coq makes an adverb far better by using aXqGcoc; repeatedly before
they actually learn how to form adverbs. Students "experience," as it were, the new form, so
that systematically learning it later is much easier. This principle is deliberately applied
throughout the book. For example, £'6qKe will be given as an isolated vocabulary item in a story
before it is embedded in a system. Or the concept of the indirect question will be given for a
single term (noTepov versus onoTspov) before it is applied to a whole chart's worth of words.
Be gradual and repeat important information. Difficult concepts and systems are
introduced gradually. For instance, OUTOV is introduced first as a pronoun. In later chapters, the
pronoun use is reintroduced and OUTOC; as same is added. In a still later chapter, the emphatic use
of auToc; as himself is presented. At this time, and again in the vocabulary for a story, and yet
again later in a vocabulary review, students are reminded of the three uses of auroq.
Encourage punting. We encourage students to practice making educated guesses.
Throughout the textbook students are asked to "punt," that is to guess at something unknown
based on patterns that they have already encountered. Thus, students are constantly being
prepared for the work of second-year Greek.
Make use of translationese. We feel it is more important for first-year students to try to
convey the structure of the Greek than to translate into graceful English. We have developed an
artificial language called "translationese." Students are asked, for example, to translate oSs as
"this here" versus oGToc; as "this." They are asked to differentiate aspect, to use "was Xing" or
"used to X" for the imperfect indicative and "X'd" for the aorist.
The point of translationese is twofold: (1) it demands that students be precise and (2) it enables
students to telegraph their recognition of verb forms. It is far faster and more pleasant to say "/
will have X'd my" than to say "future perfect middle, first person singular." We believe that this
is an important tool for helping students truly get a "feel" for ancient Greek. Rather than being
hampered by this demand for precision, students enjoy it. They "get" the idea that language is
not a one-to-one substitution of vocabulary items but a different way of perceiving the world.
Use self-evident terminology. Important grammatical terms are taught. But we try to stay
away from terms which are not self-evident. For example, we speak of the "next-to-last" syllable
and not ihepenultima, the "if-clause" and not the protasis. We always give the traditional term so
students will not be at a loss if they encounter these terms later.
Timing and the Final Readings
The book takes about two semesters to complete, with judicious cuts. If there is not time to
complete the last four lessons (in which the irregular -|ji verbs are given, along with some
original Greek selections), students will end the year knowing the regular verb paradigm as well
as the forms of SeiKvupu They can pick up the other - jji forms the following year.
The readings for the final lessons are in the original Greek, for you to use if you wish. We chose
the Hippocratic Oath because it provokes a host of interesting questions about medicine and
ethics. We chose Hecuba's lament from Euripides' Trojan Women because students are
intrigued by its contemporary relevance. We end with Sophocles' dialogue between Oedipus and
Teiresias because no translation conveys its pith and speed- something which students will
realize even after a single year of Greek.
XXI
Contributions
This new edition has been thoroughly revised, with the following additions: copious exercises
throughout the chapters; a chapter and multiple assignments on parsing; a graduated series of
schemata on the Greek verb; two major review chapters; and cultural essays, which help students
to incorporate the readings and the study of Greek into a broader perspective.
In this edition of Ancient Greek Alive Catherine Freis composed the cultural essays and most of
the exercises, while Paula Saffire wrote the lessons, composed the stories, and collected the
readings in the Thesauros.
A number of people have helped to make the book what it is today:
Joel Farber gave many useful suggestions for the 1991 edition.
Tim Long gave encouragement and corrections for the current edition.
Lew Bateman welcomed it at the University of North Carolina Press.
Pam Upton of the University of North Carolina Press helped shape its format
The new edition has been greatly improved by David Kovacs, who, with his eagle eye, detected
errors great and small.
We hope you, too, will help improve the book by sending corrections and suggestions.
Finally, we can never thank our students enough, for their patience, zest, and good cheer.
At Butler University special thanks go to: Bert Steiner, for helpful advice and consenting to have
his office occupied (invaded is more like it) by Paula Saffire; to David Waite for the map and
other drawings; to all the people who helped with computer problems; and to first-year students
Alison Beard, Bobbi Jo Goss, and Spike Wilson, who suffered through the revision process,
sometimes trying out three versions of the same chapter.
At Millsaps College special thanks go to: Janice Holman and Richard Freis, as well as Winston
Barham, Tom Summerford, and Ashley Sulser.
Dedication
We confess: we have tried to write a book with charm. We did this out of love for the great
Greek authors. We lay this book on their collective lap. We hope they smile, finding it a key
worthy to unlock their texts.
And to you, too, we offer this book. We hope that it will increase the ease and enhance the joy
of your teaching.
Paula Saffire, Butler University, 1999

Catherine Freis, Millsaps College, 1999
XX11
C H R O N O L O G Y OF A U T H O R S AND EVENTS
Bronze Age Greece

2000-1400 Bronze Age Minoan civilization on Crete
1500-1200 Bronze Age Mycenaean civilization
Iron Age Greece

1200-800 Gradual rebuilding after the collapse of Mycenae
Archaic Greece
800-700 Homeric epic poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey, composed
Alphabet introduced
Olympic games instituted (786)
Geometric pottery
700-600 Rise of lyric poetry: Archilochus, Sappho, Alcaeus, Mimnermus

Solon, Athenian statesman and poet
Xenophanes, Ionian philosopher
Corinthian Pottery; Archaic Sculpture
600-500 Aesop, Fables

Anacreon and Anacreontic poetry
Heraclitus, Ionian philosopher
Classical Greece
500-400 Democracy in Athens
Persian Wars (490 and 480): Greece repels Persia
Parthenon begun (447)
Pelopponesian Wars (431-404): Sparta defeats Athens
Aeschylus (ca. 524-456), tragedian

Sophocles (ca. 496-406), tragedian
Euripides (ca. 485-406), tragedian
Aristophanes (ca. 447-386), comedian
Socrates (469-399), philosopher

Sophists: Gorgias, Protagoras
Hippocrates, (ca. 469-399), physician
Herodotus, (ca. 484-425), historian

Thucydides, (ca. 460-400), historian
400-323 Plato (ca. 439-347), philosopher

Diogenes (ca. 400-325), Cynic philosopher
Aristotle (ca. 384-322), philosopher
Phillip of Macedon (ca. 382-336)
Alexander the Great of Macedon (356-323)
Hellenistic Greece
0-100 C. E. New Testament written
— XCUpSTE, <A> 91X01
"XcupE, & 9^€
—XaTpe, J> 9tXq

1
Script #1*
< na VTS <; a |ja > all together

(aG0i<;> again
ou yiyvcbaKO|jev aXXqXouc;.
y iyvGoaKco|jev aXXqXouc;.
yiyva>aKO|JEV
Endings are important. Listen for them.
—TO 6vo|j6( |jou eoTiv.

~TI EOTI TO ovopa aou; Xeys |jor TI EOTI TO ovopa oou;
<E5ye> good! well done!
~TI EOTI TO ovojja auTou; Xsys |joi.

~T( eoTi TO 6vo(ja auTqc;; Xeye jjoi. Xeys r)|jTv.
--oTo0a;
--OUK oT8a.
This is a day for getting acquainted. By asking and answering in Greek, learn the names of
your partners in this enterprise of learning ancient Greek.
The ancient Greek you are learning is called Attic Greek. It is the Greek that would have been
spoken in Athens in the fifth century B.C.
Meet or telephone a classmate and have a conversation in ancient Greek,

or teach someone who does not know Greek what you learned today.
*To teachers: See Words to Teachers on the use of scripts, particularly on the importance of transliterating Greek sounds
during the first few classes. Students are not expected to read scripts beforehand, though they will read them after class
starting on the fourth day. Boxes contain important information for rapid review. Usually you will use a script a day.
Exception: the lesson on the Greek alphabet may take two days.
Script # 2
-yiyvcboKGO OE. (To another student) Kai yiyva>OKa> OE. (To another) Kai
yiyvcboKoo OE. <S> 9iXe, yiyvcboKEic; JJE; --Ah (with a sigh to the class),
6 — yiyvcboKEi pe. ~Kai ou, & cpiXq, yiyvcboKEic; JJE; "Ah, q —
yiyvoboKEi JJE.
opaco CE. (To another student) Kai opaoo OE. (To another) Kai opaco QE.
opaEic; |JE; ~AH, (toclass) 6 — opaEi (JE. --Kai au, opaEic; |JE; -Ah (to
class) q — opaEi JJE.
—£> 9iXr| (drawing a turtle on the board), opaEic; TQV xôbvqv; opaEic; auTqv;
XsyE f)|jTv. opaEic; auTqv; Kai yiyvcbaKEic; aurqv; XsyE r]|jTv.
~cl) 9iXE, opaEic; JJE; (Hiding face behind a paper) Kai vuv opaEic; |JE; ouxi.
vuv oux opaEic; JJE.
ou yivycboKCA)
yiyvcboKOuai Tqv x^Xcbvqv A icai B
OUK ofea
yiyvcboKOuaiv auTqv Kai A <ai B
oux opa^
(XE, EXCO 6vo|ja. <Demonstrate

yXcoTTav,
6vo|ja. Kai ou, EXEIC; 6vo|ja; TI EOTI TO ovojja oou;

"TO OVO|Ja |JOU EOTIV. ~TI EOTI TO OVO(JC( OOUJ
>/ >/
6 — EXEI 6vo|ja; vq TOV Aia EXEI 6vo|ja. -~Kai f] — ovo|ja;
f) TQV Kuva EXEI 6vo|ja. ~Kai q — Kai 6 — E'XOUOIV 6vo|ja.
vq TOV Aia by Zeus
vq Tqv KUVO by the dog
I EXCO yiyvcboKco opaco

You *X«K yiyvcooKEic; opaeiq
He, she, it € X E. yiyvcboKEi opaei
They exouoi(v) yiyvcooKouoi(v) opaouoi(v)
Learn the three ways of negating: ou, OUK, ouy. How do you say these sentences in Greek?
I know the turtle. You have the turtle. (S)he sees the turtle.
I don't know the turtle. You don't have the turtle. They don't see the turtle.
3
Script # 3
-£> 9iXE, XsyE |joi TO 6vo|ja auTqc;. Kai X£yE |joi TO ovopa auTou. Kai
aXXo ovopa. (Toclass) noXXa 6v6(jaTa XsyEi.
Accent can't be further

than 3 syllables back.
(writing a on the board),
(writing B on the board)'
ypa(j|ja a letter ToOTO this

TO ypa(j|ja the letter TOUTO TO ypappa this letter
-Kai TIC; yiyvcboKEi TOUTO TO ypajj|ja; (y) Kai TIC; yiyvcbaKEi

TOUTO TO ypajjfja; <8> (toclass) noXXa ypa|j|jaTa yiyvcbaKEi.
aXqScoc; (truly), noXXa ypappaTa yiyvcoaKEi.
-<L 9IXQ, yiyvcboKEic; noXXa ypa|j|jaTa; aXr|8coc; yiyvcbaKEic; navTa

Ta ypappaTa; TIC; yiyvcboKEi navTa Ta ypa|j|jaTa;
/ noAAa ypa|j|jaTa many letters

who?
navTa ypappaTa all letters
TI what?
navTa TO ypappaTa all the letters
•Kai vuv, £> 9iXE (writing rest of alphabet), TI TTOIEGO; ypa9GO ypappaTa.
ypa9co noXXa ypappaTa. ypa9co navTa TO ypappaTa.
cpcoToco €pd>Tqpa inner object
ypa9co ypappa cf. I sing a song
•Eycb (pointing to self) E0EXco ypa9Eiv Ta ypappaTa. --Kai au, £> 9iXq,
E0EXEic; ypa9Eiv Ta ypappaTa; aXqScbc;; aXqOcbc; E0EXEic; ypa9Eiv
Ta ypappaTa; --Kai ou, cb 9iXE, E0EXEic; ypa9Eiv TO ypappaTa;
navTa Ta ypappaTa; EuyE. ypa9CA>pEV navTa Ta ypappaTa.
The Greek Letters
c >
Note and
Capitals: A B T A E Z H G I K A M N E O n
P I T Y 0 X Y O
Names of the letters: alpha, beta, gamma, delta, epsilon, zeta, eta, theta, iota, kappa, lambda,
mu, nu, xi, omicron, pi, rho, sigma, tau, upsilon, phi, chi, psi, omega.
Small letters were not used by the ancient Greeks. (They were developed by scribes in medieval
times.) They are used because they are easier to read than capital letters. They are shown with
lines so you can learn what part of a letter fills the central space and what goes above or below.
There is a letter digamma (F) that dropped out of the Greek alphabet It was pronounced "w"
and, like vav of the Hebrew alphabet, was the sixth letter. We can tell that some words had a w
sound, although the Greek names give no indication. For example, oTvoq was fd\vos--wine in
English. By the time the f dropped out of the alphabet, the numbering system was already fixed.
So that even after there was no longer a letter F , that sign was used for #6, and £, although it
was the 6th letter now, was used for # 1 and so on.
o is given the special sign q at the end of a word.
indicates an h sound or "rough breathing" and ' indicates the lack of an h sound or "smooth
breathing." (You can consider the marks as h and non-h.)
Originally both the epsilon sound and the eta sound were represented by E, and q was used for the h sound-as you
might guess by the capital letter (H). But at some point the Greeks decided to use the letter q for the eta sound and
needed to indicate the h sound in another way. (It would be best if modern editors dispensed with the non-h sign
altogether, as an eye-saving measure. After all, we depart in other ways from ancient Greek practice, when we
have found improvements, printing Greek with small letters and a space between words. Future editors take note!)
Every word that begins with a single vowel, a diphthong (vowel combination pronounced as a
single sound), or an p will have a rough or smooth breathing mark. The mark goes over the
second vowel of a diphthong and does not affect alphabetical order.
€OTI - is ou - not fboSoc; - rose
There are three marks indicating pitch: ) acute-pitch up

) circumflex-pitch up and back down
) grave—slight rise in pitch
(or no change at all, as some scholars believe)
If you look over the scripts you will find the rough or smooth breathing marks in combination
with other marks showing pitch, which will be explained on p. 12. A breathing mark is written
to the left of an acute (') or grave ( ^ ) and under a circumflex (*).
TO ovopa o oiSa. Say all together the name which I know.
Name of Letter Pronunciation
o alpha 0X90 hot (when short), far (held longer)
p beta PnTa back
y gamma yaMM a go (going before y, K, x> £)

8 delta SIX TO dig
e epsilon e yiXov let
(literally
baree)
t zeta £qja zd as in wisdom or dz as in adze

(evidence goes both ways)
n eta r*JTa gate

e theta OQTO thank (or at home, see p. 6)
• iota ICOTO big (when short), beet (when long)

K kappa Karma skin
X lambda XaM(35a let
M mu MU met
V nu vu net
xi £7 axe
*
O omicron o M^pov potential (not emphasized, but not a schwa)

(literally
little o)
n pi nT spy
P rho fbco ring (or trilled)
o, <; sigma oTyMoi sing
T tau Tau sting
U upsilon 5 yiXov French lune (held short or long)
(literally
bareu)
9 phi 9? fill (or up hill, see p. 6)

X chi x^ Scottish loch (or fozdt home, p. 6)
V psi yT M/jser
CO o -mega ^> M^ya awe
(literally
big o)
Vowels
Greek may be considered to have five basic vowel sounds, as English does. A vowel is long or
short depending on the time it takes to pronounce it Greek a, i, and u are used for both long and
short sounds. Epsilon and omicron are always short (as their names indicate), while eta and
omega are always long (as the name omega indicates). So there are short a, e, i, o, u and long
a, q, i, GO, u.
There are varying schools of thought on how to pronounce these vowels. (The differences are
mainly over the eta and omega sounds.) What matters for speaking is that all vowel sounds be
distinct and that eta and omega be recognizably long.
I Exercise a: Read aloud:
1. OGOjja oq|ja. 2. vuv yiyvcooKco TO ovojja. 3. rroXXa cpcoTqpaTa Xcyco. 4. k'
Diphthongs
Diphthongs are vowels pronounced together. These important combinations may occur:
ai aisle ei weigh, gate 01 noise
au sauerkraut eu (slurred e-u ) ou group
qu (slurred q-u)
I Exercise P: Read aloud:
1. oi 91X01 ou cpiAouoi TauTa Ta Tpaujjara. 4. xaip£iS» & 9iXe.

2. ai 91X011 ou 91X0601 TauTa Ta Tpaupara. 5. cupioKEi TOUC; naTSac;;
3. 6 ScuTepoq 9iXo<; ou |3ouX€Tai Xeyciv. 6. yiyvcooicouoiv aXXqXouc;.
Aspiration
In ancient Greek, as in Hindi (and Chinese) today, pairs of sounds could be distinguished according to whether or
not there was breath "blown in" with them. These are the pairs:
unbreathed breathed
K X
TT <p
T e
In English we normally give extra breath to initial t, p, k but not when they come after another consonant.
Compare top and stop, pin and spin, Kate and skate. (Say these words with your hand in front of your mouth, or
with a mirror. You will find a difference in breath.) In order to pronounce the Greek pairs as the Greeks did, we
would have to add extra breath to every x» 9* and 8 and take away extra breath from every initial K, TT, and T.
This is too difficult for most English speakers, especially the taking away; and when done incorrectly it makes the
Greek sounds hard to differentiate. Therefore, we choose to be faithful to the spirit rather than the letter, in
recommending pronunciations that are clear and unambiguous (and related to modern Greek pronunciation) but not
authentic: x as in loch, 9 as infill, 8 as in thank. The alternative is to pronounce the unaspirated member of
the pair totally without breath and the aspirated member as in back home, up hill, or at home.
?pyot -Learn the alphabet by heart.

ftiome oik) ~Write the alphabet in small letters 5 times, in capitals once.
-Write the following words in alpha-betical order.
TToiq|ja ovopa £av06<; 'OKEavoc; 0eo<;
XaTpc opaco xa^€TT^v yiyvcooKO)
-Translate this sentence. Look words up in the dictionary at the back of the book.
apyupiov.
7
GREEK WRITING AND LITERACY
Figure 1. A flute player, identified on this Corinthian (ca. 700 B.C.E.) vase as Polyterpos, accompanies a group of young dancers led by the
leaping Pyrrhias. Courtesy of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens.
The Phoenicians with Cadmus brought arts and letters to the Greeks, since as I think the Greeks did not have them before
but the Phoenicians were first to use them. With the passage of time they changed the form as well as the sound of the letters
... rightly calling them Phoenician after those who had introduced them into Greece.
Herodotus v.58
The alphabet that you are now learning is one of the great inventions of human history. Modern
scholars, as well as ancient sources, acknowledge that the Greek alphabet was adapted from the
alphabet of an eastern Mediterranean people, the Phoenicians. Their alphabet, consisting of only
twenty-two consonantal signs, was a sharp improvement over former systems of writing that
represented syllables rather than individual sounds. Such systems, because of their multiplicity,
required a professional class of scribes. The economy of the Phoenician alphabet, however, made
reading and writing an easily mastered skill.
The Phoenician letters developed out of pictographs and represented objects whose initial sound
gave the value of the letter. For instance, aleph means ox and beth means house in Hebrew, a
Semitic language related to Phoenician. When the Greeks began to use the Phoenician alphabet, they
kept many of the names, even though the names, such as alpha and beta, have no meaning in Greek.
The Greeks not only borrowed the Phoenician alphabet, they also improved it. The key Greek
contribution was the use of letters to represent vowel sounds. Phoenician, like Hebrew, did not have
letters for vowels (aleph in Semitic languages is not a vowel) but used a system of dots above and
below their letters to indicate vowels. Thus, the Greek alphabet was the first alphabet to reproduce
fully the sound of every spoken word.
This alphabet, the basis of our own (with slight modifications by the Romans), was not the first form
of writing in Greece. Several different scripts have been found in Bronze Age Minoan and
Mycenaean Greece and one, Linear B, has even been deciphered as an early form of Greek. But for
about 400 years, after the collapse of the Mycenaean civilization in 1200 B.C.E., writing seems to
have been forgotten.
8
Scholars are not sure when the Phoenician alphabet was first introduced into Greece or when the
Greek adaptations were made, but by the mid-eighth century (about 740 B.C.E.) the Greek alphabet
was in place. Eighth century Greece exploded with cultural energy: the powerful and intricate art of
Geometric pottery, the epic poetry of the Iliad and the Odyssey, and the institution of the Olympic
games all coincided with the introduction of the Greek alphabet.
At first, Greek writing was multidirectional and could be written top to bottom or bottom to top, or
left to right or right to left. One such multidirectional form of writing in Greece is called
boustrophedon ("as the ox plows"), when horizontal was left to right in one line and then turned, like
an ox plowing a field, right to left in the next, continuing to turn direction with each new line. Figure
1 shows boustrophedon writing in vertical rather than horizontal turns. Sometimes, early Greek
writing was entirely right to left, the direction that Phoenician and Hebrew letters eventually adopted.
Soon, however, Greek writing became fixed with a horizontal script in a left to right direction.
The standardization of writing was followed by a widespread literacy that was encouraged by Greek
city-states. Reading and writing were taught in schools and, from the evidence on a number of Greek
vases, girls seem to have been literate (Figure 2). Schools were usually in private homes, gymnasia,
hired halls, or the open air. Education, of course, consisted of more than writing and reading:
mathematics, music (including dancing), and sports were also part of the curriculum.
Figure 2. A girl carrying her writing tablets and stylus pen is led, perhaps to school. Attic cup (ca. 460 B.C.E.), Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers
Fund 1906. (06.1021.167)
9
Script # 4
-<o 9iXr| (writing a on the blackboard), TI TTOIECO; --ypo^co ypa|j|ja.
yiyvcoaKEic; TOUTO TO ypa|j(ja; yiyvcoaKEic; TOUTO;
•Kal vuv, <L 9iXE, (writing alphabet) TI TTOIEGO; —-ypo^co ypa|j|jaTa.
yiyvcoaKEic; TauTa Ta ypa|j|jaTa; yiyvcoaKEic; TauTa;
TO ypa|j|ja TOUTO TO ypappa TOUTO

Ta ypa(j|jaTa TauTa Ta ypappaTa TOUTO
ypa|j|jaTa (JiKpa. ^ 9iXr|, yiyvGoaKEic; Ta ypa(j|jaTa

Ta (JiKpa; XsyE qjjTv yiyvGoaKEic; Ta (JiKpa ypa|j|jaTa;
-<ai vuv avayiyvGOQKGO Ta ypa|j(jaTa. (Reading alpha, beta, etc.)
avayiyvGOQKGo navTa Ta ypapjjaTa Ta (JiKpa. Kai au, cl> 9iXE,
avayiyvGoaKEiv Ta ypa(j|jaTa;
TO [JiKpa Both mean:

TO ypa|j|jaTa TO rfe small letters avayiyvcooKCO read
•Eya> (pointing to self) E0EXGO avayiyvcooKEiv Ta ypa|j|jaTa. Kai au, E0EXEi<;

avayiyvGoaKEiv Ta ypa|j|jaTa; aXq6Goc; E0EXEK; avayiyvcoaKEiv
Ta ypa|j|jaTa; EuyE. avayiyvGoaKGO|JEV Ta ypa(j|jaTa. HCXVTEC; a|ja.
i au, a) 9iXq, EXEIC; ypa9Eiv Ta (JiKpa ypajjjjaTa; EXEIC; ypa9Eiv

navTa Ta ypa(j|jaTa Ta (JiKpa; XEyE n
(BipAiov I have a book.

exco ypa9€iv I am able I have the ability to write.
-Kai au, GO 9iXq, EXEIC; avayiyvcoaKEiv TauTa Ta ypa|j(jaTa;

pouXEai avayiyvcoaKEiv Ta ypa|j|jaTa; Eya> (3ouXo|jai. Kai au;
-Ah, (to class) Q — POUXETOI avayiyvcoaKEiv TOUTO Ta ypa|j|jaTa.
-Kai au, (I) 9iXE, (SouXEai avayiyvcoaKEiv TauTa; Ah, (to class) 6 —
pouXETai avayiyvcoaKEiv Ta ypa(j|jaTa. Kai q — Kai 6 —
(3ouXovTai avayiyvcoaKEiv Ta
Learn both verb patterns.

has more force. It is a full-fledged / want.
€0£ AGO is weaker, mOTe like / am willing.
(The original "you want" form was pouXeoa i.)
•Kai vuv, <L 91X01, avayiyvcoaKco|JEV EK TOU

(Turn to p. 1 of textbook. Students take turns reading.)
—GO 91X2 (pointing to page one of book), opaeic; ypajjjjaTa (JiKpcc; "
noAAa ypcc|j|JO(Ta [JiKpa; navTa Ta ypa|j[jaTa jJiKpa ecmv; vou,
navTa Ta ypajjjjaTa (JiKpa EOTIV. navra TCX ypa(j(jaTa EQTI (JiKpa.
Actually the Greeks did not use small letters at all. They used only the letters we call capitals.
Small letters were developed as cursive in ninth century Europe. They are used now because
they are easier to read. For the same reason, we use word division, although the Greeks did not.
(Another practice that would make reading easier would be to drop all smooth breathing signs.)
--KOU au, <L 91X5 (writing ? onboard), opaeic; TOUTO; oi "EAAqvec; (pointingto ?)
ypa9ouai TOUTO; ou ypa9ouai TOUTO.
The Greeks used the symbol; for questions, not our question mark. They did not
have quotation marks (which are used for clarity in our stories in made-up Greek).
Where we use a colon, the Greeks used a raised dot.
The Greek period and comma have the same form as our own.
?py a -Read aloud the scripts of days # 1 - 4 . (Do you have any questions? Keep reading and rereading
until you can understand these pages perfectly.)
-Write the alphabet once in small and large letters.
-Rewrite the following passage, substituting forms of pouXopai for forms of cOcAoo (which are
shown in bold print):
£6cXco ypa9€iv TO ypappaTa. KOI ou, £6eXeic ypoêiv Ta ypa(j|jaTa;

q X€^vrl °u* ^GcXei ypa9€iv Ta ypappaTa. 6 — KOI q —
yiyvcboKEiv TO ovojja (jou.
-Write the poem that is in the box at the top of the following page.
11
Script # 5
ov TO JJQ 9«Xqaar
e Kai 9iXqaar indicates
XaXEncoTEpov SE TTCXVTCOV genuine ancient Greek
, c3b 91X01. TOUTO TI EOTI; TOUTO EOTI no(r||ja. "Eycb (pointing to self)
E0£Xco |jav0avEiv TO nofq|ja. —-Kai ou, <L 9iXE, E0EXEi<; |jav0avEiv
TO noiqjja; X£yE r)|j7v aXq0cb<; E0EXEi<; [jav9avEiv TO noiqjja;
~Kai ou, TOUTO TO nofq|ja; (SouXEai i] E0EXEi<;

|jav0avEiv TO noiq|ja;
A icai B AandB
A f\ B AorB
ou, cl> 9iXE, yiyvobaKEn; TO ypajjjjaTa; yiyvcbaKEic; navTa TCX

ypa|j|jaTa; ~Kai pouXsai avayiyvcboKEiv TO nofrj|ja; ~ei (SouXEai
avayiyvcboKEiv TO noiqjja, XPH yiyvcboKEiv Ta ypa|j|jaTa; vai,
Xpf] OE yiyvcooKEiv TCX
pavOaveiv I want to learn

(javOavciv It is necessary for me to learn
vuv, < ) 9 i E , o u s a i avayiyvcoKEiv TO noir||ja; E y E . Ka au;

. 6 — Kai q — (BouXovTai avayiyvcbaKEiv TO noiqjja.
avayiyva>oKGO|JEV TO noir||ja. TO nor||ja. navTEc; ajja.
(The poem is read, several times.)
—TOUTO TO noir||ja (jaKpov (making a gesture of "long") EOTIV; TI Xr

XsyEic; OTI TO no(q|ja (jaKpov EOTIV; Xsyco OTI TO nofqjja OUK EOTI
(JOKpOV. EQTI [JIKpOV.
8n I say that...
oTSa OTI I know that...
-a) 9iXq, 9iXEEi<; TOUTO TO nofqjja; aXr|0cb<; 9iXEEi<; TOUTO TO noi
Kai 9iXEEi<; |jav0avEiv Ta noiq|jaTa; 9iXEEic; avayiyvcbaKEiv
Ta noiq|jaTa;
Ta noiqjjaTa the poems (the particular set)

poems (in general)
—cb 9iXE, TOUTO TO noiqjja X^XEHOV EQTIV; OUK EQTI x a ^ £TT o v - TOUTO
TO noirjjja fiaSiov EOTIV; EOTI fba&iov. TI EOTI X^XEHOV; TO 9iXqaai
'6v; Kai TO (jq 91X^001; TI EGTI x^XsncoTEpov HCXVTCOV;
To understand how the poem works, you need to know the following:
12
Pitch marks
English is a stress language: certain syllables must be pronounced louder than others. The
Greek of fifth century Athens was a pitch language: certain syllables had to have a change in
pitch. A system of marks was eventually worked out to indicate pitch, as shown above. You
may wish to try to speak with pitch change. Otherwise, give extra stress (loudness) to an
accented syllable.
Syllable Division
Greek words have as many syllables as there are vowels or diphthongs. A single consonant is
pronounced with the vowel that follows it. A pair of consonants is normally split. The sentence
cl) 91X01, y iyvcooKO(j€v TaOra TO fc'pya would normally be divided as shown below.
& / 91 / Xoi , / yiy/ vcoo / KO / |jev / Tau / Ta / Ta / k'p / ya;
Certain combinations of consonants can stay together and begin the following syllable. This is
an option for the combination of a mute (ic/yoc; n »Pi95 Ti&,6) + liquid or nasal (X, p, v, p)
or of a sigma (o) + any consonant.
yiy / vcbo / KO / JJEV or yi /yvco / OKO / JJEV
Poetic Meter
Greek poetry is recognizable as poetry by a pattern of long and short syllables (not by rhymes or
a stress pattern). In other words, the Greek ear was sensitive to how long it takes to pronounce a
syllable. The meter for our poem, called Anacreontic after the poet Anacreon, is:
short short long short long short long long *i>-— „• — ^ — —
\j 0 J
Short syllable: ends with a short vowel—a, E, i, o, u
Long syllable: has a long vowel—at q, T, GO, Cf
hasadiphthong-ai, EI, 01, au, EU, ou, etc.
ends with a consonant
ends a line of poetry
The combination of mute + liquid gives a poet options on length. For example, nETpo^ (rock)
can begin with a short syllable (TTE - TpoO or a long one (TTCT - poq).
Note: C, £, and y are really a pair of consonants: 5 + o, < + o, n + o. So the second syllable
of TpaTTEâ (table) is poetically long, though E is a short vowel. The first syllable of 6 £EVO<;
(6 K/OEVOC;) is long in poetry.
Punctuation
Note punctutation. If there are complete sentences all contributing toward the expression of a
complex thought, there will be a half-stop (a raised period) between them and a full stop (period)
at the end. Otherwise the Greeks used commas as we do and a semicolon for our question mark.
(In our made-up Greek, a period is used at the end of a sentence.)
Connectives
In good Greek when many sentences are used to develop a theme, they are usually connected by
a linking word, no matter how slight.
BE is the most common linking word. It has even less force than and or but.
?pyot -Read today's script aloud and make sure you understand all of it.
-Write the poem two more times. Learn the poem by heart.
-Optional: Analyze the meter. Why are the long syllables long?
13
Script # 6
-GO , E(ja6Ec; TO nofq|ja; Eycb E|ja0ov TO noiq|ja. Kai au, E|ja6£c;
TO no(r||ja; Asys (joi TO nofq|ja. suys. q — E|ja8E TO no(q|ja.
-co , q5u f^v (javSavsiv TO noiqjja; Kai v (ja0E?v TO iro(q|ja;

EOTI (javOavEiv TCX noiq|jaTa;
(javOavco I learn £|ja0ov I learned

|jav0av£ic; you learn £|ja0£c; you learned
|jav0av£i he, she, it learns £|ja0£(v) he, she, it learned
|jav0av£iv to learn (to be in the (ja0£?v to learn (once)
process of learning,
to keep learning)
I Exercise: Translate. pov are related as Aa|j|3avcA> = / take, receive, get.)

Kai ou> iov; q iov. OUK £0£X£i Xap^Tv
— Kai vuv TI TTOIEGO (writing poem on blackboard) ; "vai. ypa9co TO nofq|ja.

XEyEi OTI ypa9co TO noiq|ja. Kai vuv, XEyE |joi TOUTO TO no(q|ja.
XEycojJEV TO noiqjja, TTCXVTEC; a|ja.
vuv EXCO (jQOov, |ju6ov (JiKpov Kai (joopov (silly). EXGO |ju0ov
nEpi TCOV ypa(j(jaTOOV. d> 9iXE, ôuXEai CXKOUEIV (gesturing with hand to ear)
TOV |ju6ov; EuyE. avayiyvcboKcîJEV TOV |ju0ov.
The Alphabet Grows

(Vocabulary to be provided by teacher as needed)
qc; TIC; 9iXe£i TCX ypa|j|jaTa. 5ia TI 9>X££i TO ypappaTa; SIOTI

noi££i TO TTOir)|jaTa £< TCOV ypa|j|jaTCA)v. <ai 6 noiqTqc; noi££i
&£?TTVOV |j£ya. <ai <aX££i £ni TO &£?nvov navTa Ta ypa|j|jaTa. Tiva
ypa|j|jaTa <aX££i; <aX££i TO 01X90 <ai TO PqTa <ai TO yappa KOI Ta Xoina.
(<aX££i 6 noiqTqc; TO CqTa; TO ^qTa ou <aX££i. ou5£ TO ^T ou&£ TO yT
<aX££i 6 noiqTqc;. 6ia TI 6 noiqTqc; ou <aX££i TOUTO TCK ypa|j|jaTa;
(jav0av£T£, ^) 91X01. avayiyvcboK£T£ TOV |ju0ov.)
£ni TCO Sdnvco navTa TO ypa|j|jaTa £o0(ouoi noXXa <ai nivouai noXXa.
nivouaiv oTvov. Kai q oiy|ja (a), OT£ niv£i, |j£0u£i. Kai OT£ |j£0u£i, d)5£
noi££r (<;).* Kai navTa Ta ypa(j|jaTa, OT£ opaouoi TOUTO, (3ouXovTai
ya(j££iv Tqv oiypa. Kai k'oTi paxq, M^XI M £ Y^^n- Ka
' ÊXoc; £OTI viKq.
Tiva ypa|j|jaTa £xouoi Tqv viKqv; Tiva ypa|j|jaTa yap£ouoi Tqv oiypa;
* She does thus. In other words, she wiggles her hips. Sexist though it be, this story is not for all that unGreek.
Cf. Hesiod's Works and Days 373 + Mq 6£ yuvq OE voov nuyooToXcx;
14
Greek sounds are classified as in the chart below. The simple answer to our story is that 5
marries a to make £, K to make £, and n to make y.
Actually it is more complicated than that All labial mutes (n, p, 9, consonants made with
the lips) combine with o to make y, and all palatals (K, y, x>made with the palate) to make £.
Note: dental mutes (T, 5, 6, made with the teeth) drop before o. An o + 5 combination makes
Vowels Liquids & Sibilant Mutes (Stops) Combinations

Nasals
a A o (<;) Voiceless Voiced Aspirate

e
P (h)
n Labial n p labial + o — > y
1 U 9
O V (lips)
U (y before
CO a palatal) Palatal K y X palatal + o — > £
(palate)
Dental T 5 6 (Dental drops before o)

(teeth)
0 + 6 --> I
Indo-European
Indo-European is a language postulated as the ancestor of many related languages. (A partial list
is given below.) Its original speakers may have lived somewhere near the Black Sea. In
historical times Indo-European languages have spread by force of arms (to Africa and the
Americas). If the same was true in prehistoric times, as is likely, speakers of early Indo-
European tongues must have been competent fighters. For people are willing to lay down their
lives rather than give up their language. (Consider recent resistance by Basques and Tamils to
Indo-European encroachment.)
INDO EUROPEAN
PERSIAN GREEK
SANSKRIT LATIN Italian
French
Spanish
Portuguese
Rumanian
CELTIC Irish
Welsh
GERMANIC German
English
Dutch
Norwegian, Swedish, Danish
SLAVIC Russian
Ukranian
Czech, Slovak
Polish
We can trace Indo-European roots by comparing the words which have descended from them in
the various Indo-European languages spoken today. These roots have been used to construct the
history of the various groups: what kind of institutions they had, what kind of lands they went
through, and so on.
It seems that the speakers of Indo-European split up before they had a chance to see the sea
together. For some descendant languages have words in common for sea and fish, but there are
none to match in Sanskrit or Persian. While the Indo-European speakers were together they
knew weaving and they yoked animals. We can tell that they had a god in common. Addressed
as Zeu naT€p (Father Zeus) in Greek, he was Jupiter in Latin, and dyaus pitr in Sanskrit— all
three meaning Father Sky. °
In the word peGuco the Greeks keep up the memory of a brew, probably made from honey,
drunk by their ancestors, which we call mead. There is an Indo-European root: *medhu,
which -> |j£0u- in Greek, madhu in Sanskrit, and mead in English. To be sure, the Greeks
now became drunk on wine (oTvoq), made from grapes. But words have a way of preserving
ancient memories.
Derivatives and Cognates

There are several ways a word in English can be connected with a word in Greek:
(a) It can be derived. That is, the word may be deliberately taken from Greek . This is
commonly done, as in pharmacology or iatrogenic. When an English word is derived from
Greek it resembles the Greek closely. For example, erg looks very much like epyov.
(The logo fa will be used whenever a point is being made about English.) Many English
words are derived from Latin or French (which is based on Latin). Since Latin words closely resemble their
Greek cognates, an English word derived from Latin will lode like a Greek word. Octopod (eight-footed) is derived
from Greek (hence has the Greek pod = foot), pedestrian from Latin (hence has the Latin ped = foot).
(b) It can be cognate. This means it has the same Indo-European root as the Greek word but
has come down on our (Germanic) side of the family. When this has happened, there are usually
so many changes that the word looks very different from its Greek relative. Work has this
relation to cpyov.
In this book a one-way arrow shows derivation, and a two-way arrow shows the cognate
relationship. So, for example:
e'pyov <— > work k'pyov --> erg
(JE0U- <--> mead |J€0u- — > amethyst (the stone having been considered a charm against
drunkenness, from a = non, as in amoral, agnostic + pe6uco = be drunk)
One interesting difference between the Latin/Greek group and the Germanic group is that what is elk in
the one is h in the other. Think of Canis Major, for example-from the Latin canis = dog. The Greek is KUCOV
(as in vq Tqv KUVCJ). English derivatives of the cards /KUO>V family are canine and cynic. An English cognate
is hound, from the German hand.
Or think of cor = heart in Latin. We see cor in English in such derived words as cordial or record (from the Latin
recordor, since the Romans regarded the heart as the seat of memory). The Greek is icapSia, from which we
derive cardiac. But what is the cognate in English? Simply heart.
/&£* English words come from two main sources: our own Germanic heritage and the Greek/Latin family
including French. The really useful words-the words we use about day-to-day experience, words we could not do
without— are usually from our Germanic heritage. And notice that whenever there is a choice of "words— labor or
work, cordial or hearty, amity or friendship, verity or truth—the Germanic words call forth a stronger response,
while the borrowed words seem more formal or remote.
?py a -Reread today's script and make sure you understand it

-Read "The Alphabet Grows" (p. 13) aloud and silently until you understand every word.
-Look at the Greek-English dictionary words beginning with gamma and phi. Write all the
derivatives you can think of, at least twelve. Derivatives will resemble the Greek closely
in lode and meaning. Remember: a Greek upsilon often shows up as the letter y in English.
(Can you think of any cognates?)
16
Script # 7
& 9iAE, yiyvoboKEic; TO noir||ja; E0EAEic; A£yEiv TO noir||ja; (3ouAfl Xe

TO noir||ja; Eyoo (pointing to self) (3ouXo|jai A£yEiv TO no(q(ja. Kai au,
In earlier times you want (singular) was pouAeacu. At a certain point, the Greeks stopped pronouncing an s sound
between vowels-have you ever heard someone say "wa'n't" for "wasnTI-and used the form pouAscii, which we
have been using. Eventually the E and a were slurred together, to make r\. (This process is called contraction.)
In fifth century Athens the "you singular" form would have been written pouAqi. Eventually the iota stopped
being pronounced (around 200 B.C.E.) and was omitted. To mark that it was once there, scribes used an iota
subscript (under the vowel). When you see an iota subscript, pronounce the iota unless your teacher directs
otherwise.
Originally soon Later ~ > g-cn Latest — > Q

(3ouAo|jai pouAopon pouAopoti
pouXcaai (BouAECii (3ouAfl
(3ouA£Tcu (3ouAeTC(i (BouAeTcu
•Kai vuv, 5(5co|Ji aoi TQV Xe^Pa (extending hand). Kai au, 66c; |joi TQV
TI HOIEEIC;; navTEc; ajja- H6i5oo|ji aoi TQV
i vuv, co 9iAq, 56<; auTco TQV X^P 0 - T

' TTOIEEIC;;
--vuv 56<; auTQ TQV X E ^P a - T ' TTOIEEIC;;
--co 9iAE, 56<; auTcp TQV , (to class) SfScooi TQV

Î; 6180001
-<ai vuv SEIKVUJJI aoi TQV yAcoTTav (showing tongue). Kai au, SEIKVU jjoi
Tqv yAooTTav. TI TTOIEEK;; SEIKVUC; |joi TQV yAooTTav. Kai vuv SEIKVU
auTcp Tqv yAooTTav. TI TTOIEEI; SEIKVUQIV auTcp TQV yAcoTTav.
•Kai vuv, GO 9iAe, eGeAeic; 5i56vai |joi TQV xe^Pai PO^^Q SiSovou yqv x^Pa;
POUAQ 5i56vai TQV xE^Pa «^TQ; pouAQ SeiKvuvai iqv yAcoTTav auTcp;
Aajjpavco SEIKVUJJI 8f5co|ji

&EIKVUC; SiScoc;
6EiKvuai(v) 5f8cooi(v)
Se.tcvuva, 5i86vai
•Kai vuv, TTCXVTEC; avicnraaSe. (Everyone stands up.) KOM au, 56<; auTQ
TQV x e ^P a > Ka ' a ^> Soc; OUTGO TQV X E ^P a » K01 a
' ^> ^^ a u T Q T H V X^P a -
Kai au, K.T.A.
-~Ka) vuv EGTI 5pa|ja, 6pa|ja [JiKpov. avayiyvGooKCA)|JEV TO Spapa.

17
THE DOCTOR COMES*
na?c;- <L (jqTEp, pqTEp, VOOEGO.
|jqTf|p- TI EOTIV, 5> na?; VOOEEIC;;
naTc;- vai. VOOECO. aAqOcoc; VOOECO. Kajjvco, Kapvco. XPH M€ KE?o8ai.
[K£?TOlJ Ah, K€?pai.
[jqTqp- XPH M€ icaXEEiv TOV larpov. [tcaAeEi.]
iarpc, iaTpE. 6 na?c; (jou* VOGEEI. KapvEi. <E?Tai vuv.
iaTpoc;- Epxopai, Epxojjai.
iraTq* TiqEpxETai;
|jqTqp' 6 iaTpoc; epxeTai.
na?q* ou pouXopai TOUTO. ou VOOECO. ou Kapvco. [aviOTaTau]
i8ou. ou K£?|jcu. avioTajjai.
(jqTqp* 9EU, 9EU. 9opEQ TOV iaTpov;
rraTc;' vai, 9opEO|jai TOV iaTpov. oi iaTpof sioi icaKof.
(jqTqp* oi iaTpoi ou KOKOI EIOIV. ayaOoi Eioiv. ou XPH ^^

oe
9opEE00ai TOV iaTpov. vuv VOOEEIC;. XPH K£?o0cu.
[icaXEEi aOOiq q MHTqp TOV iaTpov.]
iaTpE, iaTpE.
iaTpoc;* Epxopai, k'pxopai. [EPXETOI.]
9EO. TI EOTIV, d> na?; XsyE qpTv.
TiaTq' OU&EV EOTIV. ou VOOECO. aXqOcoc;.
(jqTqp* vai, VOOEEI. vq TOV Aia, VOOEEI. aXXa OE 9opEETai.
KO|JVEI KOI VOOEEI. OV|JOI, OVJJOI.
*For vocabulary see p. 19.

Change 6 na?q in the skit to q naTq when the Child is played by a female.
18
iaTpoc;' pq 8aKpu£. noaov xpovov vooesi 6 naTc;;*
(jqTqp* OUK oTSot. XPH 0€ EP^TCXEIV auTov.*
iaTpoc;- & naT, nooov xpovov vooeeiq; Xeyc qpTv.
naTc;- ou VOOECO.
iarpoq- yiyvcbaKei<; |je;
naTc;* ou yiyvcboKco oe.
iaTpoq- opaEK; TOUTO; [SEIKVUOI TQV x^pa.]
naTc;- oux opaco.
iaTpoc;* aKoueiq TOUTO; [icpouEi (claps) Taq x£^Pa^-]
naTq- OUK OKOUGO. OKOUCO ou5ev.
iaTpoq* 9£u, 9eu. SEIKVU |joi Tqv yAcoTTav.
[SEIKVUOIV 6 naTc;* Tqv yXcoTTav.]
9£u, 9£u. q yXcoTTa oou oux uyi£ivq EOTIV.
vuv S£IKVU |joi TOUC; O90aX|Jou(;.
[SEIKVUOIV 6 naTc;* TOUC; O90aA|Jouc;.]
9£u. oi 6960X^01 oou oux uyi£ivof £ioiv.
[X£y£i Tq jjqTpi.]
6 naTc; oou* voo££i. 86^ OUTCO* TOUTO TO 9ap|jaKov.
[5(8coai Tq HnTP' 9apM«Kov.]
<ai vuv 86c; |joi apyupiov.
[q (jqTqp 8180001 TCO iaTpcp apyupiov.]
vuv £?|JI. x a ip £T£ > ^ 91X01.
* When the Child is played by a female, change 6 naTc; to q naTc;.

Also change OUTOV to auTqv and OUTCO to auTq.
?py a -Read the Vocabulary and Notes on the following page.

-Read "The Doctor Comes" (pp. 17-18) aloud several times, until you understand it all,
including stage directions. Be prepared to act the parts in class tomorrow.
-Notice the accent difference: 56<; OUTCO versus 86<; poi. Can you think of why?
19
VOCABULARY and NOTES
6 iarpoc; - doctor ~> iatrogenic, a - but

pediatrics, geriatrics, psychiatric
o'l'jjoi - alas
cpxojjai - come (or go)
pq - don't (negative used in a command)
6 naTq - child --> pediatrics, pedagogue
SaKpuco - weep, shed tears
r\ Mn Tr IP <~> Bother
noooc; - how much?
VOOEGO - be sick
6 xpovoc; - time — > chronic, chronology
KCCJJVCO - be sick or weary
oT5a - 1 know
- it is necessary oT5a
oTo9a
- lie down --> cemetery (via Latin), oT5€(v)
a lying-down place
K€?o0cu - If xpn takes an infinitive (to X), y lyvcboKco - know, recognize, be familiar
what must Ke?o9ai be? with a person or thing or situation,
vs. oTSa = know a fact
The general principle is: PUNT.* uy IE i voc; - healthy — > hygiene

Not everything is learned systematically
to begin with. Sometimes you will 6 69801 Apex; -eye — > ophthalmologist
punt first, and learn the system later.
TO 9ap|jaKov - drug — > pharmacy

cco - call
TO apyupiov - money, literally a small
avioTa|jai - stand up piece of silver
OTO of Greek'i'oTa|jc(i =sta of stand (from 6 apyupoq = silver
--> argent (in heraldry), Argentina)
i6ou - see for yourself! see! behold!
- go (or come) (with future force,
9eu - tsk! used as future of cpxcpai)
Cf. our usage: / am going to the
9o(3eo|jcu - 1 am afraid, I fear -- > phobia beach tomorrow.
KOIKOC; - bad Note: There is also EIJJI = / am , a different
verb entirely.
eoTi, eioKv) - is, are (EOTI <--> is)
ayotGoc; - good — > Agatha
ouScv - nothing
* In this book punt is used to mean, Make an educated guess. Do not wait until youVe learned the system.
What you already know in combination with intuition just might give you the meaning. Take a chance! The
three meanings of punt are (a) pole a boat, (b) drop a football and kick it before it hits ground, and (c) gamble in
roulette, betting against the bank. Learning Greek does seem a bit like all of these!
20
GREEK MEDICINE
In mythology, the healing arts are taught to all the

great heroes by the centaur Chiron. Achilles, Jason
(whose name even means "healer"), Asclepius, and
Heracles were among his pupils. Accordingly, in the
Iliad, Homer tells of two hero-physicians, Machaon
and Podalirios, the Aesclepiadae ("the sons of
Aesclepius"). When Machaon is wounded, his rescue
is urged because, "A physician is a man worth many
men in knowing how to cut out arrows and in
applying gentle remedies" (11.514-5). Achilles in the
same poem is a friend of Machaon and is well versed
in the healing arts. Following this tradition, Achilles
is depicted on the vase in Figure 1 bandaging the
wounds of his friend, Patroclus. There must have
been a long and respected tradition of healing in
archaic Greece that was particularly associated with
hero-warriors, focused on the ability to tend to
wounds and the knowledge of herbal drugs.
Figure 1. Achilles bandages Patroclus. Line
drawing of an Attic cup (ca. 490 B.C.E.).
One name in the classical era stands out as the innovator of the scientific approach to medicine:
Hippocrates. Later in this course, you will have a chance to read in Greek the oath ascribed to him
that set standards (and still does) for medical ethics. Hippocrates was born on the island of Kos, only
a short distance away from the Ionian coast and the centers of Ionian philosophy. His dates (ca. 460-
388) seem to make him a close contemporary of Socrates (469-399).
Even though more than seventy works are ascribed to him, it is not likely that Hippocrates really is
their author. What we can tell is that he and his followers applied the rationality of the Ionian
philosophers to the study of medicine.
Hippocratic medicine is characterized by its insistence on the search for natural causes of diseases
rather than supernatural explanations, for full and careful diagnoses based on precise observations,
and for holistic treatments consisting not only of drugs but also of attention to diet and emotional
well-being. Renae Dubos has said, "Modern medicine is but a series of commentaries and
elaborations on the Hippocratic writings..." (Man Adapting, 323).
As a physician Hippocrates was called an Asclepiad, a son of Asclepius. The term signified that he
was a member of a healing family or guild whose patron was the healing hero-god, Asclepius. After
Hippocrates' death a famous Asclepieion, a temple sanctuary devoted to Asclepius and the healing
arts, was founded on Kos. For almost a thousand years, until 554 C.E. when an earthquake
devastated the island, people from all over the Mediterranean world came to this site for treatment
and medical training.
21
There were more than two hundred other Asclepieions in the ancient world. Like the famous spas in
Europe, some of which are actually situated on the sites of former Asclepieions, these sanctuaries
were in beautiful and healthful surroundings, had fine architecture, and combined medical treatment
with the pleasures of a resort. No sanctuary is more famous that the one in Epidaurus, which had not
only healing facilities but temples, gymnasia, baths, shops, as well as a theatre, music hall, and
stadium. The Asclepieion in Athens, situated almost directly beneath the Parthenon, adjoins the
Theatre of Dionysus, where the dramas of Sophocles and Euripides were first performed.
Although there were physicians at these sanctuaries who treated their patients in a scientific manner,
there were also priests who practiced a form of religious healing - a sometimes effective form as the
numerous votive offerings and inscriptions tell us. Those whom traditional medicine had not helped
would turn to the priests of Asclepius, in much the same way as pilgrims go to Lourdes or to faith
healers today.
Such patients would be treated by incubation, a form of healing with dreams. Within the dream, the
god would act as a divine physician to the patient, treating the illness, performing surgery, and giving
drugs. Here is one such cure:
Ambrosia of Athens, blind of one eye. She came as a suppliant to the god. As she walked about in
the temple she laughed at some of the cures as incredible and impossible, that the lame and the blind
should be healed by merely seeing a dream. In her sleep she had a vision. It seemed to her that the
god stood by her and said that he would cure her, but that in payment he would ask her to dedicate
to the temple a silver pig as a memorial of her ignorance. After saying this, he cut the diseased
eyeball and poured in some drug. When the day came she walked out sound. (Edelstein, Asclepius,
volume I, case 4).
Figure 2. Asclepius heals a dreaming patient with Hygieia ("Health'"), his daughter, in attendance. To the left are the members of the sleeper's family.
These humans are smaller in scale than the divinities on the right side. Relief (5th-4th century B.C.E.), Piraeus Museum.
22
Script # 8
& 9iXq (drawing a turtle on the blackboard), opaEic; TOUTO; TOUTO TI EOTIV;
EOTI x^Xcbvq. opaEic; Tqv x^Xcbvqv; Kai au, & 9iXE, opaEic; Tqv
Kai q ™ Kai 6 ~- opaouai Tqv
i vuv, & 9»XE, EXCO 90>vqv. (Demonstrate by singing a note.) Kai au,
EXEIC; 9covqv; CXKOUEIC; Tqv 9covr]v |jou; Kai vuv (whispering) a KOUEIC;
TQV 9COVQV |jou; f] x^Xcovq EXEI 9covqv; f] x^Xcbvq EXEI ovopa;
Kai opaEic; TOUTO, ^ 9iXq (showing tongue); TOUTO TI EOTIV; EOTI yXcoTTa.
EOTIV q yXcoTTa |jou. Kai au, cb 9iXr|, EXEIC; yXarrrav. SEIKVU (joi TQV
yXooTTav.
a> 9iXE, yXcoTTav EXEI q x^^^H"' H X8^^1! 8 X EI yXcoTTav; Kai opaEic;

TQV yXcoTTav auTqc;; yXcoTTav EXEI q \£\&>vr\ aXXa TQV yXooTTav
opaEic;.
n 9^vn n
TQV 9covqv Tqv
-Kai vuv, cb 9»XE, TI HOIEEIC;; (javSavEic; yXcoTTav; vai, |jav0avEic;

Tqv yXcoTTav Tqv 'EXXqviKqv. |jav0avEi<; Tqv 'EXXqviKqv yXcoTTav.
qv yXcjTTav Both mean: the Greek language,

Tqv yXcoTTav Tqv 'EXXqviKqv the Greek tongue
-£> 9iXE, OTE q [jqTqp KaXEEi, Epxojjai. Kai au, OTE q (jqTqp KaXEEi,
Epxq; XPH ae ^PX80®01: "Kai <™> <^ 9»Xq, Epxq Eni Ta SsTnva;
9iXEEic; E
•Kai au, cL 9iXE, 9OÊq TOV laTpov; Eycb 9o|3EO(jai TOV iaTpov.
Kai au, 9o(3Eq TOV iaTpov; (SouXq 9o(3EEa9ai TOV iaTpov;
€0eXco pouXopai
pouXq
€0€X€I pouX£Tai CDOp££TO( 1
£0£Xouai(v) pouXovTai CpOp£OVTO( 1
£0£X£IV pouXeoOai 9op€Eo6a,
9iXq, yiyvcbaKEic; TO 5pa|ja; Kai au, TO 5pa|ja yiyvcbaKEic;;

. avayiyvd>aKGO|JEV TO 6pa|ja.
"The Doctor Comes" is played, several times.

23
£> <f>'\\£, Tl EQTI TOUTO; TOUTO EOTI |3l|3AlOV. 6p§tc; TO (3l|3AlOV;

Eycb 6p£> TOUTO TO (3i(3Aiov, Kai ou oppc;; KOI vuv (hiding the book)
6p§cc; TO PI^XIOV; TO (3i|3Aiov oi/x
Do you hear the difference? Before, we were saying opccco and 6pa£iq. Now we are saying
opco and opac;.
The Greeks sometimes ran their vowel sounds together, as we saw with (SouAfl (p. 16).
Two vowel sounds will be slurred or contracted into one sound. There are verbs that have
a full set of contracted forms. These are called contract verbs. They may be -eoo (e contract)
or -a GO (a contract) verbs.
For the sake of seeing the original system (endings -co, -sic;, -EI, etc.) we began by using
uncontracted sounds. From now on, we shall use the contracted forms, which were spoken and
written in Athens during the fifth century B.C.E.
It is best simply to memorize the patterns below. If you want to know the rules behind
contraction, you may look ahead on pp. 126 and 129. You will notice that whenever there was an
acute accent on a contracting a or €, the resulting accent is a circumflex:
-eco Verbs -a GO Verbs -copal Verbs

I 9lX(I) 6pcra> opco
you (sing) <plAE"EI^ 9lAeT<; 6pa-£i<; opac;
he, she, it <plA£~EI 9iA£T 6pcr£i opa
they 9iAE-ouoi(v) 9iAouoi(v) 6porouai(v) 6pcooi(v)

«*»«.•,
infinitive q>lA£-EIV 9iAe?v 6pa~£(i)v opav*
*Note that there is no

iota in the infinitive.
(This is because the ending was
originally -EV.)
Note: A full set of forms has six persons (including we and you plural). You will learn the full
set much later. For now you are learning enough forms to enable you to read interesting stories
right away.
-Read over today's script and make sure you understand it.
~Copy "The Doctor Comes" in neat handwriting, changing all uncontracted forms
to the contracted ones. (Apply patterns above.)
-Practice saying all three parts aloud with the contracted forms.
24
Script # 9
— & 91X8, voaeTc; vuv; Aeye qpTv. vooeTc;; Ah, (to class) Asyei OTI ou VOOEU
— (To a student who looks tired) Kal ou, Ka|jvei<; vuv; Xeye QjjTv, Ka
— vaf, Kapveic;. oT5a OTI Ka
i ou, GO 9iXq, 9iXsT<; TOV iaTpov; aX0qco<;; A£y£i<; OTI aAq6co<; 9iA£?c; TOV
iaTpov; -~Kai OTS vooeTc;, KaXeTc; TOV iaTpov; OTE vooeTc;, q HnTrlP aou
KaAeT TOV iaTpov;
—TO 5pa(ja (jaKpov EOTIV; TO 5pa|ja x^Xenov EOTIV q fbaSiov; EV TOO

5pa|jaTi (in the play) 6 naTc; 9opE?Tai TOV iaTpov; vaf, 6 nau; 9o(3E?Tai
TOV iaTpov. <ai ou, 90^^ TOV iaTpov; Eyoo 9opoO(jai TOV iaTpov.
Kai ou, 90^^ TOV iaTpov; 90^^ TQV
--Kai ou, & 9iXE, 86<; |joi pi^Xiov. TI noiETc;; SiSooc; |joi pi^
Kai TI TTOIGO; Xa(jâvco TO pi^Xiov. cl) 9iXE, 56<; auTQ TO pi(3Xiov.
TI noiETc;; XsyE qpTv TI TTOIEK;; 6i5coc; auTQ TO pi^Xiov; ~Kai ou, TI
noiE?c;; XajjâvEic; TO (BipXiov; XEyE f]|jTv.
--Kai vuv, navTEc; avfoTaoSE. (Everyone stand up.) Kai ou, 86c; auTQ
TO (3i(3Xfov, Kai ou, 56c; auTco TO (3i(3X(ov. TI noiE?<;; XsyE' TI noiETc;.
(Everyone exchanges books, saying whichever is appropriate: "5i&GO|ji 001 TO

or "Xa^pavco TO (3i(3Aiov. M )
--vuv avayiyvcooKoo|JEV a56i<; TO 5pa|ja.

"The Doctor Comes" is read from the homework copies, with contracted forms.
—vuv avayiyvcboKoo(jEV navTa Ta 6v6|jaTa (words). |jav0avoo|JEV navTa

Ta 6v6|jaTa Ta ^XXqviKa. (Go over vocabulary on following page.)
Ipy a '-Read today's script out loud. Make sure you understand it all.
-Learn all words in the Vocabulary Review. Learn the three verb patterns.
Learning Nouns
Nouns fall into groups. The A-Group has an a sound in its endings, the O-Group an o sound. The
Third Group follows yet another pattern.
When you learn a noun you learn its nominative singular form. The nominative form is the form a
noun takes when it is the subject of a verb. In the sentence {} xeA&vq 2xei 9<*>vnv (the turtle has a voice)
XeXcbvq is in the nominative form but cpcovqv is not. Dictionaries list nouns and adjectives by their
nominative singular form.
When you learn a noun you learn its article (6, Is), TO) . The article tells you whether a noun is
masculine, feminine, or neuter. All Greek nouns have gender. Usually gender will not violate
expectations: father is masculine, mother feminine. But it can happen: little child is neuter—
TO rrouSiov. As for what we consider other "things," often these had masculine or feminine gender in
Greek—for examples, voice (fern.), tongue (fern.), and story (masc.).
Whenever we use a pronoun in Greek in place of a noun, we must respect the gender: "Where is the little
child—do you see itl" "That voice is beautiful—do you hear herl" This is something you may be familiar
with from studying other foreign languages. It is called agreement.
25
VOCABULARY REVIEW
NOUNS (Three Groups) VERBS (Three Patterns)

A-GROUP OKOUCO Ihear SEIKVUJJI j
f] yAarrra OKOUEIC; YOU( s)hear 8EIKVUC; You (s)
f] M^XH CCKOUEI He,s he, it hears 5EIKVUOl(v) He, she, it
t\v\*r\
f] 9GOVr) aKOUOUOl(v) They hear [to be learned later] They
f] xÂcovq
OTTOinTfK CXKOUEIV To he or SEIKVUVOI To-
O-GROUP CXKOUCO SEIKVUJJI (command SEIKVU)

6 iaTpoc; yiyvcboKCo 6i5co(ji (command 560
6 |jG0o<; avayiyvcooKco
6 oTvoc; ypa9co EI|JI lam
6o90aA|j6<; oaKpuco E! You are
6 xpovoq E0EAco EGTl(v) He, she it is
i / \
EG0ICO EIOl(v) They are
TO apyupiov E'XCO
TO |3i|3Aiov Ka|jva> ETp 1 / come, go [with future
sense]
TO 8E?TTvov Aappavco El You come, go
TO 9ap|jaKov AEya> EToi(v) He, she, it comes, goes
TO Epyov pav0avco
THIRD GROUP nivco ^ TJioTajjai

f] HHTqp X01?00 (Commands: X a i P € »
6/q naTq
€ / i t
Xa 'Pe"re) ALSO
f] XÎP EpOOTCtGd
opaco l8oO See for yourself! See!
Toyp6|j|ja Xpr| It is necessary
To8pa|ja yapEco
TO EpCOTqpa KaXECO (ca// or invite) oT8a I know
TO ovopa VOOECO oTo0a You know
TOHOiqpa noiEC*) (make or do) oTSE(v) He, she, it knows
ADJECTIVES (Additional CONJUNCTIONS

forms will be learned later) A / TX / A / T*
A KOI JtS Kai A KOI 15
, AqB
ava66c icaicoc pOUAO|jai / aAAa OTE
fbaSlOq X a ^ €TT ^ POUAQ 7oa(s ) . El OTI
(JOKpOq (JIKpOC; pOUAETOI He, she, it g, g^
uyiEivoc; Xoinoq n ,.
nLoq aXXoq ôuXovTal r/^- OTHER [adverbs,
(JEyac; R 'X ft interjections,
noAAa navTa pouAEOUai TO- prepositions]
OU, OUK, OUX ETTI
PRONOUNS pouAopai
Eycb, ME, |jou, |joi n(jiv ^PX 0 M«' pq 5ia
OU, OE, OOU, OOI 5
9°P€0Mai vaf, ou X i^ ^ T(
—, auTov, OUTOU, OUTCO vuv
5»
—, auTqv, auTqc;, auTQ vq TOV Aia, a
^
Tiq, TI TOUTO, TauTa
:«Ma &
26
Lesson 1. The A-Group; Cases
THE A-GROUP: t\ and f\
Use in sentence Case Forms Feminine Forms Fern, short

A-Endings Endings
Singular
the sister (subject) nominative q
Tqv
n Tqv
yXcoTTa
yXcoTTav
a
av
the sister (object) accusative
of the sister genitive Tqc; Tqc; yXcoTTqc;
to I for the sister dative Q TQ yXd)TTQ Q
Plural
the sisters (subject) nominative a CM ai yXarrrai
\
ai
the sisters (object) accusative 5? aq
of the sisters genitive TGOV CC)V TGJV yXc*)TTCJv (x)V
to I for the sisters dative TO?<; CM? TaTc; yXci)TTaic; CMS
These are paradigms for the A-Group. A paradigm is a complete set of forms that gives you
the pattern that other forms will follow.
NORMAL A-GROUP NOUNS
Most nouns in the A-Group follow the pattern of q a5€X9q and are feminine.
These nouns have forms ending with an a sound-except for the genitive plural, where the a
sound has been swallowed up in the long o sound. Accent rules will be explained later. But
notice that the genitive plural of A-group nouns always has a circumflex on the final syllable.
The a of the accusative plural is long: Tac; a&eX9a<;, Tac; yXdrrrac;.
Note that an English noun has far fewer forms than a Greek noun (four in writing, two in sound):
sister (singular), sister's, (genitive singular), sisters (plural), sisters' (genitive plural).
I Exercise a: Say the forms of f\ aScXcpr) in the order shown. Write the forms until you have learned them.
(These instructions are to be understood whenever new forms are introduced* Always stop
to say and write the forms.)
SHORT -a NOUNS
The usual A-group nominative ends in q. But some A-group nouns, such as q yXcoTTa, have a
nominative and accusative singular with short a. Otherwise there is no difference in endings.
VOCATIVE AND DUAL
You see only four cases above. The fifth is the vocative case, used for calling someone or
something. Although we say q Mn T OP £pX €TOM » when we want to call mother we say
& Mn TE P» ^ i*1 "The Doctor Comes." Since the vocative is easy to spot—often preceded by &
and set off by commas—and its form is often the same as that of the nominative, we shall
concentrate on the other four cases.
There is also a set of dual forms that we shall not learn. These are special forms used optionally
when there are two of a person or thing rather than many. The dual is rarely used and is usually
easy to recognize. (For vocatives and duals, see paradigms, p. 240.)
27
CASES
A case indicates the function of a noun, pronoun, or adjective in a sentence. We will be learning
four cases for Greek nouns. Nominative is the case for a noun that is the subject of a verb,
accusative for a noun that is the direct object.
£>j&> English used to have four cases, and German still does. Pronouns best preserve them. Consider he, turn,
his; she, her, her/hers; who, whom, whose (nom., ace., gen.). English cases seem to be on the wane. The word
who is often used in place of whom.
When reading Greek always look at the cases to understand a sentence. Get into the habit of
looking at word endings. Do not try to guess the meaning of a sentence by word order. Do
not try to think up likely meanings based on vocabulary.
The following are the names of the four Greek cases and a main use of each. We shall learn
other uses soon:
Nominative subject of verb The sister comes.
Accusative direct object of verb i see the sister.
Genitive possessive / see the house of the sister. 11 see the sister's house.
Dative indirect object of verb I give a letter to the sister. /1 give the sister a letter.
Notice how three cases link a noun to a verb. But the fourth, genitive, usually links a noun to a noun. Notice
also that English sometimes uses a tip-off o/for the genitive or to for the dative, but you cannot count on it
Always consider \he function of the word in its sentence when deciding what Greek form to use.
I Exercise 0: Name the function of the underlined words (subject, direct object, possessive, indirect object).
Name the Greek case that would be used. Translate the underlined words into Greek.
1. I see the sisters' house. 5. The sisters are laughing. 9. The sister's turtle is sick.
2. I give the sisters food. 6. I see the sisters. 10. The turtle of the sister is sick.
3. I send a letter to the sisters. 7. The house of the sisters is big. 11. They like the sister.
4. The sister is coming. 8. Do you see the sisters? 12. I send the sister a letter.
WORD ORDER
In Greek word order is flexible because function is known from form rather than position. The
three elements q aScAcpq (the sister - nominative), opa (sees), and xeXcovqv (a turtle - accusative)
can go in any order. (Position seems to show a difference in emphasis, the first word or phrase
having the greatest emphasis.)
iâSEX^r) op? xeA&vqv. The sister sees a turtle.
f] a5£A9n x^&vqv op?. (Answers question: what about my sister?)
op? f] a&EAcpq xEA&vqv. The sister sees a turtle.

6p9 xE^c*>vrlv 'l a&EA<pq • (Answers question: What is my sister doing?)
XEAcovqv op? f\ aSEAcpq. My sister sees a turtle:
XEAobvqv i*) aSEA<pq op?. (Answers question: What does my sister see?)
£»£» To say that the sister sees a turtle in English we must place the sister before sees and sees before a turtle.
> Exercise y: Read and translate. What is the case of each underlined word? Why was that case used?
TO ovojjci Tq<; aoEAyffc you Nkq EOTIV. TPJV aSEA9r)v 9iAa> Kai 8i&a>yi ayrq x£^c*>vq<^> T^^ X£^(*)vq^ TH^
NiKry; ou cpiAob . Asya) TQ NMCQ OTI ycovqv ouic EXOUOIV ai XEAcovai aCrrqc SIOTI y^TTav OUK EXOUOIV.
£pya -Write paradigms for f] 9e*>vr| and f\ yAWTTQ three times. Memorize.
-Read "Nasrudin and the Letter." Practice reading it aloud until you can read it smoothly
while being aware of what it means.
-Learn the vocabulary for "Nasrudin and the Letter." (This instruction is to be understood
with every story. Always learn the vocabulary and the grammatical notes, especially
whatever is in a box.)
28
NASRUDIN AND THE LETTER
avOpcoTToc; TIC; (3ouX£Tcu H£|JTT£IV £TTioToXqv TOK; a&£X90<T<; 1*
TCUC; £v TQ BaySa5. aXXa OUK enioTaTai ypc<9£iv 2
TO ypa|j|jaTa. aiT£? o5v NaapcSSivov TOV Io9ov ypa9£iv 3
Tqv eniaToXqv. 6 5c Naapc55ivo<; Xcyei aujco' "^ 9iX£,
OUK EGeXco ypa9£iv Tqv £TTioToXqv. ou yap £OTI |joi axoXq 5
nop£U£00ai £i<; jqv Bay5a5."
6 5£ avOpoonoq X£y£i "aXXa OUK OHTCO 0£ Trop£U£00ai £i<; Tqv

BaySaS. OITOO o£ povov £rnoToXr]v ypa9£iv TaTq a&£X9aT<; 8
|JOU."
"oTSa" anoKpiv£Tai 6 1096^- "aXXa q ypa9q |jou (handwriting)

KctKq £OTI Kai avayKq av £iq poi (it would be necessary for me)
nop£U£O0ai £i<; Tqv BaySaS KOI avayiyvcboK£iv auTaTc; Tqv 12~
£nioToXqv."
6 av0pCA)no<; - person, man, human being --> anthropology
SvOpcoiToc; TIC a certain person, a certain man

Notice how accented TIC; at the beginning of a sentence asks a question.
But unaccented TIC; coming after a word makes that word indefinite.
avOpcoTToq = a man avOpconoq Tiq = some man, a certain man.
n£|jTTGo - send ~>pomp

q £nioToXq - letter —> epistle
Learning Greek makes us aware of how often we use the same word in
English for what are clearly different concepts in another language, for example,
letter (ypcx|j|ja and£nioToXq) or know (o!5a andyiyvcboKGo). Soon we shall
learnt (fpcoTaco andaiT£oo).
q a&£X9q - sister
£v <—> in + dative. (Some prepositions require one particular case, others more
than one. £v occurs only with the dative.)
1-2 Ta?<; a&eX90tT<; Ta?q EV TQ BaySaS

The prepositional phrase £v Tq Bay5a5 is used here as an adjective. (You can
tell by its position, after the article.) Translate: to his sisters (the ones) in Baghdad.
Normally, without the article, a prepositional phrase goes with the verb:
nop£UO|jai £v Tq Bay5a5. I travel in Baghdad.
£TTioTa|jai - know how, understand (literally, stand on). &> &> Why do we
stand under when we know (understand) something, while the Greeks stand on!
The root crra- <--> stand. (Cf. aviajapai -1 stand up.)
3 aiTeco - request, ask (gpcoTaco is "ask a question." See AA above.)
* Lines are numbered for easier reference. Bold print in numbering means look below for a grammatical note.
Vocabulary needs determine which lines are numbered. If no vocabulary is needed, every sixth line is numbered.
A squiggle (~) indicates a question in the notes for students to answer.
29
3 oCv - so, therefore (postpositive)
3 Postpositives
Some Greek words, including 81 and oDv, must come second rather than first
in their sentence. They are called postpositive, which means put after.
3 Conjunctions
Unless a sentence begins a wholly new unit of thought, it will be connected to
the previous sentence by some linking word. (&>&> English easily omits
linking words.)
We know 6£ from our poem. This is the briefest all-purpose linking word—
and or but, whatever the context needs. It is the most common word for
linking sentences.
We also know KOU (and), which links equivalents. Now we have learned
aXXa (but), which links equivalents but in an oppositional way: A. ButB.
This shows that B is not what one would expect given A.
oSv (therefore) makes an inference. A. So B.
oo9o<; - wise --> sophomore, sophisticated

5 y a p - for (a postpositive conjunction that gives the reason for the preceding statement)
£a£s The word/0r in English has two different uses: (a) as a preposition: It is hard
for me, with the phrase/or me is equivalent to a Greek dative, and (b) as a conjunction:
/ took the food. For I was hungry, yap is used as a conjunction only.
5 Dative of Possession
ETTioToAq €OTi TQ cx6eA9Q. The sister has a letter.
Literally, A letter is [= belongs] to the sister.
€TTioToAr| eoTi (joi. / have a letter.

Literally, A letter is (= belongs] to me.
ETTioToAq OUK EOTi (joi, I don't have a letter.

Literally, A letter is not [= does not belong] to me.
f] oxoXq - leisure —> school, scholar (because going to school was what
people chose to do in their free time) (Cf. Diogenes' witty
definition of k'pox;: + Tqv cxoxoAiocv TGOV oxoAa£6vTcov.)
Notice that our word "time" combines a number of concepts that were separate for the
Greeks: (1) xpovcx; = clock-time, (2) oxoXq = free time, (3) icaipcx; = right time,
opportune moment, (4) &pa = season, and (5) cticov = lifetime or eternity.
TTop€uo|jai - travel, journey
EIC; - into + accusative
8 (jovov - only —> monologue, etc.
cmoKpivo|jai - reply
12- Punt auTouq! If OUTQ means to her, what must auTonc; mean?
30
Lesson 2. The O-Group; Neuter Plural Subject + Singular Verb; The Article
THE O-GROUP
We come now to the O-Group. Compare the endings of 6 aScôc; and q abz\yf). You will
find them similar except that in the one an o sound is dominant, in the other an a sound.
Feminine 6 a6£A9O(; Masculine TO pipXiOV Neuter

A- Endings brother O- Endings book O- Endings
Singular
nom. q 6 aScôc; o<; TO pipXiov ov
ace. qv TOV aScôv ov TO pipXiov ov
gen. q<; TOU a5£X9oO ou TOU pi^Xiou ou
dat. Q TCO a8cX9co cp TCO pipxlco cp
Plural
nom. ai oi a5€X9oi 01 Ta pipXia a
ace. aq TOUC; cx8EX9Ouc; ouq Ta pipXia o
gen. cov TCOV a6€X9cov cov TCOV Pipxfcov cov
dat. ai^ TO?C; a5cX9oTc; oiq ToTq pipXioig oic;
A linguistic change makes it hard to see just how similar the accusative plural endings are. Originally the forms
were * a6eA9av<; and * av6po>nov<;. But the combination of vowel + v + a was unstable in ancient Greek.
Usually the v sound disappeared and the vowel underwent some change. In this case:
-ctv<; — -ov<; — OIK;
TO pipXiov is a neuter O-group noun. Such nouns match the masculine in the genitive and dative
endings. All neuter nouns have the same nominative and accusative forms, in the
singular and plural. Compare:
q 6 TO she he it
TOV pipXiov her him it
Exercise a: Translate the underlined words into Greek:
1. They love the brothers. 6. I don't know the name of the book.
2. They love the brothers* horses. 7. The books are here.
3. Give the brother your letter. 8. A poet loves books.
4. Brothers should be friends. 9. He is reading (a) book.
5. I do this for the brothers. 10. Do vou see (any) books?
I Exercise P: Read and translate the following story. Explain the cases of the words in bold print
6 IdTpcx; pou cpiXe? avayiyvoxjKEiv TO Pipxfa. KCU £v TOK; Pipxfoic; cioi H^Qoi. 6 larpo^ Xcyci
puOouc; ToTc; av6pd>noic. oi fivOpcorroi îXouoi <a\ TOV larpov KOI TOU<; (JuGou^ aurou. KOI
Xeyouoiv oi fivSpconoi OTI oi pGOoi TOU laTpou aXqOax; Ta 9&ppaica auroG eiaiv.
NEUTER PLURAL SUBJECT + SINGULAR VERB

Normally a singular subject takes a singular verb, a plural subject a plural verb. (This is
agreement.) But it is a convention in ancient Greek that a neuter plural subject takes a
singular verb. (A plural verb was kept in the Alphabet Story, p. 11, because of the personification.)
TO pipXia £OTIV EVTaOGa. The books are here. Literally, The books is here.
I Exercise y: Translate the following:

1. TO Pipxla EOTIV aya0a. 2. oi &v6pamoi Eiaiv aya0oi. 3. TO piicpa noiqpaTa xaÊTra EOTIV.
4. The poems are difficult. 5. The books are small. 6. The difficult books are good.
31
THE ARTICLE (6, t\, T6)
Masc. Fern. Neuter

The Greek article corresponds, though not exactly, to our
6 n TO English the. Its main use is to identify a particular one
TOV TQV TO or ones: 6 pG0o<; - the story oi pG0oi - the stories
TOU TQC; TOU
TCO TQ TOO
i Usually the first time something is mentioned there will be
no article. But once it is identified, the article will be used
\
ever after, iarpoc; ?x£| xc^c*)vnv- 'l &E xc^(*>vn VOOE?. KOI 6
c c
01 ai Ta iarpcx; Xcyci TQ XE^VQ—
\ \ \
TO<; TO
T<2>V TWV T60V It is exactly the same for English, as you can see from the
TO?<; raT«; ToTq translation of the above: A doctor has a turtle. And the turtle is sick.
And the doctor says to the turtle...
What follows are four uses of the Greek article (all of which we have seen akeady). e*e* English
uses the for the first, but not for the others. NOTE: Whenever English has the, Greek has the article. But when
Greek has the article, English may not have the.
Four Uses of the Greek Article
(1) To identify a particular one or ones: q 9covq the voice on 9covou the voices
(2) With a possessive, understood or expressed:
opcb Tqv X€^Pa oou- I see your hand.
56<; (joi Tqv X^Pa- Give me your hand.
Literally, Give me the hand (of you, understood).
(This is really use # 1. £i*b It is only English that makes it seem a special case.)
(3) With abstracts and general classes:
TI eoTi v q £uSa i jjovia ; What is happiness? Literally, What is the (idea of) happiness?
oi ioTpof £ 101 <a KOI. Doctors are bad. Literally, The (class of) doctors are bad.
+ 6 avOpcoTKx; 9608 1 noAmicov £cpov.
Man is by nature a political (i.e., polls-dwelling) animal. Aristotle
(4) With proper names: TOV IcoicpaTqv yiyvd>OKCA>. I know Socrates.

Literally, / know the (person) Socrates.
A»A» When no article comes before a Greek noun, English has a or an (sing.) and, optionally, some (pi.):
opoo xeAcbvrjv / see a turtle, (i.e., one turtle or another),
opci x^vas / see turtles I I see (some) turtles.
£j£a While Greek uses a generalizing the, English generalizes with a, ait, or the in the singular and with
nothing in the plural.
I Exercise 8: 1. Reread "Nasrudin and the Letter" on p. 28. Find an example of each of the four uses of the
article listed above. 2. Read and translate the following. How is each article (underlined) used?
TO ovopa TOU a6eX9ou pou OiXimrcx; EOTIV. 91X0) TOV a5eX9Ov aAAa ou 91X00 Tqv xcXcbvqv auTou.
Xeyco x<2> OIXITTTTCA) OTI ai x^Xcovai OUK £xouai 9«*>vnv SIOTI OUK £xoua| yX&TTav.
?pya -Write the paradigms of 6 65cX96<; and TO Pipxiov three times. Memorize.
-Read and translate "Nasrudin Eats with His Fingers." Learn the vocabulary.
32
NASRUDIN EATS WITH HIS FINGERS
vopoc; COT} To?q avSpconoic; TO?<; TupiaicoTc; (Turkish) coSteiv

TOV O?TOV 5UO SctKTuXOK;, TO) T€ TTpCOTCj) KOU TO) ScUTEpCO. 2
aXXa r)|J€p<jt Tivi NaopcSSivo^ 6 Io90<; cix; (jaAiaja HEIVQ. 3
Kai T0?q TTCVTE (five) 5aKTuXoi<; TOV O?TOV coOici. icai îXoc; Tiq
-
TOU loÔU, OpCOV TOUTO, IpCOTOJ* TI Io6l€l^ HCVTE (five) 5
SaicTuXoiq;" 6 5c 1096^ 6noKpiv€Tai "8ioTi OUK EXCO c^ (six)."
6 v6(jo<; - tradition, custom, law --> autonomous, astronomy, Deuteronomy

EOTI |joi - functions like our I have (CGTI with Dative of Possession)
Cf. OUK COTI poi oxoXq in "Nasradin & the Letter," p. 24.
6 O?TOC; - food (usually grain as opposed to meat) -> parasite
2 8uo <--> two —> dyad, duet, deuce
6 56iKTuXo<; - finger --> dactylic hexameter, the rhythm of Homer,
so called because the basic unit was long-short-short,
— u u like the segments of our index finger —> pterodactyl
2 Dative of Instrument
5uo 8aicTuXoi<; with two fingers.
2 TC icaf = both and

TE is a signal that there will be a linking. We have seen soti A icai B = both A andB.
A TC ical B works the same way only with less emphasis. It seems less heavy,
more elegant. TE is postpositive. If TE is joining two nouns, it can follow either
the noun + article combination or the article alone. It is possible to say either
TCO T£ npCOTCO KGH TCO SEUTEpO) SdlCTuXcO OR
TCO TTpCOTC^) TC 1C a I TCO 8EUTEpC|)
npcoToc; <--> first --> prototype, etc.

SEUTEpoc; - second —> Deuteronomy
3 q npEpa - day —> ephemeral
3 Dative of Time When

TIVI one day, on a certain day
3 cbq paX IOTO - as much as can be (Translate: is as hungry as can be)

TTEIVCXCA) -behungry (irregularforms: TTEIVGJ, TTEIVQC;, TTEIVQ)
6 9iXo<; - friend --> philosophy, philanthropist, etc.
5 opcbv - seeing (participle)
5 Participle
Drop -co from the end of any verb of the OKOUCO pattern, add -cov,
and you have a participle. Translate with -ing.
SdKpucov EpXETai. Weeping, he comes.
&KOUCOV TOUTO EpXETai. Hearing this, he comes.
TI - what? or, as here, why?

33
Lesson 3. Accents
This chapter deals with the principles behind Greek accents. In order to write ancient Greek in
the traditional way, you will have to be able to answer these two questions: (1) Which syllable
gets the accent? (2) Which accent does it get?
For the purpose of accent syllable length is determined by the length of the vowel or
diphthong. You can tell that E and o are short, q and co are long. Greek a, i, or u may
represent long or short vowel sounds. Vowel combinations (diphthongs) such as EI, au, etc.
are normally long (but see item # 5 below).
WHICH SYLLABLE GETS THE ACCENT?
All accents must be on one of three syllables: the last, the next-to-last, or what we will call the
third-back (i.e., the syllable before the next-to-last). If these names seem awkward, use the traditional
ones: ultima (Latin for last), penult (Latin for almost the last) and antepenult (Latin for before the penult).
The length of the last syllable determines how far back an accent can go.
(1) Noun accents are persistent. They want to stay on the syllable they were on in the
nominative singular.
(2) Apparent exception: the genitive plural of A-Group nouns is always -civ.
(This is because the ending was originally -aooov.)
(3) Verb accents are recessive. In a personal verb form (with endings for /, we, you,
he/she/it, they), the accent will go back as far as it can.
(4) Only when the last syllable is short can the accent be on the third-back
syllable. When the last syllable is long, the accent cannot go further back than the
next-to-last syllable.
This rule explains why it is 6fiv6pa>no<;but TOU avOpcJmou. Although the accent "wants"
(according to item # 2) to stay on the syllable av because noun accents are persistent, it cannot
because the final syllable is long.
(5) For the purpose of accent, final "01 and -CM count as short.
Note: For determining accent, final -cu and -01 count as short. So, as far as accent is concerned
avQpconoi has a short last syllable, av6pdbnoi<; a long. As far as poetic meter goes, the last
syllables in both SvOpconoi and av6pobnoi<; take a long time and can be counted long. Some scholars
use the terms long and short for determining pitch accent, heavy and light for scanning length in poetry.
I Exercise a: Underline the vowel that will get the accent, according to the rules above.
Remember that the accent goes on the second letter of a diphthong.
When reading these forms aloud in class, pronounce the accented syllable aloud.
NOUNS VERBS
1. TCOV (nom. f\ '• X ai P £ 8. EAOETGO
2. TOV OITOV (nom. 6 anrcx;) 2. auppouAsuouai 9. E£EA00IEV

^ v
3. TOU 9apfjaKou (nom. TO 9apfjaicov) 3. £0EAEi<; 10. EAGoipnv
4. Tqv OaAdTTav (nom. i*| OaAaTTcO 4. napsAinEc; 11. EjjavOavov
5. TOK; jjoopoic; (nom. 6 poopcx;) 5. EnaiBsuoaTE 12. pavOavcopEv
E c )V
6. TQ x ^ * Q (nom. i*) x^<*>vr|) 6. naiBEuopai 13. jja0co[jEV
7. ai xÂcovai (nom. f] xÂcovq) 7. iraiBEUGQ H. xaiPETE
34
WHICH ACCENT DOES THE SYLLABLE GET?
(6) An accent on the third-back syllable is always acute.

6 otvGpcoTTCx; TO 9ap(jaicov
(7a) An accent on the next-to-last syllable is circumflex in a long-short combination
(that is, when the next-to-last syllable is long and the last syllable is short.)
ai x^£>vou the turtles 6 pcopoq the fool Ta 5copa the gifts
(7b) and acute in all other situations.

TCUC; TCO 91X00 (short i) TOOV 9appaKCOV
Can you tell whether the a in xeXcovac; is long or short? What about the u in pG0o<;? Why is there a
circumflex in xaXEirov TO pq 9iAqocu? Is the last syllable poetically short or long? (See item # 4 above.)
(8) If the accent is on the last syllable, the pattern depends on the paradigm. For every
A- or O-Group noun or adjective accented on the last syllable, the pattern down the
paradigm is: straight, straight, circumflex, circumflex.
I Exercise P: Go back to the syllables you underlined in exercise a and put in the accents.
I Exercise y: Look at the following noun patterns. What accent rules do you need to explain the forms?
sister turtle tongue story gift sea person drug, medicine
yXohra |ju0o<; 5£>pov 0aXa*n~a Sv6pcono<;
yXobfrav jjQOov 5a>pov OaAonrav 8v0pa>nov
Sobpou SaXotTrqc; av6pa>nou
5a>pa> OaX&TTQ av0pcbna>
yAanrai fjOOoi 5£>pa OaAaTrai SvGpcjnoi 9ap|jaKa

yAamrac; [ju0ou<; 0aAanrra<; av0pa>nou<;
yAcOTTCOV [JU0GOV 5a>pcov OaAaTTCov avOpconcov
5a>poi<; av0pa>noi<;
GRAVE OR ACUTE ACCENT ON LAST SYLLABLE

Item # 8 above explains the accent on words in a paradigm. For words in a sentence, you need
to know the following:
(9a) A straight accent on the last syllable is grave before another accented word.
Graves are found only on final syllables. (On these syllables graves are far more common than
acutes. Consider the poem, xaAEnov TO jjq 9iAnaai,p. 11.)
(9b) A straight accent on the last syllable is acute before punctuation or before an
enclitic. opco. But opco TOV !aTp6v.
TOV IQtTpOV |JOU
An enclitic is an accentless word, such as you or EOTI, which attaches itself ("leans in") closely to the
word that comes before it. The rules for enclitics are complicated and will be given later.
(Some words have no accent but are not enclitic. They are called proclitic because they are felt to "lean
forward" and form a unit with the word that follows. They have no effect on accents. The words 6, ^ oi,
ai, ou, EK, EV, and EK; are proclitics.)
I Exercise 8: Write the proper straight accent on the final syllables of <pc*>vq and ETrioroXr):
1. aicouco Tqv ycovrjv. 4. ypacpco eniaroXgy,
2. aKOUco Tqv 9covqv auTqc. 5. OTE TQ a5EX9Q |jou ypa9CA> sniaroXriv. TTEPHEI JJQI Bcopa.
3. [jeyaXq earlv f] ycovr) pou. 6. OTE ypa9a> ETTiaroXgy TQ aSsX^q you, TTE^HEI yoi 8d>pa.
35
SUMMARY
If the accent falls on the If the accent falls on the If the accent falls on the
third syllable back next-to-last syllable last syllable
Acute Circumflex Circumflex

Can fall on third syllable back when last syllable is short depending on paradigm / only on a long syllable
only when last syllable is short and next-to-last is long
Acute
Acute depending on paradigm OR
in all other circumstances when word is followed by an enclitic or by punctuation
Grave
for an accent which would have been acute, except that
the word is followed immediately by an accented word
I Exercise c: Explain each accent according to the chart above:

ai aSsâi |jou ou yiyvcboicouoi TOUC; avOpconouq Touq 00906^.
Classwork or ifpya: Accent the following words. Write the numbers of whichever rules apply.
(1) Noun accents persistent. (5) Final -01 and -cu are short (for purposes of accent).
(2) -civ for gen. pi of A-group nouns. (6) Accent on the third-back is always acute.
(3) Verb accents recessive. (7a) Circumflex on next-to-last in a long-short combination.
(4a) Accent cannot be on third-back (7b) Acute on next-to-last in any situation other than a long-short
if last syllable is long. combination.
(4b) Accent can be on third-back if last (8) The pattern is ' ' " " if the accent is on the last syllable
syllable is short. of an A- or O-Group noun.
1. TCOV j (nom. H^ 9. If only they would go

2. TOV OITOV (nom. 10. av I might go
3. TOU 9ap|jaKou (nom. 11. PCMVE Go! (you sing)
4. Tqv OaAaTTctv (nom. GaXaTTa) 12. PCUVETE Go! (you pi.)
5. TO?<; (nom 13. EjjavGavov / was learning
6. TQ (nom. 14. jjav0avGO|jE Let us be learning!
7. ai (nom. 15. |jav0avo|JEv We are learning
8. fte iVETGO Let him/her/it go! 16. |ja6co|JEV Let us learn (once)!
Ipy a -Translate. Use dative of possession for # 1-2. (See box on p. 29 and story p. 32.)
1. The people have a custom. 3. Turtles eat with (their) tongues.
2. My sister has a custom. 4. The wise man does not eat with (his) fingers.
-Write a short story and translate it.
-Read and translate the following story, written by a student in her third week of Greek:
"Your Handwriting Is Bad"*
avOpGonoq TI<; k'xei x £ ^ v n v - 91^ Tqv X£^vr|v- (3ouAeTon ypa9Eiv cniaToXqv
TQ x^^vfl- H ^ Xe^vrl °^K avayiyvcboKei ^qv ErnoToAqv. q xs^vq $160001
Tqv ETTioToAqv TCO avOpcbrrcp <ai Xeyer "q ypa9q oou Ka<q EOTIV." 6 oivOpconoc;
SiScoai Tqv sniaToXqv TQ a5£X9q auTou KOII Xgyer Hq x^Xobvq (jou ou
avayiyvcboKEiv Tqv cnioToXqv |jou. q yap ypa9q (jou K0«q EOTIV." q
Xeyer "q ypa9q oou ou <a<f] EOTIV. OUK oToOa OTI ai x*^£>vai OUK
avayiyvcboKouoiv;11
(Challenge: imagine the ending is OUK EX OUOIV ivayiyvcooKEiv.)
* Story by Vicki Kondelik; used with permission of the author.

36
Lesson 4. aOr6c as Pronoun; 6 auT6<; as VfSameYY; Accent Review
FORMS OFaCrr6c
Masculine Feminine Neuter
nom. CIUTCX; auTq auT6
ace. auTov aujqv
gen. auTou auTqq auTou
dat. CIUTCO aUTQ auTco
nom. auTof aural aura

ace. auTouq auTac; aura
gen. auTcov auT<2>v
dat. auToTc; auTaTc; auToTc;
auToc; has A- and O-Group forms. It follows the pattern of the article (6f Is), TO) in that the
neuter nom./acc. ends in -o rather than -ov.
aOj6<; AS PRONOUN
When used alone, forms of auToc; replace a noun, as him, her, it, them, etc. This is the most
common use of the word: as a pronoun. auToc;, aujq, OUTO is never used as a pronoun
in the nominative. There is no need. For a Greek, the word 9iX€T already says, he I she I it
likes. Why add another word?
You will nodce that forms of QUTO<; used as an unemphatic pronoun (him, her, it, they, them) never come first in
a sentence.
nom. » /
ace. auTov him auTqv her aUTO it
gen. auTou his, of him auTqq her, of her aUTOU its, of it
dat. auTco to / for him aUTQ to / for her auTco to 1 for it
nom.
ace. auTouq them auTaq them aura them
> **
gen. aUTCOV their , of them their, of them (f.) auTcov their, of them
dat. auTO?q to 1 for them auTaTc; to 1 for them (f.) auToTc; to 1 for them
I Exercise a: Translate the following:

1. opcb QUTOV. 4. Ta pipXia auTcbv 7.91X00 QUTOUC;. 10. Tf)v xcXcovqv aurq<; opcb.
2. opcb auTqv. 5. Scbpa auToTc; SiScapi. 8. 91X00 auTac;. 11. x^^vn corivauTQ.
3. opcb auTO. 6. 5cbpa auTa?<; EOTIV. 9.91X0) aura. 12. x^0^"^ a^T^v opcb.
6 aOT6<; AS "THE SAME"

Immediately following the article, auToq means "same."
Note: As the same 6 OUTOC; is used in all grammatical cases, including the nominative.
6 auToq avOpconoc; Both mean: Compare (p. 9): ra piKpa ypafjfjara
6 avOpconoc; 6 auroc; the same person TO y pap pa TO TOI
37
I Exercise P: What clues distinguish the use of GIUTCX; as a pronoun or as "same"?
The following sentences use In the following phrases Translate the following,
ainrcx; as a pronoun. (It is used QUTCK; means "same." Translate. being careful to watch for the use
without an article.) Translate: (Note position of article.) of the article.
14. TTEpTTO) aUTQ TfjV ETTIOTOXqV.
1. TTIVOUOIV 8. 6 auT 15. TTEPTTCO Tqv auTqv ETTiaroXqv.
2. op&auTov. 9. ai aural 16. 6pa>auTa>vTr)VETTiaToXr)v.
3. yajjco airrrjv. 10. oi auTo! vopoi 17. Eo6ia> TOV O?TOV auToO.
4. 9iXE?<; airrou<; 11. oi vojjoi oi auToi 18. Eo6ia> TOV QUTOV O?TOV.
5. SEIKVUJJI auro 12 Ta <pap|jaKa TO auTa 19. XsycoToauToauTcJ).
6. nifjTTco aCrrqv 13. f\ auTf) ETTioroXr) 20. 6 auTO^ Sv6pa>TTo^ EpxETai.
7. TTEPTTCO Ta 5a>pa 21. TOV av9pa>nov TOV auTov 6pa>.
ACCENT REVIEW
Review the material on accents on pp. 33-35.
It is best simply to notice which forms in a paradigm have short endings (outlined below).
These are the only forms where you can expect to find either
(a) an acute accent on the third syllable back, or
(b) a circumflex on the next-to-last syllable.
Remember: The next-to-last syllable must be long, followed by a short last syllable,
to receive the circumflex.
battle turtle yAanra tongue pu6o<; story 9appaicov drug
nom. yXcbTTa
ace. yXwTTav pGOov <pappaicov
gen. (JU00U
dat.
nom. I yXcjTTaiI T
ace. (juGouc;
gen. |ju6cov
dat.
I Exercise y: For each of the bold forms above explain the accent used.
Give the accusative and genitive Give the nominative and accusative
singular for each: plural for each: 7. TO BcTnvov
1. 6 npo>To<; 4. 6 npo>To<; 8. 6 arro<;
2. 6 6&KTuXo<; 5. 6 5aKTuXo<; 9. f\ ocXqvq moon
3. f\ TT£?va hunger 6. f] TT£?va hunger 10. TO 9appaicov
4. Each underlined word has an accent on the last syllable. Write the proper accent
opcb TOV aYaOov iaTpov. aXXa ou/ opcb TOV laTpov TOV KOKOV.
Class work: »Read Heraclitus t 1-4, Thesauros p. 224. The logo » indicates Thesauros.
Gqaaupoc; is Greek for treasure or treasure house. All selections in the Thesauros
are in genuine ancient or Koine Greek. (There may be some changes in dialect)
?py a -Read and translate "Looking for the Ring." Learn the vocabulary.
-Make up three sentences of your own using CIUTCX; as "same" and as a pronoun. Write them
in English as well as Greek. Try to use some of the new vocabulary.
38
LOOKING FOR THE RING
SctKTuAiov (ring) TTITTTEI cmo TOU BaicruAou TOU 10906 OTE

EV TQ ojidp EOTIV. 6 SE 1096? EpXETai EI? Toug ayppu? icai
iqTE? auTO. 9iAo<; TIC; 6pa>v TOUTO ^pcoTg auTov EpcoTqpa- 3
"J> 9iAE, TI TTOIE?(;; " 6 SE 1096^ ouSEV AsyEi. &AAa CqTE?.
6 SE 9iAo<; EpcoTa auTov TO QUTO £pa>Tqpcr "(I) cpiAE, TI
** N ' C * kI ' tt ' — * ' **
SaKTuXiov pou (ring). EHEOE (it fell) yap &no TOU SaKTuXou
|JOU OTE €V TQ OIKI^ ?JV." 8
6 8£ 91X0^ cpcoTa auTov "aXX 1 & Naop€55iv€, c! cv TQ 9

olidp oou TO SaKTuXiov (ring) ?jv OTC cncocv (it fell),
TI ev TO?<; aypoT^ iqTcTc; OUTO;" anoKpivcTai 6 Io9O<;
"5ioTi EV p€v TQ OIKI(JI |jou €OTI OKOTia, cv 5c To?<; aypoTc; 12
EOT i TO 9ai>(; TO pcya TOU f*)Xiou."
- fall (aorist CHEOOV = 1 fell)

a no - from, away from + gen.
q oiKia - home, house (cf. O!KO<; = home — > economy, ecology)
6 aypoc; - field <— > acre — > agriculture (via Latin)
£qT£co - look for, seek, search
CCUTO - it
3 Verbs with Two Accusatives

Some verbs can take two accusatives, such as sparraco = ask, with accusative
of thing asked and person; or cthico = request, with accusative of thing
requested and person
epcoTGo oe TOUTO, I ask you this.
OUTGO OE TOUTO. / request this ofyou.
6 auToc;, q auTq, TO auTO - the same
8 ?jv - / vâs. (Also = he, she, it was. See line 10.)
9 Elision: &AA 1 & Naope&Sive
When one word ends with a short vowel and the next begins with a vowel,
the end vowel may be dropped. This is called elision. An apostrophe
shows where the vowel had been (**• as in the English don't).
)v - he, she, it was (Also / was. See line 8 above.)
12
Notice the plv / 81 here. Always think of a pair of scales when you see
|j£v / 5£. These words bring to you two thoughts that are seen as somehow
balancing each other. The 8c is simply the old connecting word we have
already seen. And (JEV is an early signal
(postpositive) that a 5£ is coming.
Translate: on the one hand

on the other
E'OTI(V) - exists, there exists (always accented on first syllable)

q OKOTia - darkness
TO 900^ - light —> phosphorus
6 qXio<; - sun —> heliocentric
39
THE WISDOM OF NASRUDIN AND SOCRATES

Throughout this course, you will be reading a
number of stories in which Nasrudin, the wise one,
is the central figure. Nasrudin is a folklore figure
familiar all throughout the Middle East and in those
parts of Europe which have had extensive cultural
contacts with Islam - Spain, the Balkans, southern
Russia, and modern Greece.
Although more than five hundred stories about

Nasrudin have been collected, no one really knows
who he is, or where he comes from, or whether he
even existed. This timeless legendary figure is
celebrated in stories that are still being told. In
them, Nasrudin emerges as the paradoxical figure
of the wise fool.
Figure 1. Nasrudin on his donkey. (Line drawing by Constance Pierce)
The pattern of the stories follows the mythical archetype of the trickster figure. Tricksters are found in
all cultures. Bugs Bunny and Brer Rabbit may be familiar to you from American culture, but Hermes and
Prometheus in Greek myth also may be defined as tricksters. Tricksters are generally marked by their
cleverness (which includes artistic skills) and by their defiance of ordinary rules and conventions. They
are figures difficult to classify because at times they may be seen as beneficent, at other times as
destructive. They can be culture heroes or culture destroyers, and human, animal, or divine. While one
of their salient features is their cunning, they are just as often seen as naive fools or buffoons caught in
their own misfired trickery.
Nasrudin tales generally focus either on his cleverness or his foolishness. In both roles, Nasrudin's
simplicity, refusal to be led astray by the trappings of society, and inversion of the ordinary are marks
of wisdom: he forces you to see the world with fresh eyes. As such, they are stories that are pondered
and studied as part of the teachings of the Sufis. Sufism is a mystical Islamic sect in which direct
experience of God is the goal. As a Sufi teaching figure, Nasrudin leads the Sufi disciple to mystical
enlightenment by helping cut away overly rational approaches to the divine and severing dependence on
familiar ways of apprehending reality.
One of the most well-known stories about Nasrudin is "Looking for the Ring," in which Nasrudin
searches for a lost ring, not in the house where it was dropped but outside in the sunlight because there
is more light there. In Sufi commentaries this story, which could simply be enjoyed for its humor, is used
to highlight the absurdity of those who search for enlightenment in places where it is not to be found.
What appears to be naive foolishness can also be construed as a realization that ordinary ways of thinking
can hinder enlightenment. In one story, depicted in Figure 1, Nasrudin is asked by his students, who are
following him to a mosque, why he rides his donkey backwards. Nasrudin answers this in the only
possible way: if he rides his donkey in the forward position, he would either have his back to his pupils
and be disrespectful of them or his pupils would have their backs to him and be disrespectful to him. As
a Sufi teacher, Nasrudin clarifies here that he is willing to violate the ordinary conventions and even
40
appear to be ridiculous in order that he lead the way for his pupils (down a path he no longer needs to
see because he has already been there).
Greek mythology and legend do not have a comparable teaching figure. But Socrates (469 -399 B.C.E.),
like other famous teachers whose aim is to help us reenvision reality, displays some of the traits of the
trickster and the wise fool Yet, his methods are not the same as Nasrudin's. He does not wish to
bypass logic, but to clarify how to think more clearly and definitively. And unlike Nasrudin, Socrates
is a real person about whom we know a great deal because of the works of two of his pupils, Plato and
Xenophon, even though Socrates never wrote a word himself.
Socrates, as one who succeeds the Ionian philosophers and is contemporary with the Sophists, turns
philosophy to a new focus: how we are to tend to our souls and improve them. To do so, he uses a
technique of question and answer (called elenchus) to examine fundamental assumptions and definitions
and thereby to determine, with logic and reason, whether they are true. He claims that he has nothing to
teach except a method of inquiry. Therefore, he can call himself a "midwife," who only helps the pupils
give birth to their own understanding.
The first step is to see how little we truly know. Accordingly, Socrates ironically refuses any claim to
wisdom: his only superiority, he says, is that he knows that he doesn't know. Yet, his skill at
argumentation is so great that Euthyphro accused him of being like his ancestor Daedalus, a legendary
trickster. Daedalus' skill at sculpting was such that he could make statues walk about, just as Socrates
seems to Euthyphro to make the arguments move. Alcibiades in Plato's Symposium further identifies
Socrates, because of his pug nose and thick lips, with other trickster figures whom Socrates physically
resembles: Silens and satyrs, half-animal, half-human figures of cleverness and artistic skill. Alcibiades
in particular likens Socrates to Silens sold in shops which open up to reveal the images of the gods inside.
He states: "If anyone would be willing to listen to Socrates' words, they would completely seem
ridiculous (geloioi} at first...and a person who was inexperienced and unthoughtful might laugh at his
words.. .but anyone looking at them when they are opened out and getting inside them, will find first that
they are the only ones which make sense, then that they are most divine and containing the finest images
of virtue. "
Socrates' "works in words" so charm his hearers that they are like the enchanting music of the satyr
Marysas. But they are all for an ultimately very serious purpose: to help us examine the premises by
which we live. Both Socrates and Nasrudin invite us, by their very playfulness, to greater depth and
understanding.
Figure 2. Statuette of Socrates, Agora Museum. Courtesy of the

American School of Classical Studies at Athens: Agora Excavations.
41
Lesson 5. Use of Cases; Double Negatives; Articular Infinitive
USE OF CASES
As you can see from our stories, the four cases have other uses besides the ones we have just
mentioned Why does sv take the dative and EK; the accusative? Why does TO?<; SaKTuAou;
mean "with two fingers" and npspp TIVI "on a certain day"! None of this is arbitrary. All the
uses stem from the basic ideas that the cases express. Let us look at these ideas.
If we disregard the vocative, we can go back to an earlier stage of the Greek language where each
noun had seven cases. This was a legacy from Indo-European. Latin kept five of the cases and
Greek four. If the cases were dropped, the functions were not. The remaining cases simply
absorbed the functions of the those that were dropped.
Indo-European
nominative - subject matter In Greek the ablative case was dropped
accusative - extent of impact and the genitive took over its function.
genitive - part of whole
dative - indirect impact The instrumental and locative cases were
instrumental - means, instrument dropped and the dative took over their
locative - location in space or time functions.
ablative - separation
Nominative — names or describes the subject
6 !aTp6<; The doctor is coming. (noun, subject of verb)

6 &ya86q iaTpoq The good doctor is coming. (adjective, with subject noun)
6 a5€A90<; |jou laTpoq COTIV. My brother is a doctor. (predicate noun)
6 aS€A9O<; pou &ya66q eoTiv. My brother is good. (predicate adjective)
Accusative — total impact: direct object, extent

of time and space, end of motion
(1) Direct object: the person or thing on which the impact is felt
TTCIIEI pc. ^ He hits me. (direct object)
TTCMEI Tqv XeTp& Mou- He hits my hand. (direct object)
not IE i |J€ Tqv Xe?Pa- He hits me in the hand, (direct object + accusative of part affected,
used in poetry, especially in Homer)
(2) Extent of time and space
VOOE?<; TTEVTE f][itpa^. You have been sick for five days, (accusative of duration, extent of time)
TTEVTE 0T&5lGL He is running five stades. (A stade = c. 1/9 mile.) (ace. of extent of space)
KOfi T^|V 686v. He is running down (the length of) the road.
(accusative with preposition; expresses extent of space)
(3) End of motion
np6q T She is coming toward the tent.
She is coming into the tent.
> Exercise a: If the following sentences were in Greek what would be the case of the underlined words?
(Note: An adjective always has the case of the noun it modifies.)
The doctor came into town. He stayed three months. I saw him. He was tall and bald. A woman went toward
him. That woman was my aunt. She hit him on the cheek.
42
I Genitive — partitive, possession, separation, comparison, hanging noun to noun I
Early in our language learning we find that we cannot say "a piece cake"~there must be an of to
connect Similarly in Greek you cannot hang one noun onto another—unless you put one of them
in the genitive. The genitive "hangs" a noun onto a noun, a verb, or a preposition. It expresses
many notions. These notions are often expressed in English by of, from, and than.
(1) Partitive: part of whole — noun + noun or noun + verb

(JEpoq TOU Oh/ou a portion of the wine
TTIVGO TOU oTvou. / drink (of) the wine.
(2) Possession - noun + noun

TO ovojja TOU iaTpou oTSa. Both mean: / know the doctor's name I the name of the doctor.
TO TOU IaTpou ovopa oTSa . Note: A genitive may be used in the position of an adjective.
(3) Separation — noun + verb or noun + preposition or noun + adjective

nauETcn H X n S - He ceases from battle.
*K Tffc OKqvffc. He is coming out of the tent.
oi'vou COTIV. He is in need of wine.
(4) Comparison ~ a special use of the genitive that involves the basic idea of separation,
since one person or thing goes beyond (is separate from) others
comparative adjective or adverb + noun
TO oiyav EOTI âAETTCOTEpov TT&VTCOV. To be silent is harder than all things.
oo9GOT€po<; TOU IaTpou EOTIV. He is wiser than the doctor.
oo9<OT€pov TOU IaTpou Xeyei. He speaks more wisely than the doctor.
(5) Joker— These are all the ways a noun may hang on another noun. It seems impossible
to classify all the ways, though grammarians have tried. (Genitive of value, of material,
of origin, of quality, and so on.) £» The "joker" use includes the myriad relationships expressed by
the word of in English~a man of learning, a thing of value, a taste of honey, a feeling of pain.
nope fa TTEVTE ^pep&v a journey of five days
I Exercise p: Say which idea is behind the Greek genitives in bold print:
1. navra T&V ypa^jp&TCov 5. SVEU Trfc AScX^qc (Svcu = without)
2. [JiKpoTEpoc; TOU IaTpou 6. SaKTuXiov (ring) ipyupou (Spyupo<; = silver)
3. Ta TToiqHaTa TWV AvOpc^Trcov 7. XaXena)TEpov TOU yôu
4. EK TOU Pipxfou 8. I*) Tffc XcA&vn<: yXcb-rra
Dative — Indirect object, possession, means, manner, circumstance
Many prepositions convey the ideas behind the dative case: to, for, with, in, at, on.
(1) Indirect object - the person for whom something is done or to whom something is given
or for whom something is the case (often expressed by to or for in English).
TTCJJTTGO CIUT9 IniOToXqv. / send him a letter 1 1 send a letter to him.
5iS(A)|ji auTQ 5copov. / give her a gift 1 1 give a gift to her.
(2) Dative of Possession

EOTI poi OKqvq / have a tent. Literally, There is [= belongs] to me a tent.
43
(3) Dative of Means, Manner, Instrument - (old instrumental) answers the question howl
often expressed by the prepositions with or by in English
T0?q SaiCTuXoic; €a9ico. / eat with my fingers.
oryq €00ico. ^ / eat in silence.
8cbpoi<; auTouq TTEiOco. I persuade them by means of gifts.
(4) Dative of Place Where, Time When, Circumstance (old locative)
(answers where! or whenl) usually with a preposition in English: in, on, at, etc.
often with a preposition in Greek
Accusative
The dative is static and tells where (at, in, on),
Q n jtiy while the genitive shows motion away (from, out of)
and the accusative motion to (to, toward, into).
TQ OKqvn EOTIV.^ She is in the tent.

TQ np£pP £PX £TOM - She comes on this day.
T($> Scopcp x^P00- / rejoice in the gift.
aCiTQ / £TT* aCiTQ 6pyi£o(jou I am angry at her.
I Exercise y: The following passage was written by a famous nineteenth century reteller of Greek and Norse
myth, Thomas Bullfinch. For each word in bold, give the case you would expect the word to have in Greek and
the reason why it would be in that case.
Laius, king of Thebes, was warned by an oracle that there was danger to his throne
and life if his new-born son should be suffered to grow up. He therefore committed
the child to the care of a herdsman with orders to destroy him; but the herdsman,
moved with pity, yet not daring entirely to disobey, tied up the child... Many years
afterwards Laius being on his way to Delphi, accompanied only by one attendant, met
in a narrow road a young man also driving in a chariot. On his refusal to leave the
way at their command the attendant killed one of his horses, and the stranger,
filled with rage, slew both Laius and his attendant. The young man was Oedipus,
who thus unknowingly became the slayer of his own father.
DOUBLE NEGATIVES
Double (and triple) negatives are good Greek:
oux opa ouSev. He does not see anything. Literally, He does not see nothing.
ou Aeyco ou6sv ou5ev(. / don't say anything to anyone. Literally, / don't say nothing to no one.
ARTICULAR INFINITIVE
An infinitive is a neuter singular noun made from a verb. It can be given an article and used in
any of the cases.
TO ypc<9eiv ^ctAsnov EOTIV. To write is difficult I Writing [the act of writing] is difficult.
avTi TOU ypaq>£iv Xeysiq. Instead of writing you speak.
XOUpouai TGO €00ieiv. They rejoice in eating [in the act of eating].
Important Note: Be careful when translating from English to Greek; always look
at function and not just form. English uses -ing words three ways.
Verb XEycic You speak I You are speaking.
Participle Xeycov SoncpuEic;. While speaking you cry.
Infinitive TO XcyEiv fbaSiov EOTIV. Speaking I the act of speaking! is easy.
I Exercise 8: Which form (verb, participle, or infinitive) would translate the underlined word(s) into Greek?
1. The art of singing is difficult. 2. Singing a song, he left. 3. She is singing. 4. Is singing pleasant?
I Exercise E: Translate: 1. TO |jav6avEiv fba6iov EOTIV. 3. xa'P°ua| T^ TTIVEIV oTvov.
2. opoov Tqv paxnv SaKpuco . 4. q TEX^ (art, skill) TOU ypacpciv
-Read and translate "Nasrudin Gives Figs." Learn the Vocabulary.

44
NASRUDIN GIVES FIGS
6 |3aoiX€U<; TGOV MoyyoXcov (Mongols) cpxcTai qpepp TIVI

eic; Tqv noXiv TOU Sxxpou. Koi 6 Io9O<; fJouXcTai OUTCO
Soopov 5i56vai. XapfJavci oCv noXXa pqXa i< Tqc; oliciac; <ai 3
cpx^TOi 9Epa>v TO pqXa npoc; TOC; oicqvac; TOU paoiXcax;.
€v 5c TQ 68cp EVTuyx&VEi (happens on, meets up with) 9iXcp. 6 5e
9iXo<; Xcyci OUTCO • M|jq 9€pc pqXa, 9cpc oGica (figs)." 6
KcnipxeTou oOv 6 NaopcSSivoc; eic; Tqv okiav icai ouKa
(figs) Xa(jpav€i CXVTI TCOV (jqXcov. icai cpx^Tai a50ic; Ta ou<a
9€pa>v npoq Taq a<qvag TOU paoiXcax;. <ai OTC cpx^Tai
ciq Tqv OKqvqv oO Ka0f^€Tai 6 paoiXcuc;, Xcyci auTco* Md> 10
paoiXcu, 5i5co|ji 001 TOUTO TO Scopov. EOTI 001 vuv noXXa
oGica." <ai SiScooiv auTc Ta oGica.
6 5c paoiXeuq, TO OUKO (figs) (JIOGOV, ou x a 'P €|

ou X a 'P € l ouSajJcoc; TCO Xajjâvciv OUKO. aXX 1 o
opyiÊTai cb<; (jaXioTa. Kai Xeyci TO?<; OTpaTicoTaic; paXXciv 15
TOV £O9OV TO?^ OUKOIC;. TOGTO 6€ TTOIOGOIV Ol OTpaTIGOTOI.
6 BE Io90<; Xcycr M6 GEOC; EnaivEioOco (God be praised)."
6 SE paoiXcuc;, ToGTo CXKOUGOV, EpcoToc "TI cnaivcTc; (do you

praise) TOV 0eov OTE avOpconoi o€ OUKOIC; (figs) paXXouoiv;" 19
6 5e Xcycr "ou x^Xcnov TO anoKpivEoGar TOV 0€ov cnaivco
(I praise) SIOTI oG<a qvcyKov (I brought) OVTI (jqXcov. Ta
yap (jqXa (jeyaXa (big) EOTIV, TO 6e oGica ou.
6 paoiXcuc; -king
q noAiq - city --> metropolis, political (Note d<; noXiv which, corrupted, -->
3 TO Scopov - gift Istanbul.)
TO (jqAov - apple —> melon
£K + gen. - out of —> ecstasy, eclipse, eccentric
9£pco - bear, carry, bring <--> bear --> metaphor, phosphorus
npoc; + ace. - to, toward
q o<qvq - tent --> scene Cf. OKqvq note; 6 pioc; - All life's a stage.
q 686<; - road, way —> method, odometer
6 .
ou is the negative for facts, pq is the negative in other contexts.
TO It is difficult not to love. (With infinitive)
Don't cry. (With command)
<aT€pxo|jai - go back, return

OVTI + genitive - instead of --> antidote, etc.
10 oO - where
Ka6i£ojja I - Sit down, Sit <--> Sit. (The £ of ftco represents a + 5. Cf. Latin sedeo -> sedentary)
IJIOECO - hate --> misanthrope, misogyny
ouSajjcoc; - nohow.
6pyi£o|jai - be angry
15 Xcyco - tell, say, speak; tell, command + dat. + infinitive
(a) Xcyco TO ovopa. / tell I say / speak the name, (b) Xcyc*) OTI VOOE?. / say that he is sick.
(c) Xcya> auT<2> neprrEiv Scopa. / tell I command him to send gifts.
6 oTpaTicoTqq - soldier
15,19 paXXco - throw; hit by throwing, pelt --> ballistics (via Latin)
(a) paXXco ouica - / throw figs, (b) paXXco auTov - / hit him (by throwing) /1 pelt him
6 0Eo<; - god —> theology, atheist, Theodore
45
Lesson 6. Masculine A-Group Agent Nouns; Feminine Nouns with 5
after e, i, p; Feminine O-Group Nouns
6 -Tqq Long a after e,i,p f\ -o<;

(Masc. A-Group) (Fern. A-Group) (Fern. O-Group)
Singular 6 aTpcmcoTqc; soldier r\ o\<\a house f] 666<; road
/
nom. 6 q oiKia q 656<;
ace. TOV OTpOTIGOTqV Tf|V OIKiaV Tqv 656v
gen. TOU OTpCmGOTOU Tqq oiKiac; Tqc; 65ou
dat. TO) OTpCm*TQ TQ OIKip TQ 68cp
Plural
nom. oi OTpaTIGOTCn ai oiKiai ai 6601
ace. Touq OTpaTIGOTac; Tote; oiKiaq TOC; oSouc;
gen. TGOV OTpOTIGOTGOV TGOV OIKIGOV TGOV 65cov
dat. TOK; OTpCmGOTCMC; TCUC; oiKiaiq TaTq 65o7<;
Besides the short-alpha nouns like yXGOTTa, there are two other types of nouns in the
A-Group whose endings vary somewhat from the norm.
MASCULINE A-GROUP AGENT NOUN
The masculine agent noun ends in -Tqc;. This ending shows that someone is an agent or doer.
(It corresponds to our -er, as in writer, photographer, etc.) The endings are as expected
except for the nominative and genitive singular.
FEMININE NOUNS WITH a AFTER E, i, p
It seems that the Athenians did not pronounce an q sound after an e, i, or p, but rather a long
alpha. This makes a difference only in the singular.
Oca goddess q|J£pa day oiKia house
O-GROUP FEMININES
In the O-Group there are no variations in the endings. There are, however, a small number of
feminine nouns that have the normal O-group endings.
q napOevoq the maiden q 6p6aoq the dew q voooc; the sickness
I Exercise a:
I. Using what you know about II. Write the correct form of III. Make the following phrases
accents, write the paradigm for: the article for the following: plural:
4. okia
1. 6 noiqTn<;(thepoet) 5. aTpcmcbTrjc;
11. T(2> OTpOTIGOTQ
2. q OECK (the goddess) 12. Tqc; oi<ia<;
6. 65oi
3. q voocx; (the sickness) 13. Tqv 656v
7. GTpcmcbTou
H. TOV QTpaTicoTqv
8. 65ou
15. f] 656<;
9. aTpomcA>Tcu<;
10. oiidac; (2 ways)
Classwork: Read New Testament # 1, Thesauros p. 221
£py a -Write each one of the paradigms three times. Memorize.

-Review the vocabulary and forms of Lessons 1-6. Then write a dialogue using as many new
vocabulary words as possible. Be prepared to speak this dialogue with a partner in class.
46
Lesson 7. O-A-O Adjectives; Agreement; Alpha Privative;
Two-ending Adjectives; Adjective with Noun Understood
O-A-O ADJECTIVES
npGOTCx;, nporrq, npGOTOv first
nom. TTpCOTOC; TTpCOTQ HpOOTOV aya8cx;,r),6v good

ace. TTpGOTOV npcoTqv npcoTov Ka<6<;,r),6v bad
gen. TTpCOTOU npdrrqq npcoTou ocxp6<;,r|f6v wise
dat. npcoTcp npcoTQ npcoTcp 'EAAqviico<;,ri,6v Greek
OyiEiv6<;tnf6v healthy
nom. TTp(A>TOI TTpGOTcn TTpCOTa XaAETTcx;,r|,6v difficult
ace. npcoTouq npcoTCtc; npcoTa npciTO<;,n,ov first
gen. npcoTcov npcoTCOV npcoTcov icaX6<;fr)^6\/ beautiful
dat. TTpCOTOIC; npcoTaiq npcoToiq
XoiTTo<;,r),6v remaining
Most adjectives follow the O-A-O pattern given above. They have masculine and neuter forms in
the O-Group and feminine forms in the A-Group. Adjectives follow the normal patterns
described earlier except that feminine A-Group adjectives do not necessarily have a circumflex
on the genitive plural ending, as do feminine A-Group nouns.
The masculine nominative singular sets the pattern for accent. Note accent on
£TOI(JOU, fern. nom. plural of the adjective cToipoq, €Toi(jq, ETOIÔV = ready.
AGREEMENT
If a noun is masculine plural accusative, the adjective modifying it will be, too. This is called
agreement. The gender, number, and case will always match, though the endings may
not look the same.
TOUC KdKOUq I fear bad doctors.
opco. I see a wise poet.
6po>. I see a healthy tongue.
TTofqpa pavOavco. I learn a difficult poem.
I Exercise a: Complete the following, using adjectives shown in the list above. Make sure they match the
noun they modify in case, number, and gender.
6 (bad) _ paoiXeuc; TCOV (remaining) _ MoyyoAo>v EPXETCM. 6 SE Icxpoc; eOeXci airnj) 8a>pov
(good) _ SiSovai. XappavEi o5v noXXa KQI (healthy) _ ^qXa EK Tq<; oiKiac; Kai 9epei aura
rrpoc; Ta<; (beautiful) _ oicqva<; Tq^ (wise) _ 6BEX9q<; TOU (bad)
I Exercise P: Translate the following phrases:
1. of the Greek house 2. for the wise soldiers 3. the healthy tongue (subject) 4. the difficult roads (direct object)
ALPHA PRIVATIVE
An alpha (& / & v before vowels) at the beginning of an adjective can negate meaning.
This is called alpha privative.
6/f] GEO<; god -> fiOeoq, ov godless atheist in English
ToaTpa blood -> 8vai|joq, ov bloodless anemic
There are alpha privatives in nouns and verbs as well.
aio9avo|jai perceive --> i*) ivcuoQr|°ia lack of perception anaesthesia
îvaopai remember -> f] ipvqoia lack of memory amnesia
pvr||jovEuca mention, call to mind -> i^HM0^00 leave unmentioned, -> amnesty
unremembered
Many English derivatives have an alpha privative: amoral, agnostic, amnesty, analgesic, anarchy, etc.
47
TWO-ENDING ADJECTIVES
Some adjectives are called two-ending adjectives. These have only O-Group endings.
tt8lKOC,OV unjust (a without, Sitcq justice)
M/F N
nom. SSiKoq aSiKov opco Tag 6t5iKOuq iSeâc;.

ace. aSiKov aSiKov
gen. aSiKou a&iKou / see the unjust sisters.
dat. aSiKco aSiKco
&9&vaT<K f] V U XÎ-
nom. a5iKoi a5iKa The soul is deathless.
ace. aSiicouc; a5i<a
gen. aSiKcov a&iKcov NOTE: In any sentence EOTI
dat. aSiKOic aSiKOic may be omitted
Most, but not all, of these adjectives are compounds made with an alpha privative. They have a
recessive accent
aAoycx;, OV irrational (without Aoycx; = reason)
aTljJOc;, OV dishonored (without TIHÎ = honor)
aOaVdTOC;, OV deathless (without 6avaTO<; = death)
I Exercise y: Translate the following phrases:
1. by an unjust deed 2. of an unjust battle 3. the unjust poets (subject) 4. the unjust poet (object)
ADJECTIVE WITH NOUN UNDERSTOOD

The article (6, q, TO) + an adjective (or a prepositional phrase used as an adjective) can be used
with a noun understood.
^| 0091*1 avayiyvcooKeu ^ The wise one (woman) reads I is reading.
o! 0090! &ICOKOUOI Tqv apETqv. The wise (persons) pursue excellence.
Ta lOTplKa. You are learning medical (material) (skills, information, etc.).
| v TQ 9 VOG6. The one (feminine) in the road is sick.
Ta kv TQ olici(jc 6pa>. I see the (things) in the house.
Only context can show whether a general class is meant. For example, q 0091*) avay lyvcooicei
could mean, "The wise woman (in general) reads" OR "The wise woman (already mentioned) is
reading"
English uses the + adjective to generalize only in the plural, not in the singular. "The brave are free,"
but not "The brave is free." Greek uses the article to generalize in the singular or plural.
T6 with a neuter singular adjective often gives us an abstract. TO ayaOov may signify
the good, i.e. goodness, rather than a particular good thing.
TI^ EOTI TO Biicaiov; What is justice I the just?
TO iyaOov £r|T(2>. / seek goodness 1 1 seek the good. OR, if context justifies,
/ seek the good thing (already mentioned).
I Exercise 8: Write the following in Greek. Omit nouns when possible (as indicated by parentheses).
1. The wise love good (things). 4. The wise (man) does not love evil (= the bad).
2. The wise love goodness. 5. The (people) in the house are crying.
3. I see the bad (woman). 6. Bad (things) happen to good (people). (Tuyx&vco = happen to + dat)
Classwork: ++ Read: New Testament # 2, Thesauros p. 221.

Pair up and read dialogues (from homework). Make corrections.
£pya -Write the paradigm for ocxpcx;. Memorize.
-Read and translate "Feeding the Cloak." Learn the vocabulary.
48
FEEDING THE CLOAK
avSpconoc; TIC; (jaXa nXouoioq icaXc? TOV Io9ov ETTI ScTnvov. 1
KOI EPXETOU 6 NaopESSivoc; 9opcov IpaTiov o (which) 90pE?
Ka9' EK&OTQV q(jEpav~ip6mov icat naXaiov *cai 9CtuAov. 3
im 8c TCO SEITTVC*) 6 nXouaio^ ou SiaXcycTai (converse with)
auTcp ouSe SfScooiv auT(2> O?TOV. TEXoq 8c êioiv 6 5
Naop£&6ivo<; KQI aXXo €v5u€Tai (puts on) ipcmov— ipaTiov
veov KCU KaXov. KOI KaTEpx^Tai auTO 9Opcbv.
vuv SE OTE eiocpx^Tai 6 Icxpcx; Xcyci aujco 6 rrXouoioc;*

"cb 9iX€, cScXcic; Ka9iC€o6ai ETTI Spovou;" icai KaOiÊTai 9
napa TCO Naop€85ivcA> 6 nXouoioq icai 5i5coaiv aujco G?TOV.
6 8c avioTarai Kai XsyEi " aSiKOc; Eipi EI TOV O?TOV EoOico."
icai TO ipaTiov EKSuETai (takes off) KCU auTO TiOqoi (he puts)
ETTI TOU Opovou. npoonoiE?Tai (pretends) SE auTai 5i86vai
O?TOV 6 SE, ToOTo opcov, EpcoT$c "cS 9iXE, 5ia TI TOUTO 14
noiETc;;11 6 SE Io9O<; anoKpfvETai "SioTi SqXov EOTIV OTI TCO
i|jcmco O?TOV E8f5ou<; (you were giving), ou TCO av0pconcp.M
(jcxAa - very
nXouoioq, ov - rich (6 nAouToc; = wealth —> Pluto, plutocracy)
1,4,9 eni takes three cases: erri + ace. = to (ETTI 6E?nvov to dinner) --> epitaph,
ETTI + gen. = on (ETTI 6p6vou on a chair) epidermis,
ETTI + dat. = at (ETTI SEITTVCJ) at dinner) Episcopal, etc.
9Op€CO - wear (a frequentative from 9£po>~ carry around a lot, i.e. wear)
TO l(jcmov - cloak, piece of clothing
3 £0(6* = KQTOt (Kara drops its a before a vowel and the T — > 8. See p. 38 on elision.)
KOTOI + acc. - down along, in the course of
€KaoToq,q,ov - each
naAaioq,a,6v - old (from naAiv) -> paleontology, paleolithic, paleography
9auAo<;,q,ov - crummy, second rate
5 ouSc - nor (= ou + K a i )
£^€i|ji = &; + dpi come or go out (i< —> c£ before vowels -> exodus)
aXAoq,q,o - other (note the special neuter ending, like that of QUTO) --> allergy, allopathic
v£o<;,a,ov <—>new —> neo-, as in neoclassical, neonate
KaA6<;,r],6v - beautiful —> calligraphy, callisthenics
€io€pxo(jai - come in (ciq + cpxofjai)
9 6 Gpovoq - chair --> throne
napa + dative - at the side of
oi5iKoq,ov-unjust (a +8iicq justice)
14 6 8£ = and he, but he
Sometimes in Greek one finds the article (6, q, TO) plus SE at the beginning of a
sentence with no noun or modifier to complete the article. This happens in narrative,
most often with the masculine singular 6 SE. The 6 BE usually refers to a new
subject, different from the subject of the previous sentence. Translate as follows:
and he [new he], OR but he [new he], oi &c, f] SE, ai SE, TO SE, and TO 5e may be used this way.
5£>pa 5i5ax7iv 6 f3aaiAEu<; TOO 91X00* 6 5c AaîpavEi aura.
The king gives gifts to his friend. And he (the friend) takes them.
5copa SiBcoaiv 6 paoiXtuc; ToTc; 91X01^* o! 5' ou Xappavouaiv aura.
The king gives gifts to his friends. But they (the friends) do not take them.
8ia + ace. - on account of (5ioTi = 8ia + OTI)

SqAoq^^v - clear --> psychedelic
49
Lesson 8. Bound versus Unbound Position;
Emphatic aOr6c (Unbound); Intensive icaf
BOUND POSITION
6 ocxpoc; avOpconcx; Both mean:

6 avSpcoTToq 6 0096^ the wise man
This is called bound position (also attributive position). The article (6, q, TO) makes a tight unit,
binding the adjective to the noun. The function is to identify a particular one or ones. Which
man? The wise man. **£* English has only one binding position, while Greek has two.
You can use a genitive or a prepositional phrase in bound position in Greek, since they identify a
particular one or ones.
q Tqc; aSeAcpqc; x^&vq Both mean:
q x^k> v n H T H^ ot&£^<pq<; my sister's turtle I the turtle of my sister
ai EV TQ Bay5a8 aScôu Both mean:
ai a5EA9ai ai ev TQ Bay5a5 my sisters in Baghdad
UNBOUND POSITION
6 avOpGonoc; 00965 Both mean:

00965 6 avOpconcx; The man is wise.
This is called unbound position (also predicate position). The adjective makes an assertion about
the noun rather than serving to identify it.
Since EOTI can always be omitted in Greek, it is position alone that tells you that the above
are whole sentences.
The genitive can be in bound or unbound position. Either way, it identifies:

q Tqq aSc^qc; x^covq Both mean:
q x^fcwn Tqc; aSc^qc; my sister's turtle
ALSO POSSIBLE:
Tqc; a6€A9q<; q x^^covq (used to emphasize the genitive)
q xeA&bvq H T H^ aSeX9qc; (possible, but rare)
A prepositional phrase in unbound position usually goes with the verb:

ai a5eA9ai €v TQ Bay5a5 OIKOUOIV. My sisters live in Baghdad.
This answers the question "where do they dwell?,11 not "which sisters?" £*£* Compare the
difference in English between The man is stopping in the road and The man in the road is stopping.
I Exercise a: Translate the following sentences and phrases. Pay attention to the position of the adjective:
1. 6 av6pa>no<; |ja>po<; 4. i*| 666c; f] TOU ftaoiAeax; 7. TO noiqpa

2. [J cop ex; 6 fiv6pa>ncx; 5. f] TOU paoiAeax; 656<; 8. TO noiqpa TO
3. 6 pa>po<; Sv0pcono<; 6. oi iaTpoi icaXoi 9. xa^^n6v TO noiqpa
EMPHATIC (IN UNBOUND POSITION)
We have seen CIUTOC; used alone (except in the nominative) as a pronoun (him, her, it). We have seen
6 auToq meaning the same. We come now to the third and last use of auToq:
himself, herself, itself, themselves (emphatic).
Emphatic ccuToqô emphasizes an expressed or implied noun or pronoun. It never functions by
itself but only to underline something else that is understood in a sentence.
TOV iaTpov QUTOV 6 poo. Both mean:
ctUTOV TOV laTpov 6p£>. I see the doctor himself .
Whenever you see a nominative form of CXUTOC; without an article, it is emphatic.
It is unbound, and goes with the (unexpressed) subject of the verb.
aOjol epYOVTCM. They themselves are coming.
ypa9€i auT^|. She herself is writing.
Note: aOj6q may be emphatic, it is never reflexive. AA The English words himself, herself, itself,
themselves have two different uses: She came herself. (Emphatic. Greek uses forms of auTo<;.)
She cut herself. (Reflexive. Greek uses a different word.)
With auToq position is all-important.
(1) Alone, not modifying anything: as pronoun

(him, her, it, them, etc.)
opcb OIUTOV. I see him.
(2) In bound position, with article: the same

6 auToq na?<; gpxcTOii. The same child is coming.
TOV naT5a TOV auTOV 6pa>. I see the same child.
(3) In unbound position: emphatic (himself, herself, etc.)
6 TTCtTc; ctUTCx; epxsTCti. The child himself is coming.
auTOV TOV naTSa 6pa>. I see the child himself.
OCUTOC;. He himself is coming.
I Exercise 0: Translate. Label the uses of auTcx; in the following sentences according to the box above:
1. TOV OUTOV [JuOov avayiyvdxjKEi. 4. Aajjf&ivGO airro. 7. TO airra pipXia avayiyvaxiicEK;.
2. Tqv aScAcpqv auTqv opoo. 5. auTr) EpxcTai. 8. auToi TOV auTov oTvov nivouoiv.
3. 6 a6£X9o<; auTq<; cpxcTai. 6. OUTOI auTrjv îXouaiv. 9. Xappavci TCI Pipxia auTcov auTcx;.
INTENSIVE Ka[
We have seen icaf used as a conjunction, and. This is its most common use: joining word to
word, phrase to phrase, or sentence to sentence: A <a\ B.
KCM is an adverb when it puts emphasis on a single word, phrase, or clause: KCU A.
Translate as too, also, or even.
Aeyco OTI KOtl oi 00901 |J£0uouoiv. I say that even the wise get drunk.
TO 9iXc?v. aXXa Kat TO |jq 9iX€?v XO^TTOV. Loving is hard. But not loving is hard, too.
But not loving also is hard.
Classwork: Read New Testament # 3, Thesauros p. 221.
Consider this passage and Heraclitus 1-4. Are the underlying assumptions the same?
fpya -Read and translate "The Name Dropper." Learn the vocabulary.
5
THE NAME DROPPER *
TIVI cpxeTcti 6 Naope55ivo<; eic; Tqv TOU |3aoiA€GO<;
icon TOV paaiAla opa KOI auTou OKOUEI. KCU OTE
6 Icxpoc; €i<; Tqv noAiv, navTec; (all) TGOV
ccvOpconcov pouAovTcu |ja0E?v TI sysveTo (happened). 4~
"<!> 91X01" Aeyci ccuToTc; 6 Icxpoq- "auTov TOV (3aoiA€a ET6ov.M
oi 8e avOpcorroi Xcyouoi MTTarra? (wow), NaopeSSivE,
vo(jfô|j€v TOUTO cTvai Oaupaoiov (wonderful)." 6 6£ 1096^
Xcycr "ou JJOVQV TOV paoiXea cTSov aXXa <al eTnc TI poi 8
icai aSOic; Xcyouoiv oi avOpconoi "nana? (wow), £>
, vopfô|j€v TOUTO cTvai Saupaoiov (wonderful)."
E!<; (one) 5c auTcov cpcoToc "TI cTnc 001 6
6 5c Naop€85ivoc; ou Xcyci ouScv. (JETO 5e xp^vov piicpov 12
epcoTa 6 avOpconoc; TO OUTO cpcoTqpa- 6 5£ ou Xeyei
ouScv. 6 5' av6pconoq aC6i<; TO auTo cpcoTa. TcXoc; SE
6 Zo9O<; anoKpfvcTar "aXX 1 €i xpq O€ îScvai (OE EiSevai =
for you to know), cTnc |joi 6 paoiXcuq Ta auTa a (which) Xcyci
aXXoic; avOpconoiq. cTnc (jor *iBi EKnoScov." 17
a KOUGO + gen. of person. NOTE: The sound one hears is in the accusative, but the person
in the genitive. Could this be a partitive genitive, as Smyth assumes in Greek Grammar-^
if we embrace only part of a person by hearing, but all by seeing?
4~ Why |ja0E?v rather than pavOavciv? (Seep. 13.)
aUTOq, aUTf), aUTO - (a) alone - him, her, it not in nominative
(b) bound - the same all cases
(c) unbound - himself, herself, etc. (emphatic) all cases / used alone in nom.
cT5ov - / saw (aorist of opaco)
vo(jf£co - consider (For the form vo|j(£o|jev, see p. 1)
cTva i - to be (infinitive of ei(j()
8 ou povov ... aAAa KOI - not only ... but also (icai is intensive)
€Tne(v) - he, she, it said (aorist of Acyco)
dm TI poi. He said something to me.
8 ' Enclitics: cTn£ T( poi

Sometimes a normal accented word that comes before an enclitic is given
an extra accent. This explains cine in lines 8,11, and 16. (More detailed
enclitic rules will be given on p. 90.)
A one-syllabled enclitic followed by an enclitic will be given an accent.
This explains why TI = something is here accented as if it were TI = what ?
This practice-to make an indefinite TI (something) sound like a question-asking TI (what?)
simply because it is followed by an enclitic-seems counterintuitive, and some dispute the rule.
(See W. S. Barrett in Appendix n to his edition of Euripides' Hippolytus.)
12 |j£Ta + acc. - after

17 Y6i - go! (command of €T|JI = go) The stem of EÎ is i, while -0i is a command ending.
EKTToScbv - "out of the way" (literally "out of the feet")
ped-, pod- foot, as in pedestrian (via Latin), podiatrist (via Greek)
V0i €KTTo6cbv = Get out of the wayl
52
Lesson 9. c,i,p Adjectives; Indirect Discourse; 6 pev / 6 5£
£,1,9 ADJECTIVES
The long a after e,i,p pattern holds for adjectives as well as nouns:
fb$5ioc,a,ov easy
M F N
nom. figSfa fba8iov
ace. fba6iov fba8iov , young
gen. fixjiSiou
dat. £9(81 GO wealthy
nom. fbaSioi fbaSiai f5>a5ia small

ace. £aSia long
gen. foolish
dat.
This is a very common pattern, since the endings - loq, -eioc;, and -poc; are often used to make
adjectives from nouns:
nXouoioq, a , ov wealthy (from TTXOUTCX; = wealth)
avOpconeicx;, a, ov human (from 8v0pc*>Tro<; = human being)
novqpoc;, a ov wicked (from novcx; = toil)
Notice the accent on £$8iou, the fern, nominative plural. (For explanation, see p. 46 on ETO^CM.)
I Exercise a: Fill in the blanks with the correct forms of fb95io<;,a,ov. Be careful to use the correct accents.
1. Tot _ Pipxia 2. f] _ viicq 3. oi _ vopoi 4. TQ _ 6Sco 5. Tqv
> Exercise P: Translate:

1. of the young sister 2. of the young sisters 3. in a small tent 4. a small turtle (ace.) 5. for a new soldier
INDIRECT DISCOURSE: 8TI or ACCUSATIVE + INFINITIVE

When something is reported as being said, perceived, thought, etc., this is called indirect
discourse. The simplest way to report indirectly is by the use of STI. Also an infinitive
construction may be used. What was the subject of the verb in a direct statement becomes the
subject of the infinitive in indirect discourse. The construction is usually accusative + infinitive.
Direct: *o0fci." "The turtle is eating."

Indirect: Xcyco STI f] x*Xei>vq to8fei. I say that the turtle is eating.
Xcyco T^|V x^vqv toOfciv. I say (that) the turtle is eating.
Literally, / say the turtle to be eating.
There is agreement in indirect discourse. If the subject of an infinitive is accusative, then any
adjectives or nouns referring to it will be accusative also:
Xcyco Tqv x^covqv eTvou KaAqv. ^ isay (that) the turtle is beautiful.
TOV avOpconov slvai noiqTqv. / say (that) the man is a poet.
Some verbs, such as Aeyco, take either OTI or the infinitive. Others are restricted, using only one
or the Other. £*£* Similarly in English: To say takes only a that construction, whereas to believe takes that
OR an infinitive: / say that she is wise, vs. / believe that she is wise OR / believe her to be wise.
I Exercise y : Translate the following. What were the original statements in Greek?
1. AsyEic; TOV Io9ov pqXa cpEpeiv. 3. Aeyco TOIK; OEOU<; sTvai ayaOouc;.
2. Aryouai TOV qXiov ctvai piicpov. 4. AEycopcv TOU<; OEOU^
53
, 6 81 / , f\ 5e / ETC.
When (jev and 8c are used with the article alone, use the translation the one I the other (or one
man, one woman, one thing I another) for the singular and some I others (or some men, women, things I
others) for the plural. The 6 JJEV / 6 8e construction works for all cases and genders.
6 yiv u5cop 91 AcT rriveiv, 6 8i oTvov. One (man) likes to drink water, another wine.
TOC? piv vo(Ji£(0 ocxpaq sTvcu, Taq 81 ou. Some (women) I consider wise, othersnot.
Note: Originally the article functioned as a pronoun, "he," "she," "it," etc. Eventually it became used as "the."
The 6 5c and the 6 p£v, 6 5e construction are remnants, with the earlier use as pronoun still operating.
Greek makes magnificent use of all of its various |jev/5E balances. Nothing in English matches
this construction for brevity and elegance.
Herodotus states that no one is so foolish as to prefer war (6 noXEpo<;) to peace (f\ ci
In normal Attic Greek he might have continued this way: EV yap TQ p4v oi naTSc^ TOLK;
naT£pa<; OanTouoi, EV T<p Si oi TTcnipEc; TOU<; naT6a<;. GanTco = bury
I Exercise 8: Fill in the missing words, using either a 6 yEv/6 BE or a 6 8s construction. (For 6 SE see p. 48.)
1. One woman laughs, another cries. YE^9» SaicpUEi.
2. To some I give gifts, to others I don'L 8a>pa 81800^1, ou.
3. You give gifts to your friend, and she takes them. §£pa SIB^ TQ <p,Xfl. XappavEl aura.
4. You give gifts to yourfriend,but he does not take them. g £ a 8(8ax; ^ ^'^ o0 Xa H pavEi aura.
Classwork: Read Heraclitus # 5, Thesauros p. 224.

Learn the poem below, by Sappho.
Sappho is said to have been the first Greek poet to make love her main theme. Her songs were a delight to the
ancients, and, though so few survive, still give delight. It is as if each fragment still possesses a fragrance.
As an ancient comment on Sappho's poems goes: "Few, but roses."
Sappho's dialect, Aeolic, differed from Attic Greek in many ways. There was no h sound, and nouns had a
recessive accent (To see how different the two dialects are, consider the Attic version, shown to the right.)
oi |JEV irrnqcov OTPOTOV oi 5e (Words that differ are underlined.)
oi 5e vacov 9a?o' €ni yav (Jc o{ ÎEV JTTTTECOV OTpaTOV. O\ &£

oi BE VECOV 900iv ETTI YHV M^
KaXXiarov Eyco 8c EKeTvo
TOUTICEpaTOI
TO> TIC;
?py a -Write the lines of the poem twice. Learn them by heart
-Write the following in Greek, using a p£v/5E, 6 [j£v/6 BE, or 6 SE construction
whenever possible. (For these constructions see pp. 38,48, and 53.)
1. Some are eating; others are drinking.
2. The soldiers are sick; the doctors are not
3. Some like stories; others like poems.
4. I write a letter to the doctor. But he does not read (it).
5. To the poets I show my stories; to the soldiers I do not.
6. The poems of some are easy; (the poems) of others (are) difficult.
7. 1 send apples to the sisters. But they do not eat (them).
*For using pitch accent to recite, sing, or chant Greek poetry, see/hear The Sound of Greek by W. B. Stanford, Berkeley,
1967, with accompanying record; The Pronunciation and Reading of Ancient Greek by Stephen G. Daitz, second edition
1984, audiotape distributed by Audio-Forum, Guilford, CT; Singing Greek Poetry, videotape by Paula Reiner, 1989,
distributed by Instructional Resource Center, University of Georgia.
54
Lesson 10. Mlyac and noAuq; Uses of £OTI; Participle with -6pcvo{
jjcyiAq, plya big, great, large noAuq, , noXu much, (in plural) many
M N M N
nom. plya TToXuc; noXXri noXu
ace. noXuv noXXqv noXu
gen. (jcyaXou peyaXou noXXou noXXqq TTOXXOU
dat. (jcyaXcp TTOXXO) noXXq noXXoi
nom. peyaXoi pcyaXcu peyaXa noXXoi noXXai noXXa

ace. pcyaXouc; peyaXac; pcyaXa rroXXou<; TToXXac; noXXa
gen. pcyaXcov pcyaXaw peyaXcov noXXcbv TioXXcbv noXXcov
dat. |j£yaXoic; pcyaXoic; TioXXoTc; TioXXaTc; noXXoTc;
pipXfov KCXKOV. A saying attributed to Callimachus

Kaipoq eaTiv cv <£ xpovoq ou noXuq. A remark about Kcnpcx; = the "anvil moment"
from the Hippocratic corpus
, (jcyaXq, M^Ya and TroXug, noXXq f noXu follow the expected O-A-O pattern
except for the forms in bold print, which must be memorized, and the accent on peyaXoi and
(jsyaXot.
1. He is big. 4. I see the great man. 7. of much time (time = 6 xpovcx;)
2. of the big man/person 5. I see much money. 8. The majority (= the many) are listening. (a*couco)
3. of the big houses 6. I see many (things).
USES OF ioTI
(1) Linking Verb A *OTI B. A isB.

Links subject with an equivalent noun or (the weakest sense)
with a descriptive adjective, noun, or
phrase.
Can be omitted.
(2) With Dative of Possession oxoXq £OTIV OIUTQ. She has leisure.
Links nom. with dative of possessor. Literally, Leisure is [= belongs]
Can be omitted. to her.
(3) Existence. &JTI X. There is an X IX exists.

Asserts. No predicate at all. x
Accented on the first syllable.
(4) Possibility IOTIV opav. It is possible to see.

Subject is infinitive. Literally, To see exists.
Accented on the first syllable. (An application of use # 3)
I Exercise P: Translate. Label the uses of EOTI in the following sentences according to the list above:
1 ayaOov eariv. 3. &JTIV &KOUEIV TOV yG0ov; 5. ypa9Eiv TOC TroiqpaTa OUK EOTIV.
2. TO ayaOov E'OTIV. 4. f] oicr|vr) jcaicq EOTIV. 6 TO> iaTp<J> cxoXq EOTIV.
55
PARTICIPLE WITH -
For a verb of the pouXo(jou type, you make a participle by dropping the -opa i and adding
-OJJEVOC;, q, ov.
(SouAojJou I want (BouXopcvoq, pouXopcvq, fSouAopevov wanting
A participle is an adjective made from a verb. When used to give a circumstance, it is not in
adjective position. When used to identify, it is in adjective position.
nopeuopevoc noXXct opa. Traveling he sees many things.
TOV noiqTqv TOV nopeu6pcvov 6pa> BOTH MEAN:
TOV TTOpeu6pcvov TioiqTqv opco. / see the traveling poet.
Class work: Game: tv Coining into Baghdad"

A male student says: £pxopcv<K *k TQV Bay&aS cT8ov~
A female student says: tpxopevq cl? Tqv BaySaS cTSov—
This is a variant of "Grandmother's Trunk," a memory game. The first student says, "Coming
into Bagdhad I saw" and ends the sentence with an adjective and noun. For example: cpxopev
eic; Tqv Bay5a8 cTSov oicqvqv 9auXqv. The second student repeats the first adjective-noun
pair and adds one of his or her own. For example: €px6|jevo<; eic; TQV BaySaS eT5ov a<qvqv
9auXqv icai O?TOV noXuv. And so on, until someone cannot remember the list, and it starts
over again. Use the following words:
A-GROUP NOUNS O-GROUP NOUNS ADJECTIVES
q a 6 av9pa>TTO<;
q cniOToAq 6 SaKTuXoq
q vi<q 6 Sqoaupo^
f] OKqvq 6 Opovoc;
q 6 iaTpoq
q 6 pGSoc;
q 6 vopoc; 9aOXo<;,q1ov
6 XaX€no<;,q,6
q
q oi<ia OTOC; v€oc;,a,ov
6 91X0^
6
onoiqTqq fba5io<;,a,ov
6 OTpaTicoTqc; TO pipXiov |jiKpo<;taf6v
TO 5e?nvov
TO Scopov
TO l|jaTIOV
TO (jqXov a6iKO(;,ov (unjust)
TO 9ap|jaKov
;, (jeyaXq, (j
q666c; noXuq, noXXq, noXu
Ipy a Write these sentences in Greek:

1. The wise doctors see the small turtles.
2. The road is both long and difficult
3. The wise are sick, but the foolish are healthy. (Use ptv, 5e.)
4. The unjust sisters have many gifts. (Use dative of possession.)
5. The poems of the traveling doctor are difficult
6. The good poet writes short (|jiicp6<;,a,6v) poems; the bad (poet) long. (Use JJEV, SE.)
Lesson 11: Comparatives and Superlatives; Genitive of Comparison
or Same Case with fy cbq or BTI + Superlative
COMPARATIVE AND SUPERLATIVE

In Greek, as in English, an adjective has three degrees: positive, comparative, and superlative.
In English one normally adds -er or -est, as in wise, wiser, wisest.
The common way to make a comparative in Greek is to take the stem (xaXerr , uyisiv-; just drop
the -oc;) and add:
-OT£poq,a,ov after a long syllable uyieivoTEpoq healthier, more healthy
.ov after a short syllable oo9COTEpo? wiser, more wise
The point is to avoid four short syllables in a row.
Note that the -Ep in Greek is like our -er in English: faster, better, etc.
The common way to make a superlative is to take the stem and add:
ov after a long syllable OyiEivoTaTOc; healthiest, most healthy

eoTaToq,q,ov after a short syllable oocpcoTaToq wisest, most wise
The class to which a superlative belongs is in the genitive.
6 IcoKpaTqc; ocKpcoTCiTOc; TTOVTCOV avOpciynroov. Socrates is wisest of all men.
I Exercise a: Form the nominative singular of the comparative and superlative for 00961; and uy IEIVO<;.
> Exercise P: 1. TraAaioTcpcx; v6|jo<; 3. TCX vecoTepa pigXia 5. TQ SqAcnipq
Translate: 2. TO naAaioTaTov TCOV ipcmcov 4. TQ 5r)ÔT«Tn 9^vq 6. TQ
GENITIVE OF COMPARISON OR SAME CASE WITH q

The standard of comparison (that to which someone or something is being compared) can be
expressed in the genitive or by using the same case + q:
vo(Ji£oo auTqv oo9(A>Tepav eTvoti TOU 68eX9OU. Both mean:
VOJJI^GO aujqv acxpampav eTvai ^ TOV a5eX90V. I consider her wiser than her brother.
The basic idea is separation, since one person or thing goes beyond (is separate or different from) others.
We have already seen a genitive of comparison in our Anacreontic poem: xaÊTT<*>TEPov &4 nivTcov ...
I Exercise y: Translate the following. Express the same meaning in a sentence using a gen. of comparison.
1. 6 aTpcmcoTfjc; nAouaicoTEpcx; q 6 noirjTf|<;. 2. TOV aTpomcbTrjv VOJJI£GO VEayrepov cTvai q TOV rroiqTqv.
cbq OR OTI + SUPERLATIVE (STRENGTHENED SUPERLATIVE)

To translate cbc; or OTI + superlative, use as ... as can be, as ... as possible, exceedingly.
Strictly speaking, there is no real comparison being made. £^ Compare the statement,My^w are
most polite"
EOTiv cbc; fbpSicoTaTOV. Both mean:
EOTiv OTI fbp&icoTdTOV. It is as easy as can be / exceedingly easy / as easy as possible.
Classwork: ++ Read Heraclitus #6 - 9, Thesauros p. 224.
?pya -Translate into Greek: 1- She is wiser than her sister. (2 ways)
2. I consider her to be wiser than her sister. (2 ways)
3. He is as rich as can be.
4. He is the richest of the doctors.
5. I do not give gifts to the most foolish doctors.
-Read and translate "Sun or Moon?" and "A Lamp for Others." Learn the vocabulary.
5?
SUN OR MOON?
oi 91X01 TOU NaopcSSfvou vo|ji£ouoiv CXUTOV cTvai q TOV

oo9(OTaTov q TOV (JcopoTciTov avOpcoTTGdv. KOI EpcoToooiv
aXXqXouq- "noTepoc; €OTiv--oo9d)Tepoq navTCOV aXXcov q
(jcopoTcpoq;11 SIOTI 5e pouAovTcu (ja0€?v 6noT€poq EOTIV, 4
aei epcoTcooiv auTOv €pcoTq|jaTa cbq xa^€TTC*)TaTa-
TIVI 91X0^ EpcoTa TOV Io9ov "£> 91X5, 0096^ cT (you
are). Xeyc q(j?v noTepo^ COTI XPH^^'M^^P0^* ^ qXioq q q
oeXqvq; " 6 8e anoKpiveTai d>5€* "cpcoToiq (JE onoTcpoq EOTI 8
Xpqoi|jcoT€poq; vopf^co Tqv ocXqvqv xPnaiMCOT^Pav
TOU qXfou."
6 8e 9iXo<; cpcoToc M8ia TI Tqv oeXqvqv xPnoiMCOT^Pav

eTvai q TOV qXiov VO(JIÊIC;;M 6 8c anoicpiveTai JiSe* M8iOTi 12
6 |J€v EV TQ q|J€p9i Xapnci (shines), OTE 900^ EOTIV, q SE
EV Tq VUKTI, OTE oKOTia EOTI KOI Ev&Eia (need) (JEyaXq 14
TOU 9COTOC;."
q - either ... or
ov - moronic, foolish, (as noun) a fool — > moron
noTEpoc;,a ,ov - which [of 2]? (used in direct questions)
4 OTTOTEpo<;,a ,ov - which(ever) [of 2]? (used in indirect questions)
4 Direct versus Indirect questions

Greek uses different forms for direct and indirect questions (*» unlike English).
TTOTEpO? VOOE?; Which one [of 2] is sick? (Direct question)
EpCOTOq 6nOT£pOq VOOE?. You ask which(ever) one [of 2] is sick. (Indirect question)
otEi - always
Xpqoi|jo<;,q,ov - useful
8 q osXqvq - moon
d>5E - in this (the following) way, as follows
12 q - than (in comparison)
TO cpcoc;, gen. 9coTo<; - light — > photon, photography
14 q vu£, gen. VUKTO<; <--> night (cf. nocturnal)
A LAMP FOR OTHERS
NaopE55ivo<;: 8uva|jai opav EV Tq OKOTI^.

4>(Xo<;: aXXa TI 9epeiq Auxvov (lamp) €v Tq VUKTI;
NaopE55ivoc;: COOTE Touq aXAouc; |jq npoorrfnTEiv poi. 3
Suvapai - 1 am able — > dynamo, dynamic, dynamite
3 cooT€ + Infinitive
COOTE + infinitive shows probable or intended result. Translate so as to ....
When there is a new subject for the infinitive, translate so as for X to ...
/ / write so as to learn. [I write; I learn.]
CJOTE aUTOV |Jav0aV€IV. / write so as for him to learn. [I write; he learns.]
npooniTTTco - fall onto, collide with + dative (npoc; + TTITTTCO)

58
T W O IONIAN P H I L O S O P H E R S
Figure 1. There is a counterbalanced fitting-together

(harnumid), as in the bow and the lyre.
Heraclitus
The political unit in ancient Greece was not the nation but the independent, self-ruling city, the polls.
Such Greek-speaking cities were scattered not only through what we now call Greece but in southern
Italy, on islands in the Adriatic and Aegean seas, and along the coast of Asia Minor. It was in the
cities of Asia Minor, crossroads for commerce and therefore for many cultures, that the great
intellectual revolutions that led to the Greek classical period of the fifth and fourth centuries began.
The first of these revolutions is embodied in the two epic poems of Homer, the Iliad, the story of the
wrath of the young warrior Achilles and its tragic consequences, and the Odyssey, the story of the
ten-year struggle of Odysseus to return home after the war in Troy. Herodotus, a Greek historian, says
that Homer and Hesiod gave the Greeks their gods. He means that Homer crystallized for succeeding
generations the image of the human-figured but undying gods who dwelt on Mt. Olympus.
The Homeric poems were probably composed in the eighth century B.C.E. and their influence was
pervasive. But through the sixth century a sequence of thinkers, first in Asia Minor in a region called
Ionia and then in other Greek cities, revised aspects of the Homeric picture of the world. In doing so
they laid the foundation for a study of the order of nature (physls, from which comes "physics") and
for philosophy. You will read selections from two of these fascinating and challenging thinkers:
Xenophanes and Heraclitus.
Xenophanes, a poet who was born in Colophon about 570 B.C.E., challenged the view of the gods
established by his predecessor, Homer. Homer pictured the gods as shaped like human beings and,
worse, as sometimes misbehaving like human beings, stealing, committing adultery, and deceiving
one another. For Xenophanes, this undignified picture of the gods was the result of a common
human error: every people pictures the gods in their own image. Even animals, he says, if they
pictured gods, would doubtless picture them as animals!
Xenophanes asserts that we can say only a few things about the divinity, including what God is not
like. God is one, and not like human beings in shape or thinking. Therefore, God has no particular
organs of perception; but nevertheless, we can say that God thinks and is in some sense aware. Nor
does God change or move; but by divine thought and will God moves all other things.
In the next generation, Heraclitus builds upon Xenophanes' idea of a god who is the ruling principle
of an orderly world. Heraclitus was born in Ephesus and reached maturity around 500 B.C.E., and
was therefore a contemporary of Aeschylus the tragedian. He writes riddling statements that, like
the paradoxes of Socrates and the parables of Jesus, challenge our ordinary sense of the way things
are and invite us to resee the world in a deeper way.
Heraclitus first emphasizes that everything in the world changes continuously, often taking on
opposite qualities: "cool things grow warm, the warm becomes cool; the moist dries, the parched
59
becomes moist." Most people respond to this "war," this "strife," this "rubbish heap" - as Heraclitus
calls the jumble of different qualities that flow by in our ordinary experience - by accepting some
as beautiful or good and rejecting others as ugly or bad. For them the world is discordant.
But Heraclitus recognizes something else beyond this: hints in the world that these opposing things
have a hidden fitting-together (harmonid) or rational order (logos). "If you listen not to me," he says,
"but to the logos, it is wise to agree that all things are one." God judges from the viewpoint of this
hidden fitting-together in which all things are necessary and work together as one: "To God all things
are beautiful and good and just; human beings distinguish some things as just and some as unjust."
The wise man or woman catches glimpses of God's perspective by thought; but most of us, like
dreamers, hold on to a partial view and do not waken into the whole of reality. Heraclitus tries again
and again to make us recognize in the flow and jostle of different and opposite things the expression
of this underlying harmony and complementarity: to see the world as both many and one, a paradox,
a concordant discord.
Both Xenophanes and Heraclitus influenced the work of Plato and Aristotle. Plato incorporates
Xenophanes' critique of the Homeric gods; and God as the unmoved mover of Xenophanes is seen
again in Aristotle. Heraclitus1 insistence on logos is seen not only in Plato but also in the New
Testament, particularly in John's fourth Gospel, which opens, "In the beginning was the word
(logos).99
Figure 2. Reconstruction of the Temple of

Artemis at Ephesus (ca. 560 B.C.E.).
Heraclitus is said to have deposited his works
in this temple as offerings to Artemis. An
inscription tells us that the king of Lydia,
Croesus, famous for the extent of his wealth,
contributed to the cost of this magnificent
Ionic temple. The temple is indicative of the
wealth and sophistication of the Ionian cities
in which Ionian philosophy flourished.
(©Ernst Wasmuth, Verlage Tubingen)
60
VOCABULARY REVIEW, pp. 1-59
ARTICLE TO OV ADJECTIVES
t c /
O, Is), TO TO plpXlOV oyo(0o^1q1o\/
TO 5E?TTVOV 5EUTEpoc;,a,ov
NOUNS TO 5copov 5qXoqtq,ov
TO Epyov eicaoToq^tOV
t c
TOIJJCXTIOV EXXqviKOc;lql6v
/
TO (jqXov KQ KOC.fi *OV
q a8EX9q TO 9ap|jaKov KaXo^q^v
q ETTicrroXq Xoinoq^q^v
< /
q paxn q — oc uaKp6(;1a16\/
/ / /
q vi<q f\
q oeXqvq q 656q
< /
q OKqvq TraXaio^,a,ov
q oxoXq nXouoioq^^v
q 9covq Third Group TTOCOTOC. O »OV
/
q x e ^^ v q YOQOI LIOC«f"l«OV
q pqTqp (or xpqoijjo^^v)
Long a after E,i,p q vu^ iaSioc^âôv
q noXic; oocpoc«q«ov
q q|j£pa 6/q none; uyiEivoqôv
q oiKia 6 paoiXEuq 900X0^^,0^
q OKOTia (or 9aOXo^,ov)
TO 9coc; 9iXoc;1qloy ^
a \ /
XQXETTO(îq,OV
Toypa(j(ja
q yXcoTTa TO 5pa|ja a&iKo^ôv
\ > /
TO EpcoTqpa
6 — Tqc TO ovopa (jEya^,pEyaXq,|jEya
Tonoiqpa TToXuq,noXXq,noXu
c /
O TTOIQTflC
c /
Also:
PRONOUNS /
( TTCtVTOC
o — oc o'
t ouo
EyCO (emphatic)
1 1 /
o aypoq |JE, (JOU, (JOI
o ayGpcoTToq OU (emphatic)
ADVERBS
6 SaKTuXoq OE, OOU, 001
6 qXioq
aei a|ja
6 0EO<; auTov, auTqv, auTO
vuv aSOic;
6 Oqoaupoc; (him, her, it - prounoun)
^6s (jovov
6 Opovoc;
6auTo<;A./ o A o a u T o q ou |j6vov...aXXa KOI
6 iaTpoq
6 |j06o^ the same (adj.)
•
6 vojjoc^
QUTOC; o A / o A auToq
»\ < A / < A » '
cbc; and OTI + superlative
6 oTvo<;
himself, herself, itself (emphatic) e.g cl><; oo<pci>ToiTo<;
6 o?Toq . aXqOoic;
691X0^
aXXoq, q, o TEXoq (noun used as adverb)
o xpovo^ aXXqXouq
61
VERBS
CXKOUCO (3ouAo|jai CONNECTORS

aicou£ic; A icai B
rat A KOI B
Kal A
CXKOUOUOl(v) pouAovTou q or, than
q A q B either lor
inf. OKOUEIV inf. 8£ (postpositive)
part. OKOUGOV, -ouoa, -ov part. pouXopcvoc;, q, ov ouSc nor, no^
6 & € (p. 48)
(J€V / 5c (both postpositive)
CXKOUCO
( / / C ^ /
O |J£V / O O£
cSoT£ + inf. so as to
cooT£ + ace. 4- inf. so as for X to
avayiyvcooKco aXXa
ypa9co yap (postpositive)
SctKpuco o5v (postpositive)
£0£Aoo OTI
£00100 nop€uo|jai 8lOTI
OT£
00
Xcyco PREPOSITIONS
stand
5ia + ace.
vo(ji£a> + acc.H- inf. Kara +acc.
TT£(JTTCO rrpoq + ace.
p£Ta + ace.
CXVTI -f gen.
npoonmTCO ano + gen.
UyXQVCO (hit the mark, succeed) £v 4 dat
anoTuyxavco napa 4 dat.
£iq 4 ace. (sometimes EC;)
Xaipco £K 4 gen. (£<; before vowel)
inf. £TTI 4 ace., dat., gen.
QUESTION-ASKERS,
INDEFINITES
(JIOECO £I(JI TIC;, TI,

VOQ6CO to 6« (inf. of € I |JI ) Tiq, TI
n6oo<;,q,ov
ET|JI / go /will go noT£poc;,a,ov
*lBl go/ (command)
£^£I(JI I go out /mil go out
OTHER
aco + 2 ace. Also
neivaco ou, OUK,
opaco eT8ov /ôw (aorist of opaco) MH /
Note command: !6oO I said (aorist of Xsy co) no va yes
oT8a
necessary
vq vq TOV Aia
(= an old noun , necessity, vq Tqv Kuva
no longer declined)
62
Lesson 12. Relative Pronoun &c, fl, 8; Subordination
which, etc.
M F N M N
nom. <k 1\ 6 9, which whot which which

ace. ov qv 0 whom, which whom, which which
gen. o5 ?)<; o5 whose, of whom whose, of whom of which
dat. <?> § <?> to I for whom to I for whom to I for which
nom.
€/
Ol CU
C/
a who who which
ace. ouc; &<; & whom whom which
gen. <A>V £>v £>v whose, of whom whose, of whom of which
dat. oTq aT<; oT<; to I for whom to I for whom to I for which
Except for the masculine singular (oq), the form of a relative pronoun is simply that of the article
(6, q, TO) with an h sound instead of a t sound, always accented. These words are small
but all-important. Learn them.
I Exercise a: Identify as either article or relative pronoun. Translate:
1.6 2. oY 3. TCX 4. a 5. q 6. q 7. TOUC; 8. fcv
> Exercise ^: Give case, number, and gender (all possibilities) for the following relative pronouns:
o5 2. a 3. aTc; 4. fc 5. 6 6. & 7. d>v 8. Sc;
Using a relative pronoun allows you to be brief and at the same time to organize a statement,
showing what is the main idea and what is additional information. You could always make short
statements: / know a man and he is a poet or You have a child's dog and I know the child. But it
is more elegant to say / know a man who is a poet or / know the child whose dog you have.
The relative pronoun always refers to a noun. The noun to which it refers is called its
antecedent, in Latin coming before. Logically the antecedent does come before its relative
pronoun— in that one would not use a relative if the antecedent were not already in mind. But in
any given sentence the antecedent may be missing (understood but not expressed) or may even
come after the relative pronoun.
+ 8v oi Oeoi 9iXouoiv ano0VQOKEi veoq. (He) Whom the gods love dies young. (Menander)
The relative pronoun introduces a verb in a new relative clause. This is why it is so important to
recognize relative pronouns. If you miss them, you will not understand what the verb in the
relative clause is doing in its sentence.
The relative pronoun, like any noun, has the case, number, and gender. It has the number
and gender of its antecedent. Its case depends on how it is used in its clause.
TCOV a8eX9cbv CXKOUCO a? EV rq oicqvq ciaiv. / hear the sisters who are in the tent.
Fern. pi. sisters = antecedent Nom. Subject. They are in the tent.
TO?<; Scbpoic; 8 9^pî<^ MO1- / rejoice in the gifts which you bring me.
Neut. pi. gifts = antecedent Ace. Direct Object. You bring them to me.
/ know the sister whose turtle is sick.
Fern. sing, sister = antecedent Gen. Possessive. Her turtle is sick.
TOV iotTpov yiyvcboKGO $ SiSox; pipXia. /know the doctor to whom you give books.
Masc. sing, doctor = antecedent Dat. Indirect object. You give books to him.
Greek has entirely different words for a question-asking pronoun and a relative pronoun
unlike English).
Who is coming? (interrogative) T
I know the man who is coming. (relative) TOV Svepoonov yiyvoxjKco 8^
I Exercise y: Translate the underlined words. Be able to explain your translation.
1. The sisters whom she saw went to town.
2. Of all the men in the world, the one whom you love happens to be the one who loves me.
3. The poet whose house is so beautiful gave her the gifts in which she rejoices.
SUBORDINATION
Take the simple sentence 6 avOpconoq yeAa = The man laughs. There are three major ways of
inserting additional information:
(1) Conjunction 5TEÊ00iEi 6 avOpconoq yeAa. When he eats, the man laughs.
(2) Participle £o9icov 6 av0pGOTTO<; yeXa. Eating, the man laughs.
(3) Relative Pronoun 6 avOpconoc; 8<; E00IEI yeXa. The man who eats laughs.
Conjunctions are of two kinds: coordinating and subordinating. Coordinating conjunctions join
clauses of equal importance and subordinating conjunctions join a clause of lesser to a clause of
greater importance, icaf, i\ and 6tXXa are coordinating conjunctions. STC, 8i6Ti, and cl are
subordinating.
Si&oooi KOI 6 none; AappavEi. The mother is giving and the child is receiving.
f] prprip SiScoaiv &XXa 6 none; ou XaîpavEi. The mother is giving but the child is not receiving.
BTE f\ HnTrIP SiScooiv q TTCM<; XappavEi. When the mother is giving, the child is receiving.
EI r\ MqTrjp 6i6axjiv f] none; Xappavci. If the mother is giving, the child is receiving.
Do you see how there is a difference in emphasis? The first set of sentences gives two facts with
equal emphasis. The second asserts that the child is receiving, adding a circumstance or
condition.
Participles are verbal adjectives. Like adjectives, they have case, number, and gender and go
with a noun. Like verbs, they can take objects. Like relative pronouns, participles always
subordinate; that is, they introduce material of lesser importance. The information they give
could also be shown by the use of a subordinating conjunction and personal verb.
6p£>v auTOuq, 6 naTqp SaicpUEi. Seeing them, the father weeps.
&TC 6p§i auTOUc;, 6 naTqp SaicpuEi. When he sees them the father weeps.
TTOpEl>6|JEVOC noXXa jJCtvGcxvEi. Traveling he learns many things.
BlOTI TTOpEUETCU noXXa |jav6avEi. Because he travels he learns many things.
The Greeks were very fond of using participles to introduce large amounts of information into a
sentence. Sometimes the bulk of a sentence will be a participial phrase. It is useful to bracket
participial phrases, at least mentally, as you read:
[TTOVTCI ra 5copa TOU paoiAEcoq clq Tqv aicqvr|v <p£pcov] cxpaXXETcu.
Carrying all the gifts of the king into the tent, he trips.
Classwork: ++ Read Heraclitus # 10-12, Thesauros pp. 224.

-Write the paradigm for &;, q, 6 three times. Memorize.
-Write these sentences in Greek:
1. The book which you are taking is small.
2. The books which you are taking are small.
3. I love the person whose voice is great
4. The house in which you see (opÔ many books is good.
5. I consider the house in which you see many books to be good.
6. Do you see the doctor to whom the rich man is sending many gifts?
-Read and translate "Supreme Tact." Learn the vocabulary.
64
SUPREME TACT
avOpooTToc; TIC; paAa nXouoioq ex; q>iAE?Ta (BipAia Ta lEpa

TOV NaopE65ivov KctAE? ETTI &€?nvov. icai OTE 6 Io90<;
ToTctTCM ETTI TctTq Qvpa\^ Xcyci 6 nXouoioq auTcp Ta5e- 3
Yi'oiOi, & 9iXE. Eya> 6 KUpioq Tqq T€ OIKICK; KCU TOU 4~
SEITTVOU. Kai 91X00 OKOUEIV Xoyouc; EK TOU (BipAiou TOU
lEpou, Xoyouq oTiEpoi Kai ayaGoi EIOIV. cOcXciq
avaviyvcooKEiv (JETCI TO 6E?nvov TOUC; Xoyouq ouc; 91X00
OKOUEIV;" 6 BE anoKpivcTai OTI (jaXa cOcXEi. Kai 8
Ka0f£ovTai oi 5uo OOOTE
KOI eni TCO Seinvco 5(8oooiv 6 Kupio^ TCO 10900 navTa a

v6|ji|ja EOTIV Eo8i£iv nXqv TOOV OUKOOV (figs). Kai pcTo TO
ScTnvov, obq 6 vopoc; COTIV, aiT€? TOV Io9ov avayiyvoboKCiv 12
TOU pipXiou TOU icpou. 13~
6 5c avayiyvdboKEi €K€?vo TO pepoc; EV ^

(written) TaSc- M|jqXa opa Kai OUKO (figs) Kai TQ yq xa'PEI ^
obc; |jaXioTa.M aXXa avayiyvdboKEi 6 1096^ ^>5£- M|jqXa
opa Kai TQ yq X a 'P €l ^ paXioTa." 6 SE nXouoioq, OKOUOOV
TOUTO, XsyEi auTop' H£> 9iXE, pqXa pova avayiyvdboKEiq; 18
TOOV OUKOOV (figs) XavOavQ;" 6 SE anoKpivETar "OUK Eyob
XavOavopai OUTOOV, cb 9iXE, aXXa ou.H
oc;, q, o - who, which (relative pronoun)

lEpoc;, a, ov - holy, sacred —> hierarchy, hierophant
3 q 6upa <—> door —> thyroid
Ta5E - these (the following) things. (The Greeks often referred to a quotation as a
neuter plural: "these things.")
4- Punt E'ibiGi - You know EK and 'iBi. What verb must this be?
Kupioqôv or Kupio<;,ov - in charge of, master of
The adjective is often used as a noun: master, lord, (fern.) mistress.
Kyrie eleison (in Greek Kupit EXEqoov) Lord have mercy on us
6 Xoyoq - an all-purpose Greek word that means word, thought, story, argument,
rational account, reason, line of reasoning, etc. --> logic, mythology, biology
8 paAa with verb - very much, indeed
rravTa (as noun) - all things, everything
voiJipoqôv (also voiJipocôv) - customary
nXqv + gen. - except for
12 clx; - as
13- Why the genitive TOU p i p A iou ?
EKE?vo^,q,o - that (demonstrative pronoun), used in predicate position
EKE?VO TO (JEpoq - that portion. (Note: TO H^P°<; is a neuter noun ending in-<K.
It is in the Third Group, which remains to be learned, not in the O-Group.)
15 H YH " earth* land. f\ yq can be either the whole earth or a particular part or country.
Either works in this context. —> geology, geometry
Xafpo) + dat. - rejoice in
18 (jovoqôv - only, sole, alone 6 povoc; na?<; - the only child
(jovoq 6 none; - only the child
Aav0avo|jai + gen. - forget, be forgetful of
65
Lesson 13. oCjoq, iiccTvoc;, 65c; Translationese
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS: oOTOQ, 58c, *KE?voc;
Greek uses three demonstrative (pointing out) pronouns: this, that, and what can best be
translated as this here or this the following. £»£> In English we have only this and that.
(The difference seems to be a matter of vividness. How do we decide whether something is this or that! A small
child may call anything within arms' reach this and everything else that.)
Demonstrative pronouns can be used with a noun or in the place of a noun.

TOUTO
this, these this here, this the following I these here, these the following
M F N M F N
oOToq aOrq TOUTO

TOUTOV TatlTQV TOUTO T08E
TOUTOU TCtUTQC; TOUTOU TOU&E
TOUTCO TCCUTQ TOUTCO TGO&E
oOTOI aCrrai TauTa

TOUTOUC; TOtuTac; TOUTa TOUO&E
TOUTGOV TOUTGOV TOUTGOV TcovSc
TOUTOIC; TaUTOUC; TOUTOIC; TO?o8E
iicclvq, iiccTvo
that, those
M F N
EKETvoc; EKEIVq EKE?VO
EKE?VOV EKEfvqv EKE?VO
EKEIVOU EKEivqc; EKEIVOU
EKEIVC^) EKEIVQ EKEIVCO
EKE?VOI EKE?Vai EKE?va

EKEIVOUC; EKEIVa^ EKE?Va
EKEIVGOV EKEIVGOV EKEIVGOV
i / i /
EKEIVOIC; EKEIVOMC; EKEIVOIC;
The endings match those of the article: neuter nom. and ace. -o rather than -ov.
The forms of o5E, q5E, ToSs are the forms of the article, always accented, + SE.
The stem for oOToc;, auTq, TOUTO varies. The stem has ou when the ending has an o sound and
ctu when it has an a sound. The stem has an h sound (shown in bold) when the article has an h
sound and a t sound when the article has T.
When used with a noun, Greek demonstratives always have the unbound position:
oOTO? 6 laTp6c; / 6 laTp6c; oCjoc this doctor
^6c I*) x^ttvn / f\ xcA&vq 1&E this here turtle
iK£?VO T6 plpXlOV / T& plfJAfoV ^KcTvO that book
I Exercise a: Write the following phrases in Greek:

1. this sister (subject) 4. that turtle (object) 7. for these-here Mends 10. of this law
2. this victory (object) 5. of those laws 8. these-the-following poems (object) 11. these-here apples
3. on these days 6. by that road 9. this-here leisure (subject) 12. of these stories
66
There are adverbs to go with oCjog and o8c:
oOjco? - in this way, thus (oOjco before a consonant) literally, "thisly"
&5c - in this here way, in the following way
I Exercise P: Write the following in Greek:
1. They speak thus. 2. I write in the following way. 3. They cry in this way. 4. You eat in this-here way.
Translationese
Translationese is an artificial language that is extremely useful in learning Greek.
Its purpose is to convey instantly, to yourself and to your teacher, that you have
understood the Greek. Translationese represents the structure of the original Greek
as clearly as possible. It is not elegant. You might be interested in making elegant
translations (a) for the challenge of it or (b) for the sake of others who do not know
Greek. But for yourself, as you learn Greek, use translationese.
vo|ji£co TovSc TOV na78a civet i pcopov
normal English: / think this child is foolish.
translationese: / consider this-here child to be foolish.
Some principles:
Translate JJEV on the one hand and 5e on the other, awkward though it may be.
Translate forms of oOjoc; and oSc so plurals show and so that one can tell whether
the Greek was oOjoq or o6s:
TOUTO EtrTEV. He said these things (not this).
ToSe eTnev. He said these here things OR these the following things (not this).
8e €O0iouoiv. They eat in this here way.
ouTCoq eoGiouoiv. They eat in this way I thus.
Translate OTI as that. Show indirect discourse with the infinitive construction by using
parentheses:
Aeyco OTI £00iouoiv. I say that they are eating.
Aeyco auTOuq coOieiv. / say (that) they are eating.
There will be times when showing the Greek structure would be too awkward and no
real translationese is possible~for example, with neuter plural subject and singular
verb, or with dative of possession. You might want to write extra information in
parentheses.
Ta pipXia EOT I (JiKpa. The books are (is) small.
eoTiv OUTGO. He has a book. Literally, A book is (= belongs) to him.
The general rule: reveal the Greek structure whenever you can.
Note: Your teacher may prefer that you use smooth English rather than translationese.
In that case, keep the Greek in mind. As you write this for TcxSc, be thinking,
"neuter plural."
Ipyot -Write the paradigms for oOTo<;, 88E, EKE?VO<;. Memorize.

-Read and translate "The Soup of the Soup." Learn the vocabulary.
(Do not be daunted by its length. There is a lot of repetition.)
6?
THE SOUP OF THE SOUP
9iXoc; TIC; TOU 10906 x^Xobvqv EupioKEi EV Tq 65co KCU SiScooiv auTqv
TCO NaopESSivcp. 6 SE Tqv x^Xcbvqv k'ysi (boils) EV noXXcp uSom KOI
EO0IEI auTqv ETTI SEITTVCO. Tq SE uoTEpoup qpspa, OTE 6 NaopsSSivoc; 3
(jEXXsi EoOiEiv TOV Tqc; x^Xcovqc; Ccopov (soup), EpXETai 6 auToq 9iXoc;
<ai YOTOTOI ETTI Tq 0up9<. "d> 9iXE," Xsysi auTco 6 1096^- "OUK EOTIV
ouSE opav Tqv x^Xcovqv, <ai Sq <al OUK EOTIV EO0i£iv auTqq. aXXa 6^
EOTIV CGOJJOC; (soup). EVoi©!, KOI KOIVCOVGOJJEV (= KOIVCOVE-COJJEV) TOUTOU 7
TOU tcouou." 6 SE cpfXoc EIOEPYETOM KOI TOU Coouou KOIVCOVOUOIV oi Suo.
Tq 5e uoT€pa(a q|jepa 6 NaopeSSivoc; TO XOITTOV TOU £a>|jou ev noXXco

uSaTi Kepavvuoi (mixes) <ai k'ysi (boils). <ai aGGic;, OTE (jeXXci eoGieiv,
epX^Tai TIC; <ai YoTaTai EHI Tq Oupa. "T( pouXq;" cpcoTa 6 Io90<;-
"nsivco KOI (jeAXcj EoOieiv." "oT6a" anoKpivETai 6 avOpoonoc;- 'Vpf
£i|ji TOU 9iXou EKEIVOU oc; qvcyKe 001 Tqv x^Xcovqv." TI XPH
ou pouXeTai 6 Naap€85ivoq 8i56vai TOU ^copou (soup) TOUTCO TCO
avOpconcp, aXXa vopoc; EOTIV. Xcyci 8c TCO avOpconcp Ta5£- VibiOr 15
KOivcovcojjev (= Koivcove-co(j£v TOU
Tq 8£ uoTepaia SeTnvov ou TTOIE? 6 Io9oc;. aXXa rroXu u5cop syei

(boils) <ai (JEVEI. (JETCX SE (JiKpov xpovov EpxETaf TIC; <ai VoTaTai ETTI 18
Tq 0upa. "TI pouXq" a59ic; EpcoTa 6 1096^- "(jEXXco Eo0iEiv." "oTSa"
anoKpivETai 6 avOpconoc;* "91X0^ EIJJI TOU 9iXou TOU 9iXou EKEIVOU oq
qvEy<E 001 Tqv xe^c^vnv-" ^ ^ ^096^ Xsysi VibiOi" KOI 8180001 v 21
auTCO TO uScop. "TI EOTI TOUTO;" EpcoTa 6 av0pconoq- "SfScoq |joi (jovov
l x
uocop; o OE Io9oc; anoKpivETai coos- TCO 91X0) TOU 9iXou TOU 9iXou
f / C ' | « t C ' r ~ * > ' t» c* * II »» t~\ *» f\ *» /-v
TOV ^cojov TOU £cojou TOU
- find (aorist - qOpov = I found) —> heuristic

TO u6cop, gen. u5aTo<; <—> water --> hydro-, hydrogen
uoTEpouoc;,a,ov - next, following (often in the phrase Tq uoTspcua qpspa)
Note: In the above phrase, nn^PP *s often omitted, since it is easily understood.
- be about to, intend to + infinitive
Intensive ouSc = not even

Kaf sometimes links (and) and sometimes is intensive (even, also, too). Since
ouSs functions as ou + KOI, it follows that ouSs will have two uses, also.
ouSs nor (not + <af = and) ouSs not even (not + KOII = even)
6 rroiqTqc; ou XEyEi OU&E 6 (BaoiXEUc;. The poet does not speak, nor the king.
6 paoiXEUc; XsyEi. Not even the king speaks.
8q - particle showing emphasis on word before (equivalent to underlining

the word before); "certainly" or "indeed" overtranslate 5q
KCU 8q KOI - and especially
6- WhyauTqq here but auTqv in line 3?
7 KOIVCOVECO - have or do in common, partake of, share in something with
another + genitive of thing shared + dative of person
Xoinoc^qjOv - left over, remaining
11 TIC; (as a pronoun) - somebody, someone
oQToq, auTq, TOUTO - this (in unbound position)
15 o5E, q&E, ToSs - this here, this the following (in unbound position).
Ta8E often = these here words
18 IJEVCJ - wait, remain, stay
21 qvEyKE(V) - he, she, it brought (aorist of 9£pco)
68
Lesson 14. The Third Group
6/1*1 Safpcov T& O&cop
spirit, divinity water
Stein: Saiyov Stein: u5aT
nom. TO u8cop
ace. TOV /TQV 5a f|jova TO u5cop
gen. TOU /TQC; 5ai|jovo<; TOU uSaTcx;
dat. TCO /TQ 8ai|jovi TOO u5om
nom. oi /ai 8ai(jov£<; Ta u&aTcc

ace. Touc;/Ta<; Saipovaq TO u&otTa
gen. TCOV
v*I
Saiuovcov
—
r* '
TGOV uSaTcov
dat. TOI<;< TO?<; u5aoi(v)
This group is called the Third Group (or sometimes the Consonant Group). Stems in the
Third Group often end with a consonant rather than with an a or o sound. Because the
nominative is ambiguous as to stem-for example, opvic; has the stem 6pvi0- while x^P'5 has
the stem xapiT— it is necessary to learn the genitive as well as the nominative in
order to know the Stem. (You need not bother, however, with the large number of neuters ending in -p
The stem, as you already know, ends in poT— as in ypappara, noiqpaTa, ovopaTa, etc.)
The accusative plural for M/F in the Third Group is aq, with short a. How can you tell that
6ai|jova<; has a short a ending, while x^^^vaq has a long one?
The Third Group includes feminines, masculines, and neuters. The normal pattern is as follows:
M,F N
nom.
ace. +a
gen. +o< — + o?
dat. + I — +I
nom. — +a
ace. + cu; — +a
gen. + cov — + cov
dat. + oi(v) — + oi(v)
A Note on Third Group -a / -ac Accusative Endings

Here is an explanation of the hidden kinship between the accusative endings of the A-, O-, and Third Group, to be
learned only if it helps you: In Indo-European an n could have a vocalized nasal sound in certain situations. We can
imagine that it sounded something like anh. (Linguists show this sound by writing an n with a circle under it: V.)
Originally the accusative markers of ancient Greek were simply an n sound for the singular and an ns sound for the
plural. These markers were preceded by an a sound in the A-Group, by an o sound in the O-Group, but in the Third
Group by no vowel at all. The n sound of the Third-group accusative was vocalized. (It had to be; there was no other
way to pronounce it.) However, changes happened over time. We have already seen how av<; --> a<; and how ov<; -->
ou<;. By the time the Greeks got around to writing, the Third-group anh endings (with vocalic n) had begun to be
pronounced simply as or or ore, and so were spelled with an alpha.
—> Ko
—> —>
I Exercise a: Insert form(s) of aya0cx;,r),6v. (Remember: Saipcov can be masculine or feminine.)

1. .or.
or Saipova 4. .or.
or Saipovoc; 7. i/5aTO<;
2. .or. 5. .or. 8a!|jova<; 8. . uScrra
3. or 6. or Saipovi 9.
69
COMBINATIONS WITH SIGMA
The only time there is any difficulty at all with normal Third Group nouns is when the consonant
ending meets a sigma. When that happens, we find the expected combinations.
Contact with o: TT, , 9 +o --> y

(See remarks about the Alphabet
*t Y* X + ° "> * Story, pp. 13-14.)
T, 8, 9, v drop before o
VT drops before o, causing
a vowel change
Examples of o-changes can be found in the following paradigms. Notice the dative plurals and
some of the nominatives.
6 Kcbvooy f] KUA|£ f] aonu; f\ xapi<; 6 yEpoav TO noiripa

mosquito cup shield grace old man poem
stem in TT, p,9 stein in ic,y,x stem in T,5,0 stem in T,8,0 stem in VT stem in T
K&vuy KUX|£ ion(<; X&PK yEpoov TToirjpa

KCOVGOTTa KuXiKa aan(8a Xap»v ycpovTa noiqjja
KCOVOOTTCX; KuAuco<; aani6o<; XapiTcx; ycpovTO^ TTOir)|jaTO<;
KCOVCOTTI KUAlKI aani8i X&piTi yEpovTi TTOirjpaTi
KCOVO>TTE<; KuAiKE<; aanf8£<; X&piTEc; yepovT£<; TTOiqfjaTa

KGJVOOTTCK; KuXiKac; aoiTiBac; X&piTac; ycpovTac; noirjjjaTa
KGOVCOTTGOV KuXlKGOV aoniSa>v XapiTcov ycpovTcov noiqjjaTeov
ica>va>yi(v) KUX|^|(V) &OTT(OI(V) ipioi(v) ycpouoi(v) noir)jjaai(v)
With the dative plural, we are seeing several stages of linguistic change. At a certain point in time, if a stem ended in v,
the v simply dropped out before a without resulting in any change. Sofpovoi —) Safjjooi(v). However, if the
stem ended in -VT, the v ("protected" by the T) did not drop out. Later, the T dropped out, at a time when -ov + a (<;) was
changing to ouo (<;), as happened with the accusative plural, 6c6v{ —> 9cou<;. and also with the dative pi:
y£povroi(v) —> y£povoi(v) --> y£pouoi(v).
I Exercise ft: Translate into Greek: 6 y£p<A>v (gen ycpovTcx;) elder, old man TO ocopa body
1. the elders (subject) 3. of the bodies 5. the elder (object)
2. for the elder 4. by means of the body 6. by means of the bodies
-IV ACCUSATIVE SINGULAR
Some Third Group nouns whose nominatives end in - ic; have an accusative ending with - 1 v.
n X^P1^ (grace, favor), TPJV x^Plv- (Tte form is underlined in the paradigm above.)
Some • iq nouns have an accusative ending with -a, the expected ending.
f] OCOTTK; (shield), Tqv aan(8a.
Some - ic; nouns have an accusative ending with either - iv or -a.
6/1*) opvi^ (bird), Tov/Tqv 8pvi9a OR Bpviv.
All nouns with a -01? ending are feminine and have an accusative ending with - 1 v (as does rro
f] ycvcoK; (origin, genesis), Tqv yEVEOiv. f] îi|jqoi<; (imitation), Tqv pij
I Exercise y: Write the accusative singular and dative plural of the following, using information on pp. 68-69:
1. 6 9a>pa£ = breastplate, chest (gen. 9o>paico<;) 4. f] xepviy = purification, handwashing (gen. x^
2. 6 oipxcov = leader (gen. fipxovTcx;) 5. 6 ^yEjjcbv = leader (gen. i^ycpovo^)
3. TO npaypa = business (gen. npayyctToc;) 6. f] EPK = strife (gen. Epi5o<;), like opvic; above.
Classwork: ^f^f Read Walk Through a Greek Graveyard #1-3, Thesauros p. 227.
Ipya -Write the paradigms for 6aijja>v and ypappa. Memorize.
-Write the paradigms for yspcov, icuAi£, iccivcoy, aonic;.
-Read and translate "Mosquito's Buzz," an Armenian tale. Learn the vocabulary.
70
MOSQUITOfS BUZZ (Armenian)
v (dragon, snake) ?jv TE Kai OUK f^v TTOTE EV TO?<;
oupavoTq oq EpouAETo (was wanting) EoOiEiv TO yAuKUTOTov 2~
TGOV £oxov. aAA' OUK oTSs (p. 25) TI TO yAuKUTOTov.
TTE|JTTEI o5v TOV KCOVCOTTO (mosquito) npo<; Tqv yqv KOI
KEAEUEI OUTOV yEUEoSai (taste, have a taste of) TTOVTCOV T£>V
£COGOV Kai anayyEAAEiv Tpicov qpcpcov o TI ( which(ever) ) 6
EOTI TO yAuKUTaTov. 6 BE Kcbvcoy TTETETOI npoc; Tqv yqv
COOTE OUTO TOUTO TTOIE?V. 8
<ai npcoTov |JEV yEUETcu (tastes of) Ynnou Kai

"9EU. TOUTO ou yXuKu." EHEITO SE Kuvoq yEUETai Kai XlyEr
"9EG. ouSs ToOTo yXuKU." TEXoq BE avOpconou yEUETai Kai
XsyEr "TOUTO yXuKu. TOUTO vXuKUTEpov TCOV aXXcov ^cocov.
q5u EOTI yEUEoOai TCOV av9pconcov."
6 BE av0pconoq, TOUTO OKOUCOV, TOV SpaKovTa (dragon)

9opE?Tai. 5ia SE TOUTO OHOTEIJVEI TCO KCOVCOHI Tqv yXcjTTav. 15
6 8£ Kcovcoy KaTEpxETai Eiq TOUC; oupavouq. aXX 1 OTE EpcoTa
auTov 6 SpaKcov TI TO yXuKUTaTov navTcov TCOV
6 Kcbvcoy E'XEI anoKp(vEo6ai povov M M
5ia SE TOUTO, Kai vuv, OUK EoOiEi TOUC; avOpcbnouc;

6 SpaKcov, Kai 6 Kcovcoy (mosquito) ou 8uvaTai ouSEV XsyEiv 20
M M
nXqv TOU |j|j|j|j|j|j|j|j.
Pjv - he, she, it was; there was (past tense of dpi)

TTOTE - Once, ever, at SOme time (versus n6rc = when? at what time? Cf. TIC; versus TU;)
"Once there was and was not..." - typical beginning of an Armenian tale
6 oupavoq - sky, heaven — > Uranus
2~ yXuKuq, yXu<£?a, yXuKu - sweet —> glucose What must yXuKUTOToc; mean?
TO £cpov - creature, living thing
KcXcuco - bid, urge, order someone (ace. or dat.) to do something (infinitive)
ayyeXXco - announce (ayyeAoq - messenger --> angel)
cmayyEAAcA) - announce or report back
6
Genitive of Time within Which
Tpicov q|J€p<A>v in three days
- fly --> impetus (via Latin), impetuous

a OUTO TOUTO - this very thing. (Since TOUTO already identifies, QUTO must be intensive.)
6 YTTTTOC; - horse --> hippopotamus, Philip
E HE i TO - then, next (in time sequence)
6/q KUGOV, gen. KUVOC; - dog <—> hound —> canine (via Latin) (For the accent
12- y XuKUTEpov - Punt again! on KUVOC;, see p. 77.)
qSucÊlaû - pleasant —> hedonism <—> sweet
TEJJVCO - cut —> appendectomy, lobotomy, atom --> temple (via Latin)
anoTE|Jvco - cut off
15 Dative of Advantage (or Disadvantage)
Notice the dative TCO KCOVGOTTI. This is the most general sort of dative.
It goes with the whole sentence and tells for whose advantage or (here)
disadvantage the action occurred. *•*, We can translate dative of advantage as for.
The dative of disadvantage is almost impossible to translate. For a rare equivalent, cf.
"My car died on me."
71
Lesson 15. Adverbs in -&c, -coq; p&Aa, paAAov, p&AioTcc + Adjective;
Comparison of Adverbs
ADVERBS ENDING IN - -CO?
An adverb describes the action of a verb or modifies an adjective or other adverb.

£j>/& Examples in English: Please come soon. You are s& beautiful. I see them very well. We often make an
adjective into an adverb by adding -/y: You are truly, beautiful. You run
To make an adverb out of a Greek adjective, take the stem and add - coq. If the accent was on the
last syllable of the adjective, the adverb will end in -<Sq; otherwise in -coq. There is no
declension of adverbs.
oocp&q wisely (from 00960 Note: the adverb for ayaOoc; is cC.
fb?5fco<; easily (from e3 Aeyeic; You speak well
I Exercise a: Write the following in Greek:
1. They speak badly. 2. You speak usefully. 3. 1 speak foolishly. 4. He speaks with difficulty. 5. She speaks well.
a, paXXov, paAicrra + ADJECTIVE

, (jaXXov, and (jaAiara are adverbs. Translate them as very, more, and most when they
are used with an adjective or adverb. Adjective combinations with paXXov or paXioTa can
replace regular comparatives and superlatives; they are more emphatic. Syntax is the same.
|jaXa very pa A a oocpoc; very wise

paXXov more (jaXXov 0096^ more wise = cxxpcoTepoc;
(jaXioTa most oocpoc; most wise - cxxpcoTaTOc;
/ acxpr]v TOU a8eX9oO. / consider her wiser than her brother.

6 IcoKparqc; paXiara ocxpo<; av/6pd>ncov. Socrates is wisest of men.
6 Zcoicparrjc; OTI [jaXiara 0096^ EOTIV Socrates is as wise as can be.
I Exercise P: Translate these sentences. Rewrite using paXXov or yaXiara to express the same thought
1. XPH01!-100"1"^01 EOTIV. 2. uyiEivoTdToc; EOTIV. 3. cl>^ xaÊTTC*>TaT^ EOTIV. 4. aSiicciTEpov EOTIV.
COMPARISON OF ADVERBS
To make the comparative of an adverb, use the neuter accusative singular of the adjective.
To make the superlative of an adverb, use the neuter accusative plural. (This is easy to
remember. Just think of paAAov and (jaAiora, which fit that pattern.)
Note: comparative and superlative adverbs do not decline.
Xcyeic; OOfCOTCpov You speak more wisely

oo9COTdTa You speak most wisely
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE

Adj. cxxp6c;,r),6v OO9cbT£pOq,a,OV or paXXov oo9cx; OOCpGJTO(TO^,r|,OV or paXiara acxpoq
Adv. 00900 c; OO<pfe)T€pOV or paXXov ocxpax; OOCpCOTOITa or paXiara ao9ax;
> Exercise y: Write in Greek:

1. She reads most easily. 2. They speak most foolishly. 3. The poet learns more easily than the doctor.
fpya -Read and translate "Mosquito's Buzz" (the Nigerian version). Learn the vocabulary.
72
MOSQUITO'S BUZZ* (West African)
6 Kcovcoy (Mosquito) pouAcToti yapsTv TQV 'AKOQV (Ear). icon

AsyEi OUTQ- "cL 91X1*1, vojji£co OE (jaXXov oo9qv cTvai TCOV
aXAcov SIOTI navTa CXKOUEIC;. Kai vo(j[£co OE (jaXioTa KaXqv
ETvcu. pouXojjai OE yapsTv. vGv o5v To8E EpcoTar noTEpov 4
TOUTO pouXQ <ai ou q ou;" 5
q SE 'AKoq £>5E anoKpK/ETar "TO pcopoTCCTov TCOV £cooov E!.

ou (jsXEi |joi E! pouXq (JE ya|jE?v. ou8a|j<2><; TOUTO pouXopai
Eycb. ou yap E! q8q ^qpoc; (dried up) <ai EO oT8a OTI OUK
EOTOI ooi ^coq paKpa.11 9
ETTI TOUTCO SE 6 Kcbvcoy paXa opyfÊTai KOI OUHOTE OITE?

a56i<; ya|JE?v auTqv. aXXa vuv, OTOV E0EXq HIVEIV CqTE? Tqv 11
'Aicoqv <ai HETETOI nap1 auTq. Kai OTOV nETqTai nap1 12
auTq, asi XsyEi TO OUTO- M ETI ^cooc;, ETI £cooq, ETI
paXXov - more
(jaXioTa - most, exceedingly
4 noTEpov (as adverb) - whether (It is often untranslatable, used at the beginning
of a question to indicate that a question is coming.)
5 Note accent: ou. ou, normally proclitic, receives an accent at the end of a sentence.
(JEXEI (joi - it is a concern to me (impersonal construction), i.e., / care, I care about
q5q - already, now
ES - well (adverb of aya06q) —> eugenics, euphony, eucharist
EOTOI - he, she, it will be (future of EOTI(V) )
9 q £coq - life --> Zoe
OUTTOTE - never (from ou + TTOTE)
11 OTOV - whenever (made from OTE)
11, 12
Subjunctive
£6£Xq STQV
The subjunctive can be formed by taking the E or o sound that comes toward the
end of the verb and making it long:
- Q instead of - e i - q TO i instead of - ETC i
Subjunctives are used for general conditions.
For smooth translation of the subjunctive you might want to use "whenever he wishes" or
"whenever he flies" For translationese, use "whenever he should wish" or "whenever he
should fly" always remembering that this is not a moralizing should.
(Seep. 147.)
OTE E8EAEI - when he wishes (on a certain occasion)
STCIV EOEXq - whenever he should wish (in general)
OTE TTETETCC i - when he flies (on a certain occasion)
oTav TTETqTai - whenever he should fly (in general)
ETI - still, yet

1,6V - alive --> ZOOlogy, protozoan (Notice how perfect the zeta sounds are
for a mosquito's buzz. This story was made for translation into Greek!)
*This story is freely adapted from a story told in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, © 1957; used with permission
of William Heinemann, Ltd.
73
PARSING
Parsing is an old-fashioned technique for learning a language. When you parse a sentence, you
write each word on a separate line and then you give the "what?" and the "why?" of it. The
"what?" of the words is their form; the "why?" is their function.
THE "WHAT?" IN ENGLISH
For English there are nine possibilities for the "whatT: noun or pronoun, adjective or article,
adverb, verb, preposition, conjunction, interjection. These are called pans of speech.
Noun - dog, cat, liberty, refreshments
Pronoun - /, you, he, she, it, we, they ; who, which (relative pronouns),
this, that (demonstrative pronouns) (A pronoun functions as a noun.)
Adjective - short, real, unbelievable, interesting
Article - a (indefinite), the (definite) (An article can be considered a special adjective.)
Verb - will go, has come, is running, threatens, go
Adverb - truly, quickly, well, soon
Preposition - in, at, of, by, for
Conjunction - and, while, because, if, although, but
Interjection - hey, oh, ah, hi
Here is the "what?" for the words of a short English sentence: The dog is in the road.
The - article in • preposition
dog - noun the - article
is - verb road - noun
I Exercise a: Give the part of speech of every word in the following sentence. It is best to add these categories
to the parts of speech listed above: participles (singing, having sung), infinitives (to sing, to have sung), and
the gerund (singing, used as a noun). Notice that "in" is a preposition used as an adverb. And in case you think
TEAo<;, a noun used as an adverb, is strange, consider the use of "home"
The obstinate dog strained at her leash until the little boy, crying tears of frustration, turned wearily and started to
go home. "Hey!" called his older brother sharply. "Giving in is easy. Show her who is master."
THE "WHY?" IN ENGLISH

The "what" is form; the "why?" is function. The main verb is the anchor of a sentence or a
clause. Every other word is linked, directly or indirectly, to it Always look for the verbs first
when translating.
Some functions of words in a sentence are: subject of verb, object of verb, preposition with
verb, object of preposition, and so on. Here is the short sentence from above completely parsed:
The dog is in the road.
The - article, goes with dog in - preposition, goes with verb is
dog - noun, subject of verb is the - article, goes with noun road
is - main verb road - noun, object of preposition in
THE "WHAT?" IN GREEK
Noun - avOpoonoc;, r*)|JEpa, Pipxlov Has case, number, and gender

Pronoun - (personal) Eyo>, ou, r^pTv, QUTOV, airrrjv, Has case, number, and gender
(relative) &;, (demonstrative) C>OTO<;,EICE?VO<;
Has case numbcr and
Adjective - H*ya<;, ayaOn, H'*p6v » > g««dcr
Article - 6, f]% TO Has case, number, and gender
74
Verb - X°^Pe» Xeyo>, c6eXe«;, cGcXq, yiyvo)oica>|jcv, pouXcTai, TTETryrai
Infinitive - xaipeiv, pouX£o0ai, SiSovai, eTvai, pavOavEiv, pa6£?v

Participle - Xeyo>v, 6p£>v, eOeXouoa, £px6|j£vo<; Has case, number, and gender
Preposition - EV, ci<;, EK, npo<;, 5ia, ETTI
Conjunction - Kai, aXXa, OTE, OTI, SIOTI
Adverb - aXr|6ax;, ocxpax;, ftx&iax;, EC, vuv, a50i<;
Interjection - <L, 9EO
Particle - Sq (as in icai 8q KCM), TE (as in A TE Kai B), ys (as in sOys)
If a word is a noun, pronoun, adjective, article, or participle, you need to give case, number,
and gender. Then you have completely described its form.
By verb is meant a verb with a personal ending—for /, you (s.), helshelit, we, you (pi.), or they.
An infinitive is a verbal noun and is always understood to be neuter singular. A participle is
a verbal adjective and has case, number, and gender. (Infinitives and participles can take direct
and indirect objects just as a verb can.)
Verbs, infinitives, and participles are all made on verb stems. OKOUCO gives the stem for the
forms aicouei<;, CXKOUCIV, and OKOUGOV. (Drop the -o> to find the stem.) £(ja6ov gives the stem
for €|ja9€q and |ja0e?v. (Drop the -ov.)
If a word is a verb, infinitive, or participle, it is enough for now simply to identify it as
such, giving case, number, and gender for any participle. Eventually, you will give voice and
stem or tense for every verb, infinitive, and participle as well as mood and person for every
verb form.
Prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs, interjections, and particles never change form. Simply
identify them and you are finished as far as the "what?" goes.
Particles exist in Greek but not in English. Perhaps the Greeks used particles because they could
not express their attitudes through pitch, as we can in English. Consider the difference between
"They're smart!" (in an affirmative, emphatic tone) and "They're sma-art " (in a dipping tone).
The dip indicates there is a "but" somewhere: "They're smart, but sometimes they can be so
foolish"). A Greek might say, 00901 8^| for the former and 00901 yc for the latter.
8q can be used alone for emphasis. It indicates, "Underline the preceding word." The Greeks
used 5ri in speech to accomplish what we might accomplish by giving extra loudness to the word
before it: opco 5q auTouq. "/see them," as in "/ see them. So stop telling me to look."
I Exercise P: Write each word of the following sentence on a separate line and identify the form:
6 none; aAqOax; Bq <piAe? Tqv piicpav xcAcovqv Kai Ti6r|oiv (puts) au*rr)v aCGic; EV TO> aypa>.
THE "WHY?" IN GREEK
Every word in a Greek sentence hangs on (i.e. is related to) some other word in the sentence
except the main verb, which is the only word that can stand alone. (Scticpuouoiv is a sentence.
TTTTTOI is not.) How do you show the function of a Greek word in its sentence?
Giving the function of a word means saying how it hangs on either the main
verb or some other word that hangs on the main verb.
75
In general, these are the possibilities for the "why?" in Greek:
Noun or Subject of verb or agrees with subject (as noun in apposition or predicate noun)
Pronoun Object of verb
Indirect object of verb
Genitive with noun or verb
Object of preposition
Other: See Use of Cases at top of p. 103.
Adjective
or Article Modifies a noun (expressed or understood)
Verb Main verb

Verb in a clause (introduced by a conjunction or relative pronoun)
Infinitive Completes a verb (/ want to sing.)

Completes an adjective (That's hard to sing.)
Acts as a noun (To sing is easy.)
In indirect discourse, stands for a verb with personal endings
(/ consider her to sing well, i.e., / consider that she sings well.)
With GOOTE (so as to sing)
Participle Goes with a noun or pronoun (expressed or understood), either identifying the noun
or giving a circumstance
Preposition Usually goes with a verb, infinitive, or participle. Sometimes a prepositional phrase
is used as an adjective (in predicate position) to identify a noun.
Conjunction Links words, phrases, clauses, or sentences.
Adverb Modifies a verb, adjective, or adverb.
Interjection Grammatically isolated. A burst of energy that stands on its own.
Particle Particles add "flavor" to a sentence but have no grammatical function.

(Conjunctions link. If words such as oOv or yap are used to link one sentence to another,
it is better to consider them as conjunctions, not particles.)
Here is a sentence that you have read in the New Testament Can you parse it?
ficpaAc TTpcoTov EK TOU 698aA|Jou aou Tqv SOKOV, Kai TOTE BiapMyci? EKpaAE?v
TO Kap9o<; EK ToO O90aX|joO TOU a8EX9oG aou.
- main verb - main verb in its clause

npcoTOV - adverb with main verb (introduced by KCU)
EK - preposition with main verb EK|3aAE?v - infinitive, completes 8iapXEyEi<;
TOU - article, gen. masc. sing, with 6<p6aX|jou TO - article, ace. neut sing., with Kap9cx;
69601 A |jou - noun, gen. masc. sing., object of - noun, ace. neuL sing., direct object of
preposition EK
oou - pronoun (emphatic), gen. masc. sing., with Etc - preposition with
6<p0aXpou TOU - article, gen. masc. sing., with 6960X^00
Tqv - article, ace. fern, sing., with SOKOV 69601 X|jo0 - noun, gen. masc. sing., with
SOKOV - noun, ace. fern, sing., direct object of preposition EK
main verb k'lcpaXE TOU - article, gen. masc. sing., with a&EX9ou
KOI - conjunction, links two verbs (EâXE & a5EA9OU - noun, gen. masc. sing., possessive
with cxpOaXpou
TOTE - adverb, with oou - pronoun (unemphatic), gen. masc. sing.,
with 6<p6aX|Jou
76
The Virtues and Drawbacks of Parsing

Parsing has its virtues and also its limitations. The main virtue of parsing is that it concentrates
your mind It allows you to dwell on grammar (forms) and syntax (how words are put together)
in a way that nothing else can. If you are of a methodical nature it gives you satisfaction-to
realize that everything has its category and function. It reveals to you exactly what you do not
understand. It does not allow you to remain fuzzy. It is a "no place to hide" technique.
Example: Imagine you are translating the following sentence. 5uo rÊpobv OKOUOOUOI pu0ou<;.
(Notice the o on the stem in OIKOUOUOI; this tips you off that the verb is future.) Does this mean
In two days they will hear stories (time within which) or On two days they will hear stories (time
when) or "For two days they will hear stories" (duration) ?
If you are fuzzy and vague, you might do some handwaving: "Oh, itfs something about hearing
stories and about two days." If you are careless and bold, you might guess at a translation:
"They'll hear stories for two days" (Actually this would require an accusative of duration.)
If you are parsing, you cannot evade the issue. There it is: i^cpoav - genitive plural feminine.
Fine! You've got the form. But what is the function?
You might remember the genitive of time within which. You might hunt through the book at
random. You might look up genitive in the Index and search until you find your answer. Or you
might write, "I do not understand this genitive." No matter which of these you do, you
will be better off, having either reviewed what you have learned or identified what you need
to learn.
On the other hand, parsing can be frustrating. If you parse to the point where you want to scream
and/or abandon Greek, you will not be better off. I confess, there are many words that stump me
on parsing, even though I know how to translate the sentence perfectly. There are so many
functions of the genitive-which one? And is the chart really complete? I don't like to classify
ou as an adverb; it seems so different from all the others. Should I call it a negative and add
another category? And on and on.
The trick with parsing is: Use it for the learning it can give and stop when it
becomes too hard. Don't be lazy. Give every word a try. Stay with the puzzles when you
have a hunch that you might solve them. But don't be compulsive. Let go when you hit a dead
end. Be content to bring your questions to class. Be willing to leave some questions
unanswered, being satisfied merely to have identified them as questions. Remember that this is
Socratic wisdom: to know what you do not know.
Classwork: Parse the following sentence (from Exercise P above):
6 none; aXqOcoc; 5q 9iXE? Tqv piicpav x € ^ v n v K0t

' TiGqoiv* auTqv a56ic; ev TCO aypcp.
* is from TiGriM 1 = I put- K resembles SEIKVUOIV in form.
£py a -Parse the first paragraph of Mosquito's Buzz p. 72.

77
Lesson 16. Third Group: One-Syllable Stems and Family Terms;
, paXXov, (j&Aicrra with Verbs
This chapter introduces you to a number of words that you should know for rapid recognition.
ONE-SYLLABLE STEMS
6/q na?c; 6/q KUCOV q vu£ TO nup TO o5<; 6 nouq q x € 'P*
child dog night fire ear foot hand
TTOUC; KUCOV vu£ nup o3q TTOUC; XC«P
naTSa Kuva VUKTO nup oCc; n66a Xc7Pa
rrouSoc; KUVO<; VUKTOq nupoc; ci)TO<; no56q XEipoc;
naiSf KUVI VUKTI nupf cirri no8i X€ipi
naTSeq KUVCC; VUKTEC; c!)Ta noScc; WP*S

ncuSac; Kuvac; VUKTOq d>Ta noSac; XcTpac;
TTGUSCOV KUVGOV VUKTCOV COTCOV no6a>v Xeipcov
TTOMOI(V) KUOl(v) vu£f(v) cboi(v) nooi(v) X€poi(v)
*Note that in prose the stem of the word for hand is x*ip~ except in the dative plural. In poetry authors have their
choice of x^R" or xeip- for all cases.
The accent pattern for Third-Group nouns with stems of one syllable is: (a) accent on
the next-to-last syllable of nominative and accusative, (b) on the last syllable
of genitive and dative. (But note nctiScov, the exception to the exception!)
A mnemonic (going down the declension) that may help: left, left, right, right.
I Exercise a: Give the stem for the following words. Using the stem, form the nominative plural.
1. 6 TTCM<; 2. f] xîp 3. TO oO<; 4. f\ vu£ 5. f] KUCOV 6. 6
I Exercise £: Translate the following phrases:
1. of the children 2. of night 3. for the dogs 4. with the hands 5. by foot 6. with ears 7. of the fire
FAMILY TERMS
Notice the changing pattern for the following important words:

6 avqp f] yuvq
father mother man, husband woman, wife
nom. naTqp MHTOP avqp yuvq
ace. naTepa |jqT€pa avSpa yuva?<a
gen. TTdTpOq MHTpoc; avSpoc; yuvaiKcx;
dat. TTOTpl MHTpi av5p( yuvaiicf
nom. TTdTEpec; (jqTEpcq avSpec; yuva?KE<;

ace. TTOTEpac; pqjcpac; avSpaq yuva?<ac;
gen. naTEpcov jjqTEpcov avSpcov yuvaiiccov
dat. naTpaoi(v) (jqTpaoi(v) av8paoi(v) yuvaiî(v)
vocative TTOTEp pqTep avep yuvai
I Exercise y: Give the appropriate article. (Use £> for the vocative.)
1. yuvcu 2. avSpaoi 3. HnTP' ^- TT&TEp 5. yuvcuiccx; 6. naTqp 7. 8. yuvai^fv 9. avSpac;
78
paXa, paXXov, p&XiOTa WITH VERBS
Since paXa, paXXov, and paXioTa are adverbs, they may go directly with a verb. Translate
as follows:
xapouoiv. They rejoice especially I very much.

(jaXXov x a »P° uolv - They rejoice more.
They rejoice most.
Also:
pouXovTOti x«ipeiv H«M°V 1 SaicpUEiv. They want to rejoice rather than weep.
Xaipouoiv cb? paXiOTa. They rejoice as much as possible.
> Exercise 8: Translate the following, using material from pp. 56, 71, and 78:
1. TOUTO TO ifjomov ox; jjaXiora 9aGXov. 5. paXa 8aicpuouoiv.
2. TOUTO TO ipomov paXXov 9auXov EKEIVOU. 6. iQi\£\ KcToOai paXXov q opxcToeai (dance) .
3. 6 noirvrnc; MaXiora 0096^ EOTIV. 7. ^ A5£x9^ yXuKUTaTa XEyEi. (seep. 70)
4. 6 orpcmamK aoq>a>TEpov XsyEi TOU noiqToO. 3. r*| aSEX^r) ax; yXuKUTaTa
Class work: » Read Graveyard # 4 and 13, Thesauros pp. 227, 228.
fpya -Write the paradigms for vu£, HHTrIP»

-Write the following sentences in Greek, which use material from many lessons.
1. I like this poem.
2. I am reading these poems.
3. I am learning this here poem.
4. The sister is wiser than the poet
5. Wearing a new robe, I receive gifts, but wearing an old (robe), (I receive) nothing. (Use PEV/&E.)
6. The father of this child is as hungry as can be. (Use nEivaw, p. 32.)
7. The mothers tell the children to share the food with each other.
Xsyco + dat. + ace. tell someone to do something, p. 44, line 15 (What is XEyoo + ace. + inf.?)
KOIVGWECO + gen. + dat. share in something (gen.) with someone (dat.) (See p. 67 line 7 and note.)
8. For living creatures life is (something) good. (Indicate something by gender only.)
9. The children are as wise as can be.
10. The wisest men are always the most useful.
-Read and translate the first part of "The Oath," a West African story. Learn the vocabulary.
79
THE OATH (Parti)*
EV TQ yn TQ 'A9piKotvq (African), £v ft oiicoGoiv f] x^^cbvq
KCU 6 avqp OUTQC;, vopoc; EOTIV cbc; OTOV TIC; icaTayiyvcooKQ
Tivoq, XPH ^c?vov TOV KaTayvcoaScvTa (accused) TOV
opKov TovSc ojjvuvar "TeOvaiqv ci €xpn°apqv (I made use 4
of + dat.) X^poi KCM TTOOIV COOTE noicTv SSiKa fc'pya." <ai
ETTEITa XPH Q^TOV 9ap(JOKOV niV€IV.
icai aKououaiv oi 0eot TOV opKOVt icai cl)8£ TTOIOUOIV EI (jcv

aXqOooc; opvuaiv 6 KaTayvaxrikic; (accused), ou nEjjnouoi 8~
Oavajov. EI BE yEuScoc;, Oavccrov TTEpnouoi TW 9appaKcp. 9^
<ai OUTCO ûXaTTouai TO ooiov.
Ka TO
icai vuv CXKOUETE (jQOov nEpi Tqc; 009^ x^^^vn^ * ^ N~
avSpoq auTqq.
OIKECO - dwell (cf. OIKIO)

6 avqp - man (male as opposed to female), husband
cbq - how, that
TIC;, TI (unaccented), gen. TIVOC; - someone, something.
KaTayiyvcooKco - make an accusation against + gen. (literally "know down on" someone)
TIVOC; - genitive of TIC;
4 6 opKoc; - oath Greek saying:
+ avSpoiv BE 9auAcov opKov EIC; uScop ypa9E.
o(jvu|ji - swear
TEGvaiqv - May I be deadl
f\ xîp, gen. x€'po<; - hand (dative plural x^poi(v) ) --> chiropractor
6 Tiouq, gen. noSoc; - foot (See p. 77.) pod/ped <-> foot --> podiatrist,
podium, pseudopod —> pedal, pedestrian, quadruped (via Latin)
TO Epyov - deed, work <--> work —> erg
TO 9ap|jaKov - drug, whether used as medicine or (as here) poison
8- aXqOqc; (m./f.), aAqOsc; (n.) - true (declension to be learned later) (What is aAq8<A>c;?)
6 GavaToc; - death —> thanatology, euthanasia
9- yEuSqc;, EC; - false (What is yEuScbc;?) — > pseudo-, as in pseudonym
TTEpf + gen. - about (concerning)
ouTco(0 - thus, so (adverb of oOToq)
9uAaTTo> - guard —> prophylactic, anaphylactic, phylactery
ooioq,a1ov and oq,ov - hallowed, sanctioned by divine law, spiritually right
11- ao9oc;, q, 6v - wise, clever (Can you guess which is meant in this story?)
*This story is freely adapted from "Ijapa and Yanrinbo Swear an Oath," in Olode the Hunter, © 1968, by Harold
Courlander with Ezekiel A. Eshugbayi; used with permission of the author.
80
Lesson 17. Third-Group Adjectives; 3-A-3 Adjectives
There is a small group of Third-Group adjectives, among them euSaijjcov (fortunate),

KotKO&Of|ja>v (unfortunate), oco9pcov (sensible), a9pcov (senseless). The accent is recessive.
, OV = happy,fortunate
M/F N
eu8ai|jov $K Ambiguity Alert:
eu5ai|jova £u5ai|jov Note EuSafpova ace. m. / f. sing.
Eu5ai|jov eu8ai|jovoq nom. neut. pi.
eu5ai|jovi eu8a(|jovi ace. neut. pi.
I Exercise a: Give the proper form of
£u5ai|jova Eu5aipa>v, suSaipov for the following:
Eu5ai|jovac; €u5a((jova 1. f] _ yuvq 4. TOV avSpa
eu5ai(jova)v 2. ToTc; _ 9iXoi<; 5. TO _
eu5a(|jooi(v) £u8a(|jooi(v) 3. TOU jaTpoG
There are also adjectives that follow a 3-A-3 pattern: with masculine and neuter forms in the
Third Group, feminine in the A-Group. The fern. gen. pi. of a 3-A-3 adjective ends in -cov.
The most important word in this category is nac;, rraaa, nav.
naoa, nav every , all.
M N
naq naoa TTOV avrjp - every man
iravTa rraoav nav av5pe<; - all men
TTOVTOC; TTaoqg TTOVTOC; ol 6iv8pE<; - all the men
TTaVTI TTOOQ navTi In bound position, nac; makes a whole:
f\ naoa noXi<; - the entire city
TTCXVTEC; naaai navTa the whole of the city
navTac; naaaq navTa I Exercise P: Translate the following:
TTCXVTGOV naocov navTcov
naai(v) naaaic; naai(v) naaa yuvq f] naaa yuvr] naoai ai
Also important are the forms for one and its negative no, not one. The masculine nominative
is often used alone with the meaning no one and the neuter (ouSev) means nothing.
eTq, (Jta, £v one , ouBcpia, ou5cv no, not one

E!<; avqp one man avqp no man no one, nothing
M F N M F N
/ </
£1^ (Jia €V otiSeic; ouScpfa ouScv
eva (Jiav €V ouScva
EVOC; [Jiac; €VOq ouSevoq ouSsvoc;
c /
evi (Jia EVI ouSevi ou&svi
I Exercise y: Give the proper form of the underlined words. Use both genders when possible.
1. One gift is sufficient. 4. Give me one victory (VIKPJ). 7. They speak with one voice (9covr|).
2. I see no one. 5. I see nQ mother. 8. Give it to no one.
3. No man is an island. 6. Nothing is sweeter than success. 9. What is the price of one chair (Gpovcx;).
Classwork: ++ Read Graveyard # 11, Heraclitus # 15-17, Thesauros, pp. 228, 225.
Epya -Write the paradigm for Eu6ai|jcov,ov. Memorize. Write the paradigm for ad>9pcov, aaxppov.
-Write the paradigms for nac;t naaa, nav, and E!<;, pia, EV. Memorize them.
-Read and translate the conclusion of "The Oath." Learn the vocabulary.
81
THE OATH (Part 2)
ou 9iXouoiv OUTE i*| xeûvq OUTE 6 avqp auTqq

TTOIE?V icai 5q icon ou 9iXouoi yccopycTv. aXXa 9iXoGoiv
EO0iEiv. icai qpEpgt TIV} X£yEi TCO av8pi q Y^^vq TctSe-
"cl> 9iXE, OUK EOTIV qjjTv noXu<; O?TO<;. aXXa TTEIVCO cb<;
paXiaTa, icai &VEU TOU OITOU OUK EXCO xoipsiv- QKOUE vuv 5
|jou icai TTOIEI (= TTOIE-E) o KEXEUCO- nEXaq (nearby) OIKE?
yscopyoc; oq (jaXa nXouaioc; EOTIV. icai EV TQ oiidp auTou
EOTI noXuc; oTjoq. <x>5E XPH TTOIE?V EÊ (JEV XPH pafvEiv 8
To?q noot napa Tqv oiiciav, OE SE Ka0i£Eo9ai EHI TCOV copcov
|jou (shoulders) KOI Tac; X€^^ oou Ti0Evai Eiq rqv oiKiav
CJOTE KXETTTEIV TOV O?TOV." 11
TOUTO TTOIOUOIV Ol 56o. TQ 8E UOTEpCtUJt

6 yEcopyoc; OTI KXEirrqc; TK EicXsyE (stole) TOV O?TOV.
icai KaTayiYvcooKEi q Tqq x^ÔS 0 TO^ av/8poc; aurqc;.
opa yap oqpara TCOV noScov x^Xcovqc;. EpxETai oCv 15
6 yEcopyoc; napa TOV SiicaoTqv. "J> SiKaoTa," XsyEr
M
EC oT5a OTI aSiKoq q x^^>vq icai aSiKoc; 6 avqp auTqq.
vuv xpq auTouc; TOV op<ov opvuvai TOV (jEyav." 6 SE
anoKpiVETar "aXqOax; XEyEig." <ai
q <ai T(2> avSpi TO cpapjjaicov.
<ai nivouoiv oi 5uo. KOI rrpcoTOv psv opvuoiv f] XEXcbvq- 21

M
TE0vaiqv (may I be dead) EI Expqoapqv (I made use of + dat)
XEpoi KOI nooiv COOTE a5iKa Epya HOIE?V." ETTEITO SE TOV
auTov opKov opvuoiv 6 avqp. TE0vafqv (may I be dead) EI
Expqoa|jqv (I made use of) X€P°* Ka» TTOOIV COOTE aSiKa
Epya TTOIE?V.M
KOI navTEq (JEVouoiv. aXXa ou nspnouoiv oi 0Eol 0avaTov. 27

aXq0qc; yap r'jv 6 opicog. 6 pEV yap avqp Ta?q x^poiv
EXpqoaTo (made use of + dative) COOTE TTOIE?V aSiica aXX 1
OUHOTE rroSa E0q<EV (put) EHI yqq, q BE x^^^vq To?q nooiv
EXpqoaTo (made use of + dat.), aXX' OUHOTE x€^Pa
(put) EIC; Tqv oiKiav.
q oocpq x^^^vq <ai o avqp auTqc; O?TOV EKXEyav 32

(stole) SVEU TOU 0avaTou. TOV yap opicov TOV psyav
OUTCOC; cojjooav (swore) COOTE Touq OEOUC; 0avaTov |jq 34
TTE|JnEIV.
OUTE ... OUTE - neither ... nor (ou + TE)

yEcopysco - farm, cultivate, literally work (related to Epyov) the earth (y q)
5 SVEU + genitive - without.
6 yEcopyoc; - farmer --> George
8 E(JE - emphatic form of |JE
pafvco - walk, step, go — > basis
OE - emphatic, versus unemphatic OE
Ti0q|ji - put, place --> thesis
11 <XETTTCO - steal — > kleptomaniac
6 K X E T T T q ; - thief
TO oq|ja - sign --> semantics
napa + ace. - to (the side of)
6 SiKaoTqc; -judge
34-5 OUTCOC; ... COOTE + infinitive = so (in such a way) ... as for
82
Lesson 18. Participles
PARTICIPLES
Participles of-co verbs fall into a 3-A-3 pattern.
stepping
M N
pafvcov paivouoa paTvov
pafvovTCt paivouoav PCUVOV
PCUVOVTOC; Paivouoqc; |3aivovTo<;
PQIVOVTI PCMVOUOQ POIVOVTI
PCMVOVTEC; Paivouocu paivovTd

PCUVOVTCK; paivouoaq paivovTa
PCMVOVTCOV paivouociv POUVOVTGOV
pafvouoi(v) Paivouaaiq pafvouoi(v)
W Ambiguity Alert: pouvouoi(v) is either they step OR to those stepping. Only context
can show which. For every -co verb, you cannot tell a dative plural masc. / neut. participle from
the "they" present
4- noTajJoTq* TO?<; auToTc; £ppaivouoiv kVepa KCU ETEpa uSctTa enippcT.
For those stepping in the same rivers, other and yet other waters flow by.
( = Heraclitus#4)
The masc./neuter dative plural ends in -OVTOI —> ovoi --> ouoi. (We have seen this already, p. 69. The Third-
Group noun 6 ycpcov is actually a participle.) Note -wv with mandatory circumflex on feminine genitive plural.
I Exercise a- Translate the underlined words.
1. Stepping over the stone, the woman tripped. 3. I see the men stepping onto the boat.
2. Give it to the man stepping into the boat. 4. I know the names of the women stepping into the boat
CONTRACT PARTICIPLES
There will be contraction in participles of -ECO and -aco verbs, e + o --> ou a + o --> co.
The participle starts as 9iAEcov, 91X^0000, 9iA£ov. Anytime there would have been an i or a
(accented) in the uncontracted form, the contracted form will have a circumflex. (We have seen a
contracted participle in the poem on p. 11: arroTuyxavEiv <piAouvTa.)
9iA£>v,oGoa,ouv = loving = seeing

9.Acov 9iAouaa 9iAouv opcbv opcoaa opcov
9iAouvra 9iAouaav 9iAouv opcbvTa opcoaav opcav
9iAouvrcx; 9iAouaq<; 9iAouvro<; opcbvTcx; 6pcbaq<; opcovroc;
9iAouvTi 9iAouoQ 9iAouvri opcovTi opaxjQ opcivrri
9iAouvTE<; 9iAouaai 9iAouvra opobvTcc; opcooai opcovra

9iAouvra<; 9iAouoa<; 9iAouvrra opcbvTac; opcoaac; opcovra
9iAouvTCOv 9iAouaa>v 9iAouvrcA>v 6pd)VTO)V OpCxXJCOV opcovrrcov
9iAouoi(v) 9iAouoai<; 9iXouai(v) 6paKji(v) opooaaK 6pa>ai(v)
I Exercise ^: Translate the underlined words.

1. Seeing the soldiers, the women ran. 4.1 love loving creatures. (TO Jcoov)
2. Send a message to the man seeing the stars. 5. For the sons of those (women) loving the outdoors,
3. He orders those men loving archery to stand up. life is sweet
(two ways, KEXEUCO p. 70.)
*Notice that when a preposition is added as a prefix to a verb, the verb as a whole often takes the case that the
preposition would have taken: E^palvoi TO> noTapa> = Paivco EV TCO noTapa>.
83
BOUND PARTICIPLE
In bound position the participle identifies a particular one or ones or generalizes. (Only context
shows which.) It can be used alone, with the noun understood.
6 Tpcx^v &vrjp 6 aSEôc; pou. Both mean:
6 &vqp 6 TpEXCOV 6 aSsôc; |jou. The man running is my brother. (Identifies)
6 Tp^X^v K& |JV€ I . The running (man) is weary. (May identify or generalize)
CIRCUMSTANTIAL PARTICIPLE
In unbound position the participle gives some circumstance that applies to the main verb. This is
by far the most important and most common use of the participle.
ETT€0£V Running he fell.
I Exercise y: Go back to Exercise a. Which participles are circumstantial, which identify? Which would
have an article immediately before the participle?
I Exercise 5: Write these sentences in Greek. Remember: not every -ing word is a participle (see p. 43).
Which -ing words are participles? Are they bound or circumstantial?
/ stay home = JJEVGO oncoi. (oTkoi is a fossil form, an old locative of oTico^ house, home.)
1. Staying home is easy. 3. The men staying home are lucky. 5. She gets sick staving home.
2. I am staving home. 4. Staving home the women rejoice. 6. Send apples to the women staying home.
Circumstantial participles add information about a circumstance connected with the

verb. (The noun is already fully identified.) How that circumstance is connected is usually left
vague in Greek.
For translationese you can usually use Xing for the participle. Sometimes you may ned to
choose the best interpretation according to context. And in going from English to Greek, you
need to realize all the possibilities:
€neo€ Tpcxôv. He fell
while running because he was running

in running although he was running
by running if he was running
through running as he was running, etc.
Sometimes, but not usually, a word is used along with the participle that indicates which interpretation to use:
UK as if, on the grounds that (gives motivating assumption) Kalntp even though, although &TC since.
TTEHTTE aura) o?Tov cSx; TTEivoovTi. Send him food on the assumption that he is hungry.
TTEynE auT<£ O?TOV fire TTEivo>vTi. Send him food since he is hungry.
HH HEWITTS auT<x> o?Tov icafnEp TTEivoovTi. Don't send him food, even though he is hungry.
Classwork: ++ Read New Testament # 4-5, Thesauros p. 222.
Classwork or epya: Write the following in Greek: Identify participles as bound or circumstantial.
1. By hearing their stories she learns many things. 5. I rejoice in the ones rejoicing. (Use masc. part.)
2. While eating she writes letters. 6. I rejoice in those who rejoice. (Use relative pron.)
3. I see the crying child. 7. The loving ones send gifts.
4. I see the child crying. 8. Because of loving (part.) we send gifts.
9. Although I love my sister and consider her to be very wise (use KCUTTEP + participle), I do not wish to dwell
in her house.
Ipya -Write the paradigm for ypa<pa>v, ouoa, ov. Memorize.

-Read and translate the first part of a tale from Ghana, "Who Is Poor?" Learn the vocabulary.
Parse the fourth sentence, (icai SE?TTVOV TTOIE?)
84
WHO IS POOR?* (Part 1)
TIVI EV TQ yQ TQ 'A9piicavQ yuvn TOU
TIKTEI uiov. 6 SE |3aoiAEU<; X a fc EI &$ paXioTa TCO uico.
EOTI yap 6 na?q 6 npamx;. icat &E?TTVOV noi€? 6 paoiAsuq
naoaiq TO?<; yuvaiî Kai naoi TO?<; OIKOUOIV EV TOUTQ TQ 4
yQ. Kai ETTI TCO SEITTVO) T&SE AEyEi' "5) 91X01, oT8a OTI
Tpioiv 01 avOpconoi KaKo5ai|jovE<;' TCO noXcpcp icai TQ voocp
<ai TQ TTEIVQ. aXX 1 Eycb ou vo(j(^co KaKoSaipcov cTvai.
Xaipcov yap TCO VECO uico euSaipcov 5n VQJJI^CO cTvar Kai 8
OUTCOC; cuSaipcov Eijji &OTC navTac; TOUC; avSpconouc; Touq 9
EV TOUTQ TQ yQ |3ouXo|jai TioicTv cuSaijjovac;. vuv oOv 1O
TT€(jnco ayycXov oO TO k'pyov COT} ToSc* tnT^v EV TTOKJQ TQ
yQ GOOTE €Up€?V TT€VQTO Kai anO9€p£IV pOI. Kai TOUTOV TOV 12~
HEVQTO nXouoiov TTOIQOCO (I shall make)."
n Y U V H» 8en- y^vaiKoq - woman, wife <— > queen — > gynecology, misogyny
TIKTCO - give birth
6 uioq - son (Cf. IX8YI - 'I Xpioroc; Geou Yicx;
6/q naTc;, gen. nai56<; - child ~> pediatrics, pedagogue
4 , naoa, nav - all, every
Tpia <--> three (gen. Tpicov, dat. Tpioi(v) ) — > tripartite, triple
5 KaKo5a(|JCOV,ov - unfortunate piterally, having a bad 8aipo>v divinity, guiding spirit)
6 noXcpoq - war — > polemics
r\ voooq - sickness, disease
q nE?va - hunger, famine
8 EuSa I (jcov,ov - fortunate (literally, having a good Saipo>v divinity, guiding spirit)
8 Cases with cTvou
i as a linking verb links nominative to nominative. sTvai as a linking verb in
indirect discourse usually links accusative to accusative—except when the
subject of cTva i is the subject of the verb introducing the indirect discourse.
Then cTvai links a nominative (understood) to a nominative.
vo(j(£co auTnv OO9QV cTvai. I consider her to be wise.
vo(ji£co OO9Q sTvai. 7 consider (myself) to be wise.
9 OUTCOC; . . . COOTE + verb = so (in such a way) . . . that
9 &OTC
COOTE + infinitive gives the intended or probable result.

CJOTC + a verb with personal ending gives the actual result.
COOTE (javGavEiv. I write so as to learn.
GJOTE (javOavco. I write so that I learn.
10 TTOICCO + Two Accusatives

13
TTOIEGO is a factitive verb—a verb that acts on its object so as to turn it into
something or give it a new characteristic. Such verbs take a direct object and
an adjective or noun to complete it.
Compare our English construction: We elected him president. We painted the house red.
6 ayysAoc; - messenger -> angel
12- EupioKco, qOpov - find, found (Why EupE?v rather than EupfoKEiv? See p.13.)
6 TTEVQC;, gen. TTEVQTOC; - poor man — > penury
- carry away; bring back, hand over to + dat
*This story was freely adapted from a story told by Kwadwo Anokwa, © 1992; used with permission of the author.
85
THE NEW TESTAMENT
All of the New Testament is written in a

Greek dialect called Koine. Koine (koinos,
koine, koinon, "common") Greek developed as
the common language of the oikoumene
("inhabited world") that came about as part of
the unification of Alexander's empire after his
death in 323 B.C.E. It was widely used from
the third century B.C.E. to the sixth century
C.E. The oikoumene, in which Greek was
spoken, extended from India to Spain and
included Italy, Asia Minor, and Egypt. The
writers of the New Testament, therefore,
chose to write in Greek, because they wanted
their message to be accessible to everyone.
Figure 1. In the foreground is the cliff of the Areopagus that overlooks
the Acropolis and the Parthenon. (Photo: Alison Frantz)
The forms of Koine Greek are very close to Attic but its syntactical structures are simpler. Luke was
the only writer of the New Testament who may have been a native speaker of Greek. But two other
writers of the New Testament have particular associations with Greece.
Paul made three journeys to Greece, visiting and preaching in a host of Greek cities. We know about
these journeys through Luke's account of them in his Acts of the Apostles. In addition, we have a
number of letters that Paul wrote to those whom he converted, including the Christian communities
of Thessalonians, Corinthians, and Ephesians. Paul even visited the most famous city of Greece,
Athens. While there, Paul preached in a synagogue and held daily debates in the agora ("gathering
place, marketplace") with passers-by, among whom were Stoic and Epicurean philosophers. Paul
was particularly familiar with Stoic doctrines since his native city, Tarsus, was the home of several
Stoic philosophers: Antipater, Zeno, and Chrysippus.
Paul was even invited to make an address on the Areopagus, the site of the Athenian homicide court.
The many temples and altars of the Acropolis and the agora are beautifully visible from this rocky
promontory (Figure 1). Paul's speech appropriately begins by acknowledging that his hearers are
already devoted to religious matters:
O men of Athens, I observe how very godfearing you are in all things. As I walked
around looking at your shrines, I even discovered an altar inscribed, "To an Unknown
God." Now, what you reverence in ignorance, I intend to proclaim to you. (Acts
17:22-24)
Later in the speech, Paul quotes from Greek poets to affirm the affinity of Greek thought and his
message: "In him (God) we live and move and have our being...for we too are his offspring" (Acts
86
17:28). Paul seeks to move the Athenians, through this common belief in a divine origin of the
world, away from polytheism to an acceptance of one God.
Paul's speech, however, convinced only a few to join him, including Damaris, an otherwise
unknown woman, and Dionysius, a member of the court of the Areopagus, who eventually went
on to convert many Athenians. In present day Athens, on the feast day of Saints Peter and Paul,
June 29, Athenians in large numbers gather at the Areopagus for a sunset Vesper Liturgy during
which Paul's speech is read to the worshipers.
Not only in Athens but throughout modern Greece, people take pride in the sites Paul visited. One
such place is Lindos on Rhodes. Here, in a small bay, now called St. Paul's Bay, the disciple is
said to have found refuge from a tempest which almost sank his ship. According to the villagers,
St. Paul converted them during his stay there after the storm. A small church dedicated to the
Apostles marks the site. The road to this church is washed out every year, yet the women in the
village manage to care for it daily, despite difficulties in reaching the church.
Another author closely tied to Greece is John the Evangelist. Although the evidence is not clear,
many believe that he is the author of the fourth Gospel, three Epistles, and the Book of
Revelation. You will be reading selections from the Epistles later in the course. The Greeks on
the island of Patmos claim that John wrote both the fourth Gospel and the Book of Revelation
while he lived there, after he had been exiled from Ephesus by the Roman authorities.
In order to pray, John would retreat to a cave that overlooked the beautiful harbor of Patmos. It
was there he had his visions that he records in the Book of Revelation with the help of his disciple,
Prochoros (Figure 2):
I, John, your brother...was on the island called Patmos....On the Lord's Day, I was
caught up in the Spirit and I heard behind me a great voice like the sound of a
trumpet which said, Write in a book what you now see....(l. 9-11)
The Patmians credit John with their conversion to Christianity and there are many local legends
of the miracles he performed. The cave is now a place of religious pilgrimage. On the hilltop
above the cave, an influential and still flourishing monastery, dedicated to St. John, was erected
in the eleventh century. It occupies the acropolis where a temple to Artemis formerly stood.
Figure 2: John in his cave

at Patmos dictating the book
of Revelation and the Fourth
Gospel to his disciple
Prochoros. (Line drawing of
an icon)
87
Lesson 19. TI?, TI / Tiq, TI; Interrogatives and Indefinites;
Adverbial Accusative; Articular Infinitive
, TI (interrogative) TI (indefinite)
who? what? (with noun) which? someone, something
(with noun) a certain, some
M/F N M/F N
nom. TIC; Tl TIC; Tl

ace. Tiva Tl Tiva Tl
gen. TIVOC; Tivoc; TIVOC; TIVOc;
dat. TIVI TIVI TIVI TIVI
/
nom. Tiva Tivec; Tiva
ace. Tivac; Tiva Tivac; Tiva
gen. TIVGOV TIVGOV TIVCOV TIVGOV
dat. TIOl(v) TIOI(V) TIOI(V) TIOI(V)
Interrogative Tiq, TI in all forms will have a high pitch on the first syllable. Note: TIC; and TI
keep their acute even when followed by an accented word.
Used alone, the forms mean who? what? whom? whose?, etc. Used with a noun, they
mean which? what? And TI is used by itself as an adverb meaning why?
TK EPXETOI; Who is coming?
Tfc yuvq E'PXETOI; Which woman is coming?
Tfva opac;; What (things) do you see? / Whom (m./f. sing) do you see?
Tiva 5copa opac;; What gifts do you see?
TI Sciopa 9Epsic;; Why do you bring gifts?
> Exercise a: Translate:
1. TIC; sT; 4. TIC; iaTpoc; 7. TIVI Scopa n£|jTTOuaiv; 1O. TIVI avOpconco 66opa rrE|JTTouaiv;
2. Tiva opac;; 5. T(VO aSEAcpqv opac;; 8. Tivac; iaTpouc; 9iX£?<;; .11. TIVEC; Eiaiv ai yuvaiKEc;;
3. TIVOC; aKOUEic;; 6. TIVI 9Epsic; oTvov; 9. TIOI 9£pEic; oTvov; 12. TIVCOV 9iX(A>v TCKC; EnioToXac;
I Exercise P: Translate the underlined words. If context indicates a singular or plural, use that. Otherwise give
both translations. £»£» Notice that in English forms of who do not differ for masc./ fern., or singular/ plural.
1. To whom are you speaking? 3. Who was chosen? 5. Whom did you see? 7. Who smiles?
2. Whose poems do you prefer? 4. Who were the winners? 6. Why do you smile? 8.1 like a man who smiles.
Indefinite TI?» TI in all forms is bound to the word that precedes and is usually without accent.
(The exception is situation #3b, p. 90 below.) The forms convey indefiniteness—someone,
something when used alone, a certain, some when used with a noun. Remember:
indefinite TIC;, TI comes after its noun, and enclitics never come first in a sentence or clause.
PCUVEI Tiq Someone is walking.
cxvqp Tic; paivei Some man is walking.
> Exercise y: Translate the underlined words. Be careful on word order in # 1. Be careful on # 9. "Some"
cannot always be translated by TIC;, TI. (See p. 53 on 6 JJEV, 6 5s.)
1. Give her softe apples. 4. Give the wreath to some poet. 7. I see someone coming.
2. Some turtles are small. 5. I show my poems to some women. 8. Give it to someone else.
3. Some men can't swim. 6. Some women can't write poems. 9. The houses of some are tidy;
(Use two words.) of others, messy. Careful!
88
INTERROGATIVES AND INDEFINITES
It is a common pattern in Greek that an accented word will ask a question and the same word
unaccented will be indefinite, a "shrug-word":
TIC; who? TTOTE when? TTOOC; how? TTOU where?

TIC; someone TTOTE sometime, ever TTGOC; somehow TTOU somewhere
(also used colloquially
= somehow, I suppose)
I Exercise 8: What clues distinguish an interrogative from an indefinite? Translate the following and put the
proper punctuation (period or question mark) at the end.
1. afc£X9r) TI<; EPXETCU 4. EPXETCU TK 7. TK cpx^Tai 1O. iarpou^ Tiva^ 91X00 13. TTOU yrfc oiK
2. TTOX; xaipouoiv 5. xa'P°ucji na>^ 8. 86< Tiva 11. y poppa TO Tiva ypaêi 14. Tiva SiSax;
3. EToi TTOTE 6. sTai TTOTE 9. nou okE?^ 12. Tivaq iarpou^ 9iXE?<; 15. OJKEK; nou
ADVERBIAL ACCUSATIVE
Sometimes an accusative will be used much as an adverb would Examples are: TE Aoc; finally,
TI why?, TI in some way, and JJOVQV only.
k'pxovrai. Finally they come. ace. of the noun TO jeXo<;
TI 8aicpuEi<;; Why are you crying? neuter ace. of T(<;f T(
ou TI opyÊTai. (S)he is not in any way angry. neuter ace. of TK, TI
neuter acc of
p6vov Eo6iEi aXXa ou TTIVEI. (S)he only eats but does not drink. -
ARTICULAR INFINITIVE
As we saw on p. 43, the infinitive is considered neuter singular. Used with an article it is called
an articular infinitive.
TO opav fbaov TOU dticoueiv. To see is easier than to hear.
Seeing is easier than hearing.
Phrases with articular infinitives can become quite complicated. It is important to bracket them
before translating.
avTi TOU [TOV rraTCpa ypa9€iv crnoToAac;], q pr|Tqp Xcyci.
Instead of the father's writing letters, the mother speaks.
TO [TOUC; naTSaq pavOaveiv noiq|jaTa npiv 8uvao0ai avayiyvoboKeiv] ayaOov TI EOTIV.

For children to learn poems before being able to read is something good.
I Exercise E: Translate the following sentences. Put brackets around the articular infinitive phrases.
1. VOîCouai TIVE<; TO pE0U£IV XCtXETTCOTEpOV E?Vai TOU VOOE?V.
2. vopi£co pcipov TO TOU<; arpaTic!)Ta<; pav6avEiv Xsysiv TQ yXa>TTQ TQ 'EXXqviicQ.
3. Xsysi noXXa TTEpi TOU OIKE?V EV TQ yq TQ 'A^piKavq ouv Ta?<; aSEXâT^. (nspi + gen. = concerning, about)
(ouv
Class work: ^f^f Read New Testament # 6 and Famous Sayings # 1, Thesauros pp. 222 and 232.
£pya -Read and translate Part 2 of "Who is Poor?" Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the first two sentences of the messenger's first speech. ("sTpi. aXX1 J> paoiXsu ... EIOIV")
89
WHO IS POOR? (Part 2)
6 SE ayyEAoq Xeyei TCO paaiAcr MET|ji. aXX\ &

navTE<; oi EV TOUTQ TQ yq OIKOUVTE^ euSaipovcq EIOIV.
q yap yq q 'A9piKavq euKapnoc; (fertile) <ai oi avOpcorroi
ioxupoi Kai uyiEivoi. nou yqc; £OTI TTEvqc;;11 6 5c paoiXcuc; 4
anoKpivETar "OUK oT5a nou yqc; EOTIV, aXXa TTEvqTa
OE EupE?v <ai ancxpEpeiv poi."
6 5e ayyeXoq £qje? noXXa^ qpEpaq. Kai TcXoq EupioKEi

av5pa Ka6i£6|JEvov eni nupi, av6pa cb OUK COTIV OUTE 8
oiKia OUTE 9p6voq OUTE i|j6mov. Kai x a 'P e ' o ayyeXoc;
opcov OUTOV. vo(jf^£i yap supcTv (to have found) o ^qrcr- 10
avSpa nevqja. 11
6 8e avqp epcoTor "d) 91X8, TI spXQ» T' pouXq;" 6 5e

ayycXoc; d)8£ anoKpfvETar N cpxo|jai Cqycov ncvqTa
Tiva. TO eupeTv av8pa nevqra EV TOUTQ TQ yq OUK EOTI 14
|5a8iov. TeXoc; Suvapai eupcTv avSpa mvqTa." 6 8e avqp
Xcyer "aniOi. ou yap ncvqq cipi. Kainep ouScv EXCOV, 16
OUK Eipi n£vqq." 6 8£ ayycXoq TiGqoi TOV avSpa ETTI TCOV
co|ja)v (shoulders) <ai cmo9£pei TCO paoiXeT.
6 5e paoiXeuc; TOV av5pa opcov Xcyei OUTGO Ta5e- "

[jsyaXq JJEV q euSaipovia |jou, ou 5£ KaKo6a(pcov E!. <ai
SqXov COTIV OTI TTEvqc; E!. ou yap IGTI 001 OU&E |jia 21
okia, Kal Eiaf JJQI TpE?q. OUK EGTI 001 ouSs [Jia yuvq,
Kai £iof poi TpsTc;. OUK COTI 001 OU&E EV ipaTiov
9auXov, Kai EOTI (JOi TETTapa VEO <ai <aXa. aupiov
(tomorrow) EOTOI SsTnvov (jEya. <ai EHI TCO SEIHVCO rravTEc;
Scooouof 001 (will give you) 8copa, Scopa cbq (jsyioTa <ai 26~
cbc; KaXXiOTa. <ai OUTCO^ EOTOI 001 nXouofcp yfyvEoOai."
(The bold print is for the sake of the next lesson, which is on Accents.)
4 ioxupoq, a, 6v - strong
nou - where? (The Greeks ask where of earth!, while we ask where on earth!.)
8 TO nup, gen. rrupoq <— > fire — > pyre, pyromaniac
10 EupsTv - Translate he considers (that) he found. Usually an aorist infinitive shows
aspect: EupsTv = to find (once), as on p. 84, line 12. But here it is replacing an aorist
verb in indirect discourse. Since no new subject of the infinitive is given the reader
understands it is the same as the subject of the main verb. Literally, he considers (himself)
to have found.
11 avSpa nEvqTa - The Greeks sometimes used avqp redundantly. **** Cf. our
phrase soldier boy or the song, "Oh, Sinner Man."
14 TIC;, TI (unaccented) - some (as adj.); someone, something (used alone, as noun)
16 aniOi - ano (away) + V0i - go (command of E!|JI)
TTEP - indeed (enclitic particle, often joined to other words, as in KainEp)
KaiiTEp + participle - even though
q Eu6ai(jovia - good fortune
21 E!<;, |j(a, EV - one (forms on p. 80)
TETTapEq, TETTapa - four (gen. TETTapoov, dat TETTapoi(v) ) --> tetralogy
26- cb<; [JEyioTa KOI cbc; KaXXiGTa - Can you guess what this means? OT is a
marker for the superlative (as in our biggest, best) of certain adjectives.
yiyvo|jai - become, be <--> kin, kindergarten, kind, king ~ > benign,
malign, pregnant, cognate (via Latin) — > (with initial g dropped) native,
nature, nation) The aorist root (y EV as in ysvoq) of this all-important verb
is extremely productive: — > genesis, genus, general, generate
90
Lesson 20. Proclitics and Enclitics
There are two groups of words in Greek that usually have no accent: proclitics and enclitics.
(1) The forward-leaning group, called proclitics, are seen as being united with the word
that follows. They cause no changes in accent. There are ten:
6, f\, ol, ai, E! ax; ou EV EK (E£ before vowel) E!<; (EC;)
(2) The backward-leaning group, called enclitics, are considered to form a unit with the
word that precedes. This can bring about changes in accent. Common enclitics are:
PE, jjou, jjoi TE (and) slpi, EOTI, etc. =Iam
OE, oou, ooi T0| (y'know) 9^1, 9HOI» etc. = /5ay
TK;, TI (all unaccented forms) ys (or any rare = a shrug)
RULES OF COMBINATION FOR ACCENTED WORDS + ENCLITICS

one-syllable enclitic change on preceding word two-syllable enclitic change on preceding
word
(1) otvSpconoc; TIC; extra acute on final syllable SvOpconoc; COTI

(2) yXcoTTa TIC; extra acute on final syllable yXcoTTa EOTI
(3a) 91X0^ TIC; [no change] (3b) [no change; accent on last
syllable of enclitic]
(4) 9covq TIC; acute rather than grave 90) Vf) £GTI
(5) TTCuqTic; [no change] none; TIVOC;
(1) A word with an acute on the third syllable back gets a second accent before an enclitic. (8v6pcon60
(2) A word with a circumflex on the next-to-last syllable gets a second accent before an enclitic. (y XOOTTO)
(3a) A word with an acute on the next-to-last-syllable has no change before a one-syllable enclitic. (9iXo<; TK;)
(3b) A word with an acute on the next-to-last-syllable has no change before a two-syllable enclitic.
The two-syllable enclitic gets a straight accent on its final syllable. (91X0;
(4) A word with straight accent on the last syllable has an acute (rather than a grave) before an enclitic.
(5) A word with a circumflex on the last syllable has no change before an enclitic. (none;)
I Exercise a: Which rule above explains the accents in each of the following combinations?
1. <pap|jaic6v TI 3. 9apjjaKoi<; TIOI 5. pG06<; EOTI 7. o*r|vr| TE 9. 0povo<; TI<;
2. (pappaica Tiva 4. ^GOcx; yc 6. aicqvq EOTI 8. TTOIQTCOV TIVGOV 1O. Opovoi TIVEC;
ADDITIONAL RULES FOR PROCLITICS AND ENCLITICS
(6) An enclitic gets an accent when followed by another enclitic:

($ TIV& TTOK 9'^T • whenever someone somehow loves someone.
(7) IOTI is accented when it means there exists or it is possible.
(8) IOTI is also accented when it comes at the beginning of a sentence or after TOUTO, OUK, nn»
E!, d><;, or aXXa. (So an accent on the first syllable is no guarantee of existential meaning.)
(9) A proclitic gets an acute accent when followed by an enclitic: cT pe 9iXE?<; if you love me
OUK dpi / am not. This may happen when proclitic and enclitic join in a single word:
(!><; + TE --> &OTE OU + TE — > oOTC
(10) An enclitic never comes first in a sentence or clause. (Nor do forms of auTo<; as unemphatic pronoun.)
Classwork: Look at the words in bold print on p. 89 and say which rule explains the enclitic combinations.
?pya -Read and translate Part 3 of "Who Is Poor?" Learn the vocabulary.
-Say which rule operates for each enclitic combination (shown in bold print).
-Write sentences using enclitic patterns # 1-5. Provide an English translation.
91
WHO IS POOR? (Part 3)
6 BE avqp dmoicpivETar "TOUTO TO 5£>pa ou

AajjpavEiv. xa^CTT°C Y^P ° Pf°C Mou &AA 1 °u TT^vqc clpf.
KpivEiq ou pc TTEvqTa, & paoiAEu. aXXa Kara Tqv Ejjqv
Kpioiv, ou TTEvqc; EIJJI." 6 SE paaiXcuc; XcyEr "5) 9iAE, TT£><;
AEyEiq OTI OUK E! ncvqq, OU&EV EX&OV; oToa yap OTI OUK
claf 001 ou&€(jfai yuva?KE<;, ouSefjfai oiiciai, ouSeva ipa
TQ 8c uoTcpai^ qpcpp navTEq cpxovTai cni TO

9cpovT£q Soopa. oi pcv ipomov 9Epouoiv, oi SE Opovov,
oi SE O?TOV. 6 BE avqp ou XappavEi Taura TO Scbpa. Kai
EV & navTEq EoSiouoi XsyEi 6 avqp Ta5E- "<L paoiXsu, 10
EToipoc; E! opav n^vnT& Tiva;" 6 BE paoiXsuq XsyEr "
^TOip6<; clpi." KOI navrag TOU? aXXouc; EpcoT^t 6 avqp
TO auTo EpcoTqfja- "J> 91X01, ?TOIJJO( tori (are you) opav
TT!VQT& Tiva;" KOI ol avOpconoi HOVTEC; anoicpivovTai OTI
cloiv. "sGys" 6 avqp
KOI ayEi (he leads) auTouq npo<; TOTTOV oO oi TEOVEGOTEC; 16

KE?VTOI EV TQ yQ. KOI 6p£>oiv 8v8pa TE0vEo>Ta, o<; voocp
anE0avEV EV TQ&E TQ qpEpp. "<!> paoiAEO," EpcoTa 6 avqp* 18
M
6pa<; TOUTOV TOV avSpa, & OUKETI cpcovr^ IOTIV, & BE
OUKETI ^coq; 6 9avaToq nauEi navTa TO Epya TOUTOU TOU 20
av5poc;.M 6 SE paoiAEuq AEyEr "opco OUTOV. TI ipcoT^c pc
TOUTO;M 6 BE AsyEi TaBs* "cl> paoiAEu, vOv opa (= opa~E)
EPE, cp 9(ov^| ioTiv i^j AEYCO Kai cp 6980X^0! cloiv oTc; 23
opa), KOI x€^P€(^ Ka* TiooEq oTq yEcopyco. uyiEivq q
yA£>TT& pou. uyiEivoi <at oi 690aXpof pou. Kai ai
XeTpIc uou uyiEivai KOI oi n68eq Mou- htyt^ OTI pouAq
opav TTCvqTfc Tiva; oOToq n^vq? iorfv, aAA 1 OUK Eyco. 27
6 pioc; - life --> biology

TTGOC; - how?
Kpfvco - judge --> critic, criticism, hypocrisy --> (via Latin) discern
KOTO + ace. - according to
q Kpfoiq - judgment (as well as contest)
5 ouBEic;, ou8E(j(a, OU&EV - not one, no (as adjective), no one, nothing (used alone,
as noun). Literally, not even one = ouSc + cT<;, pia, EV. Used in singular and plural,
with plural forms as expected.
10 EV - while (short for EV TCO XP^vcp EV £>)
EToipoq^^v - ready
16 6 TOTTOC; - place --> topic, topography
TE0vEcoq, gen. TE0vEcoToc; - dead (from GVQOKCO - die)
18 anoOvQOKco = die (more common in prose) aorist ansOavEv - he, she, it died
OUKETI - no longer
20 TTOUCA) - stop, check, cause to stop —> pause
23 EJJE = emphatic form of JJE. The enclitic pronouns are unemphatic. (We saw
emphatic oou versus unemphatic oou in New Testament # 1, Thesauros p. 221.)
27 Omission of forms of el pi
Forms of the verb EIJJI are often omitted—most commonly
EOTI(V) and E!OI(V), but other forms as well.
92
Lesson 21. Third-Group Comparatives and Superlatives;
Superlative as "Exceedingly"; Special Words for Pairs
Most adjectives have comparative forms ending with -oT£poq,a,ov or -coTepo<;,a,ov.

But some have comparative forms in the Third Group. These forms are like the forms of
eu&aipoov, with some optional variants. The accent is recessive.
&pcfvcov,ov better (comparative of aya66<;)
M/F optional forms -N optional forms
nom. a(J€ivcov apcivov

acc. ajjeivova [&peivco] apcivov
gen. ajjeivovoc; a|J€ivovo<;
dat. a(J€ivovi CXMCIVOVI
nom. apeivovec; [ijjcivouc;] apeivova [ipcfvco]

acc. a|j£ivovaq [&|jeivou<;] ajjcivova [&pcivco]
gen. apcivovcov apcivovcov
dat. apcivooKv) apeivooi(v)
$$ Ambiguity Alert: The nom. and acc. pi. for M / F are the same for the optional forms.
The forms in brackets are optional and are frequently used. These by-forms, as they are
sometimes called, can cause confusion if you do not learn them. Memorize them carefully.
I Exercise a: Give the proper form of apdvoov.ov for the following nouns. Include variants.
1. i*) oiicia 3. TO Pipxfa 5. TOV voyov 7. oi TTOiryrai
2. Tqv r*)|j£pav 4. TOU<; 6povou<; 6. rq^ |jqTpo<; 8. TO?<;
Many common and important adjectives have -cov,ov comparatives and - IOTOC; superlatives.
Learn all the words in the box.
POSITIVE COMPARATIVE SUPERLATIVE
ayaOoc;, q, ov good a|J€IVCOV, S|J€IVOV (better, often morally) aplOTOq, q, OV

KpEITTCOV, Kp€?TTOV (morepowerful) KpOTIOTOq, q, OV
KOOCOC;, q, ov bad KOKICOV, KCXKIOV (worse, often morally) KCXKIOTOq;, q, OV

X€lpCOV, X^pOV (worse, often lesser X € 'P iaTO< ^» H » ov
in power)
KaXoc;, q, ov beautiful tav, KaXXiov q, ov
H^yaSi q, ov
big, great
noXuc;, noXXq, noXu TlXEICOV, TlXcTov (more; greater In size, TTXcToTO^, q, OV
much, many number, or extent) most
, a, ov easy fbaoov, fbaov fbacrroc;, q, ov

, OaTTov q, ov
fast, quick
, q5u qSicov, q5iov q, ov

sweet, pleasant
93
The syntax of these Third-Group comparatives and -OT- superlatives is as usual.
8aTTo>v YTTTTO<; f^ xE^(*)vrl- ^ horse is faster than a turtle.
TOUTO TO Troiqpa fbârov navTcov. This poem is easiest of all.
ayaOou PEV uiou OU&EV SJJEIVOV, icaicou BE ouBsv K&KIOV. Nothing is better than a good son;
nothing is worse than a bad one.
I Exercise P: Translate the following:
1. oi apioroi 4. TO icaAAiov 7. i*| Taxiarr) 10. Ta nAEiova 13. TO KpcmaTov 16. ai r^Sfovcc;
2. TO ^>9tov 5. oi pEyiaroi 8. 6 xîpcov 11. Ta fSâra 14. 6 KOUCIOOV 17. f] pd^cov
3. TO<; i^Biouc; 6. TO KPEITTCJ 9. oi 0aTTou<; 12. TOV apEivco 15. TO nXeia) 18. Tqv KaAAico
I Exercise y: Translate each underlined word or phrase with a single word, using the chart on p. 92.
1. Deeds undertaken with joy arc the easiest. 3. Do you think our victory was swifter and greater than theirs?
2. Give me more wine and more apples. 4. Send reinforcements to the best and most powerful men.
SUPERLATIVE AS "EXCEEDINGLY"
Sometimes a superlative is used simply to indicate a high pitch of some quality. Compare
our English She's the greatest, meaning very great, or This is most strange, meaning very strange.
COTIV. Both mean:
EOTIV He is richest OR He is exceedingly rich
Exercise 5: Translate the sentences. (Consult chart on p. 92 for comparatives and superlatives.)
1. She is bigger than her sister, (two than constructions) 3. Children are swifter (two ways) than turtles.
2. The doctors are exceedingly good, (two ways) 4. The doctors are as good as can be.
SPECIAL WORDS FOR PAIRS

The Greeks distinguished much more carefully than we do between two of something and many.
They used to have the dual, a special set of endings for two of anything-used only rarely in
classical times. And they had special words for distributing and question-asking in situations of
two-ness:
which? TTOTEpOq
aAXoc; other other (of two)
EKaoTo each each, either (of two)
navTec; all both
TTOTCpov (neuter = which of two?) must have originally been used to introduce a question with two
possible answers. Then it came to be used generally to introduce any question:
TTOTEpov £0€Aei<; EA0€?v q ou; Do you want to come or not?
noTEpov €6eX€iq €A0€?v; Do you want to come?
; occasionally = other (of many, not just of two). This gives better sense for Heraclitus1
statement that for those stepping in the same rivers £T€pa KOI ETcpa uSara c
and iicaTcpoq take predicate position.

ajJ9OT€pai<; TaTc; \tpOiv paAXeic;. You throw with both your hands.
EV EKaTEpp TQ TToXEl 5q(JOKpcma EOTIV. There is democracy in each city (of two).
Classwork: Read Heraclitus #13, Graveyard #12, 27-28, Thesauros pp. 225, 228, and 230.
fpya -Write the paradigm for icaAAicov.ov. Memorize the pattern.

-Read and translate "Who Is Wiser?" a west African tale. Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the third sentence of the last paragraph, (icai au
94
WHO IS WISER?
qjjcpqx TIVI xcûvq ^saivq EVTuyxavEi POIVOUOQ EV TO?<;

aypoTq. KOI EKaTEpa OUTGOV 9OpcT TO£OV. "<A> 91X0"
XEYEI q x^Xcovq, "lycb q oo9COTOTq TTOVTCOV TGOV £cocov
<ai vq TOV Aia oo9GOTEpa oou EIIJI." q &E XEOIVO TOUTO 4
OKOUOUOO opyfÊTai KOI XsyEi TQ xc^vQ "^ T * VO(JI£EI<;
ETvai oo90)T€pa EJJOU; TO ycvcx; TGOV x£Xcova>v OUK EOTI 6
oo9ov." q SE anoKpivcTai &6E- Hai x^Xaivai apiaTai 8q.
oTSa OTI q ao9COTaTq €i|ji KOI Suvajjou SEIKVUVOI aoi.M
KOI C'PXOVTCU ai 5uo napa norapov Tavuv. q SE x^^^>vq 9

XsyEi TQ XEaivq- Mcbq Taxuq Kai cbc; Eupuq (broad) EOTIV
oCToc; 6 TTOTa|j6c;. vuv TTpoTi0q|ji (I propose) Kpioiv.
paXcopEV EKOTEpa qpcov (of us) Ta TOÔ EV TCO TTOTajJcp. 12-
noTEpov au E0EXEi<; paXsTv TrpooTOv;11 q BE XEaiva fJaXXEi
jjEyaXq ficopQ (force) CJOTE TO TOÔV HIHTEI EV pEocp TCO 14
noTapco KOI a9avfÊTai (disappears) EV TO?C; TOU noTapou
uSaoiv. EHEiTa SE paXXEi q x^Xcovq ouSEpia (bcbjjQ (force)
COOTE TO TOÔV HIHTEI TTp6 TCOV TTo5£>V. 17
M
icai avaXappavEi auTo q x^^^vq Ta5E XEyouoa- cl) 9iXq,
OU TTEpI TOOSE q KplOIC; ?)V--TTOTEpa f^JJCOV (of US)
ioxupOTEpa EOTiv-aXXa nspi To05E-~noTEpa oo9C*>TEpa.
Kai ou (JEV (JEIÔVI f5>cb|jQ (force) EâXEc; CJOTE OUKETI EXEIC; 21
TO TOÔV oou. Eycb SE ou5E(jia (5>ob|jQ EpaXov COOTE TO
TOÔV ETI E'XCA). TOUTO 5EIKVUOIV OTI EyCO q 0090)TEpa.M q
SE XEOIVO ou XlyEi ou5Ev aXXa oiya. KOI TEXoq a^KpoTEpai
KaTEpxovTai Eiq Touq aypouc;, q (JEV vopfôuoa sTvai
oo9coTaTq navTCov TCOV icocov, q SE ETEpa ou. 26
EVTuyxavoo - meet up with + dat.

q XEOIVO - lioness —> lion
EKOTEpoq,a,ov - either, each (of two)
TO TOÔV - bow (for shooting arrows)
TO yEvoc; - race, tribe, category, kind —> generic, phylogeny --> genus (via Latin)
apioTo<;,q,ov - best --> aristocrat, aristocracy
6 noTapoq - river —> hippopotamus
9 Taxu<;,ETa,u - swift, quick ~> tachometer
cix; - how! (in exclamation)
q Kpioiq - contest (from Kpivco = judge)
12- Why paXo)|jEv rather than paXXcopEv? (EpaXov - aoristof paXXc*). Seep. 13.)
14 (jEooc^q^v - middle
^ iv pcocp T(J> noTapa)
Notice the Greeks use an adjective in predicate position in middle the river
where we would use a noun + noun in the middle of the river.
This is a peculiarity of Greek that has to do with location. The same holds true for
OKpocâ, ov ;0pm0tf andeoxaTOt,q,ov edgemost.
ETT &Kpo>v TCOV BEvSpEcov on the tops of the trees - (lit- on topmost the trees)
ETT' EOXOTCA) TOO o«yp<2> at the edge of the field (lit at edgemost the field)
17 rrpo + gen. - before, in front of
avaXa|jpav<A> - take up, pick up
21 JJEI^COV, ov - greater, bigger
oiyaco - be silent
a(j90TEpoi l ai,a - both (of two) from Greek 0^91 — > amphitheater, amphibian
—> ambidextrous (via Latin)
26 ETEpoqâ,ov - other (of two) —> heterodoxy, heterosexual
95
Lesson 22. Neuter co- Stem Nouns; co- Stem Adjectives
TO y€VO? (neuter) TO }JCpOt (neuter) TO TEXoq (neuter)

race, tribe, kind part, portion, share end, aim, fulfillment
nom. TO yivoq HEpoq

ace. TO ysvoc; originally
T^X?
gen. TOU ycvouc; (= YEVEOOC;) pcpouc; TEXOU^
dat. TO) y£V6l (= yEVEai) (JEpei T6XEI
nom. TO yevq (= yEVEoa) |J€pq TcXq

ace. T0( ycvq (= yEVEoa) pcpq T£Xq
gen. TCOV yevcov (= y£V£oa>v) (jepoov TcXcov
dat. TO?<; y€V€Ol(v) (= yEVEOOl) |j€peoi(v) T€X€Gl(v)
There is an important subgroup of the Third Group: neuters with nominatives ending in -o<;.
The stem actually ends in -co (yEx/so-, ÊPEO-, TEXEO-), but the o drops out before the endings,
causing various changes.
I Exercise a: Put the correct article before the form.
1. yEvou<; 2. y^ v H 3. yEVEOi 4. ysvo^ 5. yEVEi 6. ysvcav
I Exercise P: Circle the Greek words that must be neuter -EG stem nouns.
In the first year of the war, the soldier throws many spears in battle. And with the spears he hits a certain enemy in
both his legs. And the enemy tries to walk toward a nearby mountain. And a doctor sees him walking with difficulty
and says, "I see limbs (that are) not healthy? EV T<{> TrpcoTO) ETEI TOU iroAEpou 6 orpomamy; paXXci noXXa
psXq EV M&XQ. Kai TO?<; PEXEOI ExOpov Tiva f&XXEi ap<p6TEpa TOC OKEXq. 6 BE ExGpo^ TiEipaTai PQI
rrp6<; opcx; rrXqaiov. iaTpo<; SE op^t auTOV Paivovra xa^CTT^ »âi XEysr "pE^H oux uyiEiva opca."
€0- STEM ADJECTIVES

Adjectives in this group have the same form for nom. and ace. M / F plural. (In this they resemble
the optional forms of apEivow., etc.)
true
M/F N
nom. aXqOqc; aXq0€(; Ambiguity Alert:
ace. 6(Xq6q aXq0€^ Note &Xn9cT<;:
gen. aXq9oOc; aXqOouc; nom. -h ace. M / F pi.
dat. aXq0c? aXqOc?
I Exercise y: Translate:
nom. uXqOci^ aXq0q 1. the true doctor (ace.)
ace. aXqOcic^ aXq0q 2. the true laws (ace.)
3. the true kinds (nom)
gen. aXqOcov 4. of the true sister
dat. aXqOcoKv) aXq0cai(v)
Classwork: Learn this poem, which is probably by Sappho. (For the text, see Reiner and Kovacs, cited
on p. xiii.) Sappho's dialect has a recessive accent on nouns and pronouns. You can see that
in VUKTCX; and Eyo>.
|jev a ocXawa The moon's gone down.

KCU The Pleiades are midway.
The round of night is slipping past,
Se TiapepxeT1 &por
While I, alone I lie.
Ipy a -Learn the poem by heart

-Write the paradigm for TO TEXO<; three times. Memorize.
-Write the naradiem for aXnGnc.Ec. Be able to recocnize all forms.
96
Lesson 23. Personal Pronouns
PERSONAL PRONOUNS £yd> /, me, etc. ou you
nom. Eyd> OU
ace. EUE UE OE oe
gen. E|JOU |JOU OOU OOU English, of course,
dat. £(JOI (JOI 001 001 does not distinguish you
(sing.) from you (pi.).
This makes it more
nom. r]|J€?c; Up€?^
ambiguous than Greek.
ace. q|ja<;
c *»
gen. qjjcov
dat. c
U|JIV
*»
I Exercise a: Translate: 1. EÎOI, JJQI 2. /|pTv 3. uy<2>v 4. OE 5. ou 6. upac; 7.

I Exercise P: Translate the underlined words.
1. Give me the book. 2. You (sing.) read; I don't. 3. We. not you, are the responsible parties. 4. Make us well.
REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS
£(jauTov, qv myê//(reflexive) oeaUTOV,qv yourself (reflexive)
acc. €(JaUTOV OEaUTOV (aauTov)
gen. €|JaUTOU OEOUTOU (aauToO) acauTqc; (aauTqc;)
dat. €|JdUTCp (aauTa>) OEaUTQ
acc. upaqauTOUc;
gen. OUTCOV u|jcov auTcov OUTCOV
dat. u|j?vauTO?q u|jv
A reflexive pronoun refers (literally "bends back") to the subject of a sentence. There is, of
course, no nominative. The forms OECIUTOV, etc. are often contracted to OOUTOV, etc. The
reflexive pronouns for "ourselves" "yourselves" are made up of "us" or "you" + "selves"
The translation for the reflexive pronoun has some form of "self except for the possessive
genitive, which is translated my I your I his I her I our I their own.
Note: English uses the same word for emphatic and reflexive pronouns.
/ came myself aur6<; fjAGov (emphatic) Be careful
/ see myself tpauriv 6pa> (reflexive)
4aUT6v,f)V f 6 himself, herself, itself (reflexive)

acc. EdUTOV (auTov) EauTqv (auTqv) EaUTO (auTo)
gen. cauTou (auTou) caujqq (auTqO EaUTOU (auTou)
dat. eauTco (auTw) EOUTQ (QUTQ) EOUTCO (auTCo)
acc. EOUTOUC; (auTou<;) eauTaq (aura)

gen. EOUTCOV (auTcav) EaUTCOV (auTcov) EOUTGOV (auTCOv)
dat. EauToTq (auToTc;) EauTa?^ (auTa?0 EauToTc; (auToTO
The forms EOUTOV etc. are often contracted to auTov, etc. Be sure to check for rough breathing:
auTqv opa (S)he sees her versus auTqv opa She sees herself .
> Exercise y: Translate the underlined words. Give all possibilities.
1 . 1 am giving mvself a gift. 3. We like ourselves. 5. You like your own books. 7. He came himself.
2. They give themselves gifts. 4. 1 have mv own book. 6. They have their own books. 8. He likes himself.
Classwork: Read Heraclitus #14 and New Testament #7, Thesauros pp. 225 and 222.
?pya -Write the paradigms for cycb and ou three times. Memorize.
-Read and translate the first part of "Turtle Wings," a Nigerian tale. Learn the vocabulary.
9?
TURTLE WINGS* (Part 1)
oi 5af(jov€<; oi EV TO> oupavco noiouoi ScTnvov. <ai ETTI TO

5E?nvov icaXouoi navTa TO £coa. &XXa TCOV £cocov povoi
oi opvi9E<; 6uvavTai £X6E?v £TTI TO 6E?nvov. EXOUOI yap
TTTEpuyac; COOTE TTETEoSai EV TO) oupavco. 4
TCOV 6£ £COCA>V TCOV ETTI yqq q x^&vn paXioTa TTEIVQ

(jaXioTa pouXETai EX0E?v ETTI TO &E?TTVOV. KOI Xlyci TCO
a8EX9cp Ta&E' "<A> 91X8 6t8eX9E, oiKTcipco (I pity) EjjauTqv.
oToOa cb<; ncivco. pcyaXq q €(jq ne?va, OUK Voq Tq oq. 8
fjioouoa BE Tqv nE?vav TauTqv icai O!TOU EniSupouoa, E!|JI
vuv ouv To?q opvioiv Eni 8E?nvov." TO?<; BE opvioi XEyEi
TaSE q x^Xcbvq* "J) 91X01, upE?<; |JEV opoioi TO?C; 6EoT<;' Eycb
BE 6|j?v oux opoia, BIOTI OUK EXCO TTTEpuyac; cSonEp UJJE?<;. V2
Boq (joi EicaoToq; upciv EV TTTEpov EIC TCOV TTTEpuycov ujjcov."
TOUTO BE noiouoiv o! opvi6E<;. KOI EIC TCOV nTEpcov TTOIE?
EauTq TTTEpuyaq q x^<ovq ate; HETETOI ouv ToTc; opvioiv EIC; 15
Touqoupavouc;.
icai q x^^^vqi coonsp oToOa, oo9(OTaTq navTcov TCOV

^cpcov. Kai EV & nETOVTai XEyEi T0?q opvioiv "eft 91X01,
EOTI vopoq naXaioq Kai ooioq, cbq Eni BEinvco navTac; BE? 19
6vo|ja aipE?o6ai VEOV. noicb|JEV (noiE-copEv) <ai q(J€^
TOGTO."
oi BE opviOsc; opoXoyouoiv OTI aya06c; 6 vopoq Kai

aipouvTai navTEc; ovopaTa VEO. TO BE ovopa o aipE?Tai
q x^<*>vq EOT! flaoiv-upcov. oi 81 opvi0E<; vopfôuoi TOUTO
TO ovopa OTOTTOV, aXX 1 opoXoyouoi Tqv x^^^vqv KaXsTv TCO 25
6/q 8ai|jcov, gen. Baipovoq - spirit, divinity —> demon

6/q Spvic;, gen. opviOoq - bird —> ornithology
EX0E?v = infinitive of r*jX0ov I came
4 q TiTEpu£, gen. nTEpuyoq - wing (related to nTEpov) ~> archaeopteryx
6 a8EX9o<; - brother (Philade^)hia)
9iXo<;,q,ov-dear
EpauTov,qv - myself
8 E|JO<;, q,6v - my
Vooq^^v - equal, equal to + dat. —> isometric, isosceles, isotrope
ooq,oq,oov -your (yousingular)
Eni6u|jEa) + gen. - desire, have a desire for
ouv + dative - with ( = in company with)
o|joioc;,a,ov (or 6(joToc;,a,ov) - similar, similar to + dative —> homeopathy
(6po same, opoicx; "sourish" opo ~> homogenize, homonym, homosexual)
12 cooiTEp - just as (ox; + enclitic nEp)
TO TTTEpov - feather (often in plural = wings) <--> feather ~> pterodactyl, helicopter
15 EOUTOV, EauTqv, EOUTO - himself, herself, oneself
19 BE? - it is binding, there is need, one ought (ScT has more of a sense of moral
obligation, while xpn has more of a sense of destiny or cosmic necessity.)
aipEopai - choose
6|joXoyEco - agree, agree to + inf. (from 6|jo + X£yco - to say the same thing)
25 OTOTTOC;, ov - strange (literally "placeless") Cf. ou + TOTTOC; --> Utopia
*This story is freely adapted from a story told in Things Fall Apart by Chinua Achebe, © 1957; used with permission
of William Heinemann, Ltd.
98
Lesson 24. £v, ouoa, 8v; Possessive Adjectives; Generalizing
Innner and Cognate Accusatives
&v,oSoo,&v = "being"
nom. &V o5oa 6v

ace. OVTCI oCoav 6v
gen. OVTOC; ouoqc; OVTOC;
dat. OVTI OUOQ OVTI
nom. OVTEC; ouoai ovTa

ace. ovTac; ouoat; OVTO
gen. OVTCOV ouocbv OVTCOV
dat. oOoi(v) ouoaic; oCoi(v)
Forms of the participle of dpi look like disembodied endings. It is important to be able to
identify them. The declension is exactly the same as for pcuvcov, ouoa, ov.
Note that TO 8v, the neuter participle from cifji, refers to being in general, i.e., to reality.
We find in Greek T<£ SVTI in reality and 8vTco? really.
I Exercise a: Add articles to the following forms:
1. OVTCOV 2. cov 3. OUOCK; 4. OVTCK; 5. . or OVTCI 6. OVTI 7. oOoa
I Exercise P: Translate the following phrases using articles and participles only:
1. in reality 3. the men being (subject) 5. for the men who are 7. the thing being (subject)
2. of the women being 4. the woman being (direct object) 6. to the thing which is 8. of the things which are
POSSESSIVE ADJECTIVES
There are four possessive adjectives in Greek. You choose which word to use according to the
possessor. But case, number, and gender match those of the possessed.
my our
OOQ Oq OOV = OOU your (you sing.) Op€T€pO<;,a,OV = U|JCJV your (you pi.)
To say his sisters you have only one choice in Greek—use of the pronoun: oti aS€A9ai auTou.
To say my sisters you may use a pronoun (pou) or an adjective (£poc,r|,6v) in bound position.
ai 6(66X901 pou C'PXOVTOM. Both mean:
ai 6|jai a5£X9ai c'pxovTCU. My sisters are coming.
I Exercise y: Translate the underlined 2 ways.
1. Give me your apples, (you sing.) 3. Show them our turtle.
2. 1 love my fields. 4. Show them your poems, (you pi.)
GENERALIZING
When a participle is generalizing, its negative will be (jq. (We have seen this many times in the
New Testament.)
q ou TTivouoct SiyqoEi. The one (fern.) not drinking will be thirsty.
f] pq nivouoct Siyqoci. Whoever (km.) is not drinking will be thirsty.
+ 6 pq yapcov avGpoonoc; OUK Kaica. Menander
I Exercise 5: Using participles translate the following:
1. Whoever does not love does not hate. (HIOCO> = hate) 2. The one who does not love his mother is our king.
99
INNER AND COGNATE ACCUSATIVES
A verb may have an external object (someone or something already existing that is affected by the
action of the verb) or an internal object (something that comes into being as a result of the action
of the verb). The internal object will be expressed as an inner accusative.
OpGO KUVCt. I see a dog. (external object)
6p<2> TTIKpOV 9£apa. / see a bitter sight. (internal object-inner accusative)
An inner accusative may be a cognate accusative as well. This means that the word for the
object has the same root as the verb.
€ PGOTCO e pcoTq pa. I ask a question. Actually: I ask a thing asked.
£»£• In English we have corresponding pairings: sing a songt fight the good fight, etc.
Often a neuter accusative adjective will be used alone with an inner or cognate accusative
understood. We might say it functions as an adverb.
TTOAA& 8aicpuci<;. You weep a lot. Literally, You weep many (weepings).
Classwork: ++ Read Graveyard #6-7 and Diogenes #1-2 and 5, Thesauros pp. 227 and 234.
£py a -Read and translate the conclusion of 'Turtle Wings." Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the first sentence of the last paragraph. (Sia Se
100
TURTLE WINGS (Part 2)
ou noXXcp uoTEpov ETTI TCO SEITTVO) EIOIV. KOI} opcooi noXuv 1
O?TOV. q SE x^&vq £p<*>Ta TOU<; 5aipova<;- "TIOIV EOTIV
oCroc; 6 O?TO<;;M oi SE anoicpivovTar "oOroc; 6 onxx; EOTI
naoiv u(jcov.M icai opcooa nav TO KpEac; (meat) EpcoTa q
XEXcbvq- "TIOIV EOTI TOUTO TO KpEaq;" oi BE cmoKpivovTai 5
a38i<; &5E- "naoiv upcov COTI TOUTO."
Xcyci BE q x^^^H TO^ opvioiv "EK TOUTOU EOTI (ja0E?v OTI

E|jof EOTI TauTa navTa. 8qXov OTI oOToq 6 O?TOC; EÎOC;
EOTIV, OUX U|JETEpO<;. KQI TOUTO TO KpEaq E(JOV EOTIV, OUX 9
upETEpov. oi yap SaipovEc; OUTOI XEyouoiv OTI EOTI Plaoiv-
U(JGOV, Kai TOUTO EOTI TO OVO(JCt (JOU. VUV XPH ^M^ £O0IEIV
npcoTqv." KOI OUTCO HEIVQ q x^^^>vq COOTE TO nav EoOiEi.
oi SE opviOEc; TOUTO opcovTEq cbc; paXioTa opyfôvTai.

XEyouoi SE aXXqXoiq- VaiciOTq navTCOv q&E q x^^covq. 14
EO0IEI yap TOV q|JETEpOV O?TOV.M KOI EKOOTO^ OUTCJV
anoXappavEi TO nTEpov CJOTE TEXoq yiXq (bare) EOTIV q
XEXcbvq.
vuv SE ou SUVOTOI q x^^^vq HETEoOai naXiv npoq Tqv

oiiciav icai 9opE?Tai. XsyEi &E TaSs Tq yiTTaicq (parrot)* 19
M
J> 9iXE, XPH M£ TiqSav (jump). KEXEUE TOV a5EX90v |jou
Ti0Evai navTa Ta paXaica (soft) ETTI Tqq yqq rrpo Tqq
oiKiaq." aXXa Kal q yiTTa<q (parrot) opyiÊTai OUTQ icai
avTi T£>V (jaXaKoov (soft) KEXEUEI TOV a8EX90v navTa TO 23
oicXqpa (hard) Ti0Evai npo Tqq oiKiaq.
5ia SE TOUTO, OTE q x^^covq HIHTEI npoq yqv, HIHTEI ETTI TO
oicXqpa (hard). <a\ (SqyvuTai TO x^^^vov (her shell breaks)
GOOTE [JEpq noXXa 8iaoKE5avvuTai (are scattered) ETTI Tqc;
yqq. TOUTO 51 opcov KaXs? TOV iaTpov 6 a8EX9o<;. <ai Ta 28
(jEpq TOU x^^^vio^ (shell) ouvTiOqoiv 6 iaTpoc; icoXXq (glue).
8ia 8s TOUTO EOTI, KOI vuv, opav navTa TO pEpq TOU Tqq
XEXcbvqc; x^Xcoviou (shell). aXqOcoc;, TO TEXoc; TOU |ju0ou
SEIKVUOI 8ia TI EOTIV opav TO (JEpq To?q oo?<; 6960X^10?^.
1
Dative of Degree
noXXco not later by much, i.e., not much later
uoTEpov - later (accusative used as adverb, from adj. uoTEpoc;,a,ov = next, after)
9 6(jETEpoc;,a,ov-your (plural)
14 KOKioToc;,q,ov - worst (superlative of KOKOC;)
qjjETEpoq, a, ov - our
anoXappavco - take back, take away
rra X i v - back --> palindrome
19- This is a story about greed, cleverness, and the dangers of relying on a translator.
23 By learning ancient Greek you will be able to verify translations for yourself.
(Do you know the Italian saying Traduttori traditoril Translators, traitors)
28 TO (JEpoq - part, partion, share
ouvTiSqpi - put together, from ouv + Ti9qpi
TO TEXoc; - the end — > teleology
101
TURTLE T A L E S
Figure 1. Apollo, holding a lyre made from a turtle shell, offers libations. White Slip Kylix (ca. 470 B.C.E.) Delphi National Museum.
The turtle is a common folkloric figure, Her shell, longevity, slow gait, and amphibious nature
fascinate the tellers of legendary stories.
You have been reading a number of such tales that feature Turtle. These tales, which are African
in origin, reveal Turtle as a trickster figure who sometimes triumphs because of her cleverness, as
she does in "The Oath" and "Who is the Wiser?," but at other times is trapped by her cleverness, as
in "Turtle Wings."
Turtle's role in world mythology is not confined to her role as a clever but sometimes foiled
trickster. Like all trickster figures, Turtle is often associated with creation stories. In American
Indian stories, for instance, it is Turtle who creates the world while coming up from the bottom of
a lake floor. She carries with her all the potential elements of the world in the mud trapped under her
fingernails. In other mythologies, her shell and its strength make Turtle the cosmic foundation of
the world, since she carries the universe on her back and maintains its stability.
Turtle herself is a character in a number of Greek stories. In fact, the most famous of all writers of
beast fables, Aesop, has three stories about Turtle, including the world's best-known story, "The
Tortoise and the Hare."
We do not have clear factual information about Aesop, who may have been a legendary figure, even
though Herodotus (2.134) tells us that he lived in the sixth century B.C.E. and was a slave on the
island of Samos. By the end of the fifth century the name of Aesop was synonymous with beast
fables. Indeed, Socrates himself is said to have composed poetic versions of Aesop's fables just
102
before he died (Plato, Phaedo, 60D). Hesiod and Archilochus, seventh-century poets, also wrote
beast fables. But it is Aesop who fixed the form that would influence all subsequent European
literature.
You are familiar with many of Aesop's stories, "The Goose Who Laid the Golden Egg," "The Ant
and the Grasshopper," "The Wind and the Sun," and later in the course you will read a version of an
Aesop story in Greek. His stories are marked by their terseness, the plain style of the Greek prose,
and the didactic morals that each story illustrates.
One of Aesop's turtle stories seems to be a variation of the story in "Who is the Wiser?" In the
African story, Turtle proves her cleverness by exploiting her lack of strength. In the Greek story,
"The Turtle and the Hare," Turtle wins the race because she doggedly persists while the swift hare
foolishly dawdles.
Aesop's other two stories show Turtle as the overreaching greedy trickster. In Aesop's "The Turtle
and the Eagle," Turtle begs the eagle to teach her to fly and insists even when Eagle tells her it is not
possible. Turtle thus falls to her death. You can discern some similarities with "Turtle Wings," in
which the land and sea creature attempts to master, to her harm, the air.
In "Zeus' Marriage," Turtle is the only one who does not come to the banquet celebrating Zeus's
marriage to Hera. When Zeus questions her about her absence, she foolishly answers oikos philos,
oikos aristos ("My home is dear, my home is best"). Zeus in anger decrees that she should
henceforth carry her house with her forever. This just-so fable corresponds to the end of "Turtle
Wings," which explains why turtle shells are segmented.
The turtle, like many trickster figures, is also associated with music: the turtle shell is the sounding
board for Greek lyres. Hermes, whose role in Greek mythology is that of a trickster himself, is
depicted in the Homeric Hymn to Hermes as the creator of the lyre from a turtle shell when he was
only one day old. He later gives the lyre to Apollo as a peace offering for his theft of Apollo's cattle
(Figure 1).
A legend about the death of Aeschylus, the tragic poet, seems to further connect the turtle with music
and poetry. According to this legend, which seems to be a variety of Aesop's "The Turtle and the
Eagle," Aeschylus was told that something thrown from the sky would kill him. Subsequently, an
eagle wishing to eat a turtle needed to break her shell. The eagle dropped it on Aeschlyus' bald head,
mistaking it for a rock, and thus killed the poet. The ironies of the story abound: Aeschylus the
poet, who celebrates Zeus in his tragedies, is killed by an animal associated with poetry and music
and by the bird most associated with Zeus.
Figure 2. "Turtles" from Aegina. Figure 3. "Owls" from Athens.
Turtles are also famous in Greek culture as coins, called "Chelonai." The Turtle coins of Aegina were the first coins ever minted in Europe, dating
from the sixth century B.C.E., and were produced for at least a century. Aegina, an island in the Saronic Gulf, was only rivaled by nearby Athens
for the prevalence of her coins. On the Aeginetan coins, the turtle was an emblem for Poseidon and for the sea power of Aegina. Eventually,
Aegina's power and coins were overshadowed by the "Owls" of Athens. These coins featured Athena, the deity of Athens, and her sacred bird, the
owl.
103
REVIEW OF GRAMMAR AND SYNTAX
This should bring together all that you have learned. Review what is in this chapter And don't
forget to congratulate yourself for having learned so much Greek!
NOUN CASES
Nominative Accusative Genitive Dative
Names or describes subject Direct object of verb Genitive of possession Indirect object
of verb. (may be inner or external, Partitive genitive Dative of possession
Predicate nominative may be cognate) Genitive of time within which Dative of means, manner,
Subject nominative in Accusative of end of motion (a kind of partitive?) or circumstance
indirect discourse (box (often with prepositions) Genitive of separation Dative of place where
P-84) Accusative of extent or Genitive of comparison or time when
duration (a kind of gen. of separation) Dative of advantage
Accusative of part affected Joker (genitive of price or or disadvantage
Adverbial accusative value, etc. etc.) Dative of degree
Subject in indirect discourse
NOUN FORMS
You now know most important noun patterns. Turn to p. 237 of the Paradigm section. Be able to WRITE OUT
all of the A- and O- Group forms as well as the declensions of Scujjcov, noiqua, and ycvcx;. Be able
to RECOGNIZE every Third Group form on the page except for noXu; and paoiXsuc; (which are reserved for later
in the course).
For your convenience a list of endings is provided below.
x,x^ run,a
^
oJKia noXiTn, noir)|ja yevoq
[stem 5ai|jov-] [noiqjjaT-] [yeve<;-]
nqv a a n<;
v
ov
av av n OV ov a -- oq
n<; f|c; ac; ou ou ou oc; oc; ouc;
Q Q * ^ GO GO i i £1
on ai ai ai Ol a ec; a n
05 ac; ac; «S ouc; a ac; a n
oov GOV GOV wv GOV GOV GOV GOV GOV
ai<; aic; aiq aiq oic; oic; oi(v) oi(v) eai(v)
ARTICLE: Be able to WRITE OUT the forms of 6, t\, TO.
ADJECTIVES: Be able to WRITE OUT the forms of npciTo^.q^v and fbq8io<;,a,ov.

Be able to WRITE OUT the forms of aîeivcov, ov (including the optional forms), and of na^, iraaa, nav.
Be able to RECOGNIZE all the adjective forms on p. 238 except for r)5u<; (reserved for later).
PRONOUNS: Be able to WRITE OUT all forms of eyo> and au, singular, plural, and unemphatic forms.
Be able to WRITE OUT the forms of o<;, q> o.
Be able to RECOGNIZE all the pronoun forms on p. 239 except OOTK; (reserved for later) and E
(not covered in this course but included for the sake of completeness).
104
COMPARATIVES and SUPERLATIVES OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS: This material is
covered on pp. 50,63, and 82-83. Test yourself to make sure you understand all the possibilities by translating
the following:
1. I consider my sister beautiful. 8. My sister speaks beautifully.
2. I consider my sister very beautiful. 9. My sister speaks very beautifully.
3. I consider my sister more beautiful, (two ways) 10. My sister speaks more beautifully, (two ways)
4. I consider my sister more beautiful than my friend. 11. My sister speaks more beautifully than my friend.
(two ways~with q and with gen.) (two ways-with q and with gen.)
5. I consider my sister most beautiful, (two ways) 12. My sister speaks the most beautifully.
6. I consider my sister the most beautiful of all. 13. My sister speaks most beautifully of all.
7. I consider my sister as beautiful as can be. 14. My sister speaks as beautifully as possible.
FIVE USES OF
(1) how oT&a TTEIVQ<;. / know how (= that) you are hungry.
roughly equivalent to oVi = that, as
when we say, "/ saw how you came late."
(2) how in exclamation: icaXq EOTIV. How beautiful she is!
(3) on the grounds / assumption arrov airrq c!>^ Send her food on the grounds
that (with participles) TTEIVOXJQ. that she is hungry.
(4) as ... as possible dx;+super la live KaAAiarr|.EaTiv. She is as beautiful as can be.
IB i Come as quickly as possible.
(5) as (relative) 6 vopcx; EOTIV As is the custom
&OTTEP TTTTTCX; He runs just as a horse (runs) /
He runs just like a horse.
USES OF &OT£ AND oOTCO? &OTC:

&OTE + infinitive gives expected, intended, or probable result.
so as to OR so as for to when there is a new subject (in the accusative) for the infinitive.
COOTE + personal verb gives actual result, so that
OUTOK &OTE so . . . as to . . . so . . . as for X to . . . so . . . that
(Translate oOrox; as so and &cm as merely as to or that. In other words, drop the so from the translation of &OTE.)
ou VERSUS MH
Greek has two negatives. Basically ou is the negative for verb forms that indicate facts:
06 ypa<pEi<;. You are not writing. AEyco OE ou ypaq>Eiv. / say that you are not writing.
QKOUCO OE ou ypoôvnra. / hear that you are not writing.
pq is the negative for all else. Use \*f] for:
Commands M^l yp«<PE Don't write!
Infinitive of OUTOOTTEIVQ. She is so hungry as not to wish to live,
probable result: COOTE \ii versus OUTGO TTEIVQ COOTE OUK E0EAEI
She is so hungry that she does not wish to live.
Articular Infinitive TO p^| Eo6iEiv Not eating is difficult.
Generalizations 6 \*f\ yEcopycbv TTEIVQ. Whoever doesn't farm goes hungry,
versus 6 ou yEcopycov TTEIVQ
The one not farming goes hungry.
Note: When \if\ is used with a circumstantial participle, that is a clue to the interpretation "if1:
ou pouAopcu 8iaXEy£o6ai QUTQ oil* OUOQ 009^. I do not want to converse with hert since she is not wise.
ou pouXopai 5iaAEyEo8ai QUTQ p^| OUOQ 009^. I do not want to converse with her if she is not wise.
ACCENTS
The basic rules for accents are covered on pp. 33-35 and 37. Reread them to make sure you understand the rules.
Enclitics and proclitics are discussed on p. 90. Can you explain all the accents in the paradigms? Can you explain
the various graves and acutes you see on final syllables in stories? Can you answer the following questions?
(Answers are on the next page. Don't look until you have tried to answer the questions yourself.)
1. When do you find a Greek word with two accents? 3. When do you find an enclitic with an accent?
2. When do you find a final acute in mid-sentence? 4. When do you find a proclitic with an accent?
105
When do you find a Greek word with two accents? When the word is in the 9ap[jaKov or yX&Tra pattern
and is followed by an enclitic. (This is the only time you find a Greek word with two accents.)
When do you find a final acute in mid-sentence? When it is a form of TK;, TI or when it is on the final
syllable before an enclitic (whether it belongs to the original word, as in 9covq, or is additional, as in av6pcono<; TI<; or
When do you find an enclitic with an accent? When it is followed by another enclitic or when it is a two-
syllable enclitic and follows a word of the 9iAcx; pattern.
When do you find a proclitic with an accent? When it is followed by an enclitic.
NUMBERS
CARDINALS ORDINALS
1) £?<;, [Jia, EV Normal Third-Group forms (See p. 80.) 1st: npcoToc;, q, ov

2) ouo Not declined. OR you may find 2nd: 5EUTspo<;t a, ov
3) TPEK;, Tpia 5uoTv for the gen. and dat. 3r± Tprro<;, q, ov
4) TETTapEc;, a 4th: TETapToc;, q, ov
, Tpia (three) TETTapE<;, TETTapa (four)
M,F N M,F N
TPEK Tpia T£TTOpE<; TETTapa
TPEK; Tpia TETTapac; TETTapa
Tpicov Tpioov TETTOpCOV TETTOpCOV
Tpioi(v) Tpioi(v) TETTapai(v) TETTapOl(v)
(like pi. of aAqOqc;, £<;) (like pi. of EuSaipcov, ov)
CHECKLIST
—Know how to recognize and use the relative pronoun o<;, q, o. (See pp. 62-63.)
These may be small but they are ALL-IMPORTANT.
—Understand the difference between question-asking TIC;, T! and shrug words TI<;, TI. (pp.87-88)
— Know the three uses of auToq. (pp. 36, 50)
— Know the uses of EOTI. (p. 54)
—Understand the use of intensive KO i and intensive ouSs. (pp. 50, 67)
— Know the three verb patterns in the boxes on p. 61.
—What does -6pEvo<;,q,ov tell you on the end of a verb stem? (p. 55)
—What do these endings indicate: yiyvcboKooyEv, OTOV E0EXQ, OTOV pouAqTcu. (pp. 1, 72)
—What is bound versus unbound position? What are the two normal position for an adjective-noun
combination (e.g. "the wise doctor")? (p. 49) What position do oQToc 88c, and EKE?VO<; take? (p. 65)
What about HEOCX;? (p. 94)
—Remember that double negatives are good Greek, (p. 43)
—Remember that a neuter plural subject normally takes a singular verb. (p. 30)
II Review Exercise: Translate the following, which use grammar and syntax from many chapters.
1. These unjust women are not dear to me.
2. Don't order the new judges to learn foolish things.
3. The lioness, since she is very strong (use a participle), takes all things which she wants.
4. I find true happiness to be better than money; you do not. (Note: ou has an accent at sentence end: ou)
5. Birds rejoice in their wings; men in their strong hands and feet; women in their dear children.
6. Why do they live (££>ai) in such a way that they do not ever rejoice in better things?
7. Certain men die so as to bring happiness to all.
8. It is possible to live nobly.
106
VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 62-100)
NOUNS SPECIAL COMPARATIVES

AND
* A-I. i *^ SUPERLATIVES
»-r >^r.a. j-VA'm • *« *. JL -». T *—*\~r
q —q q Trrepu£,
q yq gen. TTTepuyoq aya86q
q £coq OTTEvqc;, apeivcov, apeivov
gen. ircvqToq apiOToq,q,ov
a after gj,p TO uScop, aya06<;
q eu5ai(jovia gen. uSaroc; KpciTTCov, Kpe?TTOv,
q 0upa TO oqpa KpaTiOToq^ôv
a. 6/q KUCOV, KOKOC;,

q Xcaiva gen. KUVOC; KQKICOV, KCXKIOV
q ncTva 6/q naT^, KaKiOToq,q,ov
gen. na 186^ ICOKO^,
6—Tqc OTTOU^, x^'P60^^^ XE^POV
6 SiicaoTqc; gen. noScx; X£iPIOTO^n»ov
oicXcnTqq q X € 'P»
gen. x€|poc KaXoc;,
TOTiOp, KaXXicov, icaXXiov
6—6c gen. nupoc; KaXXiOToq^^v
6a5€A9oq
oavyEXoq Toyevoc; fiaSio^
6 Pioq Topcpoc; fbacov, (baov,
6 yecopyoc; TO TcXoc; âoToq^^v
6 OavaTOc;
oYnnoc; f\ Kptoic; contest, judgment H^yac;
oXoyoq (jEiCcov, p£?ôv
6 opKoq ADJECTIVES (jEyiOTo^^^v
6 oupavoc;
onoXcjJOc; €TOi|Joqfq1ov TioXuc;
OTTOTa|j6c; £a>6c,r),6v nXcicov, nXcTov
oTonoq iepo^fOitOv nXcToTog^^v
6 uioc; Vooq,q,ov
ioxup6q,at6v TOXUC;
q PC KUplO<;,a,OV (or cx;,ov) SaTTCOV, SaTTOV
q voooq Xoino^^q^v TaxiOTOc;,q,ov
peooqfq1ov
TO—ov povoc^qôv qSuc;
TO £coov v€oq,a,ov qSicov, qSiov
TOTTTEpov v6|ji|joc,q,ov q8ioTo?1q1ov
TO TOÔV O(JOIOq,a,OV (or 6poToq,afov)
OOIO^,a,OV (orcx;,ov)
uoTEpaToqâ^v
Third Group 9iXoq,q,ov ADVERB SERIES
6 avqp, aTonoq,ov M 6tXa
gen. av&pOC ,0 , (jaXXov (paXXov ^ with verbs =
A yuv A ^ euSaipWV.OV rarterrtan)
gen.yuvai<6c; KaKo8aIMcov,ov M6XiaTa
^g^p6, %$& ^n^M^Kno

T
O TTCCTqp, '
gen. naTpoq yXuKUc;, €?a, u
o/qSaipcov, qSu^cTa^
gen. 5ai(jovoq
6/q opvic;, TcOvccbq, gen. -CJTOC; dead
gen. 6pVI0O^ (perfect participle, to be learned later)
107
VERBS PRONOUNS ADVERBS
ctyyEAAoo syoo, etc. a59i<;
anayyEAAco (r)|JE?<;) ETTEITQ
PaiVCA) OU, etC. ETI
paXXco, EpaAov (UJJEK;) OUKETI
yiyvcboKGo CIUTOV, auTqv, aujo
KaTayiyvcboKco eO
EupiOKCo, qOpov E(jauT6v,r|v
OVQOKCO, E0avov OEauTov^qv naXiv
TE0VOCiqV (May Idle) (oaUT6v,qv) UOTEpOV
aTTO0Vr)OKCO (more common) EOtUTOV, f|V,6
KEXEUCO (auTov,r)v,6) nou
KAEHTCO TTCOC;
Kpiva) oq, q, o noTEpov
Xappavco
avaXappavco oOTOc;,auTq,TouTO HOTE
anoXappavco EKETvoc;, EKEIVQ, EKE?VO OUHOTE
(jEXAco 86E, q5E, To8E
(JEVCO Ta8E these the following (words)
TTOt U CO (used when reporting speech) ^ ^ rlcK
HIHTCO , XT . «
T/ ^ coc; Note five uses of f<*><;:
«
anoTEuvco
u iiu i tjjvoj DISTRIBUTIVE ADJECTIVES /t^, „,,fl5f,,f /(relatlve)
f . as .m ^
. v6,Mo<;
TUyXQVCO — ^ ^ ^ „-,, EOTIV ay is the custom)
EVTuyxavco ^Q^» naaa, nav
CDEDCO
T
nvEYKOV gen. TTQVTOC;, naoqc;. navToc; (2) "how" in exclamation:
r / ' ox; f^jSu EOTIV how sweet it is!
9uAaTTco navra - everything (3) "how" - as roughly equivalent
to OTI = "that" as when we
say
yECopyEco £Tc;, M fa, EV ' "t^^y™*™*1"*"
4
Eni6u M ECO gen. Iv6<;, M,5<;, Ev6<; ( > ^ superlative - «5 ...
fl5
KOIVCOVECO possible
OIKECO ouSEic;, ouBEiJia, ouSEV, (5) "on the grounds that"
6|JoXoyECO gen. ouSevos, ouBefjia^, ouSEvcx; (with participles)
oiyaco |j6voq,q,ov ^€P

COOTTEp
6pVU|JI EjJO^ÔV KaiHEp
Ti0q|ji oo<;,r|i6v , T
auvTi8q|ji qiJETEpo^â^v f/ V
UJJETEpO^^^V OTOV
Epxopai, i*jA0ov
yiyvojjai EKOTEpoq^^v °UT£ • • - °°TE
Xav0avo|jai k'TEpoq,a,ov
S
HETOpai TTOTEpOq^^V H%
Kai Kai
aôTEpouaâ ^0
aipEopai
TpETq, Tpfa
EIJJI, ^v f EGTOI PREPOSITIONS TETTapEc,TETTapa
E?|JI (command: TOi)
anEipi KOTO + ace. noAAo) (dative of degree)
eioEipi napa +acc.
SVEU + gen. &€?
YoTapai HEP i + gen.
nXqv + gen. ^v» ouaa
» ov
ALSO npo + gen.
peAei (impersonal) OUV + dat.
108
VERB OVERVIEW: ASPECT and TENSE
You can use verbs to command (gol), to show possibilities (she might leave), to show fear (lest
she leave), or to show purpose (so that she may leave). But the main function of a verb is to
relate facts: she left, she was leaving, etc. One may report on facts in the present or past; one
may make predictions about the future.
The forms of the Greek verb used to report or predict facts are in the Indicative Mood. We shall
start our systematic study of the verb with this. (You will learn the full system later.)
An Indicative verb expresses aspect and time. Of these, aspect is fundamental. There are
three aspects (continuous, aorist, and perfect) and three times (past, present, future).
THE THREE ASPECTS

(1) Aorist. The aorist is the simplest aspect. It shows that an action is thought of at a single
point of time, usually the finish point: "he did it" "she left." You can think of the aorist as
expressing what we express with a finger snap or a hand-rubbing gesture of "well, that's over
with" Occasionally an aorist will show a beginning point rather than an end: "he got sick," "I
burst into tears." But here, too, there is the expression of the same basic idea: occurrence at a
single point in time, occurence thought of as a single event—as a snapshot rather than a movie.
(2) Continuous. In contrast to the aorist, the continuous aspect shows that an action is thought
of as ongoing, in process, occupying a stretch of time: "/ am doing it," "they were dancing." If
an action in the past was in fact completed (e.g., they were dancing and they stoppied), the past
continuous does not give us this information: it tells us only that an action was going on. The
continuous aspect is used also for activities that are repeated: "/ write poems" (habitually, for an
occupation), "she used to go to school." Again, the basic idea is to show the activity as occupying
a stretch of time.
(3) Perfect. The perfect expresses not only that something was done in the past but also that its
effect is still being felt. To say '7 have left" is really to talk about a present state: '7 have left
(and therefore am gone).11 If you think about English, you will see that we sometimes use our
perfect form this way. "Didyou wash!" is a question we might ask to find out what happened
ten years ago. But "have you washed!" is a question we ask only when we want to know "have
you washed (and are you therefore clean)?" There can be a past perfect in Greek--"/ had washed
(and therefore was clean),'1 and a future perfect"/ shall have washed (and therefore shall be
clean)."
THE THREE TIMES

Of course the Greek verb also expresses time. (When a verb indicates time, this is called tense.)
For the Greeks, as for us, there are three times: present, past, and future. As you can see,
time is irrelevant to aspect. A perfect may hold true in the present, past or future. A continuous
may be going on now or in the past. An aorist is past and normally cannot be thought of as
present, since the present is ongoing, part of a flow of time.
Logically we might expect a separate future for continuous and aorist (Indeed, Russian, like
English, has two such futures: / shall go and / shall be going.) But in Greek we have a special
stem for future time grafted awkwardly onto a system that uses stems to show aspect:
Continuous Future Aorist Perfect

Present / leave, am leaving / have left
Past I used to leave, was leaving I left Ihadleft
Future / shall leave, be leaving I shall have left
109
Lesson 25. The Continuous Stem
Aetna) leave
PRESENT I leave, am leaving
Singular __________ Plural
/(first person) AEITTCO AEITTO|JEV w* (firstperson) «J Ambiguity
AIcrt:
you (second person) AEITTEIC AEITTETE y°u (^^^ person) Aclnm -
he. she, it (third
v person)7 C* ™, W ™,~^;> ^ <*W person) >^ ^feav^ "d
^ I AglTTEl AginouoKvJ | J ** ieave! (command)
IMPERFECT / was leaving, used to leave
I E'AEITTOV EXcinojJEV we
y°u cXeiHE^ EXEITTETE *>" (7^ [pi.] is like the Southern
i"'5*"'* I E'XEiTTE(v) EXEiTTOV | ** ***
I INFINITIVE to leave, to be leaving I

AEIHEIV I
I PARTICIPLE leaving
Asfncov, Adnouoa, AcTnov
I
I
The stem is that part of a verb that persists throughout a set of forms. The stem A€ITT shows
meaning (leave) and aspect (ongoing). (Technically, the continuous stem is AEITT-E/O - that is,
AEITT + a vowel that is sometimes E and sometimes o. This vowel is called a thematic or variable vowel.)
The accent on personal verbs is recessive: it goes back as far as it can. The accent on infinitives
and participles is arbitrary and should be learned for each stem. (This makes sense since an
infinitive is a noun and a participle an adjective.)
Using the continuous stem one may report about the present or the past. The continuous past
is called the imperfect from Latin im = not + perfection = completed.
The continuous verb may tell what is or was happening or it may tell about something that is or
was repeated, continual, habitual. Only context can reveal which.
£r|TCO Tqv aAq0Eiav. / am (now) seeking the truth. OR / (habitually) seek the truth.
E'TTIVOV oTvov. / was drinking wine. OR / used to drink wine.
Translationese
Translate the present as am I is I are Xing or X.
Translate the imperfect as was I were Xing or used to X, never as X'd.
(Reserve X'd for the aorist.)
Inflection is a term for changes in the form of a word. Declension is the system of changes for nouns,
pronouns, and adjectives. (The A-Group, O-Group, and Third Group are known as First Declension, Second
Declension, and Third Declension.) Conjugation is the system of changes for verbs. You are beginning
to learn the conjugation of regular Greek verbs.
1. AEITTEIV 3. AEITTEI 5. AEHTOV 7. cAEinov 9. AEITTOUOI (2 ways)
2. AEinouoa 4. AslnopEV 6. EAEinoÊv 8. EAEITTEC; 10. AEITTEK;
THE TIME-MARKER
A time-marker (also called an augment) is used in Greek to indicate past time.
The time-marker is usually i coming before the stem, as seen in cXEinov above.
If the verb begins with a vowel, the vowel will become long to show past time. If the verb
begins with an iota-diphthong, the first vowel is lengthened and the iota is subscripted.
110
OKOUGO, 7JKOUOV
Exception:
OIKECO, CpKOUV
The time-marker always comes immediately before the verb stem. This means there may be
some changes if there is a preposition combined with the verb. Often the last short vowel of a
preposition will drop off. Or the final sound of the preposition will change.
£ic|jav6avco ouppaXAco
co is ouv + paAAco. An n sound naturally becomes an m sound before a b Try to pronounce "inport."
It will most likely come out "import." The time-marker allows the original v to be in evidence.)
The accent can never go further back than the time-marker.

aneoTi He, she, it is away. I hold off.
He, she, it was away. a TT€?XOV / used to hold off.
I Exercise Form the imperfect for the following verb forms, keeping the same person and number:
Example: AEITTEI, E'AEITTE(V)
1. yiyvcboKEi 3. KAETTTOUOI(V) 5. avaAa^pavETE 7. oncouopev
2. E'XEK; 4. EupiaKco 6. anoT£|Jvouai(v) 8.
I Exercise y: Suppose you were reading and came across the following forms. Try to figure out the "/ do"
form and look up the meaning in the dictionary at the back of the book Can you find the words?
1. r)05c<; 3. arreOvqaicov 5. EVETuyxavov 7. £?xov 9. daqyc
2. E^spaAov 4. aTTEAappavoîEv 6. cbicripETE 8. ^px^ 1O. TrpooE?xE<;
INFINITIVES AND PARTICIPLES

There is an infinitive and participle for every stem. There is no time-marker on any infinitive
or participle since they have aspect but not tense and the time-marker shows past time. (For this
reason it is more correct to speak of a continuous infinitive rather than a "present infinitive"
and a continuous participle rather than a "present participle .")
PARSING
When you parse a sentence, for now simply say whether the verb is present, imperfect, or aorist,
and give its "I do" form and the person. For example:
epavOavE - imperfect of (javSavco, he, she, it
OR imperfect of (javOavco, third person singular
(You will soon learn to give more information.)
Classwork or £pya: -Write the following sentences in Greek. (Consult p. 43 on -ing words.)
1. I want to find wise messengers.
2. I am finding wise messengers.
3. Finding wise messengers is difficult
4. Finding the beautiful horse, she was rejoicing.
5. I used to read many poems.
6. They were leaving (their) mother.
?pya -Write the continuous forms for ypc«9a>, paXXco, and avaylyvcborcco. Memorize.
-Read and translate the first part of "The Lazy Man," an Armenian story. Learn the vocabulary.
-Circle every imperfect. (There are twelve, counting ^v twice.)
THE LAZY MAN* (Part 1)
fjv TTOTE Koti OUK F\v EV TQ yrj Tcov 'Apjjqvcov (Armenians)
yuvq TIC; ?)<; 6 avqp OUK qOsXE TTOVE?V. Kai EV TQ copp TOU 2
onEipEiv (sowing), oi JJEV aXXoi avSpsc; Epaivov EV TO?C;
aypoTc; COOTE yEcopycTv, oOro^ 6c JJQVOC; E'IJEVEV EV TQ OIKIOI.
q 5e yuvq E56iKpUE <ai EKEÊUEV auTOv paivEiv Eiq Touq
aypouq KOI HOVE?V coorrEp oi aXXoi. 6 SE avqp EXsyE
TTOIVTa—OTI OUK EOTIV lOXUpOq, OTI VOOE?, OTI KÊHTq^ Tiq 7
EXaÊ (took)Ta opyava (tools), OTI q oxoXq KaXXioTq—
COOTE |jq EKpaivEiv EK; Touq aypouq.
aXXa qp^P^ TIV^ T0V yuvaTKa SaKpuouoav Kai Xsyouaav

cb<; OUK EOTOI auToTq OUTE Kapnoc; OUTE %pvo6$ coKTipsv 11
6 avqp. KOI onEppaTa Xa|3cl>v (having taken) EV TaTq
XEpoiv, anqX0Ev Eiq TOUC; aypouq. aXX 1 OUK E0EXcov HOVE?V
Kai TiSsvai Ta OTTEpfjaTa EIC; Tqv yqv CXVE?XEV 6 avqp Taq
XsTpac; COOTE TOV avEpov Xa^pavEiv TO onEpjjaTa. Kai d>5E 15
EVO|JI£EV "TO HOVE?V XUTTE? |JE. Kai E! Kapnoq EOTOI 8ia TO
onEpjjaTa a XappavEi 6 avs|jo<;, (JEyac; novoq EOTOI EJJOI
TOV Kapnov ayEipovTi (gathering) Kai cpEpovTi EIC; Tqv
OIKIOV." Kai OUTGO TOV novov EôpsTTo (= E9o|3E"ETo) COOTE 19
EHEOE npoq yqv cooTTEp ano0vqoKCOV.
^v HOTE Kai OUK r^jv - "Once there was and there was not" (traditional
beginning for Armenian stories, like our Once upon a time.)
2 TTOVECO - toil, work
q copa - season --> hour
7 VOOE? He said "7 am sick (present tense)." A A When reporting in English, but
not in Greek, we must convert to a past tense: "He said that he was sick"
KaXXioToq,q,ov - most lovely, most beautiful, noblest
EXapov - 7 took, aorist of Xappavco - take (k'XapE - he, she, it took)
EKpaivco - go out, step out (EK + POIVGO)
11 6 Kapnoc; - fruit, harvest
6 xpuaoq - gold --> chrysanthemum, chrysalis
oiKTipoo (also spelled oiKTEipco) - have pity on + ace.
TO oHEpjja - seed (from oTTEipco = sow) —> sperm
anqX6ov - 7 went away, aorist of anEpxo|jai
OVERGO - hold up
15 6 avEjjo^ - wind —> anemometer
XUTTECO - cause pain of mind or body, vex, distress
6 rrovoc; - toil, work
19 -£TO -OVTO
You have learned -ETON, -OVTOI, which are endings for the present:
he, she, it wants pouXovTai they want
Be alert for -ETO -OVTO endings, which are used for the imperfect of verbs
following the pouXopai pattern:
EpouXETo he, she, it was wanting EpouXovTo they were wanting
E'TTEOOV - I fell, aorist of TTITTTGO
*This story is freely adapted from"The Lazy Man," in Three Apples Fell from Heaven by Virginia Tashjian, © 1982;
used with permission of the author.
112
Lesson 26. The c/o Aorist
CONTINUOUS AORIST
Present Aetna) Xc(no|J€V EXmov EXinopEV

AEITTCIC; ACITTCTE EXlTTEC; EXlTTETE
AEITTEI Aefnouoi(v) EXlHE(v) EXlTTOV
Imperfect e'Aeinov EXEinOjJEV

€'AeiTT€c; EXEIHETE
eA€iTre(v) c'Aeinov
Infinitive XCITTEIV AineTv
Participle AEITTCOV, ouoct, ov AITTGOV, ouoa, ov
The use of an aorist stem indicates that an action is thought of as a single event: / X'd,
you X'd, etc. (accompanied by a finger snap to show it happened and is over). It is the stem
(XiTTE/o vs. XCITTE/O) that gives indication of the aspect (To find the stem, drop off -ov from
the IX'd form.) Time-marker (E) and personal endings are the same as for the Imperfect
Translationese
When translating personal verbs, always translate the aorist as X'd (or, for the
negative, did not X). Translate the imperfect was Xing or used to X.
This way you signal immediately to others (and yourself) that you have recognized
the form. Your teacher will not need to ask "what stem?" or "what tense?"
This will save a great deal of time. And it is a habit which will keep you careful.
To translate an infinitive use to X (once) for the aorist infinitive versus to X or

to be Xing for the continuous infinitive. (In indirect discourse, where the infinitive
represents a "real" verb [with personal endings], you will translate differently.)
Use having X'd for the aorist participle and Xing to translate the continuous
participle whenever you can. This will almost always work. (Translation of a
participle in indirect discourse will be discussed later.)
I Exercise a:
How can you distinguish between the continuous and aorist forms of AEITTCA)?
Translate the following, giving all possibilities.
1. E'AITTEV, E'AEIITEV 2. AITTE?V, AEITTEIV 3. EAEITTETE, £AITTETE, AEITTETE 4. Ainouoa, AEinouoa 5. AEITTOUOI (2)
THE C/o AORIST
When the stem undergoes an internal change, we have what is called an c/o Aorist after the
endings (which are attached to the stem by an € or o vowel) or a Strong Aorist (since the stem
change is Strong). /£»£» Compare English drive/drove, swim/swam (strong changes) vs. stay/stayed, (weak
change).
Some but not all Greek verbs have E/O or Strong Aorists. Of the verbs we have learned so far,
the following have c/o Aorists, which should be learned:
113
Continuous stem Strong Aorist stem Continuous stem Strong Aorist stem
|jav06(VCO jjaveav- f?[ja9ov Ma8- EUplGKCO etipioic- f|5pOV Eup-
Aa|j|3avGo Xa^pav- ^Xaôv xap- OVQOKCO evQa<- k'Oavov eav-

TuyxavcA) Tuyxav- ?TUXOV TUX- âXXco paxx- EâXov pax-
KCX|JVCO Kapv- EKajJOV ica|J- AcinCO Xeirr EXiTTOV AITT-
TTIVCO niv ?HIOV nr TTinTCO TTITTT- EHEOOV nccr
As you can see, the aorist stem is usually the more basic stem. The continuous stem is built on
the aorist stem in various ways-by a nasal infix (v), by OK, by doubling, etc. Remember that
the aorist stem is found by removing the -ov ending as well as the time-marker.
As with the imperfect, the time-marker of an aorist may cause changes in the preposition:
Some important verbs have entirely new aorist stems. Learn them. (&>&> Cf. English go/went.)
Xcyco cTnov The E in the infinitive elneTv is not a time- marker.

Stem: (cln)
It is there because of an original digamma.
opaco cTBov (IS) (stem = Fen)
(fcveyic)
The aorist stem for see was originally Fi5.
EO0ICO
(9«Y ) The infinitive was Fl&eTv, related to our video and
vision, via Latin. The aorist was £pi&ov —> e!5ov.
I Exercise P: Translate the following. Then give the imperfect form that has the same person and number.
1. £AapE<; 2. k'paAov 3. eOavETE 4 E'TTIEC; 5 qOpov 6 clns 7. r)VEyico|JEv
I Exercise y: Give the aorist infinitives of the verb forms in exercise p above.
THE PARTICIPLE
The participle on the strong aorist stem has the same endings as the continuous participle.
Stem and accent differ. (The Strong Aorist participle is accented like cov, o5oa, ov.)
AciTTCOV,ouaa,ov leaving AiTTCOV,ouaa,6v having left
M N M F N
XEITTGJV XEinouaa XcTnov XlTTCOV XiTToOaa XlTTOV

XeinovTa Xcinouaav XcTnov Xinovja Xinouaav XlTTOV
XeinovToq Aeirrouaqc; XIHOVTOC; Xinouaqq XlTTOVTOq
XeinovTi XEIHOUOQ AeiTTOVTI XIHOVTI XIHOUOQ XIHOVTI
XdirovTEc; Xcinouoai XsinovTa XlTTOVTEC; Xinouaai XinovTa

XEIHOVTOC; Xeirrouaac; XEITTOVTCC XinovTaq Xinouaaq Xinovra
XeiTTOVTCOV XEIHOUOCOV Xeinovjcov XIHOVTCOV XITTOUOCOV XlTTOVTCOV
Xeinouai(v) Xeinouaaiq Xeinouai(v) Xinouai(v) Xinouaaiq Xinouai(v)
I Exercise 8: Form the aorist participle that corresponds (in case, number, gender) to the following:
1. Kapvouoa 3. TTITTTOVTCI 5.9£pouoi 7. Xcyov
2. EUpiaKGOv 4. Xa|jpavovTac; 6. OvrjaKovTi 8. rrivouaqc;
ClHSSWOrk: ++ Read Graveyard #8,10,14, and Famous Sayings #2, Thesauros pp. 227, 228, 232.
-Write the aorist forms of cpaXov three times. Memorize.

-Write the participle paXcbvûoaôv once.
-Read and translate the conclusion of "The Lazy Man." Learn the vocabulary.
114
THELAZYMAN (Part2)
KOI o! 91X01 vo(jf£ovTE<; OUTOV cTvai TE0vE<2>Ta qvsyicov
auTov EIC; TO ispov (church). Kai EfjsXXov OOTTTEIV OUTOV TQ
uoTEpaip qpEpp. aXXa q yuvq OUK svopifev OUTOV
TE9vEGOTa E?vai. KOI EV TOUTQ TQ VUKTI EioqXOev eic; TO
icpov (church) <ai TovSc TOV Xoyov cTnc peyaXQ 9(*)VQ* 5
"<A> PpoToi, OKOUETE pou; ayycXoq cipi TOU GcoO. nauco
TOV TOU OavaTou unvov. KpunTco ouScv. oSc EOTIV 7
6 Xoyoq TOU 0€oO TOU Kupfou Tqc; TE yqc; Kai TCOV
oupavcov, ov XEyco naoi ToTc; TsSvECOoiv vuv EV TO?C;
oupavotq COTE (you are). KOI XPO TTOVTOK; cv TO?<; oupavo?<;
coonep ETTI Tqq yqc; TTOVE?V. EV TCO npcbTc^) ETEI ICEXEUEI 11
upac; 6 GEOC; Ka0afpEiv Tag v£9EXa<; (clouds) TCOV oupavcov
GOOTE TO TTOV yiyvEoOai ica8apov."
TOUTO OKOUCOV OUK ExaipEv 6 avqp, OUK EyaipEV ouSapcoc;.

aXXa avEOTq (he stood up) KOI KOTqXOsv sic; TQV oiidav.
q SE yuvq OOTTOV KaT£X0ouoa~EnopEuoaTo (she had 16
traveled) yap 6Sco (jiKpoTEpqt—?jv q8q EV TQ oiici(j(. TOV SE
av5pa opcooa EiopafvovTa, Hdb 9iXE,M E^q, MEvop(to|jEv OE
sTvai TE6vEcoTa.M M
vai," anEicpivaTo (replied) 6 avqp*
"TOUTO Ev6|ji£ov icai Eyco. aXX 1 OTE EpaOov OTI XPO °^
(jovov TOUC; CCOVTOC; aXXa Kai Touq TEOvEcoTaq HOVE?V, 21
k'SoÊ uoi (it seemed) KPE?TTOV KaTEX0E?v KOI novsTv EHI 22
yns-
« N
qvey KOV - aorist of 9€pco

0anToo - bury
?jA6ov - aorist of epxo|jai
5 eTnov - aorist of Xcyco
ppoToq, 6 - mortal --> ambrosia ("not mortar and therefore food for gods)6
unvoq - sleep — > hypnosis
7 KpuTTToo - hide —> crypt, cryptic
11 TO EToq - year (originally F£TO<;) -> Etesian (winds) —> (via Latin) veteran
KaOafpco - cleanse, purify
KccOapoc;, a, 6v - clean, pure -> Catharine, cathartic
16 06tTTCA)v,9aTTov - faster (comparative of Taxuq)
eiapaivco - enter (eiq + Pafvco)
21 âco - live, be alive (related to icooq, etc.)
*£a<A> has forms with q, like Treivaco-
Coo TTEIVCO
TTEIVQC;
TTEIVQ
inf. inf TTEivqv
22 KpEiTTcov,KpE?TTov - better, comparative of ayaOoc

is "better" in quality, moral worth
is "better" in the sense of being more powerful, or higher ranking,
or a stronger argument, or a more compelling course of action
(related to TO spa-rex; = power, as in democracy)
115
T H E B R I D E O F DEATH
Every culture responds to the human need

to keep alive its cherished dead in
memory. In Lesson 26, you read the
epitaph of a young woman named
Phrasikleia. The monument set up to
preserve her memory stood for a brief
period, was lost for centuries, and, now
rediscovered, renews her life in our
memory. Phrasikleia's epitaph was
discovered in 1729 in a church near
Marathon in Attica. Much later, in 1972,
her statue itself was unearthed less than
two hundred yards away. It had been
purposely buried along with a male statue,
perhaps to protect it in a time of political
upheaval or invasion.
During the archaic period, from 600 - 480

B.C.E., life-size marble statues of young
males (called kouroi) or young females
(called korai) were widely made. They
were either grave markers, like the statue
of Phrasikleia, or dedications to a divinity.
Modern viewers tend to think of Greek

statues as bare, white marble; but Greek
statues and temple decorations were
originally painted. So Phrasikleia's statue
was painted and adorned with metal
earrings. She holds a bud, the symbol of a
life about to unfold, in her right hand and
on her head wears an ornate crown also
decorated with buds. An elaborate
necklace adorns her neck and on her arm
is a bracelet. With her left hand, she
demurely displays her garment: the traces
of paint left on the statue indicate its
intricate decorations. This is the costume
and jewelry of a bride.
Figure 1. The statue of Phrasikleia and an unknown youth (perhaps her brother) as they were found by the excavator in 1972. The female
statue was identified as Phrasikleia because the base of the statue fit exactly into the hollow of an inscription base. (Photo: Nikos Kontos).
116
Thus, both her statue and epitaph emphasize the same meaning: because Phrasikleia died young, she
will be an eternal virgin, a bride of death, instead of knowing the fuller life of a married woman and
mother.
During the archaic period, not only were statues erected as grave markers, but so were tall marble
shafts called stelai, which were decorated with relief sculpture. Since grave markers in Greece and
Rome were commonly erected on the sides of roads, their families could know that these visible
funeral monuments would ensure a wide memory for their dead ones.
In the classical period, after work on the Parthenon was completed, sculptors looking for work turned
their skill to the carving of tombstones, stelai, and other memorial sculpture. We are fortunate to
have a number of these beautifully carved tombstones that were excavated from graveyards in
Athens, especially the Kerameikos. This cemetery, situated within view of the Acropolis, was
renowned for the lavishness of its monuments as well as for being the site in which Pericles' Funeral
Oration was delivered.
One tombstone from the Kerameikos cemetery depicts Ampharete holding her grandchild (Figure
2). Her epitaph states: "Here I hold my daughter's child, my darling, whom once I held on my knee
when we both lived and saw the sunlight; now I am dead, and hold her dead, too." Ampharete's
downturned gaze meets the gaze of her grandchild, whose small hand reaches upward towards her
grandmother. Tombstones, such as this one, give us a poignant glimpse into the family life of the
Greeks and, in particular, the lives of women.
Figure 2. The tombstone of Ampharete.

Kerameikos Museum ca. 400 B.C.E.
German Archeological Institute Athens,
Negative Ker. 2619.
117
Lesson 27. The a-Aorist (oa or Xo); The Ingressive Aorist
THE a-AORIST
While many basic verbs have an E/O aorist, the majority have an a-aorist This means there is
an or sound in the aorist endings (except for the "he, she, it" ending). Traditionally this aorist has
been called the Weak Aorist or First Aorist. In this book it is called the a-aorist, signifying that
the vowel that precedes the personal ending is o instead of € or o.
THE oa-AORIST
Most a-aorists are oa-aorists. That is, the a sound is preceded by a sigma: nauco, c'nauoa.
The stem of these oa-aorists is usually made from the continuous stem + o. There may be
combinations. For examples: ncpnco —> aorist €ncpv a » yp«9fc> — > aorist €yP a V a »
nXr|TTCO—> aorist cnXqâ strike
£nauoa = / stopped nauoa<;,aoa,av = having stopped
cnauoa cnauaajJEv M F N
cnauaaq cnauoaTE nauoac; nauoaoa nauoav
enauo£(v) rrrauoav nauoavja irauoaoav nauoav
nauoavTOc; nauaaaqc; nauoavToq
Infinitive nauoavTi nauoaoQ nauoavTi
naOoai nauoavTEc; nauoaoa i nauoavTa
Participle nauoavTaq nauoaoaq nauaavTa
nauoavTcov nauoaooov nauoavTcov
rrauoac;, aoa, av nauaaoi(v) nauoaaaiq Trauaaai(v)
The aorist and imperfect share many personal endings: (-<; - you [sing.], -|JEV - we, -TE - you [pi.],
- v - they). We can think of a as the "theme vowel" (known formally as the thematic vowel) that
connects the personal endings to the stem. (Before now we have seen E/O as a variable theme
vowel, p. 109.)
The time-marker works the same way for the a-aorist as for the E/O aorist. The accent of the
a-aorist infinitive is always on the next-to-last syllable. The accent on nominative participle is
always on the next-to-last syllable: TO na i6(ov KE AEGoa v the little child having urged
I Exercise a: Translate the following forms of TTEJJTTGO = send (which has the same pattern as
1. TT£|jya<; 3. TTEnyai 5. EnEpyav 7. Encpya 9. ncpyaocbv
2. EHEîyac; 4. TTEfjyaoai 6. ntpyav 8. EnEjjye 10. nE|jyavra>v
Almost all -Ico and -&co verbs have an IX'd aorist form ending in -qoa. Some non-contract
verbs also follow that pattern. These are some verbs we have learned that have a oa -aorist:
CIKOUGO fjicouoa TTE|JTT<A> fcrrcpya VOOEGO iv6oqoa
£5&icpuoa oiK£o> ^pKrjoa TTEivaoo Eirelvqaa
iiciXcuoa TTOIECO iTTofqaa Note EGsXco rê^Xqaa
Eypaya psXXco tpiXXqoa
KAETTTCO SOKEO) KSoâ
I Exercise P: Translate each form and give the aorist infinitive.

1. qpcoTrjoafJEV 2. opKqoEV 3. E8o£a 4. qOsXrioav 5. qicouoaTE 6. QTqoav
You are finally able to understand completely our short but not-so-simple poem:
TO jj (1) Articular infinitive with p^, 91X^001 = aorist infinitive of 9iXeo>
(2) Intensive <a\ with articular infinitive 91X^001
SE KOI
(3) Comparative with genitive of comparison
SE navrwv (4) Accusative-infinitive construction [X to do Y] with the infinitive
understood as being articular, 9iXoOvTO = participle of an -eco verb
118
THE Aa-AORIST
= / announced iyyeiAaq,aoa,av = having announced
ayyEiAac; ayyciAaoa ayyeTAav

ayyEiAavrcx; ayyeiAaaqc; ayyEiAavTcx;
qyyciAav KTA.
inf. ayycTAai
part. ayy€iAaq,aoa,av
Aorist whose stems end in A, p, v, p have what we call, for simplicity, a liquid or Aa-aorist
This includes nasals (p, v) as well as liquids (A, p) —sounds which can be held indefinitely. (Try
holding these sounds.) The endings are the same as for a oa-aorist except that there is no o
sound. The o has dropped out, usually (but not always) causing a vowel change in the stem.
ayyeAAco flyyciAo announce

(JEVOO cpeiva wait, stay, remain
oiKTipco &KTipa pity, have pity on
KTEIVCO CKTCIVa slay, kill
yct|j€co rynna marry
I Exercise y: Translate the following.

1. ayyeTAai 2. ayycTAav 3. qyysiAav 4. yn|Ja<; 5- EKTEIVQV 6. a>KTipa<; 7. oiicripa<;
I Exercise 8: Translate the following, reasoning back and using the dictionary.
1. &P<*>£EV 2. nAqâ^ 3. anEKTEivav 4. EÂsyav 5. 9ayaoiv 6. avEpoqaaTE 7. airqyyEiAaTE
INGRESSIVE AORIST
Some Greek verbs express states ("I am sick," "I am silent"). For these verbs, the aorist may
indicate simply that the state was entered. This is called an ingressive aorist from the Latin
word for "enter."
£66KpUOa / burst into tears. lofyqoa I fell silent.
£v6or|oa / got sick.
Most ingressive aorists are of the a-type. But note: , eTxov, &JXOV I have, I had, I got
I Exercise E: Translate.
1. EVOOEK; / svoaqoa^ TQ Trpa>TQ ^[JEpg. 2. EOXOÎEV / TTTTTOV VEOV.
Classwork: Read: Graveyard #5, 15-17, and 23, Thesauros pp. 227, 228, and 229 .
Classwork 1.1 wish to be stopping the battle. 5. Having heard the story, she burst into tears.
or 2pyor 2.1 wish to stop (once) the battle. 6. While stopping the battle, they announced victory.
Translate: 3. Did he marry her? 7. Having stopped the battle announced victory.
4. Having married her, he fell ill. 8. The ones having stopped the battle announced victory.
-Write aorist forms of sypaya three times. Memorize.

-Read and translate "The Blind Men and the Elephant" Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse all verbs in the last paragraph. (anEKpivaTo is a challenge. Do your best.)
Parsing
When parsing be as specific as you can. Give tense (present, imperfect, aorist) for a personal verb
that is indicative or fact-reporting. Give stem (continuous, aorist) for all else. Examples:
£|ja9opev - aorist 0/pav6ava>, we (pi.) £pav6ave<; - imperfect 0/pav0ava>, you (sing.)
- aorist infinitive 0/pav6ava>. pavBavq - continuous subjunctive 6>/pav6avco, he, she, it
119
THE BLIND MEN AND THE ELEPHANT
f*jv TTOT£ oc; OUHOTE cycXaaEV. cpouAcTO

&OTT£p oi aXXoi avOpcorroi, aXV ouScv OUTCO £'8o££ ysXoTov.
q|J£p9< TIVI T£TTap£c; TU9Xoi £Ka9(£ovTO (were sitting) napa 3

Tqc; oiiciac; Tqc; paoiXncqq. KOI avqp TIC; ?jA0£v
aycov ov spcXXE SiSovai TCO paoiXc?. oi 5£
avTO TOK; X€P°i T°u ^XâvToc;, 6 |j£v npooToc; 6~
Tqc; fbivoc; (trunk), 6 5e ScuTcpoc; OKcXouc;, 6 SE TpiToq
nXcupac; (side), 6 5c TCTapToc; Tqc; oupaq (tail). KOI 8
SiaXcyEoOai aXXqXoic; ncpi TOU cXâvTOc;. 9~
"cl> 91X01," eTncv 6 npcoToc;- "8qX6v COTIV OTI 6 eXâq EOTI

(jaicpov TI <al EUKUKXOV (round)." 6 8c ScuTEpoc; cTncv
"TTGOC; 8qXov; ou SqXov ouSapcoc;. anropcvo^ yap TOU
ocb|jaTO(; TOU cXâvToc; oT5a OTI ppaxu^ (short) icai naxu^
(thick) EOTIV." 6 6£ TpiToc; cpoqocv M^ pcopoi, ouBcTEpo^ 14
u(jobv TO aXqGcc; Xcyci. 6 yap cXâc; COTI p£ya TI icai
cupu (broad) cSoncp TcTxoc;.11 6 5c TETapToq elm naoi TaSc-
M
ci avSpec; pcopoTaTOi, ayapcvoc; (punt!) TOU cXâvTOc;, e5
oT5a OTI TO XEHTOTOTOV (XSTTTOC; = delicate) navTcovEOTiv.11 18
oi 5c T£TTapec; cbq (jaXioTa ci>pyf£ovTO aXXqXoic;.

6 paoiXcuc; TOV Gopupov (racket) aicouoac; f*jX0ev i< Tqc;
oiKiac;. KOI TOUC; TU9Xouc; opcov Ka8iô|j€vouc; napa TO?C;
Oupaic; KOI pocovTaq cycXaocv. oi 5£ qpcoTqoav OUTOV 22-
"£> paoiXeu, 5ia TI cycXaoac;;11 6 5c paoiXeu^ <i5£
ancKpfvaTO- M TU9Xoi OVTE^ |jaTqv (in vain) 6t|J9iopqT£?Te. 24-
ou yap yiyvd)OK£T£ OTI £KOOTOC; upcov p£pouc; Tqc;
aXqOdac; anT£Tai icai ou6£ic; £X£i TO oXov."
y£Xa(O, aorist £y£Xaoa - laugh (Note: the aorist ends in -aoa rather than -qoa.)
5oK£co, aorist £&oâ - seem --> paradox, orthodox, dogma
y£Xo?oc;,a,ov - funny (related to y£Xaco)
3 TU9Xoc;,q,6v - blind
TO T£?XO<; - wall
paoiXiKo^, q, ov - royal, kingly (related to paoiX£uq) —> basilica
6 £X£9aq, gen. £X£9avToq <—> elephant
ayco, aorist qyayov - lead
6- anTopai +gen. - take hold of What must qyavTobe? Punt!
TO oK£Xoc; - leg — > skeleton
TpiToc;,q,ov <--> third — > tritium
8 T£TapToc;,q,ov - fourth —> tetralogy, tetracycline ~> (via Latin) quarter
7~8 You need not learn £(<; = trunk (gen. £ivo<;) or oupa = tail. But what animal has a nose-horn? (horn =
Kepac;). What animal, whose name has a strange spelling, has a tail (oupa) like a shadow (OK(a) ?
9~ apxojjai - begin to + infinitive, make a beginning of + gen. Punt qpâvTo.
5iaX£yo(jai - converse with + dat --> dialogue
TO ocopa - body —> somatic, psychosomatic
14 poaco, aorist £poqoa - shout
ou8£T£poc;,a,ov - neither of two (negative of crepoO
22~ £y£Xao£v in line 1 was a normal aorist. Here it may be ingressive. How to translate?
24- Punt amKpivaTo. Put together information on pp. 111 (box) and 118.
, q,ov <--> whole —> Catholic, holistic, holograph
- dispute, argue
120
Lesson 28. The Genitive Absolute; Special Aorists
GENITIVE ABSOLUTE
Usually a participle "hangs" on some noun that is part of the main sentence. For example:
6 TTOUC; e'xOHpEV Having returned, the child was rejoicing.
But it is possible to use an entirely new subject for the participle.

(Jf|Tp6c KaTcAOouOqC, ° none; e'xaip£V. His mother having returned, the child was rejoicing.
In this situation subject and participle are given in the genitive case. The whole thought
expressed by these genitives (and any words that go with them) is thus set free grammatically
from the rest of the sentence and is called a Genitive Absolute (from the Latin absolutus-
released, loosened, freed). Genitive absolutes can be very long. It is important to isolate them
when translating. Bracket them, at least mentally.
[rqq TTcnSoq rqq vccoTarq? icai icaXXiOTqq icaTeA8ouoqq dq Tqv noXiv]
f] (Jf|Tr|p €)(0l lp€V. Her youngest and most beautiful child having returned to the city, the mother was rejoicing.
Translationese of Genitive Absolute

Having X'd normally works for an aorist participle in a genitive absolute. The English will be stilted
but perfectly understandable (as in the examples above). Xing rarely works well for a continuous
participle (except for special phrases such as "All things being equal").
You may have to interpret a continuous participle: when, while, if, although, because, etc. ("Because his
mother was returning, the child was rejoicing") Otherwise use "with" for all participles. This is awkward
but preserves the ambiguity of the Greek: "With his mother returning" "With his mother having returned."
I Exercise a: Translate these genitive absolute phrases, remembering always to translate the noun first.
1. EAGovTcov TO>V TTcuScov 3. Toov TTai8cov ouK ON/TOW 9iXo)v 5. Tq<; yuvaiKO<; ou KEAEuaaar|<; Taura
2. TO>V TTcuSoov £a6iouaa>v 4. TCOV naiScov |jq OVTOOV cpiAcav 6. TOU 00906 KEAEuaavnx; airrrjv JJEVEIV
SPECIAL AORISTS
£(3f|V I went I stood fyvcov I knew

Aorist of Pa (VG> Aorist of Yara|jai Aorist of yiyvcooKco
cyvcov eyvcopcv
6GTqT€ cyvcoc; EyvcoT€
cyvCA) cyveooav
OTqvou yvcovai
pac;, paaa, pav OTOC;, GTaaa, arav yvouq, yvouaa, yvov
gen. Pavro<;, Paoqc;, PQVTO<; gen. aravnx;, oraoqc;, OTOCVTO^ gen. yvovrcx;, y vouor|<;f y VOVTO<;
What is special about the aorists above is that there is no theme vowel at all, neither E/O nor a.
(They are called athematic aorists.) Their stems end in a vowel (pq/pa; orq/oTa; y vco/y vo).
NOTE: £pq, £orq, and ?yva> have no personal ending. Just as £Aine = i + A ITT (stem) 4- e (theme vowel) -f zero, so £pq = I
+ Pq (stem) -f zero. The participle was originally stem + -VT<;, vroa, -VT (vs. -OVT<;, ovroa, ovr or -avrq, avroa, avr in
participles with theme vowels).
I Exercise ^: Translate: l.torq 3. oraoaic; 5. pavrsc; 7. Eyvcov 9. yvcbvai
2. eoTqaav 4. Pqvai 6. cpqpEV 8. eyv<*> 1O. yvouc;
Classwork: -f^ Read Famous Sayings #3-4, Diogenes #20, Graveyard #19,24.
Thesauros, pp. 232, 235, and 229.
?pya -Read and translate "Climbing the Stairs" and "Collecting the Fine." Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the verbs in the third paragraph of "Climbing the Stairs." (When parsing identify
genitive absolutes: e.g., "continuous participle acting as verb in a genitive absolute")
121
CLIMBING THE STAIRS
q oiKia TOU NaopE85ivou EOTI Tpicopcxpoc; (three-storied).
Kai q(JEpp TIVI 6 Naopc55ivcx; Eica6Eu5Ev EV TCO avco (jepci 2
Tqq oiKiaq KOTapXEncov npoc; Tqv 686v. KCM avSpa TTEvqTa
eTSev aiTouvTa EV TQ 65co. 6 5c avqp avapXcyac; Kai i&cbv
TOV Io9ov EKaXEOEV "£> 9iXE, KaTa|3q6i. fJouXojjai yap 5
v TI aoi.M
6 8£ NaopcSSivoq KOTEpq cic; TO Karco pcpoc; Tqc; okiaq.

<ai KOTapac; qpcoTqocv TOV TrevqTa- "TI pouXq Xcyeiv |JOI;M
6 8e cTncv auTco aiTcov M86c; (joi apyupiov." 6 8c 1096^
OUK cTncv ouScv, aXX 1 €oq|jqv€ TCO aiTouvTi (= aiTEovTi) 10
avapqvai. <al aôTEpcov avapavTcov eiq TO avco pcpoq
1
oiicfaq, anEKpivaTO 6 NaopcSSivoc; T C O aiTOuvTr "
6 8c nevqq cTncv "£> 9iXe, cVnep pqScv cTx^^ 5i86vai poi, 13

8ia TI €XPHV M€ avapqvai;" ancKpivaTo 6 Io9O<;- M aXX EI
|jq8ev EV vco cTx^c; aXXo q aiT£?v pe apyupiov 8i86vai, 8ia
TI
Ka6eu6cA>, KaGeuSqooo, (no aorist) - sleep, lie down to sleep

(imperfect Ka6q05ov, Ka6eG8ov, or £ica9eu5ov)
2
iic&OeuSc
The time-marker normally must come directly before the verb stem. But some
prefixed verbs are "felt" as a root verb and treated that way, with the time-marker
coming at the beginning before the prefix. For example: £ica0i£€To.
Sometimes both prefix and stem will be marked: ri(J9€opr]Touv they were arguing
avco - upward. The adverb is here used as an adjective-the upper story

PXETTCO , aorist EpXEya - look
KaTapXEnco - look down (KOTO has the basic meaning of down)
OITECO - ask, request; beg
avafJXETKo - look up (ava has the basic meaning of up)
5 KaTopaivco - go down
Pq0i - go! Command for Special Aorist Epq.
(Cf. + yvcoGi OEOUTOV Know thyself, the famous maxim with yvco6i,
command for Special Aorist £y vcov)
10 oqjjafvco, aor. EoqjjqvE - show by a sign, signify; give a sign to do something,
bid one to do something —> semantics, semiotics
a va pa ivco - go up
E'I'TTEP - if in fact (EI + nsp)
13 pqSEic;, pqSEjJia, (jq8£v - no one, nothing.
I
06 / yf] Forms
Notice that all forms made from ou + some other root (OUTTOTE, OUKETI, etc.)
have corresponding (jq forms ((jqnoTE, pqKETi, etc.). Whenever context would
demand pq as the negative (in a command, in "if1 clauses, etc.), the pq forms
are used.
- imperfect of
6 vouc; - mind, sense (a contract O-Group noun, originally v6o<;) --> noetic, paranoia
EV vco - have in mind
122
COLLECTING THE FINE
qpEpp TIVI TOV Naop£&5ivov rrpopaivovTa EV TQ 68<o TO
Ta avqp TIC; KaTonioOsv (from behind) EnXqÊV. 6 5s
So9O<; EOTpa9q (turned) GOOTE 6 avqp E&UVOTO opav TO
TTpooconov (face) OUTOU. 6 SE avqp, opcov TOV Io9ov, E9q 4
Ta8E- "napaiToupai (I beg pardon). pXcncov KOTOTTIOOEV
(from behind) cvopioa OE aXXov avSpa cTvai ovncp (Jioco."
6 5£ Naop€88ivoc; 6pyiC6|j€vo^ CK^XEUOE TOV avSpa €X0£?v

p£8' EauToO (= IJCTO EOUTOU) npoq TOV SiKaoTqv. 6 5e
EKOTEpou TOV jjOOov 8iEA06vTO<; E!HEV cbq 6 avqp qSiicqasv 9
<ai EKEAEUOEV auTov 5i66vai TCO 1090) EV apyupiov cog
£qjj(av (a fine). 6 SE avqp E9q Ta5E- "aXX1 apyupia ou
9Op<2>. 86c; poi XapE?v EV TCOV apyupfcov cl)v EV TQ OIKI^ 12
EXCO <ai XapovTi KaTEX0E?v EIC; TO BiicaoTqpiov (courthouse).
SOKCO ooi ETvai avOpconoc; aya06q, cSonEp ou EÎOI; EOTI
TTEi6Eiv OE;I! MTTEi0Eic; JJE" E!HEV 6 SiicaoTqcr " 'iBi. aXXa
KEXEUGO OE KOTEX0E?V d)q TOXIOTO." 16
6 |JEV avqp E^qX0EV, 6 SE NaopESSivoc; <ai 6 SiKaoTqc;

EJJEVOV. KOI EjJEVOV HOXuV XROVOV, a X X * OU KOTqX0EV
6 avqp. TEXoc; SE 6 NaopE88ivo<; avEOTq KOI avaoTaq
TOV SiKaoTqv EnXqÊ TO d>Ta. icai E^qX0EV EK TOU
SiKaoTqpfou (courthouse) Einobv TCO SIKOOTQ- "TOU avSpoc;
KOTEX06vToc;, XapE TO apyupiov ou.M 22
TTpopaivco - step forth

TO oCq, gen. CJTOC; - ear
nXqTTco, £TTAq£a - strike, strike a blow — > paraplegic, apoplexy
rnAqêv OCUTOV TOC £>Ta (See p. 32: ace. of part affected [common in Homer])
4 £91*1 - he, she, it said (aorist of 9q|ji = say) --> euphemism, aphasia,
blasphemy, prophet --> fame, fate, ineffable, infant (via Latin)
oorrep, qncp, oncp - the very one who
(j€Tct + gen. - with, in company with
9 8i£pxo(jcu - go through
aSiKeco - be unjust, commit an injustice
TO apyupiov - small coin, piece of money; money (in general)
12 56<; poi - permit me. (SiScopi with an infinitive has the sense of permit)
12
Attraction of Relative
Sometimes a relative is "attracted" to the case of its antecedent Most often this
is an accusative, which is "attracted" to the genitive or dative case. So here:
ev TGOV apyupfcov &v k'x00 (We would expect a fc'xco.)
TieiGcA) - persuade, prevail upon

16 TaxioToq,q,ov - superlative of Taxuq
£^€pXO|jai - come or go out (££ + cpxcpai)
22 Xa p€ (Note odd accent on last syllable. Five aorist commands are accented
this way: cine, cXGe, cupe, i5c, and Xap€.)
123
Lesson 29: The Future
CONTINUOUS FUTURE AORIST
XEITTCO Adnopev E'AITTOV

ACITTCIC AeimTe Xeiyeiq e'AiTTEc;
XEITTEI Aeinouoi(v) Xeiyei Xeiyouoi(v) £Xinc(v) cXinov
k'AeiTTOV £A€ITTO|J€V
k'AEITTEC;
€'AEITT€(v)
Inf. Inf. Inf.

A€ hre iv to X, to be Xing Xe (y€ iv to be about to X to X (once)
Part. Part. Part. v
XEITTCOV, ouoa, ov Xeiycov, ouoa, ov Xincbv, ouoa, ov
Xing being about to X having X'd
Future endings are the same as present endings. Only the stems differ. This holds true for every
verb whose "/ do" form ends in -co, whether it has an E/O or a-aorist Translate personal verbs
on the future stem with will or shall.
Normally the o sound marks a future stem, o + £/o shows future, oa the a-aorist:
XEITTCO, Acfyco, eXinov / leave, will leave, left
nauco, nauoco, rrrauoa I stop, will stop, stopped (someone or something)
I Exercise a: 2. XsfyEiv 3. XciyovTE<; 4. XEiyouaiv 5. Xinov

Translate: 6. TTdUOEIV 7. 8. nauocov 9. nauoai 10. nauaaoiv
a-COMBINATIONS The s sound may combine with the consonant of the stem according to the
usual pattern. (We have already seen this in the oa-aorist.)
n,p,9 + o --> y K,y,X + o --> £ TV8,0 drop before o
y pa 9 oo, yp&yco, k'ypaya 8yco, 6£o>, qyayov TTElOa), HEloO), ETTElOa
ICXETTTGO, icXEyco, EicXEya *TrXr|TTc*>t TrXq^co, ETTXQ^Q
* TT often represents an original palatal, combining with o to -->
-qoa) future on eco / aco noiEca, TTOIIÔCO, Enoiqaa

verbs 9iXE(A>, 91X1^00), E9iXqoa But: BOICECO 56â>v â
, TTEIVIÔO), ETTEIVqoa
OTHER Entirely new stem -4a> future* pouXopai pattern

VARIATIONS Xsyco, £pa>, sTnov gpaXov OKOUCA), iicouoopai, qKOuaa
9Epoa, oToco, qvEyicov PEVCO, pEVca, E peiva
*especially aftCT X, pv v, p
COMBINATION of the above variations opaco, By open, cT&ov , Bavoupoi, k'Oavov

(Which?)
I Exercise P: Translate:
1. he will throw 2. you (s) will make 3. they will love 4. she will leave 5.1 will hear 6. it will carry
124
PRINCIPAL PARTS
The Greek verb has many forms, generated by a small number of stems. So far you know how
to use three stems: the continuous, future, and aorist. The "/" forms of these seminal stems
are called principal parts. (What we have been calling the"/ do" form of the verb is its first
principal part.)
Eventually you will learn the first three principal parts of all verbs: IX, I will X91 X'd.
For now the first three principal parts of new verbs will be given in the vocabulary if needed.
Here is a sampling of principal parts. (A full list is given on p.249-250.)
E/O AORISTS oa- AORISTS NON-THEME AORISTS

ayco, a£oo, qyayov aicoua>, aicouoo|jait qicouaa POUVGO, Pqoofjai, E'pr|v
, ypayco, Eypaya yiyvaxjicco, yvdxjopai, s
, eupqoa), qOpov (or eupov) Varapai, aTqaojjai, Eorqv stand,
QVQOKGO, Gavoupai, c0avov intransitive, part of the system
Xappavco, Xqyopai, of YorriM1 I stand, cause to stand
Xcya>, £p&, cTnov vo|ji(a>,
XEITTCO, Xsiyco, E'XITTOV oiîco(a>
[javOavoo, paOqoopai, TTElOcO, TTEIOGO, ETTElOa
6p&a>, ZSyoâi, cTSov

TTIVCO, nfopai, ETTIOV LIQUID a- AORISTS
ninTco, TTEooujjcu, ETTEOOV
, ayyEXco, qyysiXa
Tuyxavco,
<pepo>, ofcxo,
, qysipa
(or [JEVCO, (JEVOO, EfJEIVQ
I Exercise y: Translate, using the information above. (Use pp. 249-250 or the dictionary for #12-14.)
1. ypayEiv 3. ÎEVE? 5. nXq^co 7. TTEivqooîEV 9. (cXEyovrri 11. oysTai 13. Eyovrai
2. a£ovra<; 4.56£opEv 6. OKJEK; 8. aicouoovTai 1O. OavErrai 12.TTEiaETE H. npaôuaai
THE FUTURE INFINITIVE
The future infinitive is sometimes used with certain verbs which anticipate future time.
There is no distinctive translation.
unioxv€O|jai - promise uniaxvoO|jai ypayeiv I promise to write.
i - hope EATTI£CO TTCpyciv 6<2>pa / am hoping to send gifts.
- be about tot intend to qJ€M°v Acfyciv I was about to leave. (Consider the Southern
idiom: "I was fixing to leave.")
THE FUTURE PARTICIPLE
The future participle is also used to show purpose. The perfect translationese, if you can
bear the quaintness, is a-Xing as in "Froggie went a-courting" (Or try about to X.)
EpXOjja i KXcycov Scopa. / come a' stealing gifts 1 1 come about to steal gifts.
I Exercise S: Translate:
1. They intend to steal. 2. She comes to stop the battle. 3. 1 promise to write a letter. 4. He is about to steal.
Classwork: ++ Read: New Testament #8-9, Thesauros p. 223.
?pyot -Write out the future forms for AEITTCO three times. Memorize.
-Read and translate "The Helping Hand." Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse all verb forms in bold print (Use the form chart above.)
125
THE HELPING HAND
avGpconoc; TIC; ITTCOCV TTOTC eic; noTapov oc; OUTTOTC ?)ja8c 1

veTv (to swim). Kai 6 avOpconoq £ic&Acocv "Spa ouSciq
ci>9cAi*)OCi |j€; icaicooc; npaTTco. OUK €(ja8ov veTv (to swim). 3
&TTO0avoupai £v TOUTCO TCO noTapa)." KOI npoc; TOV
noTapov £f3aivov noAAoi [JouAopcvoi CXUTOV ocooai. "66c;
|joi Tqv X^P0" sêyov. aAV 6 avGpcomx; ouScv Eirofqacv.
6' 6 NaopcSSivoc; STUXE napepx6|J€vo<; CqTqocov Tqv 7

Kuva. <ai aC6iq 6 avSpconoc; avepoqocv "J) 9iXE, pcXXcic;
|j€ X dye iv cv TOUTCO TCO noTapci;11 6 5c 1096^ Etnc TaSe- 9
M
86q |joi TQV x€^Pa Ka ' unioxvoO|jai ocoaciv oc." aXXa
6 avOpconoc; OUK cnofqocv ouScv. 6 BE NaapcSSivoc;
M
TI £OTI TO cpyov aou;" 6 8' av9pcorro<;
OTI TeXcovqq (tax collector) EOTIV.
i pcTa xpovov eTSov HOVTEC; TOV Io9ov ayovTa TOV

avOpconov CK TCOV uSaTcov TOU noTa(jou. Mnco<; fTUXC^f 15
qparrqoE TIC;. "'dxjtSicoq" anEKpivaTO 6 Io9oc;. "TOUTOU TOU
avOpcbnou elnovTO? OTI TcXcovqc; COTIV, OUK CKcXcuaa
auTco SiSovai poi Tqv XE^Pa cxMcx XapgTv Tqv X6^ M ou -
YIYVCOOKCO yap TOI TOUC; TcXcovac;, cbc; ouSev ouSEvi 19
OCOOOUGIV."
1 Aorist as Prior Past

Translate e'|ja8e = had learned. Greek has only one past tense, the aorist, for
a "once done" action.
OTI TOC pqXa €icX£ya - He said that I stole /1 had stolen the apples.
In English we can distinguish between a past act ("She called') and a past act prior to
another ("She had called before he came"). Greek uses the aorist for both.
Spa - indicates a question (perhaps with a tone of impatience or anxiety)
3 ci>9EXeco - benefit, be of service to + ace.
TTpaTTco, TTpa^Go, enpoô - do, fare, act — > practice, practical
OCO^GO, ocboco, cocooo - save
7,15 Tuyxavco, TEuôpa i, ETUXOV - happen to be + participle; meet up with + dative;
happen, succeed (when used alone)
napEpxopai- go by
ava|3oaco - shout out (literally "shout up")
(jEXXco, peXXqoco, cpeXXqoa - intend, be about to + infinitive (usually future)
9 Xdnco, Xeiyco, EXinov - leave — > eclipse, ellipse
unioxvEopai - promise + future infinitive
15- ETUXCC; - see Tuyxavco above. Which meaning? (See 7 above.)
19 TOI - "you know," an enclitic particle used more often in poetry than prose to add a kind of
emphatic confidentiality, possibly = dative 001. "Mark you" or let me tell you"
overtranslate it.
19 Anticipated Object
Sometimes what is going to be the subject in an indirect statement or question
will be given as the object of the verb that introduces that clause. This is called
anticipation (or prolepsis).
y lyvcooKco oc cbc; voocTc; -1 know that you are sick.
Literally, I know you, that you are sick.
(Greek grammar is often more relaxed than English.)
Scboco - future
126
Lesson 30. Verbs

Present
91X00
9iAr)OEi<;
9iXouoi(v) 9iAr)0£i 9iAr|aouai(v) EcpfXqoav
Imperfect
Infinitive Infinitive Infinitive

9iAqaEiv 9iXqoai
Participle Participle Participle

9iXcov, ouaa, ouv 9iAr)ocov, ouooc, ov t aaa,av
Many verbs have an -eco ending for the "/ do" form. These are called -ceo verbs or epsilon-
contract verbs or E-contract verbs. The -EGO verbs show contraction—a slurring together of
vowel sounds—only on the continuous stem. These are the rules that explain the changes:
£ + € --> ei
E + o —> ou
£ + any long vowel or diphthong —> the long vowel or diphthong (i.e., E is absorbed)
If accented £ is contracted, the resulting accent is a circumflex. ÎXE-OIJEV -->
Otherwise the original accent remains unchanged. E9iAE-ov --> £9i
I Exercise a: Write out all the uncontracted forms, apply the rules above, and see if they generate the paradigm.
Example: i - 91A - E - ov -> E9iAouv
The participle is as expected. cpiA£>v, ouoa, ouv = loving
M N
iXo>v 9iXouoa 9iXoGv
9iXouvTa 9iXouaav 9iXoGv
9iXouvTi
9iAouaai
9iXouaa<;
9IAOUVTGOV
9iAouoi(v) 9iXouoaic; 9iXouoi(v)
W Ambiguity Alert: As with uncontracted verbs, there is no difference in form between the
third person active and the dative masc./neut. pi. participle:
9iXouoi(v) they love or to I for loving ones.
127
We have actually learned most of the E -combinations by learning the pattern for TO y£vo<;.
The stem was originally ysvEo- but the o dropped out
E + i --> ei TCO YEVEI <— YEVE-I
€ + o --> ou TOU YEVOUC; <~ ycv€-o<;
€ + co --> GO TGOV yevcbv <— y£VE~cov
Most -EGO verbs have a future ending in "ôco, and an aorist ending in - qoa. You can see
how few of our ECO verbs have irregular forms (given in bold print).
aSucrjOGO q5iicr|oa JJIOECO jjiaqaca Ejjiaqaa

CMTEGO aiTqaco QTqaa VOOECA) vooqaa) Evoorjoa
oiicqaco
EyEcbpyqoa opoXoyEco
SOKEGO no i ECO noiqaco ETroir|oa
novEco novqoco ETiovqoa
tea X ECO iic&Xcoa
KOIVGOVEGO Koivoovqooo EKOivcovqaa
Class work: 4^> Read Diogenes #6, Thesauros p. 234.
Classwork or £pya: "Earth's Treasure" (paraphrased) by Aesop.* Put the sentences in order and translate.
(1) rnEiTO SE aneOavcv 6 naTqp.

(2) "ev TO?<; aypoTq |jou EOTI 8qaaupoq.N
(3) "naTSec; pou,M cTnev 6 rraTrip' M
oi oiXXoi vo|ji£ouoi JJE cTvai. aXXa TCO OVTI
(p. 98) nXouaioq dpi."
(4) 6 Xoyoc; SEIKVUOIV OTI 6 novoq Oqoaupoc; ^GTI TO?<; avOpcbrroic;.
(5) 8qaaupov (JEV oux qCpov, Kapnov SE noXuv q yq auToTc; avTE8coKEv (gave back).
(6) yEpcov (old man) ?]v HOTE oC oi irciTSEc; OUK q0EXov TTOVE?V ou5E
(7) (JETO SE TOV TOU narpoc; Oavajov, oi naTSEc; apOTpov (plow) icai SiKEXXac; (shovels)
Tqv yqv 8icopu£av pouX6|JEVOi TOV 8qoaupov EupE?v. (SiopuTrco -dig through)
(8) (JEXXcov SE aTT00avE?o0ai, (JETEHE|jyaTO TOUC; naTSac;, EXnf^cov auTouq noiqaEiv
nXouoiouq TCO yECOpyE?v. (pETanEfjnopai - send/or) (EXniCco - hope)
M
(9) u|j?v TOV Gqoaupov Eupouoiv EOTOI
Classwork or ?pya: What is the story so tersely told below? State or draw the sequence of events.
(You can see how much information the participles and relative pronouns convey.)
6 Ppoyoc; - noose auT&p - but XITTEV = E'XITTEV STTTC*) - fasten
Xpuoov avqp Eupcbv EXinE ppoxov auTap 6 Statyllius Flaccus

ov XITTEV oux €^p^v ?jyEV ov qOpE
-Write the continuous forms for £r|TEa> and oiicEco. Memorize.

-Write the participle for £r|TEo>.
-Read and translate "You're Right!" Learn the vocabulary.
*The idea of scrambling and the choice of story was borrowed from Ancient Greek by Carl Ruck, used with permission.
128
YOU'RE RIGHT!
?jv TTOTE 6 NaopeSSivoc; SiKaoTqq. cv SE VUKTI TIVI TOU
Naope55ivou Ka0eu8ovToq cv TGO avco (upper) pepci Tqq oiKiaq
r^XOov 5uo avSpcc; oV cpioouv aXXqXouc; KOU o? q^KpeopqTouv
n£pi icXonqq ipcmou. Kai ap9OT€poi TOV Joôv cicaXouv 4
M
KaTa|3q0i. icaTapqOi. ^qToGpev Tqv aXqOciav. JqToGpsv Tqv
SiKqv."
6 5£ NaapcSSivoq icarapac; qpobTqacv OUJTOUC; • "^ avSpcq, TI

ETUXCV. 5ia TI EicaX€?T€ (jc; T( iqT€?T£;" Kai oi 5uo QTOUV TOV
Io9ov Xcyciv noTEpoq 6 6iicaio<; icai noTcpoc; 6 aBiicobv. icai 9
€KaT€po^ cTncv cbc; 6 €T€po<; TO ipaTiov fcVAeyev. 6 pcv rrpcoTOc;
TaSc sTnEV TCO ETEpco- "oiya (= oiycrE), KXcnTqq. ancoXcoa TO 11
i|jcm6v (jou. cO oT5a OTI KXeyaq cpaXec; QUTO cv TCO aypcp."
6 8c CTEpoq eTirc Ta&e- "ou oiyqo<o. ou yap 6 icXcnTqq. 5ia oou
arrcoXcoa TO cpov ipaTiov." 6 5e Io9O<; QTqocv ap9OT€pouq Touq 14
avSpac; Xoyov Tq^ KXonqq BiSovai.
<ai TOU (jcv npcoTou TOV Xoyov aKOuoaq cTnev auT(2> "cl> 9iXc,
aXqGq Xcyeic;.11 cpouXcTo yap nauoai Tqv paxqv. EHCITO 5c TOU
CTcpou TOV Xoyov aKouoaq cTnc TO OUTO KOI OUTCO- "£> 9iXc, 18
aXqOq Xcycic;.11
q 5c yuvq TOU 10906, TOUTO aKOuoaoa, cTnc TCO avSpf- M<L 9»Xc
avcp, oi |j£v aXXoi KaXoOof OE OO9OV, E(JOI 8£ 5oKE?c; (jcopoq.
oux ojJoXoyci ou8E opoXoyqoa) OUHOTE. ncoq yap EOTI 5uo
avSpac; TO EvavTia XsyovTac; a(J9OTEpou<; aXq0q XsyEiv; 23
OUK EOTIV ou8auoo<;.M 6 6c evvoouucvoc; cTnc Tq yuvaiKi Ta8c-
M < F ' \ » \ / \ » » > ' »
co 9iXq, aXqQq Xeyciq.
4 q KXonq - theft (KXETTTCO)

q aXqScia - truth
q 6iKq - justice
9 6iKaioc;,a ,ov-just
11 6XXu(ji, -coXob, -coXcoa - destroy, ruin, lose (used in poetry)
airoXXuiJi - destroy utterly, lose (common in prose)
11 Compound versus Uncompounded Verbs

When you look up principal parts, you will sometimes find a hyphen in front
of certain parts. For example: pafvco, -pqoo|jai, ~€pqv. This shows that
while the uncompounded form is found on the continuous stem, future and aorist
forms are always prefixed-e.g., avapqoo(jai, KaTEpqv.
Some verbs occur in poetry in uncompounded form but not in prose:
OVQOKCO (in poetry), ano6vr|OKCo (in prose)
6XXu|ji (in poetry), anoXXupi (in prose)
Some verbs are never used except with a prefix: aîofJqTcco.
/&£» This situation occurs in English as well. We have the compound verbs to remember
and to dismember, but no simple verb to member.
23 EvavTioqôv - opposite (EV + OVTI)

EvvoEO|jai - reflect on, consider (have in one's vouq)
129
Lesson 31. -&co Verbs; Use of npfv; The 99% Principle
I honor
CONTINUOUS Tipcov/ooa/ov
Present M N
TI(JCO Tipcooa TI|J60V
TlfJOTE TI(JGOVTa Ti|j<2>oav TI|J<2>V
Ti|ja TI|JGOOI(V) Ti(j(2>vTO<; TIJJCOVTOC;
Imperfect
TIJJCOVTEC; Tipcooai
ETI(JGOV ETI|J<2>|JEV TipcovTac; Tipcboac;
ETI|Ja(; ETI|JaTE TI(JCOVTCA)V TI(JCOOcbv TIjJCOVTCOV
ETIjJd TIUCOOl(v) ' -*v—./.A
Infinitive
Tipav
Participle
Many verbs have an -aco ending for the "/ do" form. These are called -aco verbs or alpha-
contract verbs or A-contract verbs. The aco verbs are less common than ECO verbs. These are the
patterns:
a + € -> a a + o —> co
a + EI —> 91 a + ou —> co
a + q —> a a + co — > co
a combined with any e sound is long a; a combined with any o sound is co.
Another way to say this is that an initial a "conquers" any a, E, or q that follows.
I Exercise a: Write out all the uncontracted forms, apply the rules above, and see if they generate the paradigm.
Example: E - Tip - a - ov — > ETIJJOOV
1. Tifja 2. ETf(ja 3. TIJJOXJI 4. 5. ETfpa>v 6. Tipcov 7. EpcoTaTE 8. qparra 9. opcopEV 1O. copa
They, too, have a future ending in "ôco, and an aorist with ending in - qoa. The following
are the -aco verbs we have learned, with irregular forms in bold print
} / » t j /
EpCOTdGO EpooTqaoo qpcoTqoa TTEivaco* TTEivqoco ETTEfvqaa
poaco (3oi*)00|jai Epoqoa Cqoco
ysXaco vcX&oopai iyiXaoa *nciv6a) and (&o> are irregular in having an eta in
op a GO oyopai cTSov their continuous forms where an alpha is
aiyaco oiyqoco Eoiyqoa expected. (Seep. 114.)
I Exercise y: Translate: I.CHOETE 3. copcu; 5. £poa>|JEv 7. qparrnoaTE 9. ycXaoovTai (punt)

2. EycXcav 4. ETTEIVQ 6. qpcoTCOv 8. EpcoTqaETE 1O. oyQ (forms on p. 124)
130
USE OF npiv (before, until)
rrpiv + infinitive before (may take accusative + infinitive construction)
npiv + personal verb until (verb introducing npiv is usually negative)
k'Accfkc; 8£>poc npiv cX0€?v. ^ You received gifts before coming.

fc'Aapec; 5<2>pa npiv qpac; cAOeTv. You received gifts before our coming.
OUK E'Aafkc; 5a>pa npiv qX6o|J€V. You didn't receive gifts until we came.
I Exercise 8: Translate:
1. 1 learned the story before leaving (once) the city. 3. 1 didn't learn the story until they left the city.
2. 1 learned the story before their leaving (once) the city.
THE 99% PRINCIPLE

Basically the stem of a participle tells aspect—ongoing (or repeated) vs. completed. In fact,
what is ongoing is usually (let us say, 99%) contemporary with the time of the main verb,
while what is complete is almost always past.
For this reason, the usual translation of a continuous participle is Xing, of an aorist
participle having X'd.
£f|TGOV TO SotKTuAiov ETTEoev. Seeking the ring, he fell.
(The seeking and the falling happened together.)
£f|Tr)oac; TO SaKTuXiov ETTEOEV. Having sought the ring, he fell.
(The seeking happened prior to the falling.)
However, it is possible (a small percent of the time) that what is ongoing will not be
contemporaneous with the main verb and therefore is not to be translated Xing.
For example, here is a line from a poem attributed to Plato, in which Lais, an older woman
who has lost her looks, dedicates her mirror to Aphrodite. She describes herself this way:
+ q TCOV epaoTcov EOJJOV ETTI npo8upoi<; Aaiq ?xouoa v£<ov
Lais, the one who used to have a crowd of young lovers at her door
(Obviously she does not currently have a crowd of lovers.)
Likewise, it is possible that an aorist participle will be about what is momentary but not
prior to the main verb and therefore is not to be translated having X'd:
dcvapXcyaq eTnev. With an upward glance, he spoke. (It is not that he looked up first and
then spoke. Rather as he spoke, he gave a completed upward glance.)
This is relevant to Plato's description of Socrates' last hour. Socrates, who had been
condemned to death for not having the proper regard for the gods asks whether he may
pour out a drop of his poison as an offering to the gods before drinking the it He asks
the man who brought the hemlock Taupq66v unopxfeya<; -with a bull-like up-
front-under glancs. It is impossible to translate this gracefully. One pictures Socrates
giving a fierce, upwards glance, as a bull might. It is not likely that he gave the glance
and then spoke. Rather he must have spoken with a (completed) glance.
The 99% principle is a subtlety of Greek. Be aware of it.
Classwork: ++ Read Graveyard #21 and Diogenes #3-4, Thesauros pp. 229 and 234.
£pya -Write the continuous forms for Epayraco (including full participle)
-Read the first part of "Never Enough," a Nigerian story.
-Parse the last sentences. (ouSeic; yap to the end.).
131
NEVER ENOUGH (Parti)*
qjJEpgi Tivi qGpEV q x^Xcovq frmov *v ToTq aypoTc;. Kai
KOTqX0EV EK; Tqv EauTqq noXiv £nox€uo|JEvq (riding) ETT
auTou. iSovTEq BE TOUTO TTOVTEC; oi EV TQ noXEi E'Xsyov
aXXqXoic;- "dx; (JEyaXonpErrqq (magnificent) q xcûwq.11 Ka*
navTEq ETIJJCOV auTqv. Kai nav TO ETOC; oi PEV nXouoioi 5
auTcov EKaXouv auTqv ETT{ 8E?nvov, ol SE TTEvqTEc; EXsyov ax;
Eu5a(|jcov EOTIV. 8ia SE TOUTCC cbc; (jaXiora TovYnnov E9iXEi
q x^Xcbvq KOI OUHOTE OVEIXCTO ETvai SVEU auTou.
Kai q(JEp9 TIVI ETTopEuaaTO q x^Xcovq Eiq aXXqv noXiv. EKE? 9-

SE EKaXEOEv auTqv avqp TI^ nXouoioc; ETTI 5E?nvov. |JETQ SE
TO 6E?nvov qpcoTqoEv 6 rrXouoioc;" "cl) 9iXq, cOcXeic; Ka0Eu5Eiv
Tqo8s Tqq VUKTOC; EV TQ oiKiqx pou; 001 pEV EOTI KaOEuSEiv
EV TQ OIKI^, TW 5E VnTTcp iv TQ &no0qKQ (barn)." "ouSajjcbc;11
anEKpivoiTO q x^Xcovq- "onou yap Ka8Eu5a> Eycb, EV TOUTCC 14
TOO Tonco KOI 6 Ynnoq pou Ka6Eu5Ei." 6 BE nXouoioq Kainsp
vopi^cov TOUTO aTonov OUK E?HEV ouSEv. KOI 6 Ynno^ KOI q
XEXcbvq Ka9q05ov EV TCO auT<2>.
KOI TOUTQ TQ VUKTI, OTE q x^Xcovq Ka8q06Ev, rrpiv HEOE?V EI<; 18

unvov, qKouoE ToO Ynnou OTOVOV psyav. KOI Spapouoa
(having run) npoq OUTOV pouXopEvq pa0E?v 8ia TI OTEVEI TOV
Yrnrov qCpE TE0VEooTa. vuv SE q x^^^vn M^Ya ^TEVE Kai
(jEya Ep6a Kai copcoÊv "oYpoi, TovYnnov ancoXEoa. oYpoi,
oVjJoi." Kai OUTCOC; avEpoa CJOTE 6 06pu(3o<; (racket) qycipE 23
navTa^ TOUC; aXXouq TOUC; EV TQ oiKfp.
6 SE SEOHOTQC; EioEX0cbv qpcoTqoE "TI EOTI; 5ia TI EyEipEic;

qpaq TOUTCO TCO 0opupcp (racket)." "oYpoi" avEpoqoEv q
XEXobvq- "TE0vEcbq 6 Ynnoc; pou." 6 SE SEOHOTOC; "aXXa TOUTO"
E9q "OUK OTOTTOV. yEpaioc; yap ?jv 6 YTTTTOC;. TI (JEXEI 001;" 28
q SE x^^^H ocTTEKpivaTO "nac; JJE ETipa 5ia TOUTOV TOV
YTTTTOV. Kai EC oT5a OTI OUKETI EOTOI poi Tipq. ou6Ei<; yap
Tipa x€^^vnv MO £xouaav Ynnov OU&E KaXs? Eiri 5E?nvov.
TOUTO KOKIOV navTCOv. oYpoi. TovYnnov ancoXEoa."
5 Tipaco, Tipqoc*), ETipqoa - honor (fitom f\ TIJJH = honor)

avExopai - endure
9~ ETiopEuoaTo - from rropEuo(jai Punt.
EKE? - (adv.) there
14 onou - wherever
18 HP iv 4- infinitive - before
TTITTTEIV EIC; UTivov - Note the continuity of idiom; we say fall asleep, fall into a deep sleep.
6 OTOVOC; - groan
OTEVGO (no future or aorist) - groan <--> thunder —> stentorian --> (via Latin) detonate
oipcb^co, oipcoôijai, cppcoâ - wail aloud, lament (literally, "say oYpoi")
23 EyEfpco, EyEpci, qyEipa - wake
6 SEonoTqc; - master ~> despot
yEpaioc;, a, 6v - old (of persons, often a term of respect) — > geriatrics
q Tipq - honor —> timocracy, Timothy
28 E9q - Notice how E^q may break up a quotation. Look for this in the Thesauros.
KOKIGOV^V - worse (comparative of KOKCX;)
This story is freely adapted from "Ijapa Cries for His Horse" in Olode the Hunter, © 1968, by Harold Courlander
with Ezekiel A. Eshugbayi; used with permission of the author.
132
DIOGENES
Students who came to hear

Aristotle lecture on politics in the
320s B.C.E. would have heard
what became a famous remark. "A
human being is a living being
whose nature is to live in a polls."
The being who can live apart
from a polls, the independent,
self-ruling city, he added, is either
a god or a beast.
At about this same time, a young

man whom many called a god is
said to have made his way to visit
a homeless man who called
himself a beast. "I am Alexander,"
said the young man, "the Great
King." "And I," answered the
homeless man, "am Diogenes, the
Dog."
Figure 1. Alexander and Diogenes by Mauro Gandolfi. Bologna Pinacoteca Nazionale.
It is unlikely that such an encounter ever happened. But Diogenes and Alexander are appropriately paired
in legend, because they set in motion changes that were to make the polls a secondary political structure.
Alexander, before he died of fever at the age of thirty-three, conquered the lands to the east of the
Mediterranean all the way to India. In so doing, he prepared the way for the polls to become a mere part
of larger confederations and empires. And Diogenes, unlike Socrates and Plato, did not refer to himself
primarily as a citizen of a polls, but, in a phrase he invented, a cosmopolites, a citizen of the universe.
Diogenes' remarks are often like philosophical jokes, whose punch lines make us look at things in a new
way. Watching the temple officials lead away a fellow who stole a bowl that belonged to the temple,
Diogenes responded, "The big crooks are leading away the little one." So much for the temple officials!
In his challenge to the conventional viewpoint of the listeners, Diogenes' words and actions are like the
words of Socrates or the stories you have been reading about Nasrudin. But there is a difference in tone.
The words of Diogenes the Dog often have, as he himself said, a "bite." Because of Diogenes' name for
himself, this biting philosophy came to be called "cynicism (kunismos) of the dog."
Not only is the "bite" of the dog important for cynics, but also the dog's freedom from the rules that dictate
the social behavior of humans. Thus Diogenes, like a dog, could live in a cistern, engage in bodily
functions in public, and be indifferent to his own discomfort.
There is a certain freedom in Diogenes' independence from material possessions, passions, and the desire
for power and honor. Perhaps it was because he recognizes this freedom that the great Alexander is
supposed to have said, "If I were not Alexander, I would wish to be Diogenes."
133
Lesson 32. Contrary-to-Fact Conditions
The Constant Lover

by Sir John Suckling
Out upon it, I have lov'd

Three whole days together;
And am like to love three more,
If it hold fair weather.
Time shall moult away his wings

Ere he shall discover
In the whole wide world agen
Such a constant lover.
But a pox upon't, no praise

There is due at all to me:
Love with me had made no stay
Had it any been but she.
Had it any been but she

And that very face
There had been at least ere this
A dozen dozen in her place.
We humans like to speculate. We have a way of talking about possibilities that never became
realized:
If it were raining (understood: but it is not)
I would be wearing boots, (understood: but I am not)
If you had invited him (understood: but you did not)
he would have come. (understood: but he did not)
This if-then sequence is called a contrary-to-fact or unreal condition.

In an earlier stage of English we could use the past tense in both if and then clauses, as
Greek does. (See Suckling's poem above.) Now we use a past tense in the if clause and a
would in the then clause.
GREEK CONTRARY-TO-FACT CONDITIONS
//"clause Then clause

(called protasis) (called apodosis)
Present: el + imperfect imperfect + &v

Past: el + aorist aorist + fiv
Present contrary-to-fact (verbs are imperfect):

EI ^KOUCC;, £p6iv9avc<; &v. If you were listening (now), you would be learning (now).
Past contrary-to-fact (verbs are aorist):
EI qicouoat, ?Ha9ct &v. If you had listened (then), you would have learned (then).
NEGATIVE
The negative of an if clause is |J^ of a then clause ou.

EI (Jf) qicouoac;, OUK E|ja0E<; av. If you had not listened, you would not have learned.
134
> Exercise a: Label the conditions first, then translate. (TTIVCO, aor. ETTIOV, TTJTTTO>, aor. ETTCOOV)
1. If they were drinking, they would be falling. 4. If they had not drunk, they would not have fallen.
2. If they were not drinking, they would not be falling. 5. If they were seeking, they would be finding.
3. If they had drunk, they would have fallen. 6. If they had not sought, they would not have found.
MIXED CONDITIONS
As in English, there may be mixed conditions in Greek, for example with a past "if clause" and a
present "then clause."
d pq îcouoac, OUK fiv £p&v6avec. If you had not been listened (then),
you would not be learning (now).
OMITTED "IF" CLAUSE

The //" clause will not always be given. Therefore it is crucial to notice 8v with the
imperfect or aorist, because it completely changes the meaning.
fiAGov. I came.
ttv. / would have come (but did not).
I Exercise ft: Translate: 1. EypayapEv. 2. cypayapEv 8v. 3. ci pq t\ yuvq Â9ev, EypayajjEv av.
4. E! jjq ^v ^lÂia QUTOK;, OUK av rjOsAqaav avayiyvcboKEiv.
THE 99% PRINCIPLE (AGAIN)

While the imperfect in a contrary-to-fact condition usually (let us say, 99% of the time) refers to what is or
is not going on in current time, there may always be that small per cent of statements in which it refers to
the past. (For the 99% principle with participles, see p. 130 above.)
E! qicouE<; if you were listening (now) OR (rarely, say 1%) if you had been listening (then)
E|jav0avE<; av you would be learning (now) OR (rarely, say 1%) you would have been learning (then)
In fact the imperfect will often refer to the past for verbs whose meaning necessarily involves a state or
ongoing process. For example, having (tyv>) is always ongoing. And dpi has no aorist at all, so that the
imperfect must be used for any state of being in the past.
Given all the ambiguities, the following Greek statement can be translated several ways.
E! fôOa acxpo^, OUK fiv tTx^ Kaica. (â9a = you (s.) were, imperfect of EIJJI)
If you were (now) wise, you would not (now) have troubles.
If you had been (ongoing, in past) wise, you would not (now) have troubles.
If you had been (ongoing, in past) wise, you would not have (in the past) had troubles.
(In fact it is only sense, not grammar, that prevents the fourth possibility: nIf they were now wise,
they would have had (in the past) troubles" -impossible only because time does not run backwards!)
Classwork: Read Heraclitus #18-19, Xenophanes #5, and Graveyard* 22, Thesauros pp.
225, 226, and 229 (This passage shows Xenophanes as the father of cultural relativism.)
Classwork or ?pya: Translate. (See p. 124 for principal parts.) Which pairs are the same?
1. If you (sing.) were not drinking, you would not be falling. 5. If she were (see above) wise, she would be rich.
2. If you had not been drinking, you would not be falling. 6. If she had been wise, she would be rich.
3. If you had not drunk, you would not have fallen. 7. If he had books, he would know the story.
4. If you had not been drinking, you would not have fallen. (Use a form of ?xw and y iyvc*>oica>.)
8. If he had had books, he would know the story.
9. If he had had books, he would have known the story.
Ip ya -Read and translate the conclusion of "Never Enough." Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the last sentence.
135
NEVER ENOUGH (Part 2)
6 5£ SsonoTqc; TOUTO OKOUOOC; ETmv M£EVOC; pou cT, KOI

E0EXco noiE?v navTa COOTS TOUC; Êvouc; (guests) xafpeiv-
vuv 5f8co|ji 001 Ynnov Kaivov." icon EKEXEUOE Tiva TCOV
SouXcov ays iv npoq Tqv x^Xcbvqv Ynnov KOIVOV. 4
Kai 6 Kupioc; Tqc; OIKIOC; aCOic; EnEOEV EIC; unvov, Kai navTEc;
oj aXXoi oi EV TQ oiKip—nXqv Tqc; x^Xcbvqc;. Kai (JETO
Xpovov TO SeuTEpov E|36a icai cpiJCotEV COOTE navTac;
EyE?pai. KOI 6 SEOTroTq^ a59i<; qpa)TqoE TI EOTIV. q SE
XEAcovq aiTEKpivaTO* NoV|Joi. a6u(jco. psyaAq q Xunq (jou. 9
EI yap pq 6 rrpcoTOc; VTTTTOC; aiTESavEv, E!XOV av vuv 5uo.M
6 BE Kupio^ MoipcoÊi(;H E^q M6ioTi OUK EXEIC; 5uo VTTTTOUC;.

aXXa navTa EOsXco HOIE?V COOTE TOUC; ÊVOUC; (jou xaipîv.11
KOI TauTa Eincbv EKEXEUOEV 6 nXouoioq TCOV SouXcov Tiva
EioayEiv ETI aXXov Ynnov. 14
Kai a39i<; EnEOOv EIC; unvov navTEc; oi EV TQ OIKI^ nXqv Tqc;

XEXcbvqq. ou yap E5oKouv OUTQ ou6E 8uo Ynnoi iKavoi
ETvai. Kai ÎETO (JiKpov xpovov TO TpiTov avEpoa Kai
COfJCOÊV. TCO 8E SEOnOTQ EpCOTqOOVTI TI EOTIV ETnEV q
XEXcovq- MoTpoi. cix; paXiOTa a9upco. pEyaXai ai Xunai
(jou. EI |jq 6 npcoToc; anE0avEv, vuv av E!XOV TpE?^ Kai 20
Ev6|jiôv av ETvai navTcov EuSaipovEOTOTq." 6 BE SsonoTqc;
M
aXXa ouTcoq" E9q "VOIJIÊ. 5i8copi yap 001 ETI aXXov Ynnov.
vuv SE oiya (= ofya~E) COOTE navTaq Ka0Eu5Eiv.M
aXXa TQ X^^ÔVQ o^< ESoKouv OU&E TpE?<; Ynnoi iKavoi ETvai. 24

Kai TO TETapTov copcoÊv "E! pq 6 npcoToc; ansOavE, vuv av
ETxov TETTapaq." vuv SE 6 SsonoTqc; paXa opyiôpEvoc;
EKEXEUOE TOV SouXov TOUC; Ynnouq aipsTv KOI Tqv x^Xcbvqv 27
EKpaXsTv EK Tqc; oiKiaq. 6 SE 8ouXo<; TOUTO EnoiqoEv TOUC;
Ynnouq ETXE Kai Tqv x^Xcbvqv EÊpaXEv EK Tqq OIKIOC;.
|jETa 5s TOUTO q x^Xcbvq KaTqXOsv EIC; Tqv EauTqc; noXiv

OVEU Ynnou. Kai naoi TO?C; EpcoTcboi Mnou 6 Ynnoc; oou;M
TO OUTO EXEyEV "OVJJOI. El |jq TO TETOpTOV COfJCOâ, 32
vuv av sTxov TpE?c;.M
6 Êvoq - guest / host. The Greeks had a single word for either person in this
relationship. Guest-friendship, the relationship of host and guest, was a sacred tie.
~> xenophobia (from £EVOC; in the sense of foreigner)
4 6 SouXoc; - slave
Kaivoq, q, 6v -new
(jETa xpovov - after a while, after a time
9 6c6u|jEco - be disheartened (from a + Oupoc; - spirit, courage --> thyme <~> fume
q Xunq - pain, grief
14 sioayco - lead in (EK + ayco)
ETI - yet, still (in degree as well as time)
24 IKOVOC;, q, 6v - sufficient, enough
27 aipEco, aipqoco, cTXov - take, seize —> (by a devious route) heretic
EKpaXXco - throw out
136
Lesson 33. Indirect Discourse in Greek and English; The Gnomic Aorist
INDIRECT DISCOURSE
In indirect discourse a statement (of what someone says, thinks, observes, etc.) is given
indirectly--i.e., is introduced by a verb of saying (Xcyco), thinking (vopftco), or observing
(CXKOUCA>). There are three ways of giving the situation as reported, in indirect discourse:
(1) »TI or cbc (2) Infinitive (3) Participle
£D Do we sometimes use how in English to mean little more than thatl -for example, in such a statement as "You know
how they came into the house and told lies to everyone."
The way of reporting depends on the verb of thinking, saying, observing, etc. A Greek child
would learn (by being corrected) that while (s)he may use Acyco with OTI and cbq or with an
infinitive, vopi^co always takes an infinitive and &KOUCO takes a participle. And so on.
Original statement: "Achrouoi Tqv noXiv." "They are leaving the city."
Indirect Discourse: Aiyco OTI Xcfnouoi Tqv noXiv. I say that they are leaving the city.
vopi(o) QUTOU<; Aefneiv Tqv rroXiv / think [that] they are leaving the city.
&KOUCO auToiu; XEfnovra^ Tqv noXiv I hear [that] they are leaving the city.
I Exercise a: Translate the following, using the grammatical constructions above:
1. She says I am crying (2 ways). 2. She thinks that I am crying. 3. She hears that I am crying.
PERSON IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

There may be a change of person in indirect discourse. It happens in Greek exactly as it happens
in English, and it makes perfect sense. The direct statement is from the point of view of whoever
is speaking, thinking, or observing. But the indirect statement is from the point of view of
whoever is reporting. We make these changes constantly and automatically.
Person A: "He's a fool"
Person B: "So! You say that he's a fool?" Third person: no change.
Person A: "You're a fool"
Person B: "So! You say that I'm afoolT Second person: change.
TENSE IN GREEK INDIRECT DISCOURSE

Indirect discourse is utterly simple in Greek. When using a personal verb (one with personal
endings) with OTI or cbq, use the same tense in indirect discourse as was in the direct statement.
When using an infinitive or participle, use the same stem.
As was said before, the future is really a tense inserted into a system that shows aspect. The
most common use of the future participle and infinitive are to represent a future indicative verb in
indirect discourse.
Direct statement "Aciyouoi Tqv noXiv." "They will leave the city"
Indirect Statement Aeyco OTI XcfyOUOl TqV TToAlV. / say [that] they will leave the city.
VO(Jl£o> OUTOUC; AcfyCIV TfJV noXlV. / think [that] they will leave the city.
CXKOUGO auTOUc; AcfyovTa? Tqv noAiv. / hear [that] they mil leave the city.
I Exercise P : Translate the following, using the grammatical constructions above:

1. They say that we will write. 2. They think that we will write. 3. They hear that we will write.
COMPLICATIONS: TENSE IN ENGLISH INDIRECT DISCOURSE

There are further complications in English indirect discourse. In Greek, the tense (or stem) of the
direct statement is used in the indirect statement In English a change must sometimes be made.
137
Direct: "ypoêi" Indirect Aeycic; OTI ypa9€i. You say that she is writing.
"She is writing" cTncq OTI ypacpei. You said that she was writing.
Not only do we change an is to a was when reporting on what was said in the past, we normally change a future
will to a conditional would.
Direct "ypayei." Indirect Xcyciq OTI y pay EL You say that she will write.
"She will write." cTncc; OTI ypayci. You said that she would write.
> English is more precise and more demanding than Greek. Suppose you report on Wednesday what she said
last Saturday. Does it matter whether she said she would write the coming Tuesday or the coming Thursday? You
would usually report, "She said she would write." When would you report, "She said she will write"?
Direct "ypayci." Indirect Aeyei<; OTI yp&y€l. You say that she will write.
"She will write." cTncc; OTI yp&yci. You said that she will I would write.
There is even more complication when the aorist as prior past is taken into account, (p. 125.)
Direct "eyp a V EV -" Indirect Acyeic; OTI Uypaycv. You say that she wrote / had written.
"She wrote yesterday." £peTq OTI £ypaycv You will say that she wrote I had written.
"She had written EIITEC; OTI £ypaycv You said that she wrote I had written.
(before I called)."
£»£* All this shows how time-conscious we English speakers are, and also how much information we may give
without even being aware of it There are at least four times to keep track of : (a) the time the statement was
made, (b) the time the statement referred to, (c) the time the statement was reported, and (d) real time = NOW.
Remember: it is English, not Greek, which is complicated.
GNOMIC AORIST
An aorist may be used in wise sayings (yvcojjai) to express a universal truth. This is called the
gnomic aorist. Always translate a gnomic aorist as if it were present tense.
+ naGcbv vqnioq ?pa6ev. A fool learns by suffering. Literally, A fool learned having suffered.
(proverb in The Agamemnon by Aeschylus)
Compare "Faint heart never won fair lady." We use a past tense, but we really mean "never did win, never
wins, and never will win."
Classwork: ++ Read Heraclitus #20-22, Thesauros p. 225.
Classwork or fpya: Circle the direct statement behind each of the following sentences. Then translate.
There may be several choices for the translation. Give as many as you can.
1. XEyco OTI ai XEXobvai OUTTOTE ypayouoiv emaroXac;.
2. eTiTEc; OTI oi aSeA9ol OUTTOTE ypayouoiv EniaToXa<; TCO arpaTiciTQ.
3. EpE? OTI oi yEcopyoi E0cmrov TOV Oqoaupov.
4. Etrrov OTI oi y£c*>pyoi OUK Enofqaav TauTa.
5. EXsyojjEv OTI ai TOU nXouoiou aSEXcpa! ou 91X01)01 TTIVEIV uSa>p.
6. ETrrETE OTI £0£Xr)OETE opav Tqv oiiciav Tq<; VECK; fy; TOV aoEAcpov EI&ETE EV TO?<; aypoTc; yscopyouvTa.
?py a -Translate the following sentences into Greek:

1. We were saying that the three sisters would remain in the house.
2. She says that the king did not know her.
3. You (s) said that the soldier would bring strangers into the city.
4. They said that they had not stolen the money.
-Read over Heraclitus #1-22. Find three other gnomic aorists besides the one in today's reading.
Heraclitus is a mysterious author. Can you find a common thread of meaning in the readings?
138
Lesson 34. More on Indirect Discourse
CONSTRUCTION IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE
STL cbc Infinitive Participle AH Three

eTnov SOKECO think or Infinitive
ayyeXXco
VO(Jl£a>
OTL cbcorlnf. op a GO CXKOUCO
Xcyco qy£0|jai consider aio8avo|jai perceive
EUplOKGO
Cpfjpl (including &pq)
OTL cbcorPart opvupi,
(javOavco UTTIOXV€O(JCM
Verbs of thinking usually take an infinitive,verbs of saying often take an infinitive, and verbs
of perceiving or finding seem to prefer the participle.
I Exercise a: Translate the underlined words, being sure to give all possibilities:
1. Are you saying (<pnH') that she wants to go? 6. We see that you (pi.) are sick.
2. They say (Xcyco) that you (sing.) write often. 7. He announced that she is leaving.
3.1 learned that he steals. 8. He thinks that vou are staying.
4.1 swear that they are bringing the gifts. 9. Do you perceive that the children are really learning?
5. Did you find that they drink wine?
NEGATIVE IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE

In indirect discorse an ou in the direct statement is represented by an ou in the indirect statement
(Except in indirect discourse ou is rarely found before an infinitive.)
Direct statement: "06K Eiroiqoc 6£?nvov.M
Xcyco OTI OUK ETToiqoE SE?TTVOV. / say that he did not make dinner.
VOJJI^CA) auTOV ou TTOiqocu SeTrrvov. I consider [that] he did not make dinner.
CXKOUCO auTOV ou noiqoavTa ScTnvov. I hear [that] he did not make dinner.
SAME SUBJECT OF INFINTIVE OR PARTICIPLE

If the person reporting is the same as subject of the verb in the direct statement, no new subject
for the infinitive will be given. Any words agreeing with the subject will be nominative.
DIRECT INDIRECT
ano0vr|OKOuoiv. They are dying. vo|ji(a> aCrrou<; airoOvrjoicEiv. / think [that] they are dying.
anoOvQOKOo. I am dying. VO}jf(cO &TTo6vif|OKIIV. I think [that] I am dying.
00901 Eioiv. They are wise. voyftco aCnrou<; 00906^ ETvai. I think [that] they are wise.
0091*1 E 'M' I am wise. vo|jf(a> 009^1 ETvai. I think [that] I am wise.
VOOE? He is sick. ayyEXXcj auTov vooouvra. I announce [that] he is sick.
vooco. I am sick. Ayy^XXa) voociv. I announce [that] I am sick.
00901 E!OIV. They are wise. ayyEXXe*) OUTOK; 00901^ ouaac;. I announce [that] they are wise.
I am wise. AyylXXco 0091^ ETvai. I announce [that] I am wise.
0091*1 E 'H L
I Exercise 1. vopf££TE ou vooqoEiv. 5. ayy£XXEi<; TOV uiov Eupouaa.
Translate: 2. EVOpHETE OU VOOfjOEIV. 6. Xsysi OE OUTTOTE cpiXqosiv nivEiv uScop.
3. ayy£XXo|JEV 0vr|aicovTE<;. 7. XEyEI OUTTOTE (plXqOEIV KXETTTEIV.
4 ayyEXXojJEV auTov OvrjoicovTa. 8. ayysXXEi^ JJE TOV uiov Eupouoav.
POSSIBLE AMBIGUITY IN »TI / &s CONSTRUCTION

Notice that in the OTI / cbq construction there is sometimes ambiguity, in Greek as in English.
For the statement Xcyouoiv OTI k'ypayav* They say that they wrote, only context can show
whether the ones who say and the ones who wrote are the same.
OTI and cbc; seem to be interchangeable. (Or could ox; be a shade more tentative?)
139
NO AMBIGUITY OF PERSON WITH INFINITIVE OR PARTICIPLE
Ambiguity of person may occur with the OTI construction but not with the infinitive or participle:
ayycXXouoi OTI AEiyouaiv. They announce that they (same they?) will leave. (Ambiguous)
ayyEAAouoi AEIYEIV. They announce [that] they (same they) mil leave. (Nonambiguous)
ayysAAouai auTou<; AEIYEIV. They announce [that] they (different they) will leave.
ayyEAAouai AEIYOVTE<;. They announce [that] they (same they) will leave. (Nonambiguous)
ayyEAAouoi auTouc; AsiyovTac;. They announce [that] they (different they) will leave .
I Exercise y: Translate, indicating clearly whether the person in each part of the sentence is the same,
different, or ambiguous. (cuo8avo|jai = perceive)
Direct Statement: voocT. Direct Statement: yp&youoi.
1. aioOavETai OTI VOOEU 6. qyysAov auTouc; ypaysiv.
2. aioGavETcu 7. qyysAov ypayovTE<;.
3. aiaOavETcu auTov voaETv. 8. qyysAov OTI ypayouoiv.
4. aiaOavETcu voocov. 9. qyyEAov QUTOU<; ypayovTac;.
5. aiaOavETai auTov voaouvTa. 10. qyysAov ypayEiv.
AMBIGUITY OF STEM WITH INFINITIVE OR PARTICIPLE

An infinitive or a participle in indirect discourse has the same stem as the personal verb had in
the original statement. Since the same stem is used for a present and an imperfect, the infinitive
and participle constructions does not show tense as precisely as the OTI / cbq construction.
TI y pc»9ETE sQ. / say that you (pi.) write well.
Nonambiguous. Original statement: cO
OTI Eypa9ETE EC. / say that you used to write well.
Nonambiguous. Original statement: cO
VOJJI£GO ujjac; yp&9civ eu. / think [that] you write I used to write well.
Ambiguous. Was original statement cO ypoÊTe or cO
CXKOUGO Opa<; yp&fpovTac £u. / hear [that] they write I used to write well.
Ambiguous. Was original statement eO ypo^CTt or eO
Note: If &KOUCO connotes hearing rather than learning a fact through hearing, it will take a genitive object.
For verbs of finding and discovering, only context may show whether there is indirect discourse or not
qOpov auTov EaOiovra. 1 found [that] he is/was eating OR I found him eating (ambiguous)
&KOUGO QUTOV KdAoOvTa / hear [that] he is/was calling vs. aKOUO) auToG icaAouvTOc; / hear him calling
Classwork: ++ Read all of Xenophanes (rereading Xenophanes #5), Thesauros p. 226.
Classwork or £pya: Translate into Greek. Use the infinitive construction in the first four sentences,
and a participle in the next four.
1. I swear that I will bring the money.
2. I found that she had brought the money.
3. They thought that they (different they) would bring the money.
4. They thought that they (same they) were bringing the money.
5. She announced that she (same she) will send the apples.
6. I perceive that she sent the apples.
7. Will you announce that he is sending the apples?
8. They heard that they (different they) are sending the apples.
Challenge: Consider the statement qicouoa TOV paaiAEa voaouvra. Could it be translated (a) "I heard that the
king is sick," (b) "I heard that the king was sick," and (c) "I heard that the king had been sick"? Yes! Explain.
(Hint If there can be an aorist as prior past, why not an imperfect?)
?py a -Read and translate "The Death of the Pot" Learn the vocabulary.
-Parse the last speech in the fourth paragraph. (no><; . . . anE0avEv)
140
THE DEATH OF THE POT
npspa Tivi 6 1096^ ciaqXOev EIC; Tqv OIKIOV 91X00 TIVOC; <at
ayysTa jjcyaXa iScbv cine Ta8e* "d) 9iX£, TUXQ aya0Q opco
Ta aa ayycTa. (jeXXco yap noiqoEiv SeTnvov (Jeya <ai
navTa Ta cpa ayycTa (jiKpa EOTI. 56<; |joi xpn°6a» svi TCOV 4
acov ayycicov, KOI uniaxvoO|jai anoScbaciv Tpicov qpEpoov."
"eGyc" ETnev 6 91X0^. Kai 6 Naop£55ivoq KaTqXOev ciq Tqv
oiKiav TToiqocov TO ScTnvov.
(j£Ta 5e TpeTq qpepac; EOTQCEV 6 1096^ ayycTov paXa 8

(jiKpov EV TOO TOU 91X00 ayy€ia) <ai r^XOcv anoScbacov.
6 5c 91X0^, i5cl)v ayyeTov [JiKpov IOTOIJEVOV ev TCO (jcyaXcp,
qpcoTqaEv M aXX, co 9iX£, TI ETUXEV; EV 001 ayysTov sScoKa
(I gave), KOI vuv 5uo opco." 6 SE 1096^ qyysiXs TO ayycTov
TEKeTv naT5a. 6 S£ 9iXo<; xîp^v cSâTo TO 5uo ayyeTa. 13
JJETO 5c noXuv xpovov, r^XGcv aQOic; 6 NaopeSSivo^ TO OUTO

aiTqocov €9^ (jeXXciv noiqoEiv 8e?nvov pcya KOI xpQCsiv 15
ayyeiou peyaXou. "56<; |joi xpn°9 ai aCiQic; TCO ayyeico
TCO (jeyaXcp KOI unioxvoO|jai ano5cbo£iv Tpicov qijcpcbv."
"e5y£M ETnsv 6 91X0^. <ai 6 ^096^ k'Xapg TO ayycTov.
KOI qpepai rroXXai napqpxovTo. aXXa 6
ou KaTqX8ev anoScoocov TO avyeTov. ?jX6ev o5v 6 91X0^ 20
npoq Tqv TOU 10906 oiKiav. '£> 9iXe" qpcoTqoEv "nou
TO ayy£?ov |jou;" "arreKpivaTo 5e 6 1096^ d>8£- M^> 91X2,
aioOavq |je SaKpuovTa; Sc? |je 6eivov TI 001 ayysTXar 23
TUXQ KaKioTQ TO ayysTov ancbXeoac;. XuneT pc ayycTXai
TO ayycTov oou anoOavsTv." 6 Se 91X0^ avepoqosv.
"nax;; no?ov Xoyov Xeyeic;; qyq |j£ (jcopov cTvai; OUK EOTIV
ayyeTov anoOaveTv. ' 6 (jq ^cov OUK aneOavev.'" 27~
6 5e Io9oc; anEKpivaTO (jovov ToSc* "eV |JOi cnioTeuec;
TCO npiv TO ayycTov ayyeXXovTi TEKeTv, XPH v ^ v rrioTeueiv
(joi TO ayycTov ayyeXXovTi a
TO ayyeTov - pot, vessel

q Tuxq - fortune good or bad, chance; good fortune
4 xP^ 0 H a1 ' XPnooM0{| (aor- ^XPn o ^Mn v ) • use' m^k^ use of + dat
(Has eta-forms: xp<*>H ai > XPQ» XPH Tai » i^- xpn°®a|)
ano8i5co|ji, fut. anoScooco - give back
8 VoTqjJi, oTqoco, k'oTqoa - set upright, stand something up
(vs. VoTajjai - / stand intransitive)
13 TIKTGO, T€ô(jai, £T£Kov - give birth
5Exo|jai - accept, receive
15 XPQ^60 (no future or aorist) - have a lack, want, or need of + gen.
23 aia0avo|jai, aio0avou|jai, qo06|jqv - perceive, perceive of + ace. or gen.
(Often takes participle in indirect discourse) —> aesthetics, anaesthesia
- awesome both in the sense of terrible and/or wonderful
ov - worst (superlative of KOKOC;)
qy£O(jai -consider
no?o<;,a,ov - what sort? what sort of a?
27- aTToOvQOKGo, aorist arreOavov. What sort of aorist is aneOavev?
TTIOTSUGO, TT i GTEuooo, ETTioTcuoa - trust, trust in + dative
141
PRINCIPAL PARTS
The Greek verb has many forms, generated by a small number of stems, which are learned as
principal parts. There are six main principal parts:
IX, I shall X, I X'd, I have X'd, I have X'd my..., I was X'd
The "IX" form is called the first principal part. Verbs are listed in any dictionary by their first
pricipal part In other words, to find the meaning of c^cpa Aev you need to look up
The first three principal parts are the most important: Present, Future, and Aorist Active
Indicative. Memorize them over the next four days. Later you will learn to recognize the others.
Not all verbs have all six principal parts. (OTCVCO has only the first principal part.)
i/o AORISTS
&yo>, 8£co, qyayov TE^VCO, TEpO), ETEÎOV (OT ETOjJOv)
PaXXco, paXco, gpaXov TIICTCJ, TEÔpai, ETEICOV
EupioKco, Eupqoco, qupov (or Eupov) Tuyxavco, TEUôpai, ETUXOV
EXCO, E*£O> or oxqoco, EOXOV
OvQoicco, Oavoupai, E0avov CHANGE-OF-STEM E/O AORISTS
(in prose anoOvqaiccA))
Kapva>, Kajjoujjcu, Eicapov a!p£cot aipqaco, ETXov
Xappavco, Xqyopai, k'Xapov Epxopai, EXEuoojjai, ^X6ov
XEIHCO, X Eiy GO, EXinov E00ia), E5opait E9ayov
[javSavoo, }ja6qoo|jai, EjjaOov XEyco, Epco, ETnov
nivco, niojjai, EHIOV 6paa>, oyopai, ETSov
niTTTCO, HEOOUpai, EHEOOV 9Epa>, oTaco, qvEyicov (or qvEyKa)
oa- AORISTS
aicouco, aKouaojjai, qicouoa KpunToo, icpuyco, EKpuya
paaiXEuco, paoiXEuoco, EpaaiXEuaa pEXXck), pEXXqaco, EÊXXqaa
pXinco, pXEyopai, k'pXEya voiJiCca, vopico, Evopiaa
POUXEUCA), pouXEuaco, spouXEuaa oiîco^co, oipobôpai, c5(ja>â
ypa9co, ypayco, k'ypaya nai&Euco, TTaiSEuaco, ETraiSEuaa
Saicpuoo, oaKpuoco, toaKpuoa rraua), nauoco, kVrauoa
EOEXco, E0EXqocA>, q0EXqoa TTElOcO, nEIOCO, ETTEIOO
EuSco, EuSqaco (no aorist) (in prose, nEpTTC*), nEjjyco, EHEjjya
ica0Eu8a>) TTIOTEUCO, TTIOTEUOCO, EniOTEUOa
0anTc*>, 0ayc*>, E0aya TrXqTTCo, irXq^co, EirXqâ
KEXEUCO, KEXEUaCO, EKEXEUOa npaTTco, npa^co, k'npa£a
KXETTTCO, KXEyoo, EicXEya ocot(A>, ocibaco, k'acâa
flpuXaTT^t ouXa^co, copuXoiôi
IRREGULAR CONTRACT with Xa- AORISTS

oa- AORISTS AyyEXXco, ayyEXco, r^yysiXa
yafJEco, yaîco, Eyqpa
SOKECO, So^CO, E&Oâ EyEipco, EyEpco, qysipa
KaXEco, KaXco, EKaXEaa KaOaipco, icaOapco, EicaOqpa
poqOECo, Poq0qoo|jai, EpoqOqoa KplVCO, KplVCO, EKplVa
KTEIVO), KTEVoi, EKTEIVO (pfOSC anOKTEIVC*))
ysXacA), yEXaaopai, EyEXaoa fJEVCO, pEVO), EÎEIVa
aiyaco, oiyqoopai, Eoiyqoa oiKTipco (or olKTEipa>)» oiKTipto, coKTipa

oqpaivco, aqpavco, Eoqjjqva
SPECIAL AORISTS
Paivco, pqaopai, k'Pqv Terra jjai, OTqoropai, Earqv
yiyvciaicc*), yvciooîai, Eyvcov Xaipco, vaipqoco^ Evapqv
142
TTQUO), nauoco, Enauoa I I Tip&co, Tipf)aa>, tTlpqaa I 1 9iX£a>, 91X^00*, &pfAr|oa I
Most verbs with an upsilon (u) before the -co ending follow the nauco pattern and need not be
learned separately. (For example, paoiAeuo>, ôuXEua>, 8aicpua>, KEAEUCO, and TTIOTEUO>.)
Most Contract Verbs follow the Tipaco / 9iAEco pattern and need not be learned separately.
Some verbs lack some principal parts. For example, nE8uo>, OTEVCO, and XPC)£<*> have no future or aorist
has a future but no aorist in Attic Greek.
Memorize the principal parts listed on page 141. Be prepared to write them. As you work on
each segment of the principal11parts, read the corresponding segment (see Roman numerals) of
"How to Weigh an Elephant, a Chinese story going back to Han times (third century C.E.).
Do not be dismayed if the memorization seems tedious. It is well worth the effort and will allow
you one day to read Greek secure in your knowledge of the forms.
Vocabulary is given in advance for once, so that you may have a smoother experience of reading.
To know what it is like to read with full knowledge of vocabulary, learn the vocabulary lists on
pp. 60-61, 106-107, and p. 145. How does it feel to read a text without looking up words?
VOCABULARY for "How to Weigh an Elephant"
I paoiXeuco - be king, rule over + gen. (paoiAeuc;)
9opEpoc;,6i,6v - fearful, either causing fear or experiencing fear (96^0^ = fear)
6 5£xo|joi i - accept, receive
ÊViKcx^rôv - foreign (£EVO<;)
TIE pi + ace. - about (in the sense of around) — > perimeter
E£CA> - outside (adv.), outside of + gen. (EK, E£)
nAqv (as conjunction) - except
11 pouAEuco, pouAEuoco, EpouAEuoa - plan, deliberate
6 vojjoc; here = law
13 ou|j|3ouAEucA) - plan with, i.e., give advice to + dat., counsel (oup|jouAo<;)
6 ouppouAoq - adviser, counsellor (ouv +
22 q onouSq - haste
25 9qpi - 1 say (enclitic) + accusative infinitive construction ~> fame, infamy, etc.
26 SOKECO has three meanings: (a) seem, (b) think (introducing indirect discourse),
and (c) seem best (used in decrees, e.g., It seemed best to the people to free the prisoners)
6 9opo<; - fear --> phobia, phobic
EiSEvcu - to know (infinitive of oT5a)
30 6 KivSuvoc; - danger, risk
q oivq - silence; oiyq is used as an adverb - silently, in a whisper (oiyaco)
36 6p6o<;,q,6v - straight, correct, right -> orthodox, orthodontist
42 TO |j£Tpov - the measure, measurement, limit --> meter, metric, odometer
6 OTOI 0 pcx; - weight (related to Torq |j i and YOTQ pa i )
- measure ((j€Tpov)
HI 51 npooExoo TOV vouv - apply the mind to, pay attention to, concentrate on + dat
6 nopoc; - solution, literally, a way to cross a river <--> ferry, fare, ford
(Note: Oxford is a translation of the Greek Boonopcx;, literally, cow-crossing.)
— > (via Latin) port, transport, export, import, important
57 Ti|jio<;,a,ov, also Tipiocôv - honored, valued, valuable (q Tipq)
KTEIVCO, KTevcb, EKTEIVO - kill, slay (in poetry)
anoKTeivco - kill off, slay (the normal term in Attic prose)
62 9euyco1 9€uôpai 1 frpuyov - flee — > (via Latin) fugitive
iiOv - young (as well as new)
IV 82 EVTctGOa - (adv.) here
6 XiGoc; - stone - > lithograph, megalith
Gqoco = future of TiGqpi
93 TTCuSEuco, TTcuSEuoco, ETTcuSEuoci - educate, bring up a child (TTCUC;)
143
HOW TO WEIGH AN ELEPHANT
I paoiXcuc; ?jv ncm EV TQ yq Tq Iiviicq (Chinese) oc; avOpconcov

IpaoiXsuEv noXXcbv aXX' ou TTOVTCOV . KOI oCroc; 6 paoiX€u<; ?)v
9op€pcx;. oi 8£ aXXoi paoiXcTq cvopiôv auTov 9opepcoTctTov SIOTI
ol GTpaTicoTai auToO ?joav cl>^ TtXcToTOi icai co<; ioxupcoTaToi.
8ia 5e TOUTO navTcq oi paoiXeTq CTTCPTTOV aurco 8cbpa. 6 5c
cbq paXiaTa €9iX€i SIxeoQai 6oopa arro yqc; êviKqc; COOTE
(javOavciv ncpi navTcov a erri TQC; yqq EOTI. ncpi yap TQV oiKiav
Tqv paoiXiKqv »")v T€?XO<; |J€ya icai uyqXov (high). 6 8c paoiXcuc;
ounojE €^qX9£v kXco TOU TEiyouc;. icai OUK €^€X0d)v OUK 'T'"
TTEpi T£>V cni jqq yqc; rrXqv TO?<; Scbpoic;.
KOI TCO paoiXc? POUXEUOVTI KOI Kpivovn ncpi a(J9iopqTqo€O)v 11

(disputes) icai HOIOUVTI VOJJQUC; naoiv ^bv EpaofXcue ouvcpouXEuov
TETTapEq oujjpouXoi. KOI TOUTOiq ToTq ouppouXoiq ?jv 8uo €pya, 13
TO |j€v npcoTOv TCO {UaoiXcT ouppouXcuciv noiouvTi vopouq, TO 8c
SeuTcpov ayycXXciv TCO paoiXc? ncpi navTcov TGOV Scopcov a
€TT€(jnov auTO) oi paoiXcTc; oi
KOI q|J€p9( TIVI TCOV TETTapcov oujjpouXcov KaSiôpEvcov napa TCO 17

TEI/EI Tqq oiKiac; Tqq paoiXiKqq avqp TIC; ?jX0EV EXâvTa aycov
ov ETTE(jyE paoiXEuq Tqq yqc; Tq<; 'IvSiicqc; (of India), oi BE
ouppouXoi EHEpyav SoGXov TCO paoiXE? ayyEXouvTa av0pconov
ayayovTa Scopov cbq (JEyioTOv EK Tqq yqc; Tqc; 'IvSiKqq. 6 SE
paoiXEuq TauTa aKouoaq noXXq OTTOU&Q ?)X6E pouXopEvoc; i5E?v TO 22
5copov.
II oi BE oujjpouXoi qpâvTO 5iaXEyEo9ai aXXqXoiq nEpi TOU Scbpoir

6 IJEV rrpooTOc; E?HE Ta8E* Mc& 91X01, TOV paoiXsa qpcbv 9q(Ji TOUTCO 25
TCO Scopcp xîpqoEiv SOKCO auTov coq paXiOTa xaipq^îv- aya0Q 26
6q TUXQ EPXETQI 6 EXâq." 6 SE BEUTEpoc; E!TTE 9opco pEyaXc^)-
H
na>q ayaOq TUXQ; yiyvcooKopEv TOV paoiXsa cbc; navTa pouXETai
(ja0E?v, navTa EiSEvai. EO oTSa OTI EpcoTq|jaTa cbc; xaXEircoTaTa
EpcoTcovToq auTou, q|j?v EOTQI KivSuvoc; cbc; ÊyioToc;." 6 SE TpiToq 30
"oiyaTE11 E9q. "opoo yap TOV paoiXsa Epxopsvov vuv. oux opaTE
auTov paivovTa;N 6 BE TETapToc E!HE TaSs oiyq cSoTE
qicouov Tqv 9covqv auToO- "cb^ SEIVOC; ÔTIV 6 qÊTEpo
KOI cbc; BEIVO TO EpcoTqjJOTa OUTOU. EI (JEV TUXQ aya6q 6
EI BE icaicq, TOXECO^ EupqoopEV."
icai 6p0coq E9opouvTo oi ouppouXoi. opcov yap TOV EXE9avTa 36

E!HEV 6 paoiXEuc;- "cbc; KaXoc; EOTIV 6 EXE9ac;.M anEicpfvaTO BE
ouppouXoc; 6(joXoyou(jEvoc;- "vai, cb paoiXEu, icaXoq EOTIV 6 EXâq,
KaXXfcov TOU Ynnou." 6 BE PaoiXEuc; sTnEv "icai cbc; (JEyac; EOTIV."
aXXoc; BE ouppouXoc; cbpoXoyqoEv H[JEyac; EOTIV, (JEI^COV TOU
Yimou." 6 BE paoiXEuc; anEicpivaTo C&BE* "TOUTO KOI (jcopoc; EXEI
opav. pouXopai |ja0E?v aicpipcoc; (precisely) TaBs- nooa TO (jETpa 42
TOUTOU TOU ^cbou KOI noooc; 6 OTa0po^. noico |J^TPV M€TP°âiv °'
av0pconoi EXâvTa;"
oi BE ou|jpouXoi sTnov "d> PaoiXEu, ncbc; EOTIV EupE?v TOV OTa0|j6v

TOU EXâvToc;; ou yap EOTI Ti0Evai OUTO EV TO?C; TaXavToic; (trays
of a scale)." 6 BE E!HEV povov TO&E' "aKouoaTE* u|j?v |jq TOV
oTa0(Jov TOU EXâvToc; Tpicov qpEpciv Eupouoi 0avaToc; EOTai." 43
144
HOW TO WEIGH AN ELEPHANT (continued)
III oi SE ou(j|3ouXoi TOUTO aKouoavTEc; cbc; (jaXicrra £9o|3ouvTo.

Kai Tqv TE npcoTqv KOI Tqv SsuTEpav qpEpav ouSsv aXXo ETTOIOUV
q npooEXEiv TOV vouv TCO&E- ncoq E'OTIV supsTv TOV OTa0|j6v 51
sXâvToc;. Kai ouSsva rropov supovTEc; TQ Tprrq qH^PP ^
(jaXioTa q0u|jouv. SqXov yap Pjv auToTc; cbc; TqSs TQ q|j£pa
auTouc; TO 9<2>c; TOU qXiou
<ai TGOV aujjôuXcov 6t0u[jouvTcov KOI AEyovTcov aXXqXoiq OTI OUK

EOTI 9uycTv TOV OavotTov, EioqXSe na?q TIC; VEOC;, uioq yecopyou.
KOI TcxSc eTnev Md> avSpec; TIJJIOI, ncoq TTpaTTETs;" 6 Sc oujjpouXoc; 57
6 VECOTaToc; qyyEiXcv auTouc; KaKcoq npaTTovToq KOI TCO nai51
eTncv "(L naT, TUXQ KOKQ eiaqyayc TIC; EXâvTa TCO paoiXe?
SoÊv auTco q|J^^ anoKTETvai pq TOV oTa0(j6v TOU cX6(9avTO(;
vTaq. [Jiac; SE qpspac; EpcoTqoEi q(Ja<; TOV OTaGpov <ai OUK
EOTOI q|j?v TO TEXoq GavoiTou 9uyE?v." 62
6 SE naTq &6E anEKpivaTO* "d) avSpEc; Tipioi, oT8a OTI Eycb vEoq EIJJI
Kai U(JE?C; EOTE av5pE^ 00901 Kal yEpaioi. aXXa 5oKGo nopov EupsTv
cb^ u(j?v EOTai (ja0E?v TOV TOU EXE9avToq OTaOpov. TOV
Xsyoo OUK anoKTEVE?v u
IV oi SE aujjpouXoi SiEXsyovTo aXXqXoiq- 6 JJEV rrpcoToc; qpcoTqoEV 67

"ncoc; EOTI TOUTO; " 6 5£ SEUTEpoq c^5E ETnEv "naTc; TIC; VEO<; XsyEi
Eupslv oiTEp qjJETq oi 00901 KOI yEpaioi 5uo q|JEpaq ^TOUVTEC; oux
qupopEV. |jq auTou aKouocoiJEv." 6 SE TpiToq E9q "ou (JEVEI qpTv
Xpovoq. aXX 1 EV TCO XP^vcp TCO Xoinco xpq pouXEUEoOai nEpl TOU
OTa6(Jou TOU EXâvToq." 6 5£ VECOTOTOC; ou(jpouXo<; E?HE TO
TETapTov, KOI oOToq oo9COTaTa sTnEv "5uo qpEpaq ^TOUJJEV TOV 73
OTa0|j6v TOU sXâvToq, ou&sva nopov supovTEc;. XPH v ^ v HM^^
CXKOUEIV Kaivov TI." KOI TCO naiSi ETnEv MJ) naT, XsyE qpTv, Ttva
•nopov qOpEc;;'1
6 SE rraTc; E!HE TaSs- "c5 avSpEq EVTIJJOI, d)6E, obq SOKCO, XPH ^M^^ 77
noisTv npcoTov JJEV EIC; nXoTov (boat) ayaysTv TOV EXE9avTa o EV
TCx) TTOTa|JCp EOTIV. KOI TOUTO TTOiqoaOl EOTOI U|J?V OpOV TO TOO
noTapou uSaTO avaâivovTa ava Taq rrXEupac; (sides) TOU nXoiou
(boat). KOI onoi av TOU nXoiou (to whatever point of the boat) TO
u5aTa avapaivq (should rise), EVTauOa xpq ^M^^ ypayai oqpa. 82
E'TTEITO SE xpq ^M^^ T^v EXâvTa ayayovTac; EK TOU nXoiou OVTI
auTou Ei09EpEiv XiOouc; EIC; TO nXoTov EGJC; av (until) TO u5aTa
ava(3aivQ (should rise) ETTI TO OUTO. KOI (JETCX TOUTO, EI TOUTOUC;
TOUC; Xi6ou^ GqoETE EV ToTc; TaXavToiq (trays of a scale) EOTOI u
TOV OTa0(JOV TOU EXE9OVTO<;
oi 5s ou|jpouXoi TOUTO aKouoavTEc; cbq (jaXioTa k'xaipov. KOI 88

ETTOiqoav cbc; EKEXEUOEV 6
KOI 5ia TOUTO TCO (3aoiXE? EpcoTcovTi Tq TpiTq q(JEpa nspi TOU
OTa0|Jou TOU EXâvTOc; s5uvavTo anoKpivao0ai oi ouppouXoi.
Kai OUTGOC; 6 JJEV paaiXsuq E|ja0E TOV TOU EXâvToq oTa0|j6v, oi SE
oujjôuXoi E|JEivav EV TCO picp. TOV SE naTSa oi aujj(3ouXoi OUTOI 93
EnaiSEuaav GOOTE EyEVETo (he became), OTE avqp f^v, ou yscopyoq
cooTTEp 6 rraTqp, aXXa oujjôuXoc; TOU (JsyaXou
145
VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 108-144)
NOUNS ADJECTIVES
A-Group |3aoiAiK6<;,q,6v OaTTTO) EPXOMOI
y€Xo?o^,a,ov KaOaipco anEpxopai
q 5iKq Ycpaioc;,^^ KpUHTCO SiEpxopai
q KXOTTq
ocivoc;, q, 6v KTEIVCA) EÊp^(0|Jai
q Xunq BiKaioq^^v anoicTcivco napEpxopai
n T'MH EvavTioc;,a1ov XEIHCO
n °'rn iKavoc;,q,6v oiKTipco Xpaopai +dat.
q OTTOu5q Kaivo<;,q,6v oijjcb^co
qruxq KStOapoqôv nai&€UGo EVVOEOpai
^£viKoq,q,6v n£i6co qyEOpai
q copa
oXo<;,q,oy niOTEUO) UTTIOXVEO|Jai often + future
6p06^,qtov nXqTTO) infinitive
q aXqOcia
Tipioq^^v & oq,ov npaTTOo
TU9X6<;,q16v OTEVCO NOTE ALSO
oSEonoTqc;
9op€p6q,a1.6v OCO^GO eXPOv (imperfect of xpr))
O-Group TIKTCO £'90
T€6v£cbc;,uTa16(; 9Euyco ElSEVai (infmitive of oT5a)
6 avEjjoc; XPQ^
6 ppoToq TTpCOTOC^q/DV
8oK£GO: think, seem, seem best
65oGXoc; 8€UT£poq,a,ov a&IKEGO
TplTO^^^V
6 KdpTTOC; aOupEO) OTHER
6 KivSuvoq T€TapToc;1q,ov aipEco
(jqSEic;, (jqSEjJia, |jq5Ev
6 XfGoq ap9iopqT£oo
6 Xoyoq noToq^^v TO)
poq0ECO
6 £EVO<;
6 novoc;
(jqSdcîjqScijia, 50KECO - seem, think,
seem best
n?n
|jq8ev (jaTqv
6 nopoc; XUHECO
6 OTOVOC; ouScTcpoq^^v (JETpECO npiv
6 TOTTOC; HOVECO nXqv
6 UTTVOC; a>9EXECA)
6 KUKXoq VERBS onou
6 OTaGpoc; poaco OUTOX; . . . COOTE
oouppouXoq ayco avapoaco
6 cp6f3oc; cioaYco ysXaco Spa
6 xpôoc; pafvco (imper. pq9i) Caco TTOTEpOV
avapafvco Tipaco
6 vouq (= vo~o<;) eiopaivco TTEp
E'XEIV EV vcp EKpaivco E'lTTEp
npoaexoa TOV vouv KOTapaivco 81800 (j i OOHEp, qTTEp, OTTEp
TO ayycTov npopaivco ano5f5(A)|ji
TO apyupiov paXXco ToTqpi EKE?
TO (JETpOV CKpaAAoo oXXupi EVTaOOa
paoiXeuco anoXXu(ji
Third Group pXcnco E^CA) + gen.
avapXcnco aio0avo|jai -f gen. (jETa + gen.
oeXâc;, TTEpi + ace.
gen. EXâvTo^
KOTapXEnco or ace.
TO o5c;t gen. WTOC; pouXcuco avExopcu
ouppouXeuoo anTOjjai +gen. E^CO
cycipco apxopai avco
TO CTOC; KCXTCO
TO OKEAoc; EuSco 5Exo|jai
TO T£?XO<; KaOcuSco (more SiaXEyopai +dat.
common) 6va~ up (in compounds)
KCJTCl' down (in compounds)
TO omppa **?,
avcxco
TO oci(ja
rrpooex^ TOV voui
146 VERB OVERVIEW: MOOD
To understand the form of a Greek verb is to know how to locate it in its paradigm.
Eventually you will need to keep track of the following:
3 VOICES (Active, Middle, Passive)

4 STEMS (Continuous, Future, Aorist, Perfect)
4 MOODS (Indicative, Subjunctive, Optative, Imperative)
INFINITIVE and
PARTICIPLE (one for each stem)
Each of the three voices has a page for its paradigm. For the next set of lessons, we will
concentrate only on the active forms of -co verbs. Once you have learned the shape of the
entire active page, it will be easier to go on with the other two pages of forms.
Going across each page are four stems. You have learned forms for three of the four:
continuous, future, and aorist. You will learn the perfect soon.
Going down are the four moods. You have learned the indicative mood and some forms of
the subjunctive and imperative. Soon you will learn the subjunctive, optative, and
imperative moods in a systematic way.
The indicative is the fact-reporting mood Facts necessarily happen in time. Only in the
indicative mood are there time-markers or tense. The other moods show aspect.
The paradigm of the active forms of nauco are given below. Forms marked by an asterisk (*)
have already been learned.
TTOUCO / stop (someone or something)
ACTIVE VOICE
CONTINUOUS FUTURE AORIST PERFECT
INDK:ATIVE
*nauco *nauopEv *nauoco *nauoopEv *?nauoa *inauoaÊV nenauica nenauKapcv
*nauEi<; *TOUETE *nauo£i<; *TrauoETE CTTQUOOKJ ETTQUOQTE nsnauicac; HEnauicaTE
*nauEi *nauouoi(v) *nauoEi *nauoouoi(v) *E*irauoE(v) *E*TToiuoav ncnauKc(v) ncnau<aai(v)
*£nauov *£nauopEV £ncnauKf| InEnauKEÊv
*£nauE(v) *E*nauov enenauKci(v) ^ncnauKcoav

SUBJUfNCTIVE
nauco * naucoÊV nauaco nauocopEV nenauKax; cL
nauoQq nauor|TE etc.
* nauq naucooi(v) nauoQ Trauocooi(v)
OPT ATIVE
nauoijji nauoipEV nauooifji nouooipEV nauoaipi nauoaipEV HEHOUICCOC;
nauoic; nauoiTE nauooic; nauooiTE nauoEiac; nauoaiTC ETqv
nauoi nauoiEV nauooi nauaoiEv nauoEiE(v) nauoEiav etc.
IMPE RATIVE
* nauE * nauETE naGoov nauaaTE ncnauKax;
nauETCO nauovrcov nauoaTCO nauaavrcov Ta6i
etc.
INHNTTIVE
*nauEiv *nauoEiv *nauoai HEnauKEvai
PARTICIPLE
*naucov,ouoa,ov *na 6acov,ouoa fov *nauoa<;,aoa,av nenau^.uTa,^
Lesson 35. The Subjunctive 147
CONTINUOUS FUTURE £/oAORIST a-AORIST

INDICATIVE
Xcfnco XEITTOPEV XEiya> XEiyopEv EXlHOV EXlTTOpEV Enauoa EirauaapEV

XEITTEK; XEITTETE XEiyEi<; XEiyETE 2XlTTE<; iXlHETE Eirauaac; EirauaaTE
XEITTEI XEITTOUOI(V) X Eiy EI XEiyouoi(v) ?XITTE(V) EXinov ETrauoE(v) Enauoa v
E'XEITTOV EXEinojJEV
EXEITTE<; EXEITTETE
EXEITTEV £XEITTOV
SUBJUNCTIVE
Xcfnco XEITTCOIJEV Xinco Xincopcv nauoco nauocopev

XEIHQC; XcfnqTE XIHQ^ XinqTE nauoQc; nauaqTE
XeinQ X£ITTCOOI(V) XITTQ Xincooi(v) rrauoQ nauocoaKv)
INFtNTIWE
XEIHEIV XEfyE.v XlHE?V rrauoai
PARTICIPLE
XEina>v,ouoa,ov XEiya>v,ouoa,ov XiTTa>v,ouoa,6v nauoa<;,aoafav
## Ambiguity Alert: Xcfncd: The "I" present indicative and "I" continuous subjunctive are identical.
nauoaj: The "I" future indicative and the "I" aorist subjunctive are identical.
To form the subjunctive, take the appropriate stem and add the subjunctive endings. The
subjunctive endings are basically those of the present, but with a lengthened e / o vowel:
-co -CO(J€V
-Q -cooi(v)
The time-marker (E) is found only in the indicative, which reports facts in time. There is no
time-marker in the subjunctive, optative, or imperative.
Since the subjunctive is never used for reporting facts, its negative is always p^|.
The subjunctive shows aspect (not tense). Therefore there is no future subjunctive. (And
therefore it is correct to speak of a continuous subjunctive rather than a "present subjunctive" The phrase
"aorist subjunctive" works, since the aorist is both a stem and a tense.)
I Exercise a: Give the aorist form that corresponds with the following continuous subjunctives:
1.8yQ<; 2. E0EXqT£ 3.vopIC<*xyi 4. pav0avo>pEv 5. KXETTTCO 6. ayyiXXQ
TRANSLATION OF SUBJUNCTIVE / TRANSLATIONESE

There is no single translation that can gracefully express all meanings of the subjunctive.
The best translationese is should X. The subjunctive is used in various ways and,
remarkably, the word should works (though not well) for almost all those ways. It may
sound stilted and be almost misleading. Still, it is the most rapid way to signal that you have
recognized a subjunctive. Though not wholly satisfying, it is chosen as the least of all evils.
To translate an isolated subjunctive use should in inverted order.
"should they come" (as in, "Should they come, welcome them")
I Exercise ft: Translate: 1. fiyqc; 2.. 3. 4. jjavOavoopEv 5. KXETTTO> 6.

148
THE SUBJUNCTIVE: USE
The basic ideas expressed by the subjunctive are: WILL, PURPOSE, and FEAR. Aspect is
primary with the subjunctive, not tense. Is the action ongoing (continuous) or snapshot (aorist)?
AS MAIN VERB
HORTATORY SUBJUNCTIVE -Usually limited to "/" and "we" forms.

-Translate let me (as in "Let me see..") or let us (as in "Let's go\")
(Let me is a. way of spurring oneself on, not a command)
TOUC; YTTTTOUC;. Let's be taking the horses. Let's take (repeatedly) the horses.
(i.e. We should be taking I take the horses and let's do.)
TOUC; YITTTTOUC;. Let's take (once) the horses.
(i.e. We should take (once) the horses and let's do.)
A a poo TOUC; YTTTTOUC;. Let me take (once) the horses.
|jq Xapcopcv TOUC; YITTTTOUC;. Let's not take (once) the horses.
DFITRFRATIVF SITRHTNrTlVF -Usually limited to / and we forms.

DELIBERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
-Translate should I? or should we?
Tqv noXiv; Should we be leaving the city?
TI Xapco; What should I take (once)?
TI TTOlcipev; What should we be doing? What should we do (repeatedly)?
What are we to do?
SUBJUNCTIVE OF -Only on aorist stem, always negative, mainly in "you" forms

PROHIBITION -Translate as a command. "Don't X (once)."
Mf| Don't shout (once)/ (i.e., You (s) should not shout (once), so don't.)
Mf) ycXaarjTC. Don't laugh (once)/ (i.e., You (pi) should not laugh (once), so don't.)
I Exercise y: 1. pX£nu>|jEv. 3. ayyEiXoo|jEVTa8E. 5. TI XiycopEv; 7. |jq TTEyycayEv Ta
Translate: 2. pXEycopEv. 4. pq noiqoqTE T&SE. 6. TI Troiqaco; (2 ways) 8. pr) paXrjTE Ta
AS SUBORDINATE VERB
SUBJUNCTIVE with Tva, c«K» or KTTUC = SO that So that in English may express purpose
OF PURPOSE Translate with should or may I might , <**• 6na* +subJ-) or result (^TE + indicative)
TOUTO noic va / do this so that they should [or might) come (once).
TOUTO ETToiqoa Yva f AOcooiv. / did this so that they should [or might) come (once).
TOUTO TTOIGO OTTCOc; ioOlQTC. / do this so that you should (or might) eat (repeatedly).
TOUTO TTOICO cbq \lt] ?A9Q. / do this so that he should [or might] not come (once).
SUBJUNCTIVE -with pq = lest (negative ou)

OF FEARING -Translate with lest and should or the English subjunctive.
9o(3oG|jai (Jf*| 5aKpUQ. I fear lest he should cry / lest he cry. (Note: He cry is
an English subjunctive. This usage seems to be dying out.)
9opoG|jai |jf*) OUK £X6cooiv. i fear lest they should not come [or lest they not come)
1 Exercise 5: 1. <popoupai îq KapvtyrE. 3. EX0a>|jEv cl><; T5a>Êv TOU<; naT8a<;.

Translate: 2. avayiyvoioicEi Vva pavOavQ TI. 4. TOUTO TTOIGO ax; pq TO apyupiov SEVOI <\i\
Classwork: » Read Famous Sayings #5 and Diogenes #12-13, Thesauros pp. 232 and 234-235.
?pya -Write out the paradigm forms you have learned so far for fiyo> and again for <puXaTroo.
Label all forms as shown on the chart on p. 146.
-Read and translate the first part of "An Old Man's Advice," a Siberian tale. Learn the vocabulary.
Circle and parse the subjunctives. (There are eight) Say whether the subjunctive is hortatory,
deliberative, a subjunctive of prohibition, purpose, or fearing. Do the aspects make sense?
l 49
AN OLD MAN'S ADVICE* (Part 1)
f*jv TTOTE paoiXEuc; EV TQ yq TGOV MoyyoXcov (Mongolians),

o? navTEq COKOUV EV oicqvaTc;. Tqc; BE yqc; TauTqq OUK ouaqq
iKavax; Kapnf(jou k'SoÊ TOO paoiXE? TTOVTOC; Touq avOpdbnouc;
EIC; yqv VEOV nopEUEO0ai Yva nXEiova O?TOV Eupcooiv-navTac; 4
irXqv TGOV yEpaicov. q yap 656<; q ayouoa npoc; Tqv VEOV
yqv paicpa fjv icai xahrnf]. TCO BE paoiXE? EVVOOUJJEVCO nspi
TOUTCOV OUK k'Soâv iicavcoc; ioxupoi oi yEpovTE^ nopEUEoGai
666v Toiaujqv. EHEjjyEv oOv ayyEXov o<; T&SE qyysiXEv 8
;, anoKTEivco(JEv Touq yEpovrac;.11
oi SE aKouoavTEq qpcoTcov "anoKTEivcopEV.TOUc; TEKOVTOC;; M

6 SE ayyEXoq E?HEV OTI xpq noiqoai TOUTO Yva |jq anoOavcooi
HCKVTEC; EV TQUTQ TQ yq. KOI E9q xpqvai auTouc; TOUTO 12
noiqoavTac; Taq TE yuva?Kaq Kai TOUQ naTSaq ouXXafJovTac;
nopEUEoOai cbc; OIKCOOIV EV aXXq yq KapnipcoTEp^ Kai apEivovi.
oi 8' avSpEc; TOUTO OKOUOOVTEC; cix; paXioTa nOupouv. E9iXouv

yap navTEc; TOUC; TEKOVTOC;. aXXa TOV paoiXEa ÔÔUVTO Kai
k'SoÊv auTO?q TTOIE?V a EKEXEUOEV. ETq SE (jovoq OUTCOV, avqp
J) TO ovo|ja ?jv Zupqv, EToXpa anEi9E?v. TOV yap naTEpa 18
TOV yspaiov cbq paXioTa ETIJJO Kai EpouXETO ocboai auTov.
avTi oCv TOU TOV EOUTOU naTEpa anoKTE?vai EV OOKKCO

(jEyaXcp E0qKEv OUTOV OTTCAX; 9Epq OUTOV nopEuopEvoq. Kai 21
TOV OOKKOV OUVE?XKE (he used to draw together) COOTE |jq5Eva
6uvao0ai Eioi5E?v. Kai EV Tq VUKT{ TCOV aXXcov avOpconcov
Ka0Eu56vTO)v 6 Zupqv KOTETIOEI (used to put down) TOV OOKKOV
TqXE TCOV aXXcov Kai avEcoyvu Yva TCO naTpi napsxq TI EoOiEiv 25
TE KOI TTIVEIV.
, ov - fruitful (Kapncx;)
4 Tva + subjunctive - so that
irXEicov, nXsTov - more (comparative of noXuc;) <--> full — > pleonasm
6 yEpoov,ovTo<; - old man; as adjective old (actually a participle) --> gerontology
8 ToioGToq, ToiauTq, TOIOUTO/TOIOUTOV - of such a sort (with forms of oCrro<;, auTq,
TOUTO preceded by TOI)
6 TEKCOV, gen. TEKOVTOC; - father, pi. parents (actually an aorist participle of TIKTCO)
12 xPn vai • used as infinitive of xpq
ouXXappavco - gather together (ouv + Xappavco)
18 ToXpaco - have the heart, endure, dare
anEi0Eco - disobey (nEi0co = persuade, nEi0opai = obey)
6 TiaTqp, gen. iraTpoc; <--> father ~> patriarchy —> (via Latin) paternal, paternity
6 OOKKOC; - sack (probably derived from a Semitic word for sackcloth) ~> sack
21 TiOqpi, 0qoco, E0qKa - put, place —> thesis
orrcoq + subjunctive - so that
Eioopaco - look into
TqXE - far from + gen. --> telephone, telescope
oYyvujji, o'£co, J>£a - open (more common with a prefix)
25- avoiyvujji - open up (ava + oYyvupi) Can you punt this? (-vupi verbs have no
theme-vowel in the present and imperfect)
- provide (rrapa + E'
This story is freely adapted from "The Golden Bowl" in The Kaha Bird: Tales from the Steppes of Central Asia,
translated and edited by Mirra Ginsburg, © 1971; used with permission of the author.
150
Lesson 36. More Uses of the Subjunctive; Forms of clpf
A major use of the subjunctive is in generalizing—whoever vs. who, wherever vs. where, etc.
There will be an fiv (ever) in the neighborhood, either standing alone (o<; av SciKpuQ = whoever
should cry) or in combination (as in OTOV whenever = ore + av or in eav if ever) = ei + av.
WITH RELATIVE PRONOUN (oc; av, ov av, q av, etc.)

oq 8v yapQ M^P^ SOTIV. Whoever should marry [OR marries] is a fool.
oq 8v pq yapq (j£>po<; EOTIV. Whoever should not marry [OR does not marry] is a fool.
ov 8v T&QC paoiXcuc; COTOI. Whomever you should catch sight of [OR catch sight of]
will be king.
\*t\ as Negative in Generalizations

Remember: p^| tips you off that there is a generalization, whether the indicative, subjunctive,
or a participle has been used.
&C \if\ yapi? yoopcx; EOTIV. Who does not marry is a fool.
&C &v \if\ yapQ pcopcx; EOTIV. Whoever does I should not marry is a fool.
6 p^| yapcjv pcipcx; EOTIV. TAe one not marrying is a fool.
For a generalization with the indicative, see Socrates* famous statement of his "ignorance":
+ 8 pq oTSa ou5e oVopai eiSevai. What I do not know, I also do not think I know.
WITH TEMPORAL CONJUNCTIONS (»Tav = «TC + 6v, fnciBav
8TQV yp&9n, X0'?00- Whenever she should be writing [OR writes], I rejoice.
inciSav ypayq, 86q OCUTQ Scbpa. Whenever she should write (once)t give her gifts.
IN CONDITIONS with t&v or flv if ever (either one = c! + fiv)
PRESENT GENERAL E&V or qv + subj. in the if clause, present in the then clause:
yccopyqTE X01*?00 If ever you should farm [QRL farm}, I rejoice.
FUTURE MORE VIVID EQV or qv + subj. in the if clause, future or equivalent in the then clause:
^v £A8fl 56q OUTQ Scbpa. If ever she should come [OR comes] (once) give her gifts.
OR Should she come (once), give her gifts.
NOTE: There will be a review of conditions on p. 172.
TRANSLATIONESE AGAIN
There is no perfectly satisfactory translation for a generalizing subjunctive. If you use the English
indicative, there is no quick way to signal that you have recognized a subjunctive. If you use should,
you signal instantly that you have recognized a subjunctive, but the English is stilted and someone
might think you were using a moralizing should, with the meaning ought to. You need to keep in
mind that this is not a moralizing should.
Students asfc "What should I put on the back of my subjunctive flashcards?" There is no single
translation that will do for all subjunctives (or for all optatives). Rule of thumb for flashcards: Use
should in inverted order for the subjunctive. (The order shows that it is not a moralizing should)
- should they be leaving XITTOXJI(V) - should they leave (once)
I Exercise y: 1. <k av ?XC1 9<Xou<;, EuSafpcov fcariv. 4. fy/ 6 naT<; TTEOQ, oipciÊi f\ Hn Tf lP-
Translate: 2. Eav TTOIQOQ TOUTO, aSiKqoEi / aSiKE?. 5. f^v 6 na?<; TTEOQ, oipcoÊTai f\ prprip.
3. ETTEiSav £o6io>oi, TTIVOUOIV. 6. £TTEI&CIV 9670001, KaXouoi Troiryrqv.
clpf = I am 151
INDICATIVE
Present
All present forms of dpi = / am are enclitic except for eT = "}K?M (sing.)
ei(Ji eo(jev are" In deference to tradition the last syllable of the enclitic forms is
shown with an acute accent. In fact, in only one of five combinations
€T €OTE
(see Chart p. 96) will there be an accent in the flow of written Greek.
£OTl(v) €IOl(v)
Imperfect
f \ or ^V PJIJEV
Ambiguity Alert: ?jv can be I was OR
f\oQa F\T£ he/she/it was.
?jv ?)oav
SUBJUNCTIVE
The subjunctive stern is co. The a drops, leaving the E to
d) (L[J£V
contract, so that the subjunctive of eipi lodes like a set of
{<; ^TC disembodied endings.
rj âi(v)
INFINITIVE
cTvai
PARTICIPLE
GJV, oCaa, 6v
As you might expect from the continuous nature of being, there is no aorist for the verb
I Exercise P: Translate the following (written in large print so breathing can easily be seen):
eoje EOTI PjoOa ovjec; ouaqc; eTvai Pjv 6v eiai
I Exercise y: Distinguish between words that resemble the forms of cipf and other words, translating when
possible. (Each set has at least one form of the verb ciyi-)
6v/Sv
Class work: Read Graveyard #18 and Diogenes #7-8, Thesauros pp. 228 and 234.
Learn the beginning of a poem in the Anacreontic meter.
We deem you blessed, cricket,

OTE 6£v5pECOV ETT1 Ot When, from the tree tops,
oXfyqv Spooov TTETTCOKCOC; Drunk on a little dew,
You sing like a king.
(BaoiAcuc; onax;
Note en' okpcov SsvSpEcov = at the tipmost trees, where we would say "at the tip, or top,
of the trees." SKpoc; (tipmost) is used like psooc;. (~> acrophobia, acronym, acropolis)
cpy a ~Memorize the lines of the poem printed above.

-Write out the paradigm for siîi three times. Memorize.
-Make up five Greek sentences using whoever, whenever, and if ever. Include a translation.
152
THE PERSONAL MUSE
Figure 1. The Crowning of Sappho. Line drawing of an Attic hydria (ca. 450 B.C.E.).
Throughout this course, you will read and memorize a number of lines from Greek poetry, including
selections from Homer, Archilochus, Mimnermus, Sappho, and Anacreon. Greek literature begins
with the epic Homeric poems, the Iliad and the Odyssey. These two poems, composed in the eighth
century B.C.E., influenced all subsequent Greek poetry. "We are all beggars at the feast of Homer,"
Aeschylus, the tragic poet, is reported to have said.
The narrative style of Homer, praised by Aristotle in his Poetics, is one of objectivity: the poet does
not intrude into the narrative but lets his characters speak and act for themselves. But in the seventh
and sixth centuries, a poetry developed in which the voice of the author is heard.
Archilochus (ca. 680-640 B.C.E) is the earliest such poet whose work survives. He was born on the
island of Paros and seems to have been a mercenary soldier: "I am a servant of the Lord of War and
I am expert in the lovely gift of the Muses." His poems indicate his versatility. He could in a few
lines depict the loveliness of a woman: "She rejoiced as she held a shoot of myrtle and the beautiful
flower of a rose. And her hair shaded her shoulders and her back." He could just as easily write
invective: "May he gnash his teeth, lying on his stomach like a dog, powerless, at the edge of the sea
breakers. I would like to see this: he wronged me, stepped with his heel on our oaths, once my true
friend."
Not only does Archilochus break the Homeric narrative style by using the "I" person, but he also
challenges Homeric heroic codes. He rejects, he says, great generals, full of swagger and good looks,
in favor of a small bandy-legged man, "full of heart." Similarly, in a poem you will soon memorize,
he is unheroically ready to abandon his shield and save his life.
Like Archilochus, Mimnermus uses Homeric diction while going beyond Homeric themes. He was
born either in Colophon (the home of Xenophanes) or Smyrna, a colony of Colophon ca. 670 B.C.E.
153
His poems depict the pleasures of love and the difficulties of old age. Solon, an Athenian lawmaker
and poet, objects to Mimnermus' praise of youthful love and fear of old age. For Solon the wisdom
that comes with age is important: "I grow old, always learning many things."
The most famous poet of love is Sappho (ca. 630 B.C.E.), who was born in the island of Lesbos, an
island off the coast of Asia Minor. She too acknowledges her debt to Homer, while bringing in a
new perspective. You have already memorized part of her poem that begins, "Some say the fairest
thing on the black earth is a host of horsemen, others say it is a host of infantry or of warships, but
I say it is whatever one loves." The opening of the poem contrasts the beauty of Greek cavalries,
armies, and navies - the Homeric background - with a more intimate, and yet more general, idea of
what is beautiful. It is whatever one loves.
As proof of her generalization, Sappho uses a Homeric example: Helen, who gave up her husband,
child, and parents to follow Paris to Troy. Although we do not have the full text of the poem, we
know that somehow Helen's beauty reminds Sappho of the one she loves, Anactoria, whose lovely
step and radiance she would prefer to see than the richly ornamented Lydian chariots and infantry.
Many other poems of Sappho's celebrate and catalog the effects of love. In one she graphically
describes the physical symptoms of love as she looks upon her beloved: "No longer am I able to
speak, my tongue shatters, soon a delicate fire races under my skin, my eyes are blind, my ears ring,
sweat pours down over me, trembling seizes me, and I am paler than the dry grass.... "
Anacreon is remembered as a master of the drinking song. Born in Teos in Asia Minor (ca. 575
B.C.E.), he composed court poetry for the tyrant Polycrates on Samos and then for the tyrant
Hippocrates in Athens. His poems treat love with sophistication and wit rather than passion: "Once
again golden haired Love, hitting me with a purple ball, invites me to sport with a girl of richly
colored slippers. But she, since she is from well-built Lesbos, mocks my grey hair, and gawks after
another girl."
His poems were so popular that they inspired a host of imitative drinking songs, called Anacreontics,
"in the style of Anacreon." You have read two of these: "It is difficult to love...," and "We deem you
blessed, cricket." Both of these Anacreontics display the pointed humor suitable for drinking songs.
Figure 2. A Symposium. Line drawing.

154 Lesson 37. The Perfect
So far you have learned the parts of the Active verb paradigm shown in bold below. These are
the most frequently used forms. If you did not learn the remaining forms, you would still be able
to read much of the New Testament and many statements in Attic Greek. Before going further,
stop and make sure you can write these forms out easily. Then you will be ready to go on and
fill out the remainder of the Active paradigm.
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
Hill urn urn XXX
inn XXX
SUBJUNCTIVE already learned
inn urn +++
OPTATIVE - - doesn't exist
XXX XXX XXX +++
IMPERATIVE XXX to be learned
XXX XXX +++
INFINITIVE made by combination
mil urn urn XXX of known forms
PARTICIPLE
mil Hill Hill XXX
THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE: MEANING AND TRANSLATION

What do you not know how to express yet in Greek? "I have X'<T as opposed to 7 X'd" 7 X'd" is an aorist.
"/ have X'd" is a perfect.
Think of the difference between "Did you go to Europe!" and "Have you been to Europe?" The former question
asks whether an event occurred in the past. The latter asks about you: "Have you been to Europe (and therefore are
you acquainted with European culture)?" Or think of the difference between 7 drank" and 7 have drunk" "I have
drunk" indicates not only that I drank but that the effect of the drinking is still felt (For example, 7 have drunk
and so I know what that drink tastes like" Or 7 have drunk and sol am not thirsty." Or 7 have drunk and so am
drunk") When Hippolytus wants his horses to stop dragging him to death he addresses them with a perfect
passive participle as "having been nourished in my stalls" The point is not that once in the past he
nourished them but that they now feel the effects of that nourishment, for which they owe him kindness.
The perfect shows that an action took place in the past that has an effect in the present It is really a kind of
present tense. (/ have washed the horse is almost the same as / have a washed horse.)
There is a past perfect, called the pluperfect, as well. Translate that as 7 had X'd." Notice that not every use
of / had X'd in English represents a Greek pluperfect If you say, 7 had called the doctor a week before she fell
ill" that is an aorist as prior past because it is simply asserting that one past act took place before another. If you
say, 7 had cleaned the house for my guests" meaning 7 had cleaned it and therefore it was clean" that would be a
pluperfect. The pluperfect shows that an action took place in the past that continued to have an effect
in the past. It is a kind of past tense. (/ had washed the horse is almost the same as / had a washed horse.)
Translationese for the perfect participle is difficult Having X'd is translationese for the aorist participle.
"Having stumbled, he fell." This asserts nothing more than that he stumbled and fell. Having drunk, he fell. If
we mean simply that he drank (for example, a cup of water) and then fell, having drunk is an aorist participle. If
we mean that he drank a cup of wine and was drunk--that is a perfect participle. In our Anacreontic poem
neTTGoicdx; is a perfect participle. That is why it is better to translate it "being drunk on" than "having drunk"
The best translationese for a perfect participle, clumsy as it is, is being in a state of having X'd.
As for the perfect infinitive, the best translationese, clumsy again, is: to be in a state of having X'd.
THE PERFECT ACTIVE INDICATIVE: FORMS
155
PERFECT (= present perfect) K-leSS PERFECT (= present perfect)
nenauKa
TTETTaUKCCC; AeAoinciTC
TT£TTC(UIC£(v) TT€nauicaoi(v) AeAoine(v) AcAofnaoKv)
PLUPERFECT (= past perfect) PLUPERFECT (= past perfect)
£TT€TTO(UKq £H£naUK£|J£V eAeAoinq EA£Aoine|jev

£n£TTaUK£T£
£TT£TTdUK£OC(V €AeAoinei(v) eAeAoineoocv
INFINITIVE INFINITIVE
nenauKevai AEAOITTEVCU
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
Trenail KGOC;, u?a, 6<; AeAoincoc;, u?a, 6g

gen. (mjn.) TTETTGOKOTOC; gen. (m./n.) AeAoiTTOTOC;
The perfect has its own stem. The normal pattern for making a perfect stem is this:
nauo>, nauaco, k'nauoa, TTEirauica
oiyaco, aiyqac*), Eaiyqoa, oioiyqica
noiECO, TToirjoco, Enoiqoa, ncnoiqKa
Memorize the perfect endings. (If you know the word Eureka, you have a head start.)
Be able at least to recognize the pluperfect forms.
+ cupqica I have found it! Famous saying of Archimedes in the bathtub
I Exercise a: Take the two statements: VTTTTOV Xuaa<;, icaTqXOov xaipow and YTTTTOV XE\UKO>C KaTqXOov
Xaipcov. (Xuca = release) What is the difference in meaning? How can you get that difference across in English?
Or consider VOJJ(£GO auTqv paGeTv TTJV 'EXXrjviicqv yXaxnrav. vs. vo|jiCcA> auTqv pEîa6qic£vai Tqv
'EXXqviKqv yXcoTrav. Which one implies that she still knows Greek? How do you translate?
) Exercise P: 1. nerrauKajjEv 3. TTEirauKax; 5. TTErrauicoc; 7. TTETTCIUKEV
Translate* 2. TTEnauKEvai 4. TTEnauicuTav 6. snEnauicqc; 8. nsnauicoTa
There are K-less perfects (just as there are o-less a-aorists). The endings are normal.
ypa9co, y£ypa9a KXETTTCO, K^»cXo9a XEina), XcXoina, nXr]TTa>$ TTETrXqya, 9Epco, ivqvoxa.
I Exercise y: Translate: 1. KEicAocpaai 2. EV^VOXE 3. EysypaÊi 4. nEirXqycx; 5. XsXoinEvai 6. KEtcXo90TE<;
REDUPLICATION
The perfect is often recognizable by its reduplication. Actually this is just duplication of the
initial stem sound, connected with an E. If the initial sound is a vowel, it is lengthened, as in
time-marking. If the initial sound has breath (x, 9, 0), the reduplication has no breath (K,TT,T).
For a stem beginning with a single consonant For most stems beginning with a mute + liquid
sound, reduplicate with the consonant sound + E: (A, p, v, p), reduplicate the mute + E:
X£AuKa (from Auoo) (from ypa9co)
(from ocoico) (from
(from pav6ava>)
(from xaip<*>)
nE9Euya (from 9£uya) exception: (from yiyvd>oKCA>)
156
If stem begins with f> or with some combination besides mute If the stem begins with a short vowel,
+ liquid, just add t before the stem, doubling any p. lengthen it; if stem begins with a
NOTE: This i is not a time-marker. It indicates reduplication. diphthong, lengthen the first vowel
HqTqica (from (qT£a>) cXica (from ayyeXXc*>)
fcpOapica (from 96eipa>) (from e6eXa>)
ionouSaica (from airouSa£a>) ica (from 6p66a>)
gppxpa (from qupqica (from eupioKco)
I Exercise 8: Try to look up the"/ do" forms in the dictionary for the following perfects:
1. qSiicqica 2. E£qTqica 3. qpqica 4. q0EXqica 5. nc9uXax« 6. TE0vqica 7. Eyvcoica 8. qpcirrqica
FOURTH PRINCIPLE PART: PERFECT ACTIVE

The"/ have X'<T form is the fourth principal part. You need not memorize this principal part. Look over the
perfects below. You could "punt" most perfects if you found them in your reading. Memorize the forms you
would not be able to punt (Those with entirely new stems are underlined. Make sure to learn them.) If you ever
need to know a principle part, consult pp. 249-250.)
leg-Perfect •c-less
ayysXXa)
PCMVGO nauco TTtnauica typifyopa
paXXoo niveo EXqAuGa
PouXEUGO TTIHTC*) TT^TTTCOICa KXEHTCO
yiyvcioKco Eyvaxca TTIOTEUCO ninioTEUica KTEIVCA) -£KTOVQ*
E0EXco TEjJVC*)
£0010) oiouica XEITTCO XEXoina
EUplOKCO qOpqica or TIKTCO TTEJJTTCO
cBpqica nXq-rrco
Trfapcuya
NOTE:
Xsyco ETpqica op a co NOTE:
jjavOavco Ihave seen AND yiyvofjai y£yova (Note
(JEVCO oTSa / know active form.)
* A hyphen means that the perfect form is found in compound. (You will find anoTETpqica but not T£T|jr|Ka.)
Not all verbs have perfect forms. Some verbs which have no active perfect are: PXETTGO, sipi, , EU&CO,
oTyvu|ji, oiKTipco, oipcb^CA), OartTCA), KaOaipcj, KPUTTTCO, |jE0ua>, peXXa), oqjjaivco, OTEVO).
I Exercise E: Translate: 1. 3. 5. TETOKuTa 7. ETTETTTCOKEI

4. 6. Eypqyopa 8.
Class work: Read New Testament #10, Graveyard #26, Famous Sayings #6, and
Diogenes # 21, Thesauros pp. 223, 230, 232, and 235.
Classwork or £pya: -Translate the following, using a form on the perfect stem in each sentence:
1. Have you (pi.) stopped the battle?
2. Has he written a letter?
3.1 had drunk the wine.
4. Friend, tell me the names of those (in the state of) having learned the poems.
5. To be in the state of having stolen is terrible.
6. She shows me the ones (masc.) who have kept their silence.
fpya -Write the perfect forms of XsXuica and nETTop<pa. Memorize the endings of the perfect
-Cover the first principal parts in the above list. Looking only at the perfect forms, determine
the first principal part. Circle and memorize all the forms you could not recognize.
-Read and translate Part 2 of "An Old Man's Advice." Circle every perfect
AN OLD MAN'S ADVICE (Part 2) 157
noAAac; qpEpac; cnopcuovTO ol MoyyoAoi (Mongolian). <ai

TEAoc; CÎKOVTO ETTI Tqv 0aAaTTav. 6 6c fiaoiAEuc;, npoq Tqv
0aAaTTav anopXcncov, eTSc EV TO?C; u5aoi icuXiKa xpuoqv— 3
KuXiKa ÊyaAqv KOI KaAqv. "ccopaica " k'cpq "noXXa KaXa ical
TToXXa?^ icuXiî TTEiTcoKa oTvov. aXXa Taurqv Tqv icuXiKa
vopi^co KaXXioTqv. TIC; pcpXqKcv auTqv cv TQ OaXaTTq; Kai
TIC; |joi XqyeTCu; lav Xapq Tiq auTqv (joi, aîov vopico auTov 7
TioXXcjv Scopcov. 09o6pa yap cniGupcb Tqv icuXnca
K€KTqo0ai. H 6 8c paoiXcuc; EiccXcuoc icXqpouaOai (to cast lots), 9
TOV 5e icXqpcoTov (chosen by lot) eKcXcuosv €io€X8€?v cic; Tqv
GaXaTTav Yva Xapcbv Tqv KuXiica ancvcyiCQ OUTCO.
6 SE KXqpcoToc; ou KaTqXOcv. "& av5p€c;M e^q 6 5c paoiXcuc;
"|jq a0u(J€?T£. avGpconoc; cTc; T€0vq<€v. n€pyco(j€v aXXov. 13
cav 8c KOI oflToc; anoOavQ, nepycopcv aXXov. qv 8c KOI
oOTOc; anoGavq, ncpycopev KOI C'TI aXXov." KOI a50ic;
€K€X£uoe icXqpoGoGai (to cast lots), c!^ 8c Tqv 8aXaTTov
€ioqX0€v 6 KXqpcoTOc; 6 8cuT€poq CqTqacov Tqv KuXiKa.
aXXa TO OUTO cnaScv ancSavcv EV TO?C; Tqc; OaXaTTqq 18
uSaoiv. 6 &€ paoiXcuc;, cbq (jaXiOTa Tqc; KuXiKOc; €ni0u(joov,
€n€(jn€v aXXov <ai ETI aXXov av8pa EIC; Tqv GaXaTTav.
aXXa a€i TO OUTO EnaGov. TEXoc; 6 Zupqv f^v KXqpcoToc;
(chosen by loO. Kai SOKOJV ano6avE?o6ai ?jX0E npoc; TOV
OOKKOV (sack) cbc; Xlyq x a 'P EIV T¥ na^pi TCO yspaicp. 23
a9iKVEopai, 091^0^01, a9iKO|jqv - come to, arrive (common in prose)

(= a no + JKV£opai = come. The simple form iicveopai = is seen in poetry.)
3 q GaXaTTa - sea, ocean (thalassemia)
anopXEnco - look off, look away
q KuXi^, gen. KUXIKOC; - cup —> chalice
XpuooOc;, q, ouv - golden (contraction of XPUOEOC;, q, ov) — > chrysanthemum
7 EOV -i- subjunctive - if ever (from EI + av)
aîoc;,a1ov - worthy, worthy of + gen. or + inf. —> axiom
O9o5pa - strongly, vehemently
9 KTaopai - acquire; KCKTqpai - I possess (perfect as present)
13 TcOvqica / have died, am dead

(perfect as present)
PERFECT T£0vqica TiOvapcv
T*0vq»cac; TÔvaTC
T^0vqKe(v) TE0vaoi(v)
INFINITIVE TC0v&vai
PARTICIPLE TcOvccbq, u?a, 6<;
gen. TE0vEcoTo<;ruia<;,-<iTo^
OR
Tc6vqiccbc,u?a,6<;,
gen. Tc6vqicciTo^,uia<;,a>To<;
Notice stem alternation for the perfect of OVQOKCO- TcOvqic- in the

singular, Te9va- everywhere else. (The simple perfect TEOvqKa is
common in prose; for other stems anoOvqaKO) is normally used.)
qv + subjunctive - if ever (from EI + av)
18 naoxco, TTEioopai, EnaQov - undergo, suffer, experience --> sympathy,
cbc; + subjunctive - so that empathy, pathetic
23 Asyco xaipeiv - say goodbye (literally, tell someone to rejoice)
158 Lesson 38. &OTiCt ^TI?, 8 TI; Perfect as Present; oTSa
OOTIC;, qTlc;, 8 TI AS INDEFINITE RELATIVE

The indefinite relatives whoever, whatever (literally, "anyone who" "anything which") are common
in Greek. Learn the forms, which are a combination of o<; and TIC; (enclitic), each declined.
(The neuter singular 6 TI is printed as two words, which distinguishes it from OTI = "that" in indirect discourse.)
Make sure to learn the optional short forms, which are in parentheses. They are commonly used.
, 8 TI - whoever, whatever, whichever
M F N
OOTIC; rJTic;
€/
0 TI
ovTiva qvTiva OTI
oOjivoc; (OTOU) fjOTivoc; oOTivoc; (OTOU)
&TIVI (OTC<>) frriVI &TIVI (»TCp)
o'mvec; arrivsc; omva (aTTa)

ouoTivac; aoTivac; omva (OTTO)
&VTIVGOV (OTCOV) <A>VTIVGOV <A>VTIVGv>V (OTCOV)
oToTiai(v) (OTOIO aToTioi(v) oToTIOl(v) (STOIC;)
4 8 TI KaAov 9iXov ai€i. Euripides, Bacchae v. 881
I Exercise a: Translate the underlined. Give the short forms as well as the long forms when you can.
1. Whoever she is, she is beautiful. 2. Whomever (pi. fern.) you send, we will welcome.
3. Whatever books you see you may have. 4. Give the letter IQ whomever (pi.) you run into
8<JTI<;f 8 TI IN INDIRECT QUESTIONS
OOTK;, QTIC;, o TI can also be used in indirect questions. Using the direct interrogative seems
to make the question more vivid
Direct Indirect
€pa>T9i<; Tiq €pX€Ta You ask who is coming. (Vivid)
Who is coming? &OTiq You ask who(ever) is coming. (Less vivid)
I Exercise P: Translate the underlined words. Give all possibilities and include alternate forms.
1.1 know who is coming. 2. They wonder what gifts she will bring. 3. You asked which poets she loved best
4. He asked whose homes had been robbed. 5.1 ask you for which goddesses are you picking flowers?
PERFECT AS PRESENT
Often it is the enduring effect that counts far more than the past event that produced it. Then we
have a perfect that can best be translated as a present For certain verbs the perfect is regularly
used this way:
T^9 Vf| ica / am dead {have died and therefore am dead) die
£va>ica / know (have recognized and therefore know) know
Ol8a / know (have seen and therefore know) op a GO see
?OTf| Ka I stand (have stood and therefore am standing) stand
TT^TTOlOd I trust (have put my trust in and therefore trust) ndOco persuade
/ am by nature (have become and therefore am by nature) <f>u<*> grow
(from <pucj = to grow, be by nature)
If you want to be really careful in your translationese, translate these the full way: 159
T€0vqica "/ (have died and therefore) am dead" rather than simply "/ am dead"
There can be a perfect as present for -open verbs also.
 Exercise y: Translate fully: 1. nE9UKaoi 3. 5.

2. ETTETTOlGq 4. 6. TE0vr|icd><;
oTSa (PERFECT of 6paco)

oTSa I have seen and therefore I know
PERFECT I know
oTSa Tapev
oToOa TOTC
oT5e(v) Taaai(v)
PLUPERFECT I knew
n
St
JSnoOa
INFINITIVE
PARTICIPLE uTa,
The verb 6paa> has a normal - KQ perfect Ecopaica / have seen, based on the stem opa .
It also has a perfect oTSa, based on the stem IS (from the verb that gave the aorist sTSov).
The perfect stem shows up three ways: as o!5-, EI5-, and 15-. ffi- is the original root behind TOTE, Yoaoi(v)
and, by analogy, KJÎEV.
The original digamma can be seen in the Sanskrit veda = / know = cognate of Greek oT6a . (From this comes
the term Vedas, referring to the scriptures of India.)
> Exercise 8: Translate: 1- oTo6a 2. Ei5oTE<; 3. Taaai 4. EiSevai 5. TOÊV 6. sTSs 7. rjSqaOa 8. EiSo
9. Explain the difference between rjjoav and Pjoa v.
Class work: >^f Read Famous saying #7, Thesauros p. 232.
Classwork: Learn some lines of a poem by Mimnermus.
And what is life, what is pleasure,

TIC; e ioc;, TI E T£pnvov without golden Aphrodite?
TE0vaiqv, OTE (joi (jqKETi TauTa |j£Xoi May I be dead when these things
are no longer a concern for me.
f py a -Memorize the lines of the poems above.

-Write out the forms of OOTK;, q-n<;, o TI including optional forms twice. Memorize.
-Go back to "An Old Man's Advice" (Part 2) p. 157 and parse every verb, infinitive, and
participle in the second paragraph except icXqpouo6ai. Explain each stem.
On Parsing
From now on write Indicative or Subjunctive to show Mood. Give the most specific
information possible: tense for the Indicative, aspect for the Subjunctive. Give person, too.
160 Lesson 39. The Optative
Human beings spend a lot of time speculating about possibilities. In the Greek language there is
a special mood for what is possible, remote, potential. This is the optative, the third of the four
moods of the Greek vert). It is used in wishes ("if only" "would that"), for future possibilities
("might"), and for conditions ("would").
THE OPTATIVE: FORMS

The optative has an iota after the connecting vowel, giving optative verbs forms their
characteristic 01 orai sound.
-oipi ~OI(J€V Note: The aorist -cu forms are
-QIC; -OITE CMC;
easier to remember. The optional
-ci forms are more common, and
-01 -oiev -cu /- -OUEV / -ciav so are used in the paradigm.
CONTINUOUS FUTURE e/o AORIST a-AORIST

INDICATIVE
AEITTO> AEITTOJJEV AEiya> EAlTTOV snauaa
AEITTEK; AEITTETE Aciyei^ AsfyETE £AlTTE<; EAlTTETE Eirauaa<; EirauoaTE
AEITTEI AEITTOUOI(V) Aeiyei Aeiyouai(v) E'AITTE(V) EAiirov ETrauasCv) Eirauaav
E'AEITTOV EAEITTOJJEV
EAEITTEC; EAEITTETE
E'AEITTEV E'AEITTOV
SUBJUNCTIVE
AEITTGO AEITTCOÎEV Ainco AincaîEv nauoco nauacojjev
AEIHQ^ AEIH^TE AlTTQS AlTTqTE TrauoQ<; nauaqTE
AEITTQ AEinaxJi(v) AIHQ A(na>ai(v) TTQUOQ Trauaoxji(v)
OPTATIVE
AEinoipi AEIHOIIJEV AEiyoijJi AEiyoijjEv AlTTOI|JI AlTTOIplEV nauoaipi nauaaijJEV

AE(TTOI^ AEITTOITE AEiyoi<; AsiyoiTE Ainoic; AinoiTE nauoEiac; nauoaiTE
AEITTOI AEirroiEv AEiyoi AeiyoiEv AITTOI AfnoiEv nauaEiE(v) nauoEiav
iNFiNrnvE
AEITTEIV AEiyEiv AmsTv naGaai
PARTICIPLE
AEiTTGov.ouaa.ov AEiya>vtouaa,ov Aina>v,ouaa,6v Tiauaa<;,aoa,av
For the purpose of accent, a final 01 and on in the optative count as long. Note accent on
AEITTOI, Aefnoiq, nauoai, andTrauaaic;.
The difference between the continuous and aorist optative is one of aspect only—ongoing versus
snapshot. (A future optative exists only because of patterns in indirect discourse, to be learned soon.)
I Exercise a: 1. Ainoi 3. AEITTOIEV 5. AEiyoipi 7. AEITTOK; 9. nauoEiav

Parse the optatives: 2. rrauoEiEv 4. TTCCUOOIEV 6. nauooi<; 8. nauoai<; 1O. nauooiTE
16
AS MAIN VERB
Alone or with clBc or tl y&p. The negative is pq.
OPTATIVE OF WISH
Translate may, would that, if only!
TIKTOI All three mean the same thing:
e'lBe TIKTOI May (s)he be giving birth I give birth (repeatedly)/
E! yap TIKTOI Would that (s)he would . . . / / / only (s)he would...
pq £A6oi May he / would that he not come (once)/ If only he would not come (once)/
TE0va(qv in the poem by Mimnermus is an optative of wish on a special perfect stem.
POTENTIAL OPTATIVE **' ** "»*» * "*•

Translate might, may, could, would.
Sv. They might I may I could come (once).

They would come (once) (with some condition understood).
OUK 8v Saicpuoicv. They might I may I could I would not be crying.
I Exercise P: Translate the following. Be sure to show aspect in your translation:
1. ET0E XEITTOI. 2. XinoipEv fiv. 3. pq Oavoicv. 4. si yap pavOavoic;. 5. ou nauoEiav av TTJV
6. May she send the gifts (once). 7. If only they would not keep stealing. 8. We might not be writing.
AS SUBORDINATE VERB
When main verb is past tense.
OPTATIVE IN PAST SEQUENCE Negative is unchanged.
After an introductory main verb in the past tense, a subordinate verb in the subjunctive
(purpose, fear) may be switched into the optative, keeping the same stem. This is called the
optative in secondary sequence.
TOUTO TTOIGO Yva pq EX0Q. / do this so that he should not come I not come (once).
TOUTO ETTOiqoa Yva (jq eASfl. / did this so that he should not come I not come (once).
TOUTO ETTOinoa Yva |jn £A6oi. I && this so that he would not come (once), [less vivid?]
OPTATIVE IN OPTATIVE SEQUENCE
After an introductory main verb in the optative, a subordinate verb may be switched into the
optative, keeping the same stem.
(When a subordinate verb becomes optative to match an optative main verb, this is called assimilation.)
9iAou<; ouq ou y lyvcboKeic;. She is leading friends whom you do not know.
ayoi 91X00^ ouq ou yiyvcboKEiq. Both mean:
ayoi 9iAouq ouq ou yiyvcoaKOiq. May she lead I be leading friends whom you do not know.
I Exercise y: Translate the following.
1. nepyeiac; TauTa a £0eXoifji opav. 3. avEyiyvaxJKE Yva pavGavoi TI. 5. Ecpopcrro pq TTEOOK;.
2. ?)X0ov OHCAX; ociaciav TOU<; naT5a<;. 4. oi^cjiÊiEV OTE ffioi TOV TE0VEO>Ta paaiXEa.
I Exercise 8: Translate the following, using optative forms whenever possible.
1. 1 am reading so that I may learn (once) the story. 4. She was afraid (EôpsTTo) lest they burst into tears.
2. 1 was reading so that I might be learning the story. 5. May she save (once) the poet whom she sees
3. She was afraid (E<popE?ro) lest they keep crying. 6. May she save (once) the poet whom she saw
Read Graveyard #34-36, Famous Sayings #8, and Diogenes #14, Thesauros pp. 231, 232, 235.
£ pya -Write out the optative forms of paXXco and paoiXEuca. Memorize.
-Read and translate Part 3 of "An Old Man's Advice." Learn the vocabulary.
Circle and explain all optatives.
162 AN OLD MAN'S ADVICE (Part 3)
"(L nctTEp," ETnEv 6 Zupqv "6 (BaoiXEuc; EKEXEUOE (j1 EioEX0E?v
EK; Tqv OaXaTTav KuXiKa xpuoqv £qTqoovra oC EnE0upqoEv. 2~
navTEq 8£ O?TOUTO EHOIOUV KOKO nEnov0aoiv—TE0vaoi yap-- 3
Kai oT6a OTI nEioopai TO OUTO. KOI 9o(3oG|jai |jq (JETO TaOTa
EUpCOV OE EV TOUTCO TCO OOKKCO 6 |3aOlXEU<; OHOKTEIVQ " 5^
6 SE naTqp ETnEv M(I> avSpEc; (jcipoi, (jaTqv (in vain) TE0vaTE;

E'IÊ (jq anoOavoiEV nXEiovE^. EI yap pqKETi aXXov avSpa 7
TTEPYEIEV 6 paoiXEuq EIC; Tqv GaXaTTav. Ji> U!E, Xapoiq o
E0EXoic; XapE?v ou5Ev fbaov TOUTOU. EV xpq o EiSsvai COOTE
TTpOTTEIV 00919. TO&E Vo8l' O ECOpOKOC; EV TQ GaXoTTQ OUK 10
?iv KuXi^ aXXa E!KCOV (image) KuXiKoq coonEp EV KOTonTpco
(mirror). avapXETTE vuv TTpoq TqvSs Tqv TTETpav. ETT' ai
Tqq TTETpaq EOTIV q KuXi^ qv 6 paoiXsuq TOOOUTOV
KEKTqoGai. TOUTO EiSdx;, XapE auTqv. 14
6 SE Zupqv avapXEyaq ETnEv Mcl> naTEp, OUK EOTIV avqp

OOTIC; av E/OI Tqv nETpav ava^qvai. 6p0fa (too steep) yap
EOTIV avapqvai." 6 SE anEKpivaTO- "Xapoiq av Tqv KuXiKa
OIVEU TOU Tqv nETpav Tqv&E avapqvai. PEVE uno (below) TQ
TTETpa* KOI oyEi noXXouq KUVO^ En1 aKpav Tqv nETpav
EpxojjEvouq. paXXs nETpou^ COOTE 9opE?v (frighten) OUTOUC;. 20
oi SE KUVEC; 9EuôvTai TOUC; nETpouq Kai Tqv KuXiKa
XOKTIOUOIV (will kick) ano Tqc; nETpaq. ou SE, (JEivaq KOCTGO,
Xaôic; av auTqv Kai TCO paoiXE? ^VEyKoiq av."
TOUTO EnoiqoEv 6 Zupqv. TCO SE paoiXE? EpcoTqoavTr "nciq 24

qOpEq auTqv;11 anEKpivaTO c!>8E- "q KuXi^ ?)V ETT' axpyi TQ
TTETp9f S EV Tq 9aXaTTn cbpa>|jEv ?\v EIKCOV (image) coonEp EV
KOTOTTTpcp (mirror).11 6 BE qpcoTqoEv MTiq 001 TOUTO ESEIÊV;" 27
6 BE Zupqv E9q- Mou8Eic; E'SEIÊV OUTOC; 81' EpauTou qSpov."
2- ETTE9u|jqoEv - How can you translate this to show that it is an ingressive aorist?
Conative Imperfect
ETTOIOUV must be translated "were trying to do" not "were doing" as the
context shows. (The men did not succeed) This is called a conative imperfect,
from the Latin conor = try.
nEioopai, , TTETTOv8a
5- Which is a better choice of aspect for anoKTEivq? (The form could be continouous or aorist.)
, E! yap + optative - used for wishes "if only I would that ..."
, fbaov - easier (comparative of fbaSiocâ^v)
10 q 00910 - wisdom (from 00960
Vo0i - Know! you (sing.) command of oT5a
q nETpa - cliff
aKpoc;, a, ov - topmost, inmost, outermost; used in predicate position to mean
at the tip, furthest point, end (see p. 151) --> acrophobia, Acropolis
14 TOOOUTOC;, TooauTq, TOOOUTO or TOOOUTOV - so large, so great;
neuter as adverbial, ace. - so much, to such an extent
OOTIC;, qTic;, o TI - whoever, whichever (indefinite relative)
20 6 TTETPOC; = stone, rock --> Peter, petrify
27
8 ia + gen. - through, by (of agent); as we say in English, by myself
Lesson 40. The Series: Asking, Shrugging, Relating and Pointing 163
1. ASKING 2. SHRUG-WORD 3. RELATING 4. Indirect Interrogative 5. POINTING

Direct Interrogative Indefinite (enclitic) Relative OR Indefinite Relative Demonstrative
TK; TI TIC;, TI «k, n> » OOTIC;, qTic;, o TI oflToq this

o6c this here
who? what? someone, who, which who(ever)? whatever)? €K£?voq that
something whoever, whatever
TTOTE TTOTE OTE onoTe TOTE
when? sometime when when(ever)? whenever then
ncoq TTCOC; cbc; OTTOX; ouTCoq thus

cl)5e thus
how? somehow as, how how(ever)? as, however EKEIVCOC; that way
TTOU TTOU oO OTTOU EVTdGOa here
where? somewhere where whomever)? wherever EKE? there
rroT TTOI oT OTTOI EVTauOa to here
to where? to somewhere whither to where(ever)? EKE?OE to there

to whoever
noOev TTO0EV 60EV 6n68ev EVTE00EV

from here
from where? from somewhere from where from where(ever)? EKE?0EV
from wherever from there
TTOOOC;, q, ov noooc;, q, ov oooc;, q, ov onoooq, q, ov Toooq, q, ov

TOOOUTO^^^V
how much? of some quantity as much as, how(ever) much or many? so much,
how many? as many as however much or many so many
noToc;, a, ov TTOIOC;, a, ov oToc;, a, ov onoToq, a, ov ToToc;, a, ov

TOiouToq,q,ov
of what sort? of some sort of such a sort as of whatever) sort? of such sort
of whatever sort
There is a patterned series in Greek. Notice how regular the first four columns are.
(1) The direct interrogative (ASKING) word begins with TT.
(2) The indefinite (SHRUG) word begins with TT and is enclitic.
(3) The relative (RELATING) word begins with an h sound.
(4) The indefinite relative or indefinite interrogative word begins with 6 + TT.
(5) The demonstrative (POINTING) word sometimes begins with T.
The English pattern is similar but not so full as the Greek: An asking word often begins with wh-
whenl where! what! H>A<9?--while the corresponding pointing word often begins with th-then, there, that.
INDEFINITE RELATIVE / INDIRECT INTERROGATIVE

The words in column (4) can be used two ways: either as an indefinite relative, which both
shrugs (2) and relates (3) at the same time OR as an indirect interrogative, which asks a
question (1) but one that is embedded in another statement.
164 If it seems odd that the same word should have two functions, consider English, which uses the same
words for (1), (3), and (4) = indirect interrogative.
(1) Who came? (3) The boy who came is my son. (4) / asked who came.
Translationese: You can distinguish the two functions of column (4) in translationese by
using whoever for the indefinite relative and who(ever) for the indirect interrogative:
OGTK; ^X6sv H£ya<; ^v. Whoever came was big. £pa>T<? OOTK; ^X0Ev. He asks who(ever) came.
A direct question uses (1) the direct interrogative. An indirect question (embedded in some
other statement) uses (4) an indirect interrogative (as we saw earlier for OOTK; p. 158). But for
vividness the direct interrogative (1) may be used.
; When did he come?
6n6Tc ^X6ev. You ask when he came I when(ever) he came.
ry n6yc ^X6EV. You ask when he came I when did he come. (Vivid)
I Exercise a: Give the function (asking, shrugging, etc.) of the underlined words. (Consult chart on p. 163.)
1. Where are we? Who are you? From where do you come? How and when did we get here? To where are vou
bringing us? 2. He comes from somewhere or other and he will go whenever and however he wants to. 3.
How many and what sort of apples did you get? We will buy however many and whatever sort you bring us. 4.
Somewhere there is a city where she will find whatever she desires. Whenever she finds it, she will go there.
I Exercise P: Translate the sentences in two ways:
1. 1 ask where she is going. 2. 1 ask how many apples you will bring. 3. 1 ask what kind of books they like.
paoiXeu<;
q n6Aic city, polls king
nom. n noAic; 6
ace. Tf)V TTOAlV TOV
gen. TQC; TTOACCOC TOU paoiAeax;
dat. TQ noAei TCO
nom. ai
\ noAcic; 01
ace. noAciq TOU<;
gen. TGOV TTOAECOV TCOV paoiAecov
dat. TCUC; noAcoKv) TO?<;
Learn to recognize the forms when you see them; you need not be able to write them. There are
many important words that follow the noA ic; pattern.
noAic; is a Third Group i-stein noun. There are many oddities in the noXu; pattern. Most important to notice is
the - iv accusative singular. (The genitive singular was originally n6Xrpo<;. A reversal occurred, with the long-
short vowel pair [rpo] changing to short-long [E-GJ]. It is because of this that the accent is on the third syllable
back, even though the last syllable is long.) #X Ambiguity Alert: There is a single form for the
nominative and accusative plural, as with aArjBeu;.
By putting -QIC; on a verb stem, one can make an abstract noun, which follows the noXic; pattern:
f] YEVEOK; birth (from yE\r of yiyvopai = become)
f] 9^°K nature, etc. (from <pu- of 960) = grow)
f] HiHn ai <; imitation, mimesis (from M,H£OHCM = / imitate)
is a Third Group Eu-stem noun. paoiXEu<; has its distinctive pattern. (The genitive was originally
paafXr|Fo<;. The f dropped out, and the long-short rpo switched to short-long E-GO., as happened with
Classwork: Read Graveyard #30, Famous Sayings #9, and Diogenes #9, Thesauros
pp. 230, 232-233, and 234.
-Write out three times the paradigms of n6Xi<; and paoiXEu<;.

-Read and translate "An Old Man's Advice" (Part 4). Learn the vocabulary.
Circle the eight words that belong on the chart on p. 163. Identify function:
asking, shrugging, relating, indefinite relative, indirect interrogative, or pointing.
1 65
AN OLD MAN'S ADVICE (Part 4)
<ai a50iq EnopEuovTO oi avSpconoi. Kai JJETOI xpovov EIC; TOTTOV
6<9iKOVTo oG OUK ?jv u5cop. oi SE avOpconoi navTEc; Kai navTa
TO npopaTa (herds) EpouXovTo nivEiv, aXX' ouScic; sSuvaTO
EupsTv uScop. TEXoc; 6e TQ TETapTQ q|JEpa 6 Zupqv anopcov f^XOs
npoc; TOV OCIKKOV KOI TO&E E?nEv "<2> naTEp, OUK EOTIV u8cop. 5
navTEc; anoOavouvTai qjJEpcov ou noXXcov."
6 SE naTqp qpcoTqaEv "Sp1 EXaOov OE oi YTTTTOI EiSoTEc; EupiaKEiv 7

u6cop; OUK E|JE EAa0ov. Ta5£ o5v KEXEUCO OE noisTv 6(9iEvai
TTTTTOV VEOV Kai EnsoSai aujco STTOI av POIVQ. Kai onou av 9
6o9paivqTai (he should sniff at) Tqv yqv EVTouGa opuâq u5cop
EupqoEK;." TauTa 5s noiqoaq, 6 Zupqv u5cop qOpsv. TCO SE
Epc^TqoavTi OTTCOC; uScop qupEV, arrEKpivaTO- "oqjjaoiv." 12
Kai a50i<; EnopEuovTo. Kai VUKTI TIVI OUTGO ocp68pa OE (it was
raining) COOTE anoopEvvuvai (quench) TO nup OUTCOV. 6 SE
paoiXEuc;, avapXsncov rrpoc; opoc; nup ET8sv EH' aKpcp TCO opsi. 15
Kai EnEpyEv avSpa, Ta5E Xsycov " ooTiq av TO&E TO opoq
avajBac; anEVEyKQ qpTv nup, Scbpcov a£iov VOIJIGO." 6 avqp
avE^q TO opoq ^qTqocov TO nup. Kai TO nup Eupcov EXaÊ £uXov
(log) [JEyav EK TOU nupo^ Kai KaTEâivE 9Epcov TOV £uXov (log).
aXX 1 EV Ob KaTEâivE OUTCO O9o5pa OE (it was raining) COOTE TO 20
u6cop TO nTnTov anEoÊOE (quenched) TO nup.
nup SE OUK ano9EpovTi 6 paoiXsuc; sTnEv OUTCO ToiSs- "pcopoc; E?,

oq nup OUK anqvEyKEq q|j?v." Kai naoi TO?<; avSpaoiv sTnE TaSs* 23
"ooTiq av nup anEVEyKq Scopa EÊI. aXXa OOTIC; av nup |jq
anEVEyKQ, TOUTOV anoKTEvoO|jai (I shall have this one killed)." 25
Kai aXXov EnE|jyE Kai ETI aXXov, Kai asi TO auTo EyiyvETo.
4 anopEco - be at a loss, be without a nopoc; = means (of crossing a river)

7 XavOavco, Xqooo, ExXa0ov, XsXqOa - escape notice + supplementary participle
Supplementary Participle
A circumstantial participle that goes especially closely with the verb is called a
supplementary participle. Certain verbs take a supplementary participle and
might seem incomplete without one: Tuyxavoo, XavOavco, and qSopai enjoy
^ 009^. He happens to be wise.
oyai nfvouaa oTvov. I enjoy drinking wine.
Xa6e |JE Ynnov KXcTTTCOV. I did not notice he was stealing a horse.
Literally, He escaped my notice stealing a horse.
- see box on p. 159

Yqjji - let forth, release, let go
6<9iq|ji - send forth, send away
9 Enopai, Eyopai, Eonopqv - follow + dative
onoi - to wherever (end of motion) related to no? = to where?
onou - wherever (place where) related to nou = where?
EVTau0a - here, in this place; also = to here, to this place, hither
OPUTTOO, 6pu£co, copula - dig
12 Sncoc; - how Notice oncoc; is used indirectly versus ncoc;, used in direct questions
TO nup, gen. nupoq <--> fire —> pyre, pyromaniac, pyrotechnics
15 TO opoc; - mountain
23 Causal oq, q, o
The relative can have causal force, as here: not just "who" but "since you"
166 Lesson 41. Optative of clpf; Periphrastic Perfect (Subjunctive and Optative)
Optative in Conditions and Indirect Discourse
OPTATIVE OF dpi
c'fqv cTpev Learn these forms. They are different from

the others. By learning them you will be
€?T€
preparing to learn contract optatives as
cTcv well as some passive optative forms.
I Exercise a: Translate: 1. Eiiir|v EuSaipcov. 3. Eftk pq Etyev Tu<pAoi. 4. If only he might not be old!
2. E!EV av TiKpAoi. 4. E! yap E!TE ayaOai. 5. They might be more useful.
PERIPHRASTIC PERFECT (SUBJUNCTIVE AND OPTATIVE)

ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
Hill inn inn inn
Hill urn
.SUBJUNCTIVE
inn urn +-H-
OPTATIVE
inn urn urn +++
IMPERATIVE
XXX XXX •H-+
INFINITIVE
Hill inn urn HIII
PARTICIPLE
Hill mil inn inn
Why did you not learn the entire perfect column all at once? Because some forms (marked by
crosses above) are made in combination and to learn them you need to know the forms of ei|ji.
These forms are rare and can be punted; they are included here for the sake of completeness.
PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE PERFECT OPTATIVE
T£0v£co<; T£0V£CO<; £Tp£V T£0V£OT£<;

; T£0V£CO<; T£0V£OT£<; £'iq<; T£0V£cI><; £!T£ T£0v£OT£q
T£0V£GO<; (I)Ol(v) T£0V£OT£<; £MT| T£0V£(O<; £l£V T£0V£OT£<;
TcSvuTa He fears lest she should be dead = have died

\ Tc6vuTa He was afraid lest she should / would be dead
= have died.
The perfect subjunctive and the perfect optative are periphrastic (from nspi "around" and 9paoi<; "speech").
That is, they are made in a "roundabout" way-by combining already known forms-the subjunctive or optative of
£i[ji + the perfect participle (nom. sing, or pi.). £•£* English is full of periphrastic verb forms, which makes
the English verb easy to learn. In English, one learns the three principal parts (go I went I gone) and then a host
of combinations that work for every single set of three: will go, have gone, will have gone, had gone, etc.
1. Enspya 8copa upTvTva nEiroiOuTai E!TE (joi. 3. 9opc?Tai jjq oi arpcmciTcu irencoicoTEt; <&aiv.
2. avayiyvcaoKEi onax; noXXa Ei&ax; ft. 4. C9op£?TO jjq oi OTpcmcoTai TTETTGOKOTEC; E!EV.
167
OPTATIVE IN CONDITIONS
PAST GENERAL CONDITION: cl + optative in the if clause,

imperfect indicative (or equivalent) in the then clause
£l ?A6oiev, cSctKpUEc;. If they would come (=used to come), you used to cry.
FUTURE LESS VIVID CONDITION E! + optative in the if clause,

optative + fiv in the then clause
cl £A0oi€V, SaKpuoic; av. If they would come (= were to come), you would cry.
We can call this a would I would condition. (It has traditionally been called a should I would
condition.) The main verb is simply the potential optative (already learned), with the condition
spelled out in the if clause.
The normal negative rule for conditions still holds: pi*| negates an //clause, oO a then clause.
I Exercise y: Translate:
1. el KcAcuoEiE TOUTCC, ETTOIOUV. 3. E! oi auppouAoi XsyoiEV, 6 paaiXeuc; qicouEv.
2. E! KEXEUOEIE TauTa, TToirjocupi fiv. 4. E! XITTOIÊV, 6 6ouXo<; ÎEVOI fiv.
OPTATIVE IN INDIRECT DISCOURSE
This is just a particular application of the optative in a past tense sequence. When the main verb
of thinking, saying, or perceiving is in the past tense, the verb in indirect discourse may be
given in the optative. The stem remains the same.
Only because of indirect discourse is there a future optative. Normally the optative shows
aspect only, as does the subjunctive. But in indirect discourse it represents the indicative, which
shows tense, and therefore has a future set of forms (shown in the box below).
NON-PAST REPORT (Present, Future, Perfect) PAST REPORT (Imperfect, Aorist, Pluperfect)
Xsyco, cp, EYpqica OTI XEITTEI EXsyov, eTnov, eipqicq OTI XEITTEI / XEITTOI
Xsyco, Epa>, ETpnKa OTI E'XEITTEV EXsyov, Efnov, Eipqicri OTI E'XEITTEV / XEJTTOI
, Epa>, ETpqKa OTI Xdyci | | EXsyov^ sTnov, Eipr)Kq OTI Xclyci / Xctyoi
Xsyco, £pa>f sTpqKa OTI EXinsv EXsyov, ETnov, EiprjKq OTI EXITTEV / XITTOI
XEyco, Epcb, ETpqica OTI XEXOITTEV EXsyov, sTnov, Eipqicq OTI XEXOITTEV / EVq XEXoinax;
Xsyco, Ipco, ETpqKa OTI EXEXoinsv EXsyov, sTnov, Eipqicrj OTI EXEXoinsv / sT
I Exercise 8: Change the direct statements (in bold) into indirect statements, using the verbs listed. Be sure
to give all possibilities.
1. yp&youoiv. Xsyca OTI, sTnov OTI 3. KpaOcv. Eipnicq OTI, EXsyov OTI.
2. okTfpoptv. ETpqKa OTI, Eipqicq OTI 4. ntTrauKaTC. EXsyov OTI, Epa> OTI.
Classwork: ++ Read Diogenes #10, Thesauros p. 234.

On the following page is a new poem by Archilochus along with all the poems we have
learned so far. Review the poems and learn the new one, which will fix several points of
grammar indelibly in your mind.
See ++ Famous Saying #17 for the normal Greek attitude about not dropping your
weapon, Thesauros p. 233. Notice how Archilochus thumbs his nose at group values.
£py a '-Write the optative of sipf three times. Memorize.

-Form the perfect subjunctive and optative for nauo> and ypoc90).
-Memorize the poem by Archilochus.
168 POETRY REVIEW
Anacreontic
ov TO (jq 9iXqoar
i 9iXqoar
BE TTCXVTCOV
9iXouvTa.
Sappho
oi |JEV imrqcov OTPOTOV oi BE
o! BE vcccdv 9a?o' ETTI yav pcX
1
E|j|j6vai KaAAiOTov cyco BE OT-
TCO TIC;
Sappho (?)
|J€v a ocXavva
SE TrapcpXET1 copa*
BE |jova
Anacreontic
iEv OE,
OTE 8Ev8pECA)V EH* SlCpCOV
oXiyqv Spooov
Mimnermus
TIC; SE pioc;, TI SE TEpnvov aTEp xpuoqc; 'A9po5iTqc;;
TE0VafqV, OTE (JOI (jqKETI TaUTO (JEXOI.
Archilochus
aoniSi (JEV laicov Tiq ayaXXETon qv napa Oapvco

EVTOC; apconqTov KaXXmov OUK E0EXcov.
auTOv 5' EÊoacooa. TI (joi psXEi aonu;
EppETco* EâOOic; KTqoopai ou KOKICO.
Some Sedan is strutting with a shield which I left behind,

Blameless weapon, near a bush-not willingly.
But I saved myself. As for that shield,
The hell with it. I'll get (another) again no worse.
Ta Evrea is used in the plural for weapons, as arms in English. Archilochus playfully
uses the singular, arml
k'ppoyai - literally, go wandering
KOKICO is what form?
Lesson 42. The Imperative; Imperative of 169
THE ACTIVE IMPERATIVE: CONTINUOUS AND AORIST

All that remains of the Active paradigm for you to learn is the imperative~the command mood.
The imperative has forms only for the second person (you) and third (he, she, it I they).
(To make a command in the first person, the hortatory subjunctive is used.)
The imperative shows aspect, not tense. There is no future imperative. (You could say that an
imperative always refers to future time, by its nature.)
CONTINUOUS IMPERATIVE
Second pers. Ae?TT£ Be leaving!

Third pers. Let* him I her I it be leaving!
ASITTETGO AEITTOVTCOV Let* them be leaving*
Ambiguity Alert: The you (pi.) continuous imperative = the you (pi.) present.
The they continuous imperative = the gen. pi. masc./neut. participle.
e/o AORIST IMPERATIVE a-AORIST IMPERATIVE
Xine Leave (once)/ nauoov nauoaTE Stop (once)/

Let* him/her/it leave once)/ Let* him/her/it stop!
XITTOVTCOV Let* them leave (once)/ nauaaTco nauoavjcov Let* them stop! (once)
The verb accent is recessive as usual-except for the strong aorist active imperatives of five
important verbs: elite, £A9e, eupe, 181, and
You have learned some imperative forms already: x<xlpt and xaipETE on the first day of class and Epprroo in the
poem by Archilochus. If you can remember the phrase Kyrie Eleison (Lord have mercy, heard often in church
services or music), you will always know the oraorist imperative. (Why do you think the aorist rather than the
continuous imperative of EAEEGO = have pity was used?)
> Exercise a: Translate, showing aspect:
1. AITTETE 5. AEITTETE (2 ways) 9. ACÊ 13. nauaaTco
2. AEITTETCO 5. AITTOVTGOV (2 ways) 10- i8s 14. Let them save (once)!
3- AEITTE 7. AITTE 11- eupETco 15. Be sending (sing)!
4. AEITTOVTGOV 3. nauoov 12. EITTE 16 L^ him ê saving.
IMPERATIVE of eipi PERFECT PERIPHRASTIC IMPERATIVE
VoOi €OT£
Be! Yo0l TTETTCOKOTEC; £OT€
Be drunk!
Let* him/her/it be! Let* him/her/it be drunk!
EOTCO OVTCOV
Let* them be! EGTCO TTETTGOKOTEC; OVTCOV Let* them be drunk!
You have already seen -61 endings on the following imperatives: IBi EKiroScov Get (go) out of the way!
Come down! &v&Pq6i Come up! yva>0i OOUTOV Know thyself.
I Exercise P: 1. Be (sing.)! 3. Let him be! 5. yEypa90TE<; OVTCOV. 7. |JE|ja8nKcb<; EOTCO.
Translate: 2. Be (pi.)! 4. Let them be! 6. TEOVEOX; Ta0i. 8. TTETTOIGOTEC; EOTE.
Classwork: ++ Read Graveyard #20 and #40, and Diogenes #22, Thesauros pp. 229, 231, and 235.
-Read and translate the conclusion of "An Old Man's Advice." Learn the vocabulary.
* Keep in mind that this is translationese for a third person command (about him, her, it, or them)
and not, as it might seem, a second person command (to you), meaning "Allow him I her I it to go"
17
° AN OLD MAN'S ADVICE (Part 5)
6 SE £upqv EAOcbv rrpoq TOV OOICKOV qpdyrqoE TOV naTEpa o TI
TTOIE?V. 6 BE EKEAEUOEV OUTOV pq Aa|3E?v £uAov (log) (JEya aXXa
TE|JE?V TO £uAov (log) Eu; TToAAa pEpq icai TO pcpq TiOcvai EV ayycico
(jEyaAa) icai xpn°âi £TTi9r||jaTi (lid) &OTE TO uScop (jq 8uvao0ai
cmoopEvvuvai (quench) TO nup. cTnc SE OTI ooTiq npaTToi OTTO 5
KEAEUOI, SuvaiTO av anEVEyicai nup TCO paoiXc?. TcXog SE 6 Zupqv
Tiup qvEyKE TCO paoiXcT navTa noiqoac; a CKcXcuoev 6
6 5£ paoiXeuq qpcoTqoEv "einc q|j?v EI sTx^c; nopov Xap€?v TO nup,

5ia TI OUK £Tn€<; TI qpTv npo TouSc;" 6 6c &n€KpfvaTo- M aXX' OUK 9
cTvov nopov npo ToOSc." 6 8c paoiXcuc; qpcoTqocv "ncoq 6qTa
qupcq nopov; Xeyc qpTv oncoq cupqicac; TOV nopov." 6 5c Zupqv
TOV naTEpa cTvai TOV cupETqv. 6 5c no?ov Xoyov" €9q 12
ounoTE ToiauTa a<qKoa. OUK COTI TcSvearra cTvai
6 SE Zupqv eTncv "ou TeOvccbq ÔTIV ou T£8vqic€v SIOTI
OUK ancKTEiva auTov cv oaiciccp auTov cicpuyapqv (I hid him for 15
myself)/
6 5£ paoiXeuq TauTa aKouoaq i>5c EvevoeTTO- "a>cqKoa ToiauTa

6no?a ouScic; av0pcono<; OKOUOI. 5c? |J€ anoicpivcoOai Xoyco noico.
aXXa noico; vuv ouyyiyvcooicco cpauTco KciKax; noiqoavTi OTE
CKcXcuoa TOUC; ycpovTac; anoKTcTvai." TCO 5c Zupcvi cTnc povov
ToSc- "cS ncnpayac; ocp£6|j€vo<; (saving for yourself) TOV naTcpa. 21-
ou XPH OE OUKETI KpunT€o9ai (hide for yourself) auTov. aXX 1 'iBr 22
KcXcuoov auTov eKpaivEiv €K TOU oaicicou Yva nopcuqTCii p€0' qpcov.
EXOcTco €VTau6a. opvupi ouScva nXq^civ auTov. paXXov 5c
1
Ti|jqoco|j€v auTov icai oVocopev (JcO r^jjcov onou av nopeucoiJeOa." 25-
KOI naoi TO?C; MoyyoXoic; eTnc TaSc- "ayaOov EOTIV OKOUEIV aTTa
av oujjpouXcucooiv oi ycpaiof. ounoT€ a56i<; KeXcuoco OUTE ndoco
6(ja<; anoKT€?vai Touq yepovTaq. TO yap yqpaq yvco^qv €X^J- M 28
KOI p€Ta TOUTO aci ETipa 6 paoiXcuq Touq ycpovTac; icai ccpfXci
KOI 6noT£ OUK eiSax; eVq TI noicTv, nparrov pcv To?q
ouvcpouXEUETo, enciTa 5c ToT^ aXXoiq.
9 npo + gen.- before (in time or space) npo TOU&C = npo ToOSc (TOU xpovou)
SqTa = more emphatic version of 5q
12 6 EupETqc; - finder, discoverer (from supioKco)
12, 17 no?oq / noioc; - what sort of a? / some sort of a
16 aKqKoa - Consult Principal Parts p. 249.
18- Greek can have a wishing clause whose subject is a relative pronoun, not English.
It is impossible to capture this construction in translation.
ouyyiyvcooKco - to be conscious of; acknowledge, confess Literally, to know with.
Notice how both Greek and Latin use the preposition with. Conscience and consciousness are
from the Latin conscire = know (scire, related to science) with (con)--as if consciousness involves
sharing knowledge with oneself.
21- TTcnpaya (related to the word pragmatic) Can you find this on p. 250?
Note: eO npa-rreiv in Greek has two meanings, as does do well in English. It may refer
to doing good things or faring well. The former fits the context better.
(jaXXov with veii) - rather
28- If TTop€u6|je0a = we journey, what what would nop€ucop€0a be? Punt!
T
27 o ynP a S " °ld age (related to ycpai
yvcbjjq - wisdom (related to yiyvcboKco)
TTOTE / OTTOTE - when? / whenever, when(ever)
advice for onself, consult with + dative
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
urn urn urn Hill
Hill Hill
SUBJUNCTIVE
inn mil +++
OPTATIVE
inn Hill Hill + ++
IMPERATIVE
inn urn +++
INFINITIVE
inn Hill Hill Hill
PARTICIPLE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
Congratulations! You have completed the Active paradigm. Now you need to practice
writing it. Learning the Active paradigm well will enable you to learn the Middle and Passive
forms with far less struggle than it took to learn the Active forms. Practice writing out the
entire paradigm. Know how to label all the parts yourself.
For any regular -co verb, you should be able to write the entire Active paradigm given the IX
form. For any irregular -c*) verb, you should be able to write the entire Active paradigm given
the first four principal parts. Keep practicing until you can write the entire active
paradigm (excluding the pluperfect) in less than twenty minutes.
You may wish to learn the endings first. Then when you write the paradigm write the stem for
each column (with time-marker if needed) and fill in the endings. Translationese for the
Paradigm is given below.

INDICATIVE
i PERFECT
IX/IamXing IwillXl I IX'd [IhadX'd]* \Ihave X'd (IX)***

I used to X11 was Xing I will be Xing I IhadX'd (IX'd)***
SUBJUNCTIVE
Should IX /Should I be Xing I Should IX (once) I Should I be in the state
\ of having X'd
OPTATIVE
I would X I I would be Xing (Inddisc.) 11 would X I / would be in the state
I (once) \ of having X'd
IMPERATIVE
X! Be Xing! X (once)/ Be in the state of having X'd!
Let him /her/ it/ them Let him/her/it/them X (once) Let him/her/it/them be in
X/beXing! the state of having X'd!
INFINITIVE
to X I to be Xing | about toX \toX (once)* I to be in a state of having X'd
PARTICIPLE
Xing | about to X | having X'd I being in a state of having X'd
*Aorist as prior past

**In indirect discourse (and only in indirect discourse): to have X'd. ***Perfect as present / Pluperfect as past.
172 REVIEW OF CONDITIONS
Greek conditions may be divided according to general versus particular, real versus contrary-to-fact (or impossible),
or according to the time of the "then" clause. (The traditional division is given below.)
Conditions may be mixed. That is, there may be an "if" clause from one set with a "then" clause from another.
The negative of the "if clause is pr], of the "then" clause ou.
"Present" means any indicative that represents present time and includes both the present and the perfect.
"Past" means any indicative that represents past time and includes the imperfect, the aorist, and the pluperfect
"Future" means any indicative that represents future time and includes the future as well as the future perfect
Equivalents may be used. Pot example, a "whoever" or "wherever" clause can be used as an "if clause.
Or a subjunctive or an imperative can be used in the "then" clause. "Whoever would come, she always used to
offer them food" "Wherever he should go, let us follow" "If ever she should come, give her gifts."
"IF" CLAUSE (protasis) "THEN" CLAUSE (apodosis)
PRESENT ei + present present
oIJVLri-Jz.
CTlUrPT C
PAST €i + past past
PRESENT sav + subjunctive present

fTFNTFR
OHIN AT
iiix/VL»
PAST EI + optative imperfect
PRESENT £i + imperfect imperfect + av

CONTRARY- TO-FACT
(UNREAL)
PAST EI + aorist aorist + av
MOST VIVID £i + future tense future
FUTURE MORE VIVID £av -i- subjunctive future
LESS VIVID £i + optative optative + av

(WOULD/WOULD)
What question does it answer? TRANSLATIONESE

Simple Condition What is he doing now if...? If you are leaving him, he is suffering.
What was he doing yesterday if . . .? If you were leaving him, he was suffering.
What did he do yesterday if...? If you left him, he suffered.
General Condition What does he do in general if . ..? If ever you should leave him, he suffers.
What did he generally used to do If you would leave him, he used to suffer.
if...?
Contrary-to-Fact- What would he be doing now if...? If you were (now) leaving him, he would be suffering.
Condition What would he have done then if...? If you had left him, he would have suffered.
Future Condition What will he do if...? If you will be leaving / leave (once) him, he will suffer.
(Most vivid. Used in warning.)
What will he do if ever...? If ever you should leave him, he will suffer. (More vivid.)
What would he do if...? If you would leave him, he would be suffering/ suffer (once).
(Less vivid )
I Exercise a: Translate all of the conditions above (in the Translationese column) into Greek.
leave = Xdno>, XEiya), cXinov suffer = naoxco, TTEIOOJJCU, EiraGov
Classwork: Read Famous Sayings #10, Thesauros p. 233.
Classwork -Look through the ++ Thesauros and find the conditional patterns in what you have
or fpya: read so far.
-Review ++ New Testament, #1-10. You will know almost all the forms.
Which ones do you not yet know systematically? This tells you what is left to learn.
VERB OVERVIEW: VOICE 173

ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE This is an overview of the entire paradigm
Hill Hill Hill Hill of a regular Greek verb.
Hill Hill
SUBJUNCTIVE
Hill Hill +++
OPTATIVE
Hill Hill Hill + ++
IMPERATIVE
Hill Hill +++
INFINITIVE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
PARTICIPLE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
MIDDLE VOICE
INDICATIVE Do not despair. There is far less to learn

Mill Hill Hill Hill than you think. The Middle system parallels
the Active system. (And you already know
Hill Hill at least ten middle forms.)
SUBJUNCTIVE
Hill Hill + ++
OPTATIVE
Hill Hill Hill +++
IMPERATIVE
Hill Hill +++
INFINITIVE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
PARTICIPLE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE Half the forms in the Passive system are

Hill Hill Hill Hill exactly the same as in the Middle system
(including the ten you know).
Hill Hill
SUBJUNCTIVE
Hill Hill +++
OPTATIVE
Hill Hill Hill +++
IMPERATIVE
Hill Hill Hill
Note: The concepts of Middle and Passive are so important
INFINITIVE
for organizing Greek verb forms that the two words will be
Hill Hill Hill Hill capitalized whenever they refer to a voice or system.
Also Active, Middle, and Passive will be capitalized in
PARTICIPLE
parsing to break up the tedium of two or three grammatical
Hill Hill Hill Hill terms together.
174
THE THREE VOICES
There are three "pages" or three voices for a Greek verb: Active, Middle, Passive. Why?
Exactly the same relationship exists between Active and Passive Voice in Greek as in English. "/ am washing
the cloak" (active verb) vs. "The cloak is being washed" (passive verb). When a verb is passive, the subject is
seen as being acted on by another agent
To be a "True Passive," a verb must have an active form as well. For example, because a person can see (active)
the sky, the sky can be seen (passive).
We do not have a Middle Voice in English. And the Middle Voice does not exist in modern Greek. Was it ever
needed? Perhaps not. But it exists and must be learned. What does the Middle Voice show?
The Middle Voice shows a variety of meanings all having to do with a special relationship between subject and
verb. You have been seeing middle forms all along (cmoicpivopcu, ancicpivaTo, EyiyveTo), but these do not
have middle meanings. (They are deponent and will be discussed later.)
For a verb to be a "True Middle," there must be an active form in contrast Because I can say Xouco (= / wash),
Aouopcu can be a True Middle and have a special middle meaning.
MEANINGS OF THE MIDDLE
(1) Action performed on what belongs/pertains to oneself. AoueTOM TO ijjomov.

(Indirect Reflexive Middle) She is washing her cloak.
She is washing a cloak for herself.
We saw this Middle on p. 170, lines 15 and 21. Zyren said of his father "QUTOV tKpuy&pqv" ("/ hid him for myself)
and Zyren was told "ou XPH oc KpOnrcoBai auTov OUKCTI" ("You no longer need to hide him for yourself).
(2) Action performed on oneself.

(Direct Reflexive Middle) / am washing myself.
In English, we use the verb without an object and understand it as reflexive: / wash, dress, hide, etc.
(3) Action performed on each other. AouovTOU.

(Reciprocal Middle) They are washing each other.
(4) Arranging or causing something to be done by another. XouopeOa TO ijjomov

(Causative Middle) We are having the cloak washed.
We saw this use of the Middle Voice on p. 165, line 25. The Mongolian king said "TOUTOV dmoKTCVOUjjai" ("/ will
have this one killed"). Sometimes only context can show which Middle is meant: 66nro}jai TOV naTSa could mean
(1) "/ am burying my child" OR (4) "I am having the child buried." Only context can tell us which.
I Exercise a: Say whether the verb would be active, middle, or passive in Greek. If middle, which meaning?
1. 1 freed the horse. 4. We saved each other. 7. We will have our horses freed. 10. 1 love myself.
2. 1 freed (my) horse. 5. We saved ourselves. 8. Will you free the horses? 1 1 . 1 took it.
3. 1 had the horse sold. 6. We were saved. 9. Have our horses been freed? 12. Thy will be done.
(5) Action with an interior aspect. New verb needed for translation
Perhaps this is simply a special case of (1) the Indirect Reflexive Middle. But there is such a degree of difference
that we need to change verbs in order to translate these middle verbs.
aipeco- take alptoyai - choose
STTTCO - fasten STTropai - take hold of + gen. (fasten oneself to)
&PX<A> - begin, be first to (ahead of others) fipxopai - begin + part., make a beginning of
- marry, take in marriage (of the man) yaptopcu - get married to + dat. (of the woman)
- stop (something outside oneself) rrauopai - cease + part, (stop oneself)
- persuade ncfOopai - obey + dat. (persuade oneself)
Aoyov TTOIECA) - compose a speech (perhaps for Aoyov Troiouyai - make a speech, speak (oneself)
someone else)
I Exercise P: Say whether the verb would be active or middle in Greek.

1. Stop that thief! 3. He can't persuade you. 5. I'll marry this woman 7. They began to speak.
2. Stop screaming! 4. He won't obey you. 6. I'll be married to this man. 8. They were first to speak.
Lesson 43. The Indicative Middle; Primary and Secondary Endings; 175
Deponent Verbs
MIDDLE VOICE
I leave my...
CONTINUOUS FUTURE e/o AORIST
INDICATIVE
Adyopcu A£iy6|j£0a £Ainopqv £Ain6|j£0a
AEITTQ* A£in£o0£ AdyQ* A£iy£00£ £AlTTOU £Afn£G0£
A£in£Tcn A£ITTOVTCU A£iyovTai £Ain£TO £AinovTO
£A£ITTOU* £A£iTT£o0£
£A£ITT£TO £A£ITTOVTO
INFINITIVE
A£ITT£O0CU A£iy£o0ai AlTT£O0CU
PARTICIPLE
AEITTOIJEVO^ritOV Xmiôcn^
Ambiguity Alert: AE(TTQ: The "you" (sing.) present indicative Middle has the same form as the
"he, she, it" continuous subjunctive Active.
/ stop m y . . .
CONTINUOUS FUTURE oor (or Xa) AORIST
INDICATIVE
nauopai nau6(j£0a nauaopai nauo6|j£0a £nauaa|jqv £Trauaa(j£0a
TiauQ nau£o0£ TTCCUOQ naUO£O0£ £nauaco £nauoao0£
nau£Tai nauovrai Trauo£Tai nauaovTai £nauoaTo £nauaavTO
£nau6|jqv £nau6|j£0a
£TTdUOU £HaU£00£
£nau£To £nauovTO
INFINITIVE
nau£O0ai naua£o0ai Tiauaa0ai
PARTICIPLE
nau6(j£voc;,q,ov naua6(j£vo<;lq,ov nauoa(j£voc;,q,ov
Ambiguity Alert: Tra6q: As above
na6oQ: The "you" (sing.) future indicative Middle has the same form as the
"he, she, it" oa-aorist subjunctive Active.
The Middle uses the same stems as the Active for the continuous, future, and aorist (but not the
perfect). When translating a True Middle in isolation, use meaning (1), the most common
meaning: / am Xing my ... Translate exactly as you would for the equivalent active verb
(see table on p. 171), adding a possessive: "IX'd my..." "They mil X their..." and so on.
I Exercise a: Look over the paradigm above. How does the Middle system resemble the Active system?
Consider the relationship of future to present and of aorist to imperfect What persons have the same endings in
present, imperfect, future, and aorist? What is the relationship between the a-aorist and the E/O aorist?
I Exercise P: Translate
1. CTrauEoOE 3. ETTauoco 5. TTauaQ (2 ways) 7. 9. XEITTEG0E (2 ways)
2. ETTauoapqv 4. nauoovTai 6. AEIITQ (2 ways) 8. 10. sXinou
* Sometimes the you (sing.) Middle ending is spelled -ci: Xefnei, Xelyci, nauei, nauoei. This textbook uses only -Q.
176 PRIMARY AND SECONDARY ENDINGS
The forms of the Middle Voice are actually very easy to learn. There are two sets of endings:
primary and secondary. You will see them in their purity in the perfect Middle. Memorize the
following and you will be able to "punt" almost every form of the Middle paradigm.
PRIMARY ENDINGS SECONDARY ENDINGS INFINITIVE
(used for present, future, (used for imperfect, aorist, &
perfect, and subjunctive) pluperfect, and optative) PARTICIPLE
pa i - |j£6a - |je0a
~ O0CM
oai oo - o0£
TOM - VTCM TO - VTO
Primary endings are used for what is more vivid—present, future, subjunctive. Secondary
endings are used for what is less vivid-past and optative. (Remember: the present includes the
perfect. The past includes the imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect)
The "theme-vowel" is as expected: (1) c / o for present, imperfect, future and E/O aorist and
lengthened € / o for subjunctive, (2) a for a-aorist, (3) 01 or oh diphthongs in optative.
The sigma of the "you" (sing.) ending remains visible only in the perfect Middle forms.
Elsewhere it drops, leaving two vowels to contract, which obscures the regularity (and rhyme)
of the original pattern. Memorize all "you" (sing.) patterns:
COdl —> Q coo —> ou aoo ~ co
I Exercise y: Parse the following. Punt if necessary.
1. KEX£u6p£0a 4. EKEXEuaaaOE T.EXITTETO 1O. XITTGOVTCU 13.
2. EKEAEu6|jE9a 5. KEXsuaqaQE 8. XITTOITO 11. AEincjvrai H.sXEXuvro
3. KEXEuob|jE0a 6. KEXEuaaiaOE 9. AinEoOai 12. AEITTOVTCH 15. AsAuaGai
DEPONENT VERBS
Verbs with middle or passive but no active forms are called deponent, from the Latin depono
-put down, as if these verbs have "put down" their active forms. There is no verb pouAco,
so pouAopai is deponent. These verbs are translated in the same way as active
verbs are. (There is no "my ...," "myself" etc., added on.)
Middle Deponents with c / p Aorist Middle Deponents with a-Aorist
a!a6avo|jai, alo6qoopai, »Jo66|jqv perceive 6no<pivopai, &noKpivoG|jai, &neicpiv&pr)v reply
&9iKveo|jai, &<pf£o|jai, &9i»c6pqv come, arrive &£x<>HaU Se£opai, £Se€&|jqv accept, receive
yiyvojjai, yevr)oo|jai, iycv6pqv become SiaAcyopai, 8iaAc£opou, SicAe£&Hqv converse with
gnomon, gyopai, £on6pr|V follow KTaopai, tar) oo pa i, tKTqoayr|V acquire
TTCTOJJOM, -neTqoopai, -CTrr6pr|V fly 6pxco|jai, 6pxnoopai, 6pxn^Mn v dance
6rnoxv£O|jai, unoaxnoofjai, Oncax&jjqv promise
You have already seen active verbs with deponent futures: aicouGj/aicouooyai,
anoOvQOKGo/aTToQavoujjai. The change to middle forms for the future brings no change in meaning.
Deponent verbs have no active forms at all (though sometimes a verb like cpxoH01 wiU not be deponent in all
tenses, e.g., ^X0ov and eXqXuOa). If you open any Greek text at random, more than half the verbs with middle
forms will be deponent. True Middles are rare. Perhaps this is a clue as to why the Middle voice died out.
I Exercise 5: Translate. Which verb forms are True Middles, which deponents? (Principal Parts pp. 249-250)
l.pouXETcu 3.£paXX£To 5. aioQavQ 7. Epxôeai 9.^yoO|jai
2. ypa9ovrcu 4. eScxopcOa 6. yiyvopcvcx; 8. pX£TTEa6£
Classwork: ++ Read: Famous Sayings #11-12, Diogenes #15-16, Thesauros pp. 233 and 235.
cpya -Write the primary and secondary endings 3x. Memorize.

-Write the indicative forms, infinitives, and participles of nauo> and XEITTCO 3x. Memorize.
-Read and translate "The Gift of Gold" (Part 1). Learn the vocabulary. (You will need to punt
some forms.) All forms that have endings presented in this chapter are in bold print. Can you
parse them all? If not, ask! Explain the four True Middles (verbs with active alternatives).
THE GIFT OF GOLD* (Part 1) 177
?joav noT£ KOI OUK r*joav £v TQ yq TGJV 'Appqva>v (Armenians)

avqp TIC; TT£vq<; KOI q yuvq OUTOU. TOUTOIC; 5c OUK r*)v 5uo
ipaTia aXXa £vo<; povou £KOIVCOVOUV. el |j£v yap 6 avqp
fJOUAoiTO £^£A0£?V £K TQC; oiKIOC; £9Op£l TO IjJCmOV KOI f)
yuvq, OUK k'xouoa ou5cv 9Op£?v, £v6ov (within) £|j£V£v. £i 5£ 5
q yuvq pouAoiTO £^€X9€?v Ta cvavTia iylyvcjo- 6 avqp
EIJCVEV EvSov Tqq yuvaiKoq cKpaivouaqq.
oi SE 5uo Kainep ncvqTcc; OVTEC; OUTCA)^ e'xaipov TOO pico COOTC

v6(jo<; ?jv auTo?<; EV EKOGTQ VUICTI a8£iv ical 6pxcio9ai npiv 9
£v UTTVCO ica6£u8£iv npcoTov p£v 6 avqp fi5£ icai q yuvq
cbpxerro. EHEITO 8£ q vuvq ?j5£ TOU avSpoc; 6pxouplvou.
KOI OUTCOq £HOIOUV HoXXa £Tq.
KOI £v TOUTQ TQ yq ?)PX€ PaoiX£u<; o<; pouX6p£Voq £J8£vai 13

n£pi TCOV avOpcbncov TCJV £v TQ yq~" noToc; 6 pioq OUTCOV,
T(V£(; ai qSovai KOI af Xunar-£v EKOOTQ VUICTI icpunT6pcvoc
TO rrpooconov £v ipaTico kâivEV £v Ta?q 65o?c; |j£Ta ouppouXou 16
£TTIOKOTTGOV (observing) Touq ovSpconouq.
Kai VUKTI TIVI 6 paoiX£u<; KOI 6 ouppouXoq inopcuovTO £v

(j£p£i Tqq Tr6X£coq £v d> (JiKpai T£ KOI 9auXai ?joav ai OIKIOI
KOI n£vqT£q o! avOpconoi oi oiKouvT£q £v auTaTc;. Kai OUK ?jv 20
9coc; £v TO?C; OIKIOIC; SIOTI Ka8qu6ov £v UTTVCO TTOVT£<; oi
avOpconoi. £v 6£ (Jia (JOVQ 9<2x; £T5ov Kai 9covqv qKouoav
yuvaiKoc; (jxSouoqc;. Kai £X66vT£<; £yyuq (near to) Tqq OIKIOC;
QO0OVTO avSpoc; &pxoup£vou Iv <L rjj5£v q yuvq.
"Oauija^co aKouc^v11 £?n£v 6 paaiX£u<;' "cix; KaXcbg a8£i.N Kai 25

£X96vT£q lyyuT£pov (nearer) nKouoav Tqc; yuvaiKoq Ta5£
aSouaqq- "apyupiov ou ococoopcOa ou5£ KCKT^|pc8a OU&EV 27-
nX£ov q ipaTiov £v. Kai uScop nfvo|j£v avTi oVvou. aXXa
9iXoup£0a Kai OUHOTE nauo6pc6a x°<ip0vT£c; TOO pico."
"GaupaoTov cbq oOTOi oi av9pc*)noi Kain£p n£vqT£^ OVT£<; 30

Xaipouoi TOO pico" £Tn£v 6 paoiX£u<;. 6 5£ ouppouXoq
ancKpfvaTO* "ou6£v OaupaoTov. navTi avOpconco £OTI |j(a
vu^ £u8aipovia<;. aXX 1 £i aupiov KOT£X06vT£<; TO auTo 33
a!o6o(|J€0a, TOUTO 56^£i£v av poi OOUJJOOTOV TI.M
9 a5(A), aoopai, fjjoa - sing (Attic contracted form for a£i5co)

4^ [jqviv OEiSE, 0£a Wrath, goddess, sing ... First three words of Homer's Iliad
6pX€0|Jai - dance —> Orchestra (originally a dancing place)

13 SpX00' ftp^* fa£a " (as active verb) - be first, be first over, rule over + gen.
16 TO TTpoocorrov - face (what is looked at, from npoc; + the on of oyopa i)
25 0au|ja£co - wonder, marvel —> thaumatology, thaumaturge
27- Can you punt 0£ocoo|j£0a? (KEKTHMOI is a perfect as present, see p. 159.)
irauo|jai + supplementary participle (see box p. 165) - stop (oneself from) doing
something, cease
0au(jaoToc;,r|16v - wonderful, marvelous
33 aupiov - tomorrow
178
THE HUMAN CITY
Figure 1. The ruins of the Athenian agora. Visible on the extreme far left is the temple of Hephaistos and in the center of the photograph, beneath
Mt. Lykabettos, is the reconstructed stoa of Attalos. To the far right are the Acropolis and the Areopagus. On the south slope of the Acropolis (not
visible in the photograph) is the Theatre of Dionysius. (Photo: American School of Classical Studies at Athens, Agora Excavations)
Athenian democracy ("rule of the people") was a hard-won political achievement. Like all the city-states
that emerged in the archaic age, Athens went through a period of instability as its forms of government
changed from monarchy, to aristocracy, to tyranny (which merely means rule by an unconstitutional
leader), and finally to democracy. When Athens was almost single-handedly able to repel the Persian
invaders in 490 at the Battle of Marathon, and once again in 480 at the Battle of Salamis, the Athenians
believed these victories proved the power of their democratic form of government.
It is difficult for us in the twentieth century to imagine just how radical the democracy at Athens was. For
instance, all citizens, rather than just elected representatives, met monthly in the Assembly to debate and
pass laws. Every citizen had practical experience in the governance of the city since all citizens were
required to serve in rotation as administrators, jurors, judges, military personnel, and police. All citizens
participated in the numerous religious festivals of the city. Indeed, all citizens (even those in jail) were
required to attend the performances of the tragedies and comedies produced, performed, and written by
their fellow citizens for the religious festivals in honor of Dionysius. In short, every citizen was required
to be part of the fabric of the city in all of its religious, artistic, military, and political aspects. So deeply
rooted was the conviction that human potential could only be realized by participation in this rich public
realm that the term identifying a person who was concerned only with private affairs, an idiotes in Greek,
eventually came to denote one who was foolish and irresponsible, an idiot.
Even the physical layout of the city reflects the conviction that the city is the place where we fulfill all the
major aspects of our humanity. The Greek city is centered around a large open area, the agora, a public
space where the activity of the city is to be carried out. This central public space was surrounded by such
a melange of temples, altars, museums, gymnasia, administration buildings, law courts, and shops that the
central area of the city was the place not only of political activity in the narrow sense, but of all the other
activities that nurtured the lives of the citizens in common.
It is important to note that women were not citizens and that the slave population of Athens was at least
as large as the citizen population. "Freedom" therefore was reserved for only a select few. But the self-
confidence of the Athenian city-state in the mid-fifth century was so great that drama, one of the
institutions of the Athenian polls, was free enough to question many of the entrenched beliefs of the
citizens it addressed.
Lesson 44. The Perfect Middle; All Forms of eljjf 179
You are now ready for the fifth of the six principal parts. The system of the Middle Voice uses
the same stems as the Active voice except for the perfect, which has its own special stem:
TTauco, nauoco, enauoa, ncnauKa, TTEnaupai = I have stopped my...
The perfect Middle stem has reduplication, which

PERFECT /have stopped my , works exactly as in the Active. (See p. 155.)
TT£TTO(U|J£6a There is no tell-tale K. It is usually easy to punt.
TT£TTauocu TT£TTaUO0£
TT£nauTai mnauvTcu EXAMPLES
(p6XXo>) KeicXqjjai (KaXea>)
PLUPERFECT / had stopped my (yapea>) ncnoiiripai (TTOIECO)
€TT€TTaUJJr|V ETT€TTO(U|Je0a
enenauao The next-to-last syllable of the infinitive is
accented
INFINITIVE Notice the accent on the -|j£v syllable of the
nenauaOai participle. This is a tip-off for the perfect Middle.
(Seen only in forms with a short last syllable)
PARTICIPLE I Exercise a: Translate: Xuco = release
, q, ov 1. XEXUVTCM 3.£X£Xu|jqv 5. 7.
2. XEXua0ai 4. XEXuoai 6.EXEX6|j£0a 8.
CONSONANT COMBINATIONS IN PERFECT MIDDLE FORMS

When a stem consonant comes into contact with an ending consonant, there may be changes.
This can make a perfect Middle form difficult to recognize.
LABIALS PALATALS DENTALS
n, P, 9+ p —> MM + M ~> YM T, 8, 0 + p — > ap
+ o —> y + o - - > f. + o --> a**
+ T — > TTT + T —> KT + T —> or
+ 0*--> oO
TT£TTEIO|Jai n£TTEIO|J£0a
HEHEI00E*
XEXEITTTCU 8E5EHCTQI TTETT£IO[J£VOI
EIO I(V) E!OI(V) Eiai(v)
EHEHEIOO STTETTEI00E
EXsXEITTTO E8E8EIKTO EHETTEIOTO nenEiapEV
?jaav ?joav
Inf. XEXE?90ai* Inf. 8c8E?xeai* Inf. TTETT£Ta0ai

Part XEXEIHÎEVO^, q t ov Part 8E8£iy^£vo<;t q, ov Part
*A sigma drops out between two consonants. **A dental drops out before o.
Note: The Greeks did not add an -VTOM or -OVTO ending to a perfect stem ending with a conso-
nant. Rather they used a periphrastic form, made from the perfect participle + £ioi(v) or Pjoav.
XcXcipplvoi clofv. They are in the state of having left their ...
X£X£l|Jp£VOI ôav. They were in the state of having left their ...
I Exercise ^: Translate:
1.XEXET90CU 3. TTETTEIOpEVOI EIOIV 5. £&£8EIX0£ 7. XsXEIfJpEVq ^V
2. XsXEiyai 4. TTETTE?a0ou S.EXEXEiyo 8. XsXEip|jEvoi<;
180
You are not expected to learn all the perfect Middle stems. But you should know the patterns so
that you may make an educated guess.
I Exercise y: Guess at the meaning of the following forms. You may verify a hunch by consulting Principal
Parts pp. 249-250. Remember that reduplication may occur by vowel lengthening: a/e --> q, o — > GO.
1. ?)yHa| 3. TTEirpayiJEvoi ?)aav 5. a>pyia0ai 7.£TT£TrAr|£o
2. KEKAE90E 4. fjpScu 6. epepAqvro 8. r]pq|JEvoi
ALL FORMS of £ I pi
Now that you know about the Middle system, you will be able to understand every form of ei(j(:
£\\j\ = I a m
CONTINUOUS FUTURE
INDICATIVE INDICATIVE
E!|JI has enclitic
forms only in the
Present The deponent future
present. All present is regular except
forms ace enclitic EljJI EO|JEV Eoopai Eo6|j£0a that you would
5* » /
except for E!. El EOTE EOQ EOE00E expect EOETOI
EOTl(v) EIOl(v) ?OTa I EOOVTO i instead of &JTCM.
It is traditional to
write enclitic forms Imperfect
with an acute on the F\ (or ^v) ^(JEV
second syllable. f\oQa F\T£
As you might expect ^v fjoav
from the continuous SUBJUNCTIVE
nature of being, there & <x>UEV
~
is no aorist for the
verb EIJJI. Q^ M T£
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE This is the first

EVqv E!|JEV Eooi(jqv Eooi|jE0a time you are
looking at a future
Eiqq €!TE EOOIO EOOIO0E
optative. Isn't it
EOOITO EOOIVTO just what you
IMPERATIVE would expect?
Va0l EOTE (Note: the s drops
EOTCO EOTCOV out in the you
[sing.], so that we
INFINITIVE INFINITIVE see ~oio instead of
ETvai EOE00OI -oioo.)
i /
GOV,
>/
ouoa,
V
ov
>/'
EOOJJEVOC;, q, ov
1 Exercise 5: Translate:
1. EGQ 4. E'I'PI 7. "061 10. E!EV 13. E!TE 16. EOTGOV
2. rjj 5. OVTCK; 8. EOTOM 11. <L 14. EOTE 17.ovTO>v
3. âav 6. OUOQ 9. ?jv 12. cov 15. E'OTE 18. sAEyofJEV OTI £aof|JE0a
1 Exercise E: Translate:
1. we will be 3. [I said that] you (s.) would be 5. to be 7. you (pi.) are 9. you (sing.) were
2. you (s.) are 4. would that we were 6. we will be 8. let them be 10. she will be
Classwork: ++ Read: Diogenes #17 and Graveyard #9, Thesauros pp. 235 and 227.
£pya -Read and translate "The Gift of Gold" (Part 2). Learn the vocabulary. Circle the verbs with
middle endings. Most of them are deponent. Can you find some True Middles? Parse the verbs
in bold print.
THE GIFT OFGOLD (Part2) 181
Kai pE0' qpEpaq ou noXXac; 6 paoiAEUc; Kai 6 ouppouXoc; Eiq TO

auTo |JEpo<; Tqc; noAECoc; ?jA9ov KOI EV TO OUTQ oiKip ETSov 9coc;.
<ai npooEpx6|JEvoi npoq Tqv OIKIOV IJjoOovro TOU avSpoq 3
aSovToq. Kai OTE &<pfKOVTO ETTI Tqv oiKiav Tqv yuvaka sTSov
ipYOUulvnv
r r
EV £> fiSev 6 avqp. Kai TCOV Suo rkouoav aXXnAoic;
c ^ / ' "V ' « T
5iaXEyo|JEVcov. co vuvai EITTEV «
o »avqp-
' " »C ' '
cuoaijjoveq Eopev." «q Coe
> *
yuvq aTTEKpivaTO' vai, cuSaipovEOTCpoi capcv TOU paoiX£CA)q.M 7
TOUTO aKouoaq 6 paoiXeuq; eTnc TCO ouppouXco Mvuv opaq cix; TOO
PICO xîpouoiv OUTOI oi avOpconoi; 'eioeXOcopcv Kai SiaXeycopcda
auToTc;. pouXojjai yap (ja8c?v TTCOC; TOiairrqv €u5ai|joviav Iv TCO
picp EupioKOuoiv ." oi 6c 8uo EKpouoav Tqv Oupav. "TIVE^ ioT€;M 11
qpcoTqoev q yuvq. "8uo avSpcq copcv nopcuopcvoi o? pouXo|j€0a
Xpovov |jiKpov &vanauco6ai.N NclolX6cTCN eicaXeaev q yuvq. 13
Kai auToTq €io€pxo|J€voi(; eTncv "xa'PCT€» ^ ^cvoi. OUK Exopev

O?TOV 8i56vai u|j?v aXXa k'xopEV uScop |jaXa yXuKu." Kai qvcyKev
q yuvn uScop auToTq EV KuXiîv. Kai TCOV ÊVCOV TTIOVTCOV TO u8cop
c'l'XiÊ (she rolled) 8uo Xi0ouq fjEyaXouq Xsyouoa Ta8E*MouK E'XOJJEV 17
Gpovouc; EV TQ oi Kip, aXXa q8u EOTI KaOiÊoOai Eni TOUTCOV TCOV
Xi0cov.M 6 SE paoiXEuq qpcoTqoEv "aXX 1 OTE &9nc6pc8a, OUK ?jo0a
(jovq. vuv TTOU EOTIV 6 avqp;N q SE yuvq anEKpfvaTO- "EV TQ
EOT!? (hearth) KpunTETai." "aXXa 8ia TI icpunT€Tai;M qpcoTqoEv 6
paoiXEuq* "aVjei (=aVTE"E) OUTOV EÊX0ETv." 21
q SE yuvq npooqX0E onouSq npoq Tqv EOTIOV (hearth) Kai E&COKE 23

TCO avSpi TO ijjaTiov. 6 SE avqp EÊX0cbv Kai opcov TOU^ Êvouq
"xafpETE11 ETnEv. 6 SE paoiXsuc; qpcoTqoEv "aXXa vuv, cl> 9iXE ÊVE,
nou EOTIV q yuvq oou;M
6 SE avqp &TT£Kp(vaTO OTI KpunTETai EV TQ EOTI^. "Sia TI 27

KpunTETai;11 qpcoTqoEv 6 paoiXsuq. 6 SE avqp ETrrE TaSE*
"nEvqTEc; iojJEV, coonEp opaTE. KO} ou KEKTq|JE0a Suo ipaTia-
<OOTE XPH v^v Tqv E|jqv yuva?Ka OUK EXOUOOV ipaTiov 9OpE?v
KpunTEo0ai.M 6 SE paoiXsuq ElnE- "pav0avco (understand). aXXa
XlyE poi TO&E- E! ouTcoq EV HEVI^ (poverty) EOTE CJOTE pqSs Suo
KCKTqoOai ipaTia ncoq aSETE Kai 6pxE?o0E coonEp EuSaipovEc;;11 33
M
aXX' EuSaijJovEc; EO|JEVM anEKpfvaTO 6 avqp- vopfôpEV
EuSaijjovEOTEpoi E?vai auToO TOU paoiXECoq. xa'P°M€V Y^P
aXXqXoic; Kai OUTCO TCO PICO."
3 npooEpxopa i - come or go toward (npoq + Epxopa i)

a9iKovTo - from a9iKVEO|jai (The i is long (time-marked) in the aorist indicative.)
7 EuSaipovEOTEpoc;, a, ov - more fortunate; EuSaipovEOTOToq, q, ov - most
fortunate. (The comparative and superlative of a Ar|0r)<; are a AnQEarcpcx; and
aXr|9eaTaTcx;. Although there is no EC; on the stein of EU&CMÎGOV, ov, its comparative
and superlative are made by analogy with aXrjOqc; and have an unexpected -ca.)
11 Kpouco - knock, knock on, clap (hands)
13 avanauopai - take a rest, rest "up" (as we say)
23 E'SCOKE(V) - he, she, it gave, aorist of SiScopi. (Note the *. Usually K on an ending
signals the perfect, but not here. The perfect of 8i5o>pi is BcScoica, with reduplication + K.)
182
Lesson 45. Middle Imperatives; Impossible Wishes;
U-Stem Nouns; U-A-U Adjectives
THE MIDDLE IMPERATIVE
Learn the imperative Middle forms. Remember I8ou from "The Doctor Comes" and that will
give you the "you" (sing.) e/o aorist Middle command Think of it as meaning "See (once) for
yourselfl" rather than merely "See (once)!"
For the a-aorist, try to remember A6yiocu. (Graveyard* 29, from AoyfCopcu reckon, calculate).
CONTINUOUS e/o AORIST a-AORIST
2nd pers. Aeinou AcineoSe AITTOU nauoai* nauoaoOE
3rd pers. Trauoao9a>
*Ambiguity Alert 15 * : There will be ambiguity only when the verb stem is a single syllable. If the stem
is more than one syllable, there will be no ambiguity.
Learn the following patterns, which hold for all normal oa- and a- aorists:
infinitive Active optative Active imperative Middle
KEAEUOOI KcAguoai KEAEuoai
nouoai nauoai nauoai
06tyai 8&yai 8&yai
at short; a i long; a i short;
accent on next-to-last recessive accent recessive accent
PERFECT
The perfect commands are periphrastic.
n€Trau(J€voqVo0i ncnaupcvoi EOTE Second pers. Be in the state of having stopped your!
TTEnaujjEvoc; E'OTGO ncnaupcvoi E'OTCOV Third pers. Let him I her I it I them be in the state
of having stopped his I her I its I their
I Exercise a: Translate:
1. Keep accepting! (sing.) 3. Be guarding yourselves! 5. ypa9ou 7. KpuTTTEo0E (2 ways)
2. Accept (once) (pi.) 4. Let him be saving his . 6. ypa9ovcoTo>v (2 ways) 8. Kpuyavrcov (2 ways)
IMPOSSIBLE WISHES
For wishes pertaining to the present or past (unattainable or impossible wishes), the Greeks used
ctBc or el yap + past tense. The negative is (jq.
eiBe or ei yap + imperfect for present impossible:
E'rtte |jq CXTTE0VQOKOV. If only I were not dying! (But I am.)
£\Q£ or €i yap + aorist for past impossible:
EI yap ?j A9ov. If only I had come! (But I did not.)
EI yap (jq k'OayEV TOV naTSa. If only he had not buried the child! (But he did.)
(Note: The optative is used for wishes pertaining to the future, attainable or not: "If only she would corner)
I Exercise P: 1. If only they had not left the city! 4. If only they would leave (once) the city.
Translate: 2. If only they had not left (their) city! (Use Middle) 5. If only you were saving each other!
3. If only they were leaving the city! 6. If only it were not dead!
7. Challenge: Translate, using the 99% principle: If only they had not been leaving the city!
U-STEM NOUNS 183
The Third Group includes U-stem nouns of any gender. The stem ends in u. The genitive ends
in -ecoc;, sometimes in -uoc;. There are also some Third Group nouns whose nominatives end in
-~§"; or -ouc;. You need not memorize these forms, but you should be able to recognize them.
6 IxQuc; TO OIOTU q vauc; 6/q pouc; ouioq
fish town ship cow/ox son
ixeo<; OIOTU vauq pouc; uio<;
ixOuv aoTu vauv pouv uiov
>/
IxOuoc; VECOC; pooc; uiou
iX66, aaTci vqf pot uico
t t «/ *% /
iXv/UEc; aoTq vqcc; pocc; uictc;
jx^ aoTq vauc; pou^ Ul£?^
jxOucov OOTECOV vccov pOGOV UI€GOV
JX0uoi(v) aoT£Gi(v) vauaf(v) POUOIIV) UI£Gl(v)
Note: uio^ is an O-Group noun in the singular, a Third Group u-stem noun in the plural.
I Exercise y: Give the correct article for the following forms:
1. uic?<; 3. vrjf 5. ix95<; 7. poV(2) 9.
2. pou<; (4) 4. 8orr| 6. Ix6u<; 8. POCK; (2) 1O. vauv
U-A-U ADJECTIVES
There are U-A-U adjectives with U-stems in the masculine and neuter, such as
Again, you need not memorize the forms. Be able to recognize them.
(*)5uc;,eTa,u pleasant I Exercise 8: Using the information below, match the

following forms to the appropriate nouns.
qSuc; 1. papu A. eA&pavra
B. Xoycp
qSdac; qScoc; 3. C. acopaTa
4. D. novou
5. i*)5£? E. vea>^
6. Papuv F. icapTTOuc;
qSciac; 7. G. apyupiov
q&Ecov qSccov
U-A-U comparatives and superlatives will be formed with -uTepoq,o,ov and
BUT
yXuKUTEpo<;ta,ov
sweet, sweeter, sweetest heavy, heavier, heaviest pleasant, more pleasant,

most pleasant
Classswork: Read Graveyard #25 and #37, Thesauros pp. 230 and 231.
-Practice writing out the Middle paradigm. Reach the point where you can write it in less
than twenty minutes.
-Read and translateflfThe Gift of Gold" (Part 3). Learn the vocabulary. Parse verbs in bold print
184
THEGIFTOFGOLD (PartS)
6 8c paoiXcuc; clrrc ToSe- ViBc pq nevqTec; ?JT€. Xeye poi To8c- c!
peranlpyaiTO upac; 6 paaiXcuc;, aicouoac; ncpi TQUTQC; Tqc; 2
eu&aijjoviac;, <at £i eBcXqocie 5copa SiSovai upTv, BcâioOc av;N
6 5e avqp 6ncKp(vaTO- "vai, 5£x°'M€9a av aTTa av 6 paaiXeuc;
5i8co (subjunctiveof 5i8a>ni)- XPO Y^P TiavTac; 8£âo6ai aTTa av 6
0ecx; 81800." M €5y€ M eTnev 6 (SaoiXcuq- "B^xoioSc 8a>pa irapa TOU
oi 8c TETTapEc; SilXeyovTO noXuv XP^VOV Ka' TcXoq 6 paaiXeuq 8

KOI 6 ou(jpouXo<; cTnov xaipeiv TCO avSpi. KOI Xmcbv Tqv oiicfav
cTrrev 6 paaiXcuc; TCO aujjpouXc^ Ta8c* "aXXa TOUTO aXqSax; EOTI
OaupaoTov — avOpconouc; TOOOUTOV xîpîv TCO pico. KOI EI vuv
Xaipouoi ncvqTEc; OVTE^, EXEIC; EiicaÊiv (guess) E^1 OTTOOOV xaipoiEv 12
av EI 8a>pa XafJoiEV rrapa TOU paoiXEcoq;" icai oi 8uo icaTqXOov
Eiq Tqv oiKiav Tqv
KOI TQ uoTEpai<jt pCTcnlpyaTO 6 paoiXEuc; TOV avSpa KOI Tqv

yuva?Ka. KOI Ka9i£6ÊVO<; EHI TOU Opovou TOU paoiXiKou sTnEv
auToTq- "qyyEiXE Tiq poi ujjac; ovTaq nsvqTac;. vuv pouXopai
SiSovai u|j?v TO&E TO Scopa. xa'POITE-" Ka* ^SCOKEV auToTc; OOKKOV 18
PEOTOV (full of) XPUO°S <a» Suo i(jaTia KaXa &v TO vqpaTa
(threads) ?jv E£ apyupou TE <ai xp^ô^- 20
6 SE avqp icai q yuvq icaTqXOov EI<; Tqv oiiciav 9opouvTEq TO VEO

ipaTia. Kai EV TOUTQ TQ VUKTI E!HEV TaSE q yuvq TCO avSpr Mcl>
9iXE avEp, Kpouou (clap) TOC; x€^Pa(^ Ka» Spsai aSEiv, KOI Eyco
âopai EToipq 6pxcTo6ai.N TOU SE av8poc; TaOTa TTOIOUVTOC; q
yuvq qpxETO 6pxE?o6ai. 25~
aXX 1 Eâi9vqc; (suddenly) inauoaTO q yuvq opxoupEvq KOI

EOTEVEV. KOI TCO OvSpl ETlTE ToSE' "£> 9lXE OVEp, TO IJJCXTIOV TOUTO
Papu EOTI 9OpE?v. I8ou- ou psXEi (joi 6pYETo9ai 90pouoq OUTO." 28
6 8s avqp &SE anEKpivaTO- MEI yap pq coe^6pc6a TO Sobpa TOU
<ai oi 8uo E^s8uv (took off) TO VEO ijjaTia. q SE yuvq TO 9auXov

ipaTiov EVE&U (put on) KOI auTO 9Opouoa ^pâTO 6pxE?o0ai
aC6iq. Vuv Suvapai 6pxE?o0ai cSonEp opvic;" E!HE TCO avSpi.
aXXa 6pxou|JEvq EV Tq oiici^ Eâ«9vqq flo0€TO q yuvq TOU 34

OOKKOU. Hcl> avEp" ETnEv, TOU oaKKOu anTO|JEvq- Kpuyco|JE0a
TOUTOV auTiica. E! yap pq, KXETTTOI av XapoiEv TOV xp^ôv TOV
qiJETEpOV."
E*i19E + imperf. in present impossible wishes, + aorist in past (p. 182) - if only
2 |JETanE(jnO(jai - Summon, Send for (The active, MCTancpnco = send after, is rarely used.)
12 £9' = ETTI + acc. - to (Translate to what an extent)
20 6 apyupoc; -" silver --> argent (in heraldry) --> Argentina (via Latin)
25- qpX ETO could be imperfect of Epxopai or apxojjai. Context tells you which.
(Also see note on Ip/opa I on Principal Parts Page, p. 249.)
28 papuq, E?a, u - heavy --> baritone, barometer
(Papu 9op£?v too heavy to wear. Compare p. 162, 16 6p0(a avapqvai too steep to climb.)
EI yap + past tense - if only (for impossible wishes, p. 182)
34 Eâfcpvqq (adverb) - suddenly
OUTIKO (adverb) - at the very moment, immediately
Lesson 46. The Middle: All Forms 185
MIDDLE
Ac (nopa I = / leave my ...
INDICATIVE
XciyopeOa EX inopq v E A in6|JE0a
EXinOU EXlTTEoGE XeXciyai
XEITTETCU XEITTOVTCU XEiyovTai EXlHETO EXlTTOVTO XEXEITTTOI XEXEIJJJJEVOI
Ea
iaKv)
EXEirrofJEOa
EXEITTOU EXEITTEO0E EXEXEiyO EXEXEI96E
EXEITTETO EXEITTOVTO EXEXEITTTO XEXEI^ÊVO
âav
SUBJUNCTIVE
XinGopcu ,q,OV 00
XEITTQ etc.
AEinqrai XEITTCOVTCU XfnqTcu XincovTai
OPTATIVE
XEITTOI|Jr|V XEiyoipqv XiTToipqv
XEITTOIO AEITTOI00E XEiyoio XEiyoia6E XITTOIO XlTTOIoOE etc.
XEITTOITO XEITTOIVTO XsiyoiTo XsiyoivTo XITTOITO XlTTOIVrfO
IMPERATIVE
XEITTOU XEITTEOOE I XlTTOU X|TTEO6E
XEITTE06COV I XlTT£o8a> etc.
iNHNrnvE
I XEiyEoOai I XiTTEaOai I
PARTICIPLE
XEITTOÊVOC;, q, ov I q, ov I Xin6|j£vo<;, q, ov I XEXEi|J|JEVo<;,q,ov
8« Ambiguity Alert: Aeinq: The "you" (sing.) present indicative Middle has the same form as the
"he, she, it" continuous subjunctive Active.
Above are all the forms of the Middle. What is new are the subjunctive and optative forms.
They are exactly as you would expect Notice that the sigma drops out in all you (sing.) forms.
This gives -010 in the optative.
Review all the rules for making Middle forms. Now try to write out the entire Middle paradigm
for Adnco, excluding the pluperfect. Keep practicing until you can do it in twenty minutes or
under.
I Exercise a: Move your finger to the spot on the paradigm where the following forms are located. Use two
fingers if need be.
1. XiTTEoOcu 2. cXEXeiif/o 3. EXcinovTO 4. XEIVQ 5. XEinEo6co 6. XefyoioOe 7. XEXEi[j|JE8a 8. XEITTQ
Now try to apply what you know in writing the Middle paradigm for nauco, with its -oa aorist
You will need four of the first five principal parts:
rrauo), nauoco, ^nauoa, nenauKa, ncnaupai
Try to write the entire Middle paradigm of nauco. Then turn the page to check what you have
written.
186 / stop my . . . (often used as a Reflexive Middle,
/ stop [myself], as in / stop shouting)
INDICATIVE
nauojjai nau6ps0a na uaopa i na uaopeOa Enauaapqv tnauoaîeOa
nauQ* nauE00£ nauaQ* nauoECj0E Enauaa) EnauoaaOe nsnauaai nEnauaSs
nauETai nauovrai nauoETai nauaovrai EnauoaTo Enauaavro nsnauTai nEnauvrai*
Enauoyqv ETTauopsOa EnEnauîqv EnEnau|JE0a
snauou EnauE00E Ensnauao EnsnauaOs
EnausTO snauovTO EnsnauTo EnsnauvTo*
naucofjai
nauQ*
nauco|j£0a
nauqaOs
" SUBJUNCTIVE
nauacopai
nauaq*
nauaa>|jE6a
nauaqo0E
nsnaujjEvoc; &
etc.
na u qra i na uco vra i nauaqrai nauacovTai
OPTATIVE
nauoijjqv nauoipE0a nauaoipqv nauooipcOa nauoafjjqv nauoalpeBa
nauoio nauoio0E nauaoio nauaoicjOe nauoaio nauaaiaOe etc.
nauoiTO nauoivro nauooiTO nauooivro na uoa ITO na uca i VTO
IMPERATIVE
nauou nauEO0£ 1 nauoai* nauaaaSe nsnauîEvoc; To0i
nauEOvCO nauEOv/cov
INFINITIVE
nauEoOai nauoEo0ai nauoao9ai nEnauo0ai
PARTICIPLE
nauopEvo<;, q, ov nauoopEvo<;, q, ov nauaapEvo<;, q, ov nsna u |j£vo<;,q ,ov
Ambiguity nauq: The "you" (sing.) present indicative Middle has the same form as the "you" (sing.)
Alert: continuous subjunctive Middle and as the "hejhe, it" continuous subjunctive.Active
: The "you" (sing.) future indicative Middle has the same form as the "you" (sing.)
aorist subjunctive Middle and as the "he, she, it" aorist subjunctive Active.
nauoai: The "you" (sing.) imperative Middle may have the same form as the aorist
infinitive Active (for nauoai or Bayou pattern) and as the aorist optative Active
"you" (sing.) (for the Oayai pattern).
I Exercise ^: Move your finger to the spot on the paradigm where the following forms are located. Use two
fingers if need be.
1. nauoaoOai 3. ETTOUOVTO 5. naueaOoo 7. EnEirauTO
2.ETTETTOUVTO 4. TTOUOQ 6. TTaUOOIO0E 8. TTOUQ
NOTE: There is a nonperiphrastic perfect Middle imperative. These forms are not common and can be
recognized on sight. You need only to know they exist.
Be in the state of having stopped your . . . TTETTaUOO TTETTauaOE
Be in the state of having stopped your . . .
Let him/her/it be in the state of having Let them be in the state of having stopped
stopped his I her I its... TTETTaU000> TTETTaU000>V their...
Classwork: ++ Read Heraclitus #23 and Graveyard #38, Thesauros pp. 225 and 231.
a -Read and translate the conclusion of "The Gift of Gold." Learn the vocabulary.
OR perfect nEnaujjEvoi EIOI(V), pluperfect TTETTOUÎEVOI

187
THE GIFT OFGOLD (Part 4)
oi Suo noXuv xpovov EVO|JI£OV onou TOV OCXKKOV KpuyaivTo. 1~
TEXoq SE Tpqpa (hole) noiqoa|j£voi EV TCO TEIXEI, EVTaG0a
EKpuyavTO TOV OCXKKOV. KOI OUKETI fjv auTO?<; Eipqvq. aci yap
aio0av6|jEvoi Tivoq EV TQ 65cp--Kuvo<; Kpa£ovTo<; (bark) q avSpoc;
TnraipovToc; (sneeze)— E9o|3ouvTO pq KXenrai EioEX0oiEv. KOI
ouTooq EXunouvTo GOOTE (jqKETi pouXeo0ai opx^ToOai. KOI aei 6
k'XEyov aXXqXoic; • "ei yap jjq €5£â|J€9a TO TOU paoiXccoq Scopa."
Mera 5s TETTapac; q|j€pa<; PJX0EV 6 paoiXcuq (JETO TOU ouppouAou

pouXojJEVoc; EupsTv EI xa>P°^v °' 5^° nsvqTEq ToTc; VEOiq 5cbpoiq.
aXXa npooEpxojjEvoi npoq Tqv OIKIOV OUK E?5ov 9coc;. "TOUTO
otTonov TI" ETnEv 6 fJaoiXEuc; TCO ou(j|3ouXcp- "TI vopiCEiq; Vococ; TCO 11
Xpuoco c5 E'ScoKa (I gave) oiKiav VEOV KEKTqjJEvoi av sTEv." Kat 12
EKpouoEv Tqv Gupav.
"|jq XsyE |jq5Ev" sTnsv q yuvq TCO av5pr "KXEHTai av EtEv." oi 8£ 14

8uo Eoiycov. Kai aG0i<; EKpouov o TE paoiXsuc; KOI 6 ou(j(3ouXoc;
COOTE TEXoq EKaXEoav oi 8uo apa "TIVEC; EOTE;" 6 SE paoiXsuc;
anEKpivaTO "8uo av8pE<; nopEuojJEvoi oV pouX6|j£0a avanauEoOai."
"aniTE11 EtiTEv 6 avqp* "OUK EOTI Ka0fÊo9ai EV TOUTQ TQ OIKIO 18
SIOTI OUK E'XOJJEV Opovouq." 6 SE paoiXsuq anEKpivaTo TaSs-
"aXXa Eni0u|Jou|jEv HIVEIV. E'XETE uScop 8i56vai qpTv;11 q SE yuvq
"uScop av EupoiTE11 E9q "ci nopEuoio0E noppco (further) KOTO Tqv
656v."
TOUTO SE TCO paoiXs? E'SoÊ |jaXa OITOHOV av0pcbnouq EV TCO npiv 23

OVTOC; 9iXouc; vuv KEXEUEIV aniEvai coonEp EX0pouq. KOI ETnsv
auToTc; TaSs* "|3ouXo|jai E!oEX0E?v KOI 5iaXEyEo0ai upTv. Eyco EIJJI
6 paoiXEuq. yiyvcboKETE JJE." 6 SE avqp E?nEV "aXXa (jcopouc;
VOJJIÊK; q|jac;; Sia TI 6 paoiXsuc; av EpxoiTo EV TaTq vuîv EIC;
9auXac; oiKiaq; KXEHTOI EOTE. aniTE vuv. EI yap (jq qX0ET* 28
EVTau0a." 6 SE ETrrEv "aXX 1 OKOUETE Tqv E|jqv 9(ovqv. ou Tqv
9covqv yiyvcooKETE TOU paoiXscoc; oq E'SCOKE u(j?v TO ujjETEpa
Scopa;" Kai TCO avSpi KOI Tq yuvaiKi CXKOUOUOIV q 9covq E&OKEI
aXq0coc; sTvai TOU paoiXlcxx;. TEXoq SE Tqv 0upav avEcpâv. 32
(continue on the next page)
1- Why no av with KpuyaivTo? Would KpuyoivTo be good Greek too?

q Eipqvq - peace (Irene)
6 XUTTECO - distress, cause pain; XunEopai - be distressed
11 Vococ; - perhaps (literally "equally," from ioo<;,r|,ov = equal) ~>isometric, isosceles
12- Can you explain cb? (Look up Pronoun, Relative in the Index if all else fails.)
23 npiv - used to modify XpovcP (understood): informer time, in time before
EX0poq,a,ov -hateful, hostile; as noun - enemy
32 Genitive of Possession as Predicate
A genitive of possession may act as a predicate.

+ Epya VEGOV, pouXai SE JJEOCOV, EUXOU SE yspovTcov.
Deeds belong to the young, plans to the middle-aged, and prayers to the old. Hesiod
188
The Gift of Gold (Part 4, continued)
6 SE paoiXEuq EioEXScbv qpcoTqoEv OIUTOUC; "aXXa 8ia TI vuv ou
XaipETE; 5ia TI vuv OUTE a5cT£ OUTE opx^ToOe;11 6 SE avqp
aiTEKpivaTo- "5ioTi 9opou|J€0a.M "TI 9OPE7O6E;11 qpcoTqocv 6
"EXOVTC^ nXouTOv 9opoupe0a (jq TIC; KXEHTQ. OUKETI 36
£ipqvq.M
« o^ o A * » C1 x T » A >' » ' >' c %
*' * c'
o oe paoiAEuc; OUOEV EIHEV OAA coiya. qo€i yap OTI 01 ouo
£uSai|jovEOTEpoi OUK cycvovTO 5ia TOV nXouTov, (jaXXov SE TO
EvavTiov. KOI EVEVOE?TO TTEpi ToG5E- noTEpov TO 5a)pov TOU
Xpuoou 9Epoi TO?<; avSpconoic; EuSaipoviav q ou. TOUTO ?]v
aVviyjja o OUK ESuvaTO EiSsvai. 42
Tpia (jqXa (apples) EHEOEV i< TCOV oupavcov, EV TCO TOV

XsyovTi, EV TGO CXKOUOVTI, Kal EV naoi TO?<; avOpconoic; TO?q ETTI
yqq. (A traditional Armenian ending)
36 6 nXouToq - wealth —> plutocrat

42 TO aVviypa - riddle (EiSEvai aVviypa = solve a riddle) --> enigma
Lesson 47. The Passive System; 6n6 + Genitive; 189
Verbal Adjectives Ending in —
Acfnopai * = / am being left...
INDICATIVE
XEITTQ XEITTE00E Xc 196^03 Xei99âeo6e to be learned XEXEI90E

AEITTETCU XEinovrrai XEXEITTTCM XEXEIJJJJEVOI
EIOI(V)
EAEITTOU EXEXEI90E
EXEIHETO EAEITTOVTO EXEXEITTTO
âav
SUBJUNCTIVE
AEITTO)|JE6a
c)
AEITTCOVTai etc.
OPTATIVE
AEinoifjEOa
XEIHOIO AEinoia0E ETqv
XEITTOITO AEIHOIVTO etc.
IMPERATIVE
XEITTOU AEITTE00E
AEITTE00a>V t.b.l. To0i etc.
iNFiNrnvE
XEinEoOai I
PARTICIPLE
ov I AEi<p6qo6|JEvo<;, q, ov I t.b.l. I AEA£i|j|JEvo<;,r|,ov
«« A m b i g u i t y AE{TTQ: The "you" (sing.) present indicative Mddle/Passive has the same form as the "you"
Alert: (sing.) continuous subjunctive Middle and as the "hejhe, it" continuous subjunctive Active.
Continuous and perfect forms of the Passive are identical with Middle forms. If you see these
in context, try to figure out whether the meaning is Middle or Passive. If you see them in
isolation (in an exercise), call them M-P (Middle-Passive), for example:
XEiTTEo0ai - continuous M-P infinitive
The Aorist Passive is the only stem of the Passive that has totally distinct forms (and hence
is capitalized). It will be learned in the next chapter. Forms of the future Passive are predictable
once you know the stem, which is based on the Aorist Passive.
In English the Passive voice has periphrastic forms made with the verb to be: I am being left, I was
being left, I will be left, I was left, I have been left, and so on. Turn to the chart at the bottom of p. 171.
Can you convert every active translation to its corresponding passive?
I Exercise a: Transform all the verbs in the following passage into the Passive voice.
An oracle warned Laius, the king of Thebes, that he should not allow his son to grow up. Laius gave the baby to
a herdsman so that he might kill the baby. The herdsman, however, pitied the child and brought him for adoption
to the king of Corinth. Many years afterwards the child, now an adult, unintentionally killed Laius.
*For Passive forms in larger print see Paradigm, p. 243.

190
ClTT6+ GENITIVE
6 TTCMC; EAEITTETO. ^ The child was being left.

f] yuvq E'AEITTE TOV ncuSa. The woman was leaving the child.
6 none; EXEITTETO 6n6 Tqc; yuvaiK6?. The child was being left by the woman.
Using the Passive voice allows you to show that something was done without saying by whom
or by what.
Notice that the second and third statements above give exactly the same information; the focus is
different. The second statement indicates that we are interested in the woman: what did she do?
The third shows that we are interested in the child: what happened to him?
If you do say by whom, you usually use 6n6 + genitive to indicate the agent. In English you
use the word "by."
I Exercise P: Translate, using the Passive and uno + the genitive when needed. 6 oTpaTqyo<; = general
1. They are being stopped by the general. 4. If ever they arc being stopped, tell me.
2. They were being stopped by the general. 5. If (ever) they were being stopped, they used to cry.
3. Being stopped (repeatedly) by him is not pleasant. 6. May the horses not be (repeatedly) stopped by him!
(uno -> un1 before a vowel) 7. Let the horses be (repeatedly) stopped by him!
VERBAL ADJECTIVES ENDING in -Toq,r),6v
Verbal adjectives ending in -To?,r|16v may be made from a verb stem. (The stem is often but not
always Aorist Passive.) The meaning is passive: either X'd orXable (able to be Xfd). Some
verbal adjectives have both meanings, some only one or the other.
-TOC; word Meaning(s) of-TOC; word "IX" form Aor. Passive

,ov~ lovedf lovable 9iX£co love
S 6v taught I teachable 5i5aoKoo teach
,6v findable Eupioica} find
S wonderful (to be marveled at) Oaupa^co wonder, marvel
|,pv hidden Kpurrro) hide (E-Kpu<p-0rjv)
»6v expressed in riddles aiviTTco speak in riddles
I Exercise y: Translate, using the above

1. oi na78£<; 9iXrp-oi. (2 ways) 3. voniCoa TO ^lÂia 5. Ta noXXa 6i6aKTa. (best guess)
2. Ta TTOirjpaTa aiviKTa. 4. TO apyupiov OUK EOTI supETOv. 6. noXXoi ou 5i8aKToi. (best guess)
NOTE: When there is a preposition prefixed to a -TCX; word, the accent stays on the last syllable if the meaning is
Xable, but goes all the way back if the meaning is X'd:
removable vs. ££a(pcTO{ removed (from E£aipEa> take out)
Classwork: ++Read Famous Sayings #13-14 and Graveyard #31-32, #39, Thesauros pp. 233,
and 230,231.
Ipya -Read "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?" (Part 1), a Yiddish tale. Learn the vocabulary.
Find the True Passives. (See p. 174 top.)
l 9l
DID THE TAILORHAVE A NIGHTMARE?* (Part 1)
'ev TQ yq TQ 'PUOOIKQ (Russian) coKEi TioTC avqp TTevqq, fbcmTq<;, oc;

KCtiTTEp TTEvqc; &v cvaipc T£> Bia>. GOCTO yap cTvai £u5a(ua>v. ncbq
s, /' i A ~r / l > a* J / » \ ~ « *r « ^ ~
yap ou; navTa EV TGJ Dpicp aya0a €9avq" €9iA£iTO uno Tqg 3
yuvaiKoc; KOI TGOV rraiScov icai €9iXei auTOuq. KCU O?TO<; ?jv auToTc;
EI (jq nAcicov q ToTq aAXoiq avOpdyrroic;, aXX 1 iKavo^. <ai oiKia ?jv
auTo?q EI (jq |j£i^cov q To?q aXXoic; avOpcoTroic;, aXX' iKavq. KOI
CO£TO 6 (banrqc; navTac; Touq £v TQ noX£i £u5aipovaq. noX£pou
yap £iaayop£vou £ic; Tqv yqv Tqv 'PuoaiKqv uno TCOV
GTpaTicoTcov TCOV TaXXiKcov (French) Kai TOU GTpaTqyou OUTCOV 9
NanoX£ovTO<;, ounoj£ ?jv (Jaxq ev TOUTQ TQ noX£i. Vococ;
£?vai (Jiicpa n£pi(jax€o8ai (to fight over).
KOI vuv £Xly£To 6 NanoX£cov ou viKqoac; plXX£iv X£iy£iv Tqv yqv 12

Tqv 'PuooiKqv. H £Cy£ H drrcv 6 fbanTqc; £OUTCO* MaTT£X0£T(A). oT5a
OTI TOU NanoXlovToc; an£X06vToq |j£yaXq q xaP^ ^j°y) forai TO?C;
'PuooiKO?^.11 KOI TOU ÔHTOU n£pi TOIOUTCOV £vvooup£vou £âi9vqc; 15
£9avq £ni Tq Oup^ avqp TIC; piKpoq ov k'yvco FaXXiKov (French)
OVTO 5ia TO ipaTiov. N9£uya>H £9q 6 avqp (JEyaXco 96^(0-
i p1 anoKT£?vai. Tax^coc;- Kpuyov |j£ q anoXcoXa." 18
6 5£ fbanTqq £n£i0£To. av5pa yap £v KivSuvco OVTO XPH CKpJeiv. 19

KOI £K£X£UO£ TOV OvSpO K£?O0ai £V TQ <XlVQ Yva KpUHTOq £\r\.
KOI £HI TCO av5pl K£I|J£V(A) £V TQ KXlVQ £0qK£ (he pllt) (JIOV, 5uO,
Tpac; x^ a ' vac ^ (blankets) nT£puycov. TOUTOU 5£ npaTTO|j£vou
£<pouov oTpaTiooTai 'PuooiKof. 6 5£ qpa)Tqo£v M TI pouX£O0£; M oi
5£ an£KpfvavTO- MCqToO|j£v av5pa (jaXa (Jiicpov KOI 9OpoOvTa
ipomov FaXXiKov (French). £copaKac; TOIOUTOV; £OTIV £VTau0a; M 25
6 &£ fbanrqc; £0£Xcov TO y£u5q 9uy£?v drrc povov Ta5£- "ncoc;
£VTau0a; TIV£<; av £iO£pxoivTO £ic; Tqv £|jqv OIKIOV nXqv
i(joma v£a noiqoao0ai;H
- tailor (from fianTco - stitch --> rhapsode, rhapsody)

i, imperfect cppqv, oiqooijai, coqOqv - think
9a(vopai, 9avoO|jai1 âvqv - appear, seem —> fantasy, epiphany
uno + gen. with a passive verb - by (gives agent)
9 6 oTpaTqyoc; - general (6 oTpaToc; army + ayco lead} --> strategy, strategic
12 £Xly£To Notice personal construction "he was being said," where we would have
impersonal "It was being said that he .. "
VIKOCO - win a victory (q vi<q)
18 anoXcoXa - from omoXXupi, intransitive perfect as present: I am destroyed, I have perished
19 n£i0o|jai + dat (middle and passive) - listen to someone, obey, believe in, trust in
q KXivq - bed (from KXivco - cause to lean or recline)
ov - hidden
*This story is freely adapted from "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?" from Let's Steal the Moon, by Blanche L.
Serwer, © 1970; used with permission of Little, Brown, and Company.
192 Lesson 48. The Aorist Passive; Passive Deponents;
Dative of Agent with Perfect Passive
The Aorist Passive is distinctive and must be learned. It has a new stem—the sixth and last,
which you need to be able to recognize. This is usually, but not always, formed by adding 0q/0e
to the verb stem:
nauco, nauocA), cnauaa, ncnauKa, ncnaupai, inauOqv stop
Xcinco, Xcfya), E'XITTOV, XcXoma, XeXeipijai, iX€(a>9qv leave
;a,n€nXqya, n€nXqy|jai, inXqyqv strike
AORIST PASSIVE
I was stopped I was struck
I Exercise a:
INDICATIVE INDICATIVE Translate :
£nau0qv £nXqyqv £nXqyqp£v 1.
enau6r)Te £nXqyq<; £nXqyqT£
€TTCcu0q £nau0qoav £nXqyq £TrXqyqaav 3.nau9r|TE
4. nauOqTE
SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 5. TiauOqvai
nau0<2> nau0cb|j£v nXqya> 6. TTaU0£?EV
nau0q<; nau0qT£ n nXqyqT£ 7. XEIÔEIQ

^nyQ^
nau0Q Trau0cboi(v) nXqyq TrXqycoai(v) 8. XE 19600
9. EX£i96qa
10. XE 1960001
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE 11.
nau0€iqv Trau0€?(J€v TrXqy£iqv TrXqy£?|j£v 12. XEi96E\rra>v (2)
nau0£iqq nau0€?T€ nXqy£iqc; nXqy£?T£ 13.
Trau0eiq Trau0£?ev TrXqy£iq TrXqy£?£v H.
IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE -6 1 is the original "you"
nau0qTi irau0qT€ nXqyqOi nXqyqT£ (sing.) imperative ending
nau0qTco nXqy£VTcov of the Aorist Passive.
IMFHSHTIVE INFINITIVE (We have seen it in To6i,

i8uPn6i,OTn0i, and
nau0qvai nXqyqvai yvcj9i.)
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE The -01 changes to -TI

in nau9r|Ti because the
nXqy£i<;,£?oa,£v Greeks avoided two aspi-
gen. -£VTO<;,Eiaq<;,EVTO^ rated syllables in a row.
When an Aorist Passive 0 meets with a consonant in the verb stem, there will be the same sort of
changes we saw in the perfect Middle:
TT and P --> 9 Xeinoo, * TT representing an original palatal sound -->
K and y —> x
T,5,6, and I -> o (change)
TT£|9CA>,
Just as there were K-less Perfects, there are 0-less Aorist Passives. With these, there may be
a vowel change in the verb stem. Or there may be no change at all except for the final e/q.
KXETTTCO, Aorist Passive
ypc^co, Aorist Passive
Note: E9avqv is technically a 8-less Aorist Passive with an intransitive meaning.

I Exercise ft: Translate. (Refer to the list of principal parts on pages 249-250 if necessary.) 193
1. ETrXqyqaav 3. TrXqyqvai
3. 5.icXr|Or|Te 7. qx^H^ 9. EirpaxOq 11.
2. nXqyE?oai 4. TrXqyevri 6. TTEp<p8cvrE<; 8. 1O. cicXanqc; 12.£ypa9q
PASSIVE DEPONENTS
Some deponent verbs have a Passive rather than Middle aorist. These are called Passive
Deponents. There is no way to predict which deponents will be Middle and which Passive.
Passive Deponents Passive Deponents or True Passives?
, ftauXqoopai, ipouXi*]8qv 6pyiCopcu, 6pyiouHai, a>pyfo6qv be angry, be angered
i, SiaAe£opai, nopEuopai, nopEuoopai, tnopcuOqv travel, be conveyed
Suvajjai, Suvqoopai, i8uv^|8qv i, 9c>Pqoo|jai, i9<>P/|8qv be afraid, be frightened
i, oiqoopai, <}>i*)6qv
6pyf(co = to anger and (popcco = to frighten. Does this mean that
6pyf(opai and cpopcopai are felt as passive? Unlikely, since they
, evvoqoopai, tvcvo/jOqv
take direct objects, nopcuco = to convey. What about nopeuopoi?
Note that a Middle Deponent may have a True Passive:

eioc5c£apqv TOV £EVOV EK; Tqv oiKiav. / received the guest into my house. (Middle Deponent)
v oiKiav. The guest was received into my house. (True Passive)
I Exercise y: Translate as many ways as possible. admit, receive into a place

1. OUK E8uvq0q<; EA0£Tv. 3. OUK 5. cicpuyao6e. 7. noAAa npaTTETai.
2. OUK &90q uno TOU iaTpou. 4. 6. aio0avETai. 8. cl>pyfo0q<;.
DATIVE OF AGENT WITH PERFECT PASSIVE

uno + the genitive shows the personal agent for all Passive verbs except the perfect.
A dative of agent is used with the perfect Passive. (This may be considered a dative of
interest, the interested party naturally being the one who has done the act)
AeiTTO|jai uno TOU yccopyou. / am being left by (he farmer vs.

i TCO yea>py<£. I have been left by the farmer.
Note: If the agent is not a person, a dative of means is normal.

uno + genitive can be used even with active verbs to mean "under the influence of"
This could be considered a personification, as if with a genitive of agent.
TEIpO(JCM TQ VOOCO. / am being worn out by the illness.
uno T q vooou. He is raving wider the influence of the sickness.
Ie., the sickness makes him rave (agency).
I Exercise 8: Translate. (Consult the Principal Parts list on pp. 249-250.)

1.1 am being seen by the doctor. 3. He has been persuaded by gifts.
2.1 was seen by the doctor. 4. He had been persuaded by gifts.
Classwork: ++ Read Graveyard #41, Famous Sayings #15, and Diogenes #11 and #18,
Thesauros pp. 231, 233, and 235.
Ipy a -Read "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?" (Part 2), which is particularly challenging.
Learn the vocabulary. Find the Aorist Passive forms. Which are True Passives?
194
DroTHETAEX)RHA\ÂMGHTMARE? (Part2)
aXX' oi OTpcmcoTai, ou TCO fânTQ ncnoiOoTcq, aneicpivavTo-

"KPUTTTCX; av c'l'q." KOI £v navTi TOTTCO e£qTouv. cT<; 5e OUTGJV TOV
av5pa qupioKev ev TQ KXivq, T€Tpaiva>v Taq xâiva<; (piercing the 3~
blankets) TQ Xoyxq (spear tip), q 5£ Xoyxn Sin^€ Sia Tqc; npcoTqq,
5ia Tqq ScuTEpac;, aXX' ou 5ia Tqq TpiTqq. Kai OUTCOC; c^Sapqoav 5
IJEV a I xâfvai (blankets), EocoOq 8c 6 avqp 6 KpunToq.
TeXoq 5c TO>V oTpaTicoTcov ancXSovTcov avcoTq 6 avqp. TO (JEV

npoaconov auTou AEUKOV €9avq uno 9opou, ai 8£ Tpix^c; (hair) 8
XeuKai £9avqoav 5ia Taq TTTEpuyaq. câipoupcvoq 5c nTepuya
i< TCOV Tpix<iv (hair) "navTa" €9q "5qXcooco. XcXuicaq |j€ SavaTou. 10^
eycb 6 oeocooijevoc; aoi NanoXccov EIJJI, 6 paoiXeu^-|3aoiX€a>v.
Xapiv oT5a. Kal pouXopai X^PIV anoSiSovai. Xeyc poi cvvoqScig 12
Tpia cl>v av ETTi9u|jQc;. aXXa TOX^COC;, a'rrcr TIVCOV av IniSujJoiqc;;11
6 8c (banTqc; cbq paXioTa cSaupaocv, ou5* qSciv o TI anoKpivaiTo. 14~

(JiKpov 5c xpovov coiya KOI TcXoq eTne TCO paoiXcT-paoiXccov Ta5c-
"OTOV UQ (uco = rain), J) paoiXEu, eiocpxsTai TO u6cop cic; Tqv
oiKiav nfnTov 5ia Tqq 6pO9qc; (roof), ei avOpconoc; nc^Sciq og
SuvqooiTo noi€?v 6pO9qv (roof) veav qp?v, X^PIV °v €i8€iqv.M 6 8e 18-
aKouaac; eyEXaocv. aVTqpa yap OUTGO piKpov QTCI 6 fbarrTqc;. KOI
cTnc 6 NarroXcc/ov "TOUTO npaôpai. KOI Tivoq aXXou xpClfeK;" 2O-
aOGic; €VEvvo€?To 6 fbairrqc;. xa^€TTov yap k'SoÊv anoKpivaoOai

TTOVTCOV IKOVCOV OVTCOV. TI XPH aiTqoai; TEXoq cine Ta8c-
VpiaKovTa (30) €Tq vuv ouvoiKoO|J€V q TE yuvq KOI eyco, KOI 23~
OUHOTC EScâTo q yuvq VEOV ipaTiov. vuv, ^ paoiXcu, nEÔciq
av OUTQ ipaTiov VEOV;N
n£noi0a H- dat. - intransitive perfect as present - trust, trust in (acts as perfect of nEiOopai)
3- qupioKEv What kind of imperfect is this?
8ia -f gen. - through (in spatial sense)
90€ipco - destroy, ruin, corrupt, Aorist Passive E98apqv
X€UKo^,q,6v - white — > (leukemia, leukocyte)
8 UTTO + genitive - can be used to show cause or influence: under the influence, from
EâipEco - to take out (EK + aipcco = take)
10- SqXoco - to make clear (5qXoq) Can you punt this form?
Xuco - loosen, release, solve —> analysis, dialysis
12 q x&PK " grace, favor, thanks --> charismatic
Xapiv ano6(5copi - give back thanks, i.e. return a favor
X&piv dSevai - to be grateful (literally, "to know thanks")
For qSeiv, see the paradigm of oT8a, p. 159.
14- arroKpfva ITO. What was the original question? What if it were anopivoiTo a v?
18- 5uvqooiTo from Suva pa i. Can you punt this? There are enough clues. Explain.
av dSeiqv - optative of oT5a. (Stem is ei8-, p. 159.)
(For once the perfect optative Active is not periphrastic.)
TO arrq|ja - request (aiTcco)
20- What use of the Middle is this? (See p. 174.)
23- OUVOIKECO - dwell together. We would say, "We have been living together thirty years'"
The Greeks say, "We are living together thirty years." This use of the present was first seen
in "The Doctor Comes," pp. 17-18. Can you find it?
Lesson 49. The Passive Voice: All Forms 195
PASSIVE
AeiTTOpou = / am being left . . .
INDICATIVE
Xe 1961^00 pa i Aen6r|o6pc9a
AcflTQ AEITTEOSE AiAEiyai AEAEI90E
AEITTETCU AEinovrai AEAEI|J|JEVOI
Eioi(v)
EAEITTOU EAEITTEOOE EAEAEI90E

EAEITTETO EAEIHOVTO
SUBJUNCTIVE
AE 19600
Acfnq AEI90QTE
AEinc*>vrai AEI90Q etc.
OPTATIVE
XEinoi|JE0a
AEITTOIO AEIHOIO0E X£i90Eiq<; AEI90ETTE
AEITTOITO AEIHOIVTO X£i90£iq etc.
IMPERATIVE
AEITTOU I AEITTEOGE qTi
AEiTTEo6a> I AEinEoOcov AEI90EVTCOV Ta0i etc.
INFINITIVE
XEinEa0ai AEi90qa£00ai |
PARTICIPLE
AEin6)jEvo<;t q, ov XEi90qa6jj£vcx;> q, ov I A£i90£i<;,EToatEv
I •£VTQ^>£ioq<;t£VTCx;
KK A m b i g u i t y AEITTQ: The "you" (sing.) present indicative M/P has the same form as the "you1 (sing.)
Alert: continuous subjunctive Middle and as the "he, she, it" continuous subjunctive.Active
Technically the future Passive is made on a separate stem. But since that stem is, reliably,
the Aorist Passive stem + o, it need not be learned. You can easily punt these forms.
The future Middle is sometimes used with a passive sense: a5iKqoo|jai. I mil be wronged.
There is a nonperiphrastic perfect imperative Passive, the same as for the Middle, (p. 186)
There is a future perfect Passive, also easily punted. You need only to know that it exists:
it mil be done (once) future Passive
TTCTTp&^CTGI I it will be (in the state of having been) done future perfect Passive
The future perfect serves as it future to a perfect as present. You have seen this in Graveyard #8:
Koupq KCicXqaopai aei I shall always be called a maiden. (<i<\f]ya\ I am called)
I Exercise a: Translate' as passive:
1. ETrau6p£0a 2. £nau6rj<; 3. Trau0qo6jj£voi 4. ncnauTai 5. nauOcvrcx; 6. enauOqaav 7. cnauou
I Exercise 0: Parse and translate the following. Include the possibilities of all three voices.
1. nauo) 3. TTEnauTai 5. rrauOcTEV 7. rrauOci 9. nauScvra 11. TTEnauaOai 13. nauGco
2. ETTauOq 4. nauSq 6. rrauoq 8. nauoojjEOa 1O. nauOEVTCov 12. nauq 14. nEirauoScov
To see the forms of the Passive in larger print, see nauopai passive, p. 243.
196
A Note on Translation
The perfect Passive may be translated "/ have been X'd" OR "I am X'd" (For example, "/ have been
washed" OR"/ am washed.11) The pluperfect Passive may be translated,"/ had been X'd" or"/ was
X'd" The English "/ was X'd11 may, then, represent a pluperfect or an Aorist Passive.
Consider the difference between burnt and burned and you will understand the distinction.
"My toast was burnt" (pluperfect Passive: was in the state of having been burnt)
"Joan of Arc was burned at the stake." (Aorist Passive: an action occurred)
With burnt / burned we have two forms. Usually there is only a single form:
"My car was washed, but yours was dirty" (pluperfect Passive)
"My car was washed by me at 2:00 this morning" (Aorist Passive)
I Exercise y: Translate, using a verb (not a -TO<; word).

1. It was hidden. (2 ways)
2. It had been hidden. (2 ways. See top box on p. 125.)
3. It was hidden by women. (2 ways for the verb, two ways for by, see p. 196)
Classwork or £pyo:
Assume that the following forms are passive.
Point to their space on the paradigm chart
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
Hill Hill Hill Hill 1. 7. £T€TI(jqO0€
2. 8.0anTqTou
Hill Hill 3. 9. nau0£VTcov (2)
SUBJUNCTIVE 4. 10. fcai
Hill Hill + ++ 5. Ti|jq0qo€Tai 11. Xapou
OPTATIVE 6. T!|jq0qvai 12. nau0£>
Hill Hill Hill + ++
IMPERATIVE
Hill Hill +++ +
INFINITIVE
Hill Hill Hill Hill
PARTICIPLE
Hill inn mil Hill
Classwork: ++ Read New Testament #11-12, Thesauros p. 223.
cpya -Write the entire Passive Voice for rraua>. Memorize. Keep practicing until you can write
the entire Passive Voice in 20 minutes.
-Read and translate "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?" (Part 3). Learn the vocabulary.
197
DID THE TAILOR HAVE A NIGHTMARE? (Part 3)
KOI aQOic; (j£i5i£>v (smiling) 6 NanoXECov anEKpivaTo- "Kai TOUTO
TTETTpaÊTai. OTTO av aiTqq napE^GO. aXXa vuv sins (joi TO 2~
TpiTOv. TIVOC; aXXou £ni0u|j£7(;; TI aXXo aiTq0qo£Tai; a|j£ivov
av s'l'q aoi aiTouvTr TIVOC; Eni0u|j£K;;"
6 5s fbarrrqc; OUK £8uvq0q anoKpivao0ai. qpcoTqosv 8s* "&

paoiXsu, aXq0£><; xpn M€ aiTqoai;" 6 6£ cTnc "vai, aXqGcoq XPH
oe aiTqaai. X^P IV aTio5oT€ov. Tpia ETrrov <ai Tpia EOTQI. 7
TIVCX; Eni0u|JEic;;M Kai vOv 6 (ianTqq EVEVOE?TO xpovov noXuv
TTCOC; av TOUTO TO Epa)Tq|ja 6nroKpi0Eiq; 9-
KOI TEXoq TaSs ttpq- "OUK EOTI TpiTOv o TI K£KTqo6ai

aXX' EOTI EV TI o pouXo(jai |ja6E7v d> paoiXsu, ncoc; E?xe<; TOTE;" 11
6 SE paoiXEuq qpcoTqoEv " OHOTE;" 6 SE anEKpivaTo* "TOTE, TCOV
CqTouvTcov OE. noTa Ena0E^; O9o5pa £
TauTa aKOuoaq 6 NanoXscov cbpy(o0q. "TI;" avEpoqoEv

ToXpa EpcoTav |JE TOUTO; Spa TOUTO OVEKTOV; ToXpa fbanTqc; 15
EpcoTav TOV (3aoiX£a-(3aoiXcov onoTa Ena0£v; ^ (JcopE, OUK
aîoq Scbpcov E?* aîoc; E? TOU ano0avETv."
Kai KaXEoaq oTpaTidrraq Tivac; FaXXiKOuq (French) o?

KEKpu|j|JEVoi Pjoav EV Tq uXq Tq nXqofa (nearby), EKEXEUOEV 19
auTouq anayayE?v TOV fbanTqv Yva OHOKTEIVCOOIV OUTOV. oi SE
arrqyayov OUTOV Eiq Tqv uXqv (forest) TqXs Tqq TTOXEGOC;
XsyovTEc; OTI aupiov 6 pfoq OUTOU TEX£UTq0qo£Tai. 22
KOI naoav Tqv VUKTO, TCOV oTpaTiooTcov 9uXaTTOvTcov, E

6 fbanrqc; SEIVCX, noXXa 5aKpucov KOI EVVOOUJJEVOC; cbc; OUHOTE
oyETai aS0i^ Tqv yuvanca Tqv 9iXou(JEvqv OU&E TOU^ naTSac;.
2— TTErrpaÊTai - What is this form?

a|j£ivcov,ov - better (comparative of aya06<;)
7 ano8oT£ov - one must give back.
9- aTTOKpi0£iq - See p. 193 (on middle deponents having a true passive).
"11 + Adverb
+ an adverb means "to be in a certain condition." The Greek equivalent of "How
are you?" is ncoc; c'xîc;. "How were you?" would represent the imperfect.
12- TTOTE / TTOTE / GTE / OTTOTE / TOTE . See p. 163. Why is OTTOTE used here?
15 av£KToq,6v - bearable, endurable (avExopai - bear, endure)
19 q uXq - forest
anayco - lead away (ano ayco)
22 TEXEUTaco-putanendto
198 Lesson 50. Regular -pi Verbs (Bckvupi)
There are two kinds of verbs: -co verbs and -pi verbs, -co verb are called thematic because of
the theme vowel [e/o] on their continuous forms, -pi verbs are called athematic because their
continuous indicative forms have no theme vowels.
Most -pi verbs have stems ending in -vu: Seiicvupi, oi'yvupi, opvupi, oAAupi I destroy, intrans.
I perish (originally oXvu|ji). They differ from -co verbs only on the continuous stem.
Bcficvupi is a typical pi-verb, whose pattern can be applied to other normal -pi verbs.
Scficvupi, 8ei£co, e'5Ei£a, , ScSEiypcu, show
CONT. ACTIVE CONT. MIDDLE-PASSIVE

Sciicvupai
SCIKVUTC
5eiKvuoi(v) 5£iKvuaoi(v)
I8EIKVUTE E5EIKVUOO
E8EIKVU E6EIKVUTO
SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
5£ I KVUCO 5e I KVUCOpEV 5e i icvucopa i 5c i KvucopeOa
5€iKvucooi(v) 5€IKVUCOVTCU
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
SeiKvuoipcv SE i Kvuoijjq v &e i Kvuoipe6a
SEIKVUOIC; SEIKVUOITE 8€IKVUOIO
SEIKVUOI SciKVUOITO 8CIKVUOIVTO
IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE
5e i KVUOO 5e i K vuaOc
5c i KVUTCO BE i KVU VTCOV 5e i KvuaOco SE i K vuoOco v
INFINITIVE
gen. 8£iKvuvTo<;,uoq<;,uvTo<;**
*Note: SEIKVU (you [s.] imperative Active) is stem only, since the ending is zero. Also E&EIKVU = E -i- stem + zero.
**The participle 5£iKvu<;,uaa,uv is a normal 3-A-3 adjective, with dative plural 5£iicvuai(v).
We have seen MnonthemeM aorists. A -yi verb is best thought of as a verb with nontheme continuous forms.
The present (primary) endings are: -H'» '<;, 'oiM, -ÎEV, -TE, and -aoi(v). The impafect (secondary) endings are:
-v, -<;, -, -pEv, -TE, -oav. (The "they" primary ending was originally -voi and then became vocalized. So it is
the same personal ending we see in AEITTOUOI [originally AEITT-O- voi]. The secondary endings are the endings we
have seen in the imperfect and E/O aorist)
I Exercise a: Identify and translate the following forms:
1. E&EIKVU 3. &Eiicvuo8E (2) 5. 5EiKvuoi 7. oTyvu<; 9. oiyvuocu ll.opvuoo 13.6XXuv(2)
2. &EIKVUTGO 4. BEIKVUVTCOV (2) 6. BEIKVUOI 8. oiyvu^ 1O. oryvuocu 12. opvuaoi H.cSXXuv
Ipya -Write out the continuous paradigm of SEIKVUÎ and opvupi. Be able to recognize all forms.
Be able to write the forms in the double frame. (The rest can be punted.)
-Read and translate the conclusion of "Did the Tailor Have a Nightmare?11. Learn the vocabulary.
DID THE TAILOR HAVE A NIGHTMARE? (Part 4) 199
TQ SE qpEpp TQ uoTEpaip £oTa9q npo SevSpou (tree). icai OVTIOV 1
(opposite) auTou avEOTqoav noXXoi OTpaTiarrai ?x°VT6(J aicovTia
(spears). <ai auroTq cTncv 6 Xoxayoc; (captain)- " EJJOU AcyovTot; 3
*EII, OVEXETE TO aicovTia (spears). £pou 8c XcyovToc; AYO,
oToxaoaoOc (take aim). €(jou 5c XcyovToc; TPEIZ, paXere auTov.
5p' €TOI(JOI £OT€;"
6 8e fbanrqq Taura aicouaac; cix; (jaXiara €9op€?To. icai ISpcbc;

(sweat) f*)v EHI navTi T(2> oco|jcm. icai cSoicci cTvai vuv yuxpoc; Q
(cold), vuv Scppoc; (hot). TTOX; yap av cxoiq ou, TOIOUTCOV
yiyvopcvcov;
Kai 6 Xoxayoq (captain) cTnev ÊII. oi 6c OTpaTicoTai avcoxov

Ta aicovTia (spears). AYO. eoToxaoavro (took aim). aXXa rrpiv
TOV Xoxayov 5uvao9ai TPEII Xlyciv, Ynno<; npoocpxopcvo^ 13
qicouoOq. icai auTiica (at the very moment) &p6q fiyy€Xo<; TOU
NanoXcovToc;. "Mq noiqaqrc TOUTO" avcicaXcocv 6 ayycXoc;- 15-
M
Mq paXnTE." 16-
<ai TOO fianTQ ETrrev Ta5E- "6 paaiXEucrpotaiXECov vuv EXEuGEpo?

OE. icai EKEXEUOE |JE 5i56vai 001 TauTqv TQV EniOToXqv." 6 SE
fbaTTTqq Xapcbv TQV EniGToXqv TaSE avEyvco- "vuv SsScoKa aoi 19-
navja TO Tpfa. EHEpya yap av8pa oq noiqoEi 6pO9qv VEOV. <ai
TQ yuvaiKi ETTEfjyapqv VEOV ipomov. KOI TEXoc;, a QTqoaq pa9E?v,
(jEjjaOqKaq. oTa6a yap vuv 6no?a EnaOov TCJV orpaTicoTcov
£qTouvTcov |JE. TOUTO yap 5q EnaOov amp icai ou." 23
EGToiOq is on the Aorist Passive stem of ToTqpi, a transitive verb - to cause

1 someone or something to stand. Note intransitive aorist one line down.
8 enf + dat. - translate "over his body"
15~, 16- pq noiqoqTC, (jq paXqTE- Explain the construction.
€Aeu0£poco - set free
19- ScScoKa isfrom5(5cA)(ji. Punt
23 TaOrA = T& aOT&

This is called crasis, the mingling of the vowel sound
at the end of the word with a vowel sound at the beginning
of the next word. An apostrophe is used to indicate that
there has been mingling.
*Author's note: It was difficult to do without ancient Greek words for "emperor" (Napoleon), "bayonet" (used by
the soldier trying to pierce the blankets), and "guns" (used by the firing squad). It is time to move on to genuine
ancient Greek!
200 REVIEW OF VERB FORMS
ACTIVE VOICE
Now you know all of the basic forms of the
INDICATIVE
Greek verb. If you were given the principal
Hill Hill Hill mil parts of any regular Greek verb, whether an -co
mil mil verb or a - (j i verb, you should be able to create a
SUBJUNCTIVE
paradigm with all of the forms.
urn Hill +++ Skill in reading Greek is in large measure a
OPTATIVE matter of being comfortable with the paradigm,
mil Hill Hill +++ of being able to recognize verb forms quickly
IMPERATIVE
and securely, the way you recognize most
mil nouns. When you look at a genitive you do not
Hill +++ have to puzzle out what it is; you just "know."
INFINITIVE You are now ready to go for this same sort of
mil inn mil IIHI "knowing" with verbs—somewhere between
PARTICIPLE intuition and a mental operation.
mil mil mil mil There are two basic ways to get better at
MIDDLE VOICE recognizing verb forms. One way is to write the
paradigm over and over until it is utterly familiar
INDICATIVE to you. You should be practicing this now, until
Hill mil mil mil you get to the point where you can write out the
entire paradigm of a normal verb in less than
IIHI mil forty minutes.
SUBJUNCTIVE
Hill IIHI +++ The second way is to practice writing and
OPTATIVE identifying given forms. Parsing and doing
IIHI inn IIHI +++ synopses can be time-consuming and tedious.
You will learn a lot faster by doing the Pointing
IMPERATIVE Exercise. This exercise can be done any time
IIHI Hill +++ your teacher or a partner provides the forms.
INFINITIVE Or you can read through stories or Thesauros
IIHI IIHI IIHI mil selections and locate the verbs on the chart.
PARTICIPLE
IIHI IIHI IIHI mil POINTING EXERCISE
PASSIVE VOICE For any form given, lock at the chart on this page and
point to where it would be found. Try one or two in
INDICATIVE English first to get the hang of it: (1) I fear lest they not
mil IIHI mil mil find the house. (2) "Give yourself a good dinner every
mil IIHI day."
SUBJUNCTIVE Now for the Greek: Notice that if you are given the form
mil IIHI +++ nauopai, you will need two fingers, one for the Middle
OPTATIVE
"page" and one for the Passive "page." And in some
cases, a third hand would help! (See Gayai p. 182.)
IIHI inn mil +++
IMPERATIVE 1. yvaxjOqvcu 7. sypacpou 13. Troirjoco
IIHI IIHI urn 2. TTEiraiSEUKaai 8. KXeyai H. Kpuyao6£
INFINITIVE 3. AineTv 9. noiq0r)OEO0E 15. ûXXaôiEV
IIHI mil mil Hill 4. OCKOUOQ 1O. T£0vr|ic6<; 16. YScooi
5. Xuouai 11. SEIÊIE 17. KXanEiq
PARTICIPLE
IIHI IIHI IIHI inn 6.EnEnXr)ypr|v 12. ocA>6EVTa)v 18. KaXsoov
Now is the time to consolidate what you have learned--so that your recognition of forms is quick 201
and secure. Review the way the verb forms are made. Remember the patterns:
Theme-vowels: c/o in the present, imperfect, future and c/o aorist Indicative
a in the a-aorist Indicative
(No theme-vowel in Special Aorists or the aorist Passive)
M-P primary endings: pen, ecu, TON, pcOa, o6cv vrai
M-P secondary endings: yqv, °°» T0
» M E ^ a » °Ê» VTO
Remember what happens to o between vowels:

EOQI -> q coo -> ou aoo -> co oioo -> 010 aioo -> aio
Remember that the Subjunctive Mood uses primary endings, the Optative Mood econdary.
Remember the Imperatives any way you can!
SOME SIGNALS
o + e/ o = Future Reduplication = Perfect Lengthened c/o vowel = Subjunctive

oa = Aorist (Also in continuous stem 01 / on / EI diphthong = Optative
GE /6r| = Aorist Pass. of the "Big Four" -pi verbs)
K = Perfect (Also there is the PEVCX; - Perfect M-P participle
0qo -i- c/o = Put. Pass.
"disappearing K" in £5o>Ka and
others of the "Big Four" -pi verbs.)
Note: E at beginning signals PAST TENSE (imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect)--unless it is a form of reduplication.
Consider EirauoaTE You (pi.) stopped vs. nauaaTE Stop!

Enauaco You stopped your . . . vs. nauaco / will stop /Should I stop (once)
ACTIVE of Traiiw
11. nauco 2. nauaco 3. gnauoa 4. ncnauKa 5. ncnaupai 6.
CONTINUOUS = Stem 1 FUTURE = Stem 2 AORIST = Stem 3 PERFECT = Stem 4

INDICATIVE
- CO -OjJEV ' CA> -OjJEV i -I- -ov / -a -OÎEV /-ajJEV -a -apEV
- EK; -ETE - £!<; -ETE -EC; / ac; -ETE/-QTE -a<; -QTE
- EI -ouai(v) - EI -ouai(v) -E(V) -ov/-av -E -aai(v)
i + 1 +-ov -OÎEV i + 4 +-q EÎEV

-EC; -ETE -K ETE
-e(v) -ov -El(v) «K*V
SUBJUNCTIVE
"CO -GOJJEV -COJJEV Part + d)
-Q -GOOl(v) •a
OPTATIVE
~0lpl -OljJEV -OlfJI -OljJEV -oi|ji/ai|ji -OI|JEV/ai|JEV Part + El'qv
-oi<; -OITE -oi<; -OITE -oi^/Eia^ -OITE/aiTE
-Ol -OIEV -01 -OIEV -OI/EIE(V) -oi£v/Eiav
IMPERATIVE
-E -ETE -E /-oov -ETE/-QTE Part. + 1061
-ETCO -OVTCOV -ETCO/'OTO) - OVTCOV/ - a VTCO v
INFINITIVE
-£IV -£IV -£?V / -aai* -£vai
PARTICIPLE
-cov,ouoa,ov -a>v,ouaa,ov | -d>v,ouoa,6v / a<;,aoa,av* -co<;,uTa,6<;
* Accent on next to last syllable

202 MIDDLE
CONTINUOUS = Stem 1 FUTURE = Stem 2 AORIST = Stem 3 PERFECT = Stem 5
INDICATIVE
- open -6[j£0a - opai -6|JE0a
- q -E00E - q -E00E "Oai "O0E
- ETai -ovTai - ETai -OVTOI -ETO / aTO -OVTO / -avro -TQI -vrai
E + l+-6pqv ~6|j£0a
-ou -£00£ OO O0E
-ETO -OVTO TO VTO
SUBJUNCTIVE
-oojjai -d)|JE0a P3rt + <L
-7°" -nie!°
-qTcu -GOVTOI
OPTATIVE
-oijjqv -oi|JE0a -oijjqv -oi|JE0a -ofpqv/-af|jqv oifj£0a/ai|j£0a Part + si'qv
-OIO -OIO0E -OIO -OI00E -OIO / 010 OI00E/OI00E
-OITO -OIVTO -OITO -OIVTO -OITO-aiTO OIVTO/OIVTO
IMPERATIVE
-OU -EO0E -ou/-ai -Eo0E/-ao0E Part. + Yo0i
-EO0CO -EO0GOV ~€o6co/-ao6co -EO0CA>v/-ao0cov
INFINITIVE
-EO0CU -E00ai -EO0ai /*ao0ai -o0ai *
PARTICIPLE
-6Êvo<;$qtov -o|j£vo<;,q,ov -6jj£vo<;,q,ov/ -ap£vo<;,q,ov -p£vo<;,q,ov
PASSIVE
CONTINUOUS = Stem 1 FUTURE = Stem 7 = 6 + o AORIST = Stem 6 PERFECT = Stem 5
INDICATIVE
- opai -6|JE0a - opai -6[jE0a f 4. 6 4- v M EV "M ai -|J£0a
- q -E00E - q -E00E <; TE *aai -o0E
- ETai -OVTOI - ETOI -ovrai oav -TOI -VTOI
£ +1 + -6|jqv ~6pE0a
"OU "EO0E OO 00E
-£TO "OVTO TO VTO
SUBJUNCTIVE
-<2> -cbÊv Part. + &
-q<; -qT£
-qTai -covTai -q -G>OI(V)
OPTATIVE
-oifjqv -oiî£0a -ciqv E?HEV Part. + ETqv
-OIO -OIO0E -OIO -OIO0E "ciq^ Errs
-OITO -OIVTO -OITO -OIVTO -ciq E7£V
IMPERATIVE
-OU
-EO000
-E00E
-EO000V " -TI / 61
-€TO)
-TE
-VTCOV
Part. + To0i
iNFiNrnvE
-Eo0ai -E00ai -vai * -o0ai*
PARTICIPLE
-oÊvo<;,q,ov "6|JEVO<;,q,OV 1 -£K^£?Oa,EV I -pEVO^^jOV*

On the aorist Passive the stem is melded into the endings.
KNOW the ambiguities. Be able to find them on the chart
(1) TTauo) / am stopping I Should I be stopping
(2) TTOUCTC // rraOcoOc // TrtnauoOc You are stopping I Be stopping! II
You are stopping your ... / Be stopping your ... II You have been stopped I Be in the state of having been stopped!
(3) nauouai(v) They are stopping I To them stopping
(4) TTQUQ Should he,she,it stop I You stop your... /You are being stopped
(5) nauaco / shall be stopping I Should I be stop (once) (With a-aorists)
(6) TTQUOQ Should he, she, it stop (once) / You will stop your . . . (With oa-aorists)
(7) nau6vTO>v // nauaivTOOV // Xin6vTa>v Of them stopping I Let them be stopping! //
Of them having stopped I Let them stopl (once) // Of them having left I Let them leave (once)
(8) Oayai to bury (once) I May he, she, it bury (once) I Bury (once) your ...
nauaai to stop (once) I Stop your . . .
When WRITING Greek aorist forms, always remember to take time-markers off everything except the Indicative.
When READING Greek verb forms, remember to "subtract" in order to guess at the verb or look it up in the
dictionary or Principal Parts list: subtract the time marker, adjust for the prefix, and subtract the reduplication.
VERB FORMS
Be able to WRITE OUT: all forms of na&co or Acfnu.
all forms of any normal -co verb if you are given the six principal parts.
the Continuous forms of SclKvujji. (The other forms are like those of nauco.)
all forms of cl^f.
BE AWARE of Principal Parts. Memorize as many as you can. Know how to look up the rest
VERB SYNTAX
Know the normal meanings of the VOICES: Active, Middle, Passive.
Know what is expressed by the ASPECTS: Continuous, Aorist, Perfect
Know what is expressed by the TENSES: Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect, Pluperfect.
Know how these CONATIVE IMPERFECT r)BPIOKOV <™Tr)v. I was trying to find her.
are used: INGRESSIVE AORIST Evooqoa. I got sick.
GNOMIC AORIST pcopcx; Tra0Ei E|ja0EV. A fool learns by suffering.
PERFECT AS PRESENT KEKTryrai. he owns
PLUPERFECT AS IMPERFECT ÊKTHTO. he owned
FUTURE PART. OF PURPOSE g'pxoMon tryrfrMW 1 come to seek (a-seeking).
Know about DEPONENT VERBS. BExopai, EBsâpnv - 1 receive, I received (Middle Deponent)
/ want, I wanted (Passive Deponent)
Know how to make up and how to understand GENITIVE ABSOLUTES. EXOovrcx; OUTOU, k'xaipov.
Know the USES OF THE SUBJUNCTIVE:
Moratory EXOoopsv
Deliberative eX6o>)jev;
Subjunction of Prohibition |jq e'X6Q<;
With Yva, dx;, Snax; (subjunctive of purpose) Vva cX6q
With |jq (subjunctive of fearing) pq eX6Q*
With Relative Pronoun + 8v (generalizing subjunctive) ex; av
With STQV and tnciB&v (subjunctive in temporal clauses) OTQV
In Conditions (present general, future More vivid) eav
Know the USES OF THE OPTATIVE:

Wish (alone or with il&c or cl yip) E! yap eXOoi
Potential (optative + fiv) eX6oi av.
In Past or Optative Sequence
ETnov OTI ypavci/ypayoi (all stems; only use of Future Optative)
Ecpopoupqv jjq ypayQ / ypaycie
q>Epoi Soopa oov eniOuîe?Te / EniOufJoTre
Scipa v av EniOupqTE / (i>v Eni0u|JO?TE Êpoi (** drop fiv if subj. -> optative)
In Conditions (past general) si XEITTOI, ESaicpuov vs. EQV XEIHQ, Saicpuco
(future less vivid) ci Xinoi, SaKpuoi av Vs. EOV XEIHQ,
204
^ u H KNOW ALL THE CONDITIONS (See Chart on p. 172.)
Be especially aware of CONTRARY TO FACT conditions. ?jA9ov vs. ?jA0ov Sv.
Know about the cfl9c or tl yip + Imperfect or Aorist for Impossible Wishes
(a variant on the contrary-to-fact theme)
Know how INDIRECT DISCOURSE works.

Construction depends on verb. (8-n / ox; or Infinitive or Participle)
New subject of infinitive or participle is accusative. Nominative if no new subject.
Stem remains the same in all three constructions.
Tense remains the same after OTI / ox;.
An indicative or subjunctive may be made optative when introduced by a past tense verb or by an optative.
The Greek is quite simple; English is complicated.
NOUNS, PRONOUNS, ADJECTIVES, ADVERBS, PREPOSITIONS
Be able to RECOGNIZE all forms of OCFTK;.

Be able to RECOGNIZE all forms of n6Xi<;, paoiXcu^, and ^5u<;,E?a,u.
Know how the ASKING, SHRUGGING, RELATING, POINTING series works. (Chart p. 163)
Know about uno + GENITIVE for AGENT with the Passive or DATIVE OF AGENT with perf. Passive.
VOCABULARY
If foreigners told you they knew English but in fact did not know the words for sky, book, when, do, and so on,
you would wonder whether they really knew the language, no matter what their mastery of grammar and syntax.
You need to have a starting vocabulary in Greek. You may either look over all of the vocabulary reviews or,
probably better, simply read over the dictionary, which has all the words you have learned and nothing extra.
By now you will have absorbed basic principles of word building. You can see how families of words are built
up, for example Tipaco, Tipicx;, TiHn,or5iicq, Siicaicx;, 6iKaaTq<;, 86iico<;. Including words from the Thesauros
you know GvrjoKO), ano6vr)aica>, OvqTcx;, 0avaTO<;, Oavaaifjcx;.
REVIEW SENTENCES
These sentences are difficult. Doing them will force you to review much of what you have learned. The aspect is
not always indicated. Sometimes you need to enter a "Greek mind" and think what the best aspect would be.
1. If only they would (always) do noble deeds.

2. Let's dance and rejoice: the city has been saved by the king.
3. After the gifts were stolen (use participle), the king became sick (use a single verb).
4. He (always) wanted to be invited to dinner by the king.
5. Did you somehow perceive the people coming into the city?
6. The king is dead (2 ways) and we fear lest the city should fall.
7. If anyone made a speech, he always agreed with those speaking justly.
8. It was announced that the solders left. (3 constructions, 4 possibilities)
9. If the king had not remained, the city would not have been saved.
10. They guarded the gold so that it (should) not be taken by thieves.
11. What are we to say to the king?
12. The sister thinks she is good. (Two possibilities because English is ambiguous.)
13. No one was so wise as to know everything.
14. Don't let your friends persuade you to hide. (This is not a "you" command)
LOOKING AHEAD
You will be able to WRITE OUT the present and imperfect indicative Active of <piAEo> and Tip&oo.
to RECOGNIZE all forms of cTpi.
all forms of 91X^0) and TIH&<*> (or any EC*> / aco verb),
all forms of the Special Aorists c^qv, Eorr|v, k'yvcov.
You will be AWARE of all the forms of 6ca verbs, so that you may look these up if you encounter them.
You will be AWARE of all the forms of the "Big Four"--YnMU TornM'. TfOqMi and BiBcopi- so that you
are at least able to look them up if you encounter them. Eventually you should become fluent in your
recognition of these forms. Know about the "disappearing K" of the aorist indicative singular.
NOUNS ADJECTIVES VERBS
q q aîoâ.ov oiyc^ anoXXupi

£X0po<;,a,6v anayco intrans. perfect as present
q yvobjjq XcuKoqlq.ov anoplco anoXcoXa
»/
q £ipqvq Bot IN/GO oiyvujji
q <X(vq XpuooO^ôuv PX£HCO avoiyvu|ji
q uXq Kapnijjoq, ov ano[3X£TTGO
/
yiyvcooKco OIOCA)^
£A£ (3o(pu^,£To(,u ouyyiyvcooKoo aor. EoCOKQ
£XCO
< / * c/
iqjji ^
q 009101 av£KTo^,q,ov TTap£XCO
& o<;,ov ©auua^co a9iq|ji
-g KpUHTOq^ÔV XauBavco ToTqpi vs. YoTapai
ouXXa(jpavcA> Ti0q|Ji
q 0aXaTTa OITTo8oT£OV impers. Xav0avco aor. £0qKQ
q n£Tpa X£ya> xaip£iv
Xuco Sloped
) / £TTO|jai
OpUTTGJ
CONJUNCTIONS oiojjai
o ~Tqc TTCXOX^
c/ c c/ /
iva, coq, oncoq 9Qivo(JO(i
6 £up£Tq<; |jq = lest 9£uyco
6 fbarrrqc; £'iB£, £i yap KTaopai
£av, qv perf. as present K£KTq|JO(l
O---QC VIKCXCO IKV£O|Jai

PREPOSITIONS opaco 6(9iKV£O|jai
c »/ » / opx£0(jai
o apyupoc; £ioopaco
6 KivSuvoq 6ia + gen. T£X£UTCXCO
6 TT£TpO(; £ni + dat. ToXpaco SERffiS
onXouToc; |j£Ta + gen.
6 nopoc; TqX£ + gen. aip£(A> TK, TI<;, o<;, OOTK;;
6 OOKKOC; (adverb used as prep.) £âip£CA) OUTOC;, 65E, EKsTvoc;
6 cpoBoc 0(TT£l9£CA)
TTOTE, TTOTE, OTE, OHOTE;
ooTpaTqyoc; OTHER OIK£0)
TOTE
OUVOIK£CO
\ / TT£O
r
TO TTpOOGOTTOV TTOX;, nco<;, ob<;, 6nco<;;
8qX6co
OUTOX;, 5£t EKE (vox;
£X£U0£pOCO
Third Group e nou, nou, oO, OTTOU;

> '9vn^
J/ I/
'
apxco vs. apxopai EVTauOa, EKE?
auTiKa
q KuXl£, gen. KuXiKOc;
aupiov nauco vs. nauopai no?, noi, oT, onoi;
6 TEKGOV, gen.T£KOVTO<; > /
* ' / tt avanauopai EVTauOa, EKsTas
Voco c; ( from Va o<; , q , o v)
Xopiv elSevai
X«piv 6iTTo6i56vai n£!0CO VS. TT£I00|JCU n69EV» TTO0EV, oGEV, OTTOGE
OOTIC;, qTiq, o TI intrans. perf. TT£noi0a [EVTEU0EV, EKET0EV]
TO aVviypa
ToaYrqija ALSO noaoc;, noao<;, ooo<;, onooi
TT£|JTT(A)
TOOOC;, ToaouToc;
(j£Tan£|jno|jai
TO yqpac; £XO) + adverb - be in
rroToc;, noio^, oTo<;, onoTo^;
TO opoc;
« a i/certain condition XUH£CO TOTOC, TOIOUTOC
Xun£O|jai
how are you?
206 Lesson 51. Contract Verbs: -£co, -&co, -6c*>
We have learned the sound patterns and some forms for -ceo and -ao> verbs. Now it is time to
learn the whole system of contract verbs. Like - (Ji verbs, contract verbs differ from the norm
only on the continuous stem.
- £co contracts are the most common. Here are the patterns (as seen on p. 126):
€ + € -> €1 If the original £ was accented,

£ + O —> OU the contracted syllable has a
£ is absorbed into any long vowel circumflex. £ + £--> £?
or diphthong that follows it
>, 9iAqoGO, ^piAqoot, TT£9iXqKa, ne9iXq|jai1 ecpiAqSqv like Hove

91X0) 9iAoG|jai 9iAo6|j£0a
9iXe?TC 9iAq 9iA£?o6£
91X5? 9iXoOoi(v) 9iA£?Tcu 9iAouvTOu
£91X06 pqv
£91X06 £9lX£?00£
£9lX£?TO £9|XOUVTO
91X00 9iXd)|jai
9iXnc; 9iAQ
9iXa>oi(v)
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
9iXoiqv 9iXo(|j£0a
9iXoiqc; 9iXoTo 9iXo?a0£
9iXoir| 9iXo?To
9iXou 9lX£?O0£
9lX£ITCO 91 Ae 10600 9lX£IG0COV
INFINITIVE INHNmVE
9iX£?o0ou
v, ouoaôuv
gen. 9iXouvTcx;touoq<;,oGvTo<;
Learn the principal parts of 9iX£co. This gives you the normal -£co pattern. And learn the rules
and forms in the boxes with double frames. (The rest can be punted.)
Notice the distinctive optative singular endings for the Active of all contract verbs:
-oiqv, •oiqq, -ofq ~ (instead of -oipi, -QIC;, -01).
I Exercise o: Translate:
1. ccpiAouv (2) 4. <piAQ (2 ways) 7. 9iX£To6£ (2 ways) 1O. 13.yapou|jE0a
2. £91X00 5. £9iXEi 8. <piXo> (2 ways) 14.
3.9iXou 6. <piAouvro>v (2) 9. iX£i 15. QpEI
These are the patterns for -aco verbs: 207
a -I- € — > a a + q —> a a + o — > GO a + 01 — > cp If the original a was accented,

the contracted syllable has a
a + ei — > p a + Q —> p a + ou — > co a + co — > co circumflex, a + E —> a
An a combined with any e-sound is always long a; an a combined with any o-sound is co. In
other words, an initial a "conquers" any a, c, or q but "is conquered by" an o-sound
co, Tijjqoco, €Ti|jqoa, T£Ti|jqKa, T€Ti|jqfjai, £Tipq0qv honor
TI|JCO|J€V Ti|jcb|jc0a
TlpST£
ETIjJCOV €TI|JCO(J€V €Ti|jcb|jqv

€TI|Ja<; €TI(JOT€ £TI|JCO €TI|Ja00€
£TI|ja 6TI|JCOV ETI|JCOVTO
TI|JaT€ TIM
Ti|jcoai(v)
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
Ti(jcoqv TI(JO)|J€V Ti|jcp(jqv
TI|JCOT€ TI(JCOO TI|JCOO0E
Ti(jcoq TIJJCOTO
Ti|jaa0e
TIJJCXTCO Tipao0co Ti|jao0cov
TIJJOV Ti(jao0ai
gen. Tijja>vTcx;,cboq^,a>vTcx;
«« Major Ambiguity Alert: The present indicative and the continuous subjunctive
of -aco verbs have the same forms in all voices.
Learn the principal parts of Tipaco. This gives you the normal -aco pattern. And learn
the rules and forms in the boxes with double frames. (The rest can be punted.)
The optative endings have a characteristic cp sound (a combining with 01).
1. Tip9 (3 ways) 4. £TIH<OV 7. TipcftjcOa 1O. £oiy£> 13. T£A£UTa>vrai (2 ways)
2.Ti|ja 5.Tipo>v 8.Tip4>nv U.&pa H. ToXpaTE (2 ways)
3. Tipci (3 ways) 6. Tipa>pE0a 9. Tipav 12. VIK£O 15.Eioop<ioa
208
u
° These are the patterns for -OCA) verbs:
O + £ — ) OU o + q — ) co O + €1 — ) Ol If the original o was
o + o — ) ou O + CO — ) CO 0+Q — > 01
accented, the contracted
syllable has a circumflex.
o + ou •-) ou o + oi — > oi o + E —> ou
O-contract verbs are the least common type. (There are only two in the Thesauros.) It is enough
to be aware of these forms; you need not memorize them. Learn the principal parts pattern. Be
familiar enough with -oco forms that you will know to look them up in a paradigm if you come
across them in your reading.
"6co verbs are often factitive: BouXcx; slave &ouX6o> / enslave
£XEu0Epo<; free eXEu0ep6o> / make free
BqXcx; clear 8qX6o> / make clear
6p0cx; upright 6p86o> / set straight
SqXoco, SqXcooco, €&qXcooa, ScSqXcoica, 5€5qXco|jai, £6qXco6qv make clear
SqXco 8qXoG|j£v 5qXoO(jai 6qXou|j£0a
5qXo?q 5qXo?T£ BqXoT 5qXouo0£
8qXo? SqXouoi(v) SqXoujai SqXouvTai
£&qXouv £5qXou(jqv £5qXou(j£0a

£8qXouT£ £8qXou £5qXouo0£
£&qXou £5qXouTO £&qAouvTO
8qXco 8qXcop£v SqXcopat 5qXco|j£0a
8qXo? 5qXcoo0£
5qXo? 8qXcooi(v) SqXcoTai SqXcovTai
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
SqXcoqv 6qXo?pev SqXoijjqv 5qXof(j£0a
5qXcoqq 5qXo?T€ 5qXo?o 6qXo?o0£
SqXcoq SqXoTcv SqXoTjo 5qXo?vTO
SqXou 6qXouT£ 5qXou 5qXouo0£
SqXouTCO SqXouvTCOV 5qXouo0co 5qXouo0cov
INFINrnVE INFINITIVE
SqXouv 6qXouo0ai
5qXcov,ouoa,ouv 5qXou|j£vo<;,qtov
gen. 5r|XoOvTo<;,ouoq<;,ouvTo<;
Exercise a: Translate: 1. 6qXo? (4 ways) 2. SqXou 3. 5qXou 4. SqX4>q 5. £6qXou<;

Classwork: >4 Read: Graveyard #33, Thesauros pp. 230.
-Learn the principal part patterns: <piXEo>, Tipao>, SqXoco. Write the paradigms of 91 AEGO and
Ti|jaa> on the continuous stem. Be able to recognize all forms.
-Read the Hippocratic Oath (Part 1). Become so familiar with the oath that it is as if it is in your
native tongue. Keep reading and rereading the oath until it is easy, transparent Read the oath
out loud. Can you hear any rhythm in it? Can you imagine taking it?
2 9
HIPPOCRATIC OATH (Part 1)* °
"O(jvu|ji 'AnoAAcova iajpov Kai 'AoKAqniov

o*pvu[ji + ace. swear by Apollo (god of healing) Asclepius (legendary first doctor)
<ai 'YyiEiav Kai FlavaKEiav Kai GEOUC; navTac; TE Kai naaaq, VaTopaq
Health All-cure (panacea) 6ToTO>p witness -> history
ETMTEAq TioiqoEiv KOTO Suvapiv KOI Kpioiv €(jqv opKOv

£niTEAr)<;,e<; fulfilled ^Suvapi^ power
(having
KOI ouyypa9qv TqvSc- ^yqoEoSai |J€V TOV 5i5aâvTa (J€

Is) ouyypa9q contract 6i5aaKeo teach i^ rex^H technique, art
(ouv + ypa9co) -> technique, technical
Voa yevcTaiq cpoTq, Kai pfou icoivcooeoBai, KOI XPE(^V XPQÔVTI

6 yevcTr|<; begettor, Ufe, living, icoivoa) give a share of TO XP^0<^ money, XPCI^00 have need
ancestor livelihood debt of + gen.
|j£Ta5ooiv noiqocoOai, KOI ycvoc; TO E£ auTou a8€X9oT<; Vaov iniicpiVETv

share, partial giving Kpiva), fuL Kpivco judge
appeal, Kai 8i5a^€iv Tqv TEXVQV Taujqv, qv XPQ^6001 H av 6& V£lv »

appr)v,ev male =âv
aveu (JioOou Kai auyypa9qq, napayycAfaq TE KOI aKpoaoEooc;

salary contract precepts lecture, that which has been heard
Kai Tqq Xoinqq anaaq^ (jaOqaECOc; |jETa5oaiv noiqocoSai

= naoqq t] pa6qoi<; learning, partial sharing
education, knowledge
uioTc; TE E|JO?<; Kai ToTc; TOU EJJE SiSaâvToq, Kai (ja8qTa?c; ouyyEypa|j|jEvoi<; TE
share, partial giving students ouyypo^co enroll
Kai cbpKio|jEvoi<; vopco iaTpiKco, aXAco 8£ ouSEvi.

6pKiCa> put under oath laTpiKo<;,r|,6v pertaining
to medicine, medical
6iaiTq|jaoi TE xPnaoMai ^n' C09EXEI9 KapvovTcov KOTO Suvapiv

{} 6 (a i TO prescribed way of life, t] ci>9cXeia benefit i*| Suva pi<; power
regimen — > diet
Kai Kpiaiv £|jqv, Eni SqXqaEi SE Kai aSiKi^ cTp^civ.

harm injustice cTpy co - bar the way
*The oath is printed here in Attic Greek. It was originally preserved in Ionic.
210 Lesson 52. Continuous Forms of cfyi, clpf, and <pt]\i\\ Aorist System
of £pqv, fccrrqv, gyuv; Verbals ending in -T£OC,OI,OV
I go eipi /am
Present Present Present

E!|JI YIJEV ElfJI EOfJEV
cT YTE €T EOTE cprjc^ cpaTE
E!OI(V) Taoi(v) ÔTl(v) EIOl(v)
Imperfect Imperfect Imperfect

F\a or flciv fipEV ?1 (or flv) fi|jEv
OEioGa or QEIC; fiTE nO0a QTE EcpooUa CMT ECDOC EcpaTE
QCIV orQEi rjoav r^v rjoav cCpo Ecpaoav
or QEOOV
SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE
Yco YCOUEV CO (L|J£V COCO (XXOUEV
'JQC jr)T€ 9Q^ 9QTE
M iixiL/i\vy (j cboi(v)
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
Yoipi YoipEv EYqv E!|JEV 9aiqv 9a?|JEV
Yoiq YOITE EYqq E!TE 90 iq^ 9a?TE
Yoi YOIEV EYq E!EV 9aiq 9a?Ev
IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE
Wl ITE 9661 9CXTE
/ /
YTCO IOVTCOV EOTCO ?OTO)V cpaTco cpavTcov
INFINITIVE iNFiNrnvE INFiNrnvE
/
iEvai ETvai cp a va i
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
icbv, iouoa, !6v cov, oCoa, ov 9ac;, 96(00, 96 v (poetic)
(9aaica>v,ouoa,ov in prose)
Be able to recognize the forms above. (You know EI pi already. It is included for comparison.)
The forms of E!|JI I go, mil go and E!|JI / am are usually quite different because their steins are
different. The stem of ETpi is i (sometimes visible only as an iota subscript). The stem of EIJJI
is co (which -> E when the o drops). There is no future for cTpi because it is virtually a future
itself. Note that in some indicative forms only the accent or an iota subscript enables you to tell
whether a verb is sTpi or EI(JI.
i is enclitic. The stem is 90/90. The future, 90000, is normal. The form &pq is imperfect
but it is also used as aorist. (It is often translated he, she, it said and seems to be used
interchangeably with ETnE.) In fact, apart from the indicative, the whole system of 91^1 looks
just like the aorist systems of Epqv, EOTQV, and Eyvcov (see below).
I Exercise a: Distinguish eipi from E!| in the following forms:
1. eTjJi 2. E!EV 3. IOVTCJV 4. f\T£ 5. YaOi 6. fjjoav 7. TQTE 8. 9. Yoi 10. TOVTE<;
1.9Q^ 2.9001 3.90100 4. 5. 9a<; 6. 9Q 7. 8. frprj 9. 10. 9avai
I went I stood £yvcov I knew 211
AORIST
INDICATIVE INDICATIVE INDICATIVE
€OTq|J€V
€OTqT€ EyvcoTE
cfJqoav EOTqoav Eyvcoaav
OTO> yvco yvco|JEV
OTQq OTqTE yvcpc; yvcoTE
OTQ OTGdOl(v) yvco yvciai(v)
OTafqv oTcupEv yvoiqv yvo?|JEv
OTcuqc; OTa?TE yvoiqq yvo?TE
OTaiq OTCHEV yvoiq yvo?Ev
Pq8i GTq9l OTqTE yvcoOi yvooTE
pavTCOv OTqTO) OTCXVTCOV yvcoTco yvovTcov
INFINrnVE INFlNTnVE INFINrnVE
pqvai OTqvai y vcova i
pac;, paoa, pav , OTaoa, OTOV yvouq, yvouoa, yvov
gen. pavro<;,paor|<;,pavTO<; gen. oravTO<;,aTaoq<;fOTavTO<; gen. yv6vTO^,yvouoq<;,y vovrrcx;
These aorists are athematic in all forms except the subjunctive, with its lengthened E/O endings.
We have seen the special optative endings (-iqv, -iq, -in<^ "'MEV» "|TE» "|EV) us^d f°r Ae verb Eipi,
9q(jf, and also in TE0vaiqv, a perfect optative on the stem TE0va-). They are athematic optative
endings. There are other athematic aorists, often intransitive:
EXapqv - / rejoiced (intransitive aorist of xaip<*>)
E<puv - / grew, was by nature (intransitive aorist of 9600 = produce)
k'Suv - / sank, set (of sun and stars; related to SLUICE in B&UKE HEV a oEAavva); I put on (clothes)
I Exercise y: 1. yvciGi 4. yvou<; 7. syvco 10. paocu 13. E>U<;

Translate: 2. p£> 5. Pac; 8. pr|Ta> 11. arn6i 14. xap^'^
3. 6. c7Tf]TE (2 ways) 9. yvoiq 12. 15. avayvov
VERBALS ENDING IN -rio<;>a>ov I -liov

Verbal adjectives in -TEOC; express necessity. They are made by adding -TCCX; to a verb stem,
usually the Aorist Passive stem. The linking verb EOTI is most often omitted. The agent will be
given in the dative. The neuter singular may be used impersonally and may take an object.
ocoT€0<;,a,ov to be saved ( E-oco-eqv ) 5oT€OV,alov to be given (E-56-0nv)
q noXiq OGOTECI q|j?v The city must be saved by us. X^P1^ SoTEa. Thanks must be given.
OGOTEOV Tqv noAiv One must save the city. X^P IV SOTEOV One must give thanks.
+ KQTapaTeov One must go down. Famous statement in Plato's Republic,

that the philosopher must go back into the cave.
Classwork: ++ Read Diogenes #19, and Famous Sayings #16, Thesauros p. 235 and 233.
£py a -Write out the paradigms of Epqv, Eorqv, 2yvcov. Be able to recognize all forms.
-Write the continuous forms of E!ÎI 3x and 9qpi once. Be able to recognize all forms.
-Read the Hippocratic Oath (Part 2). Keep working at saying it out loud until it feels smooth
and comfortable and "native" to you. What connections do you see between this oath and the
way medicine is practiced today?
212
HIPPOCRATICOATH(Part2)
ou Scboco SE ouSE cpapfjaKOv ouSsvi aiTq0Eu; Oavaoipov, ouSc U9qyqoo|jai

deadly lead the way to
ouppouXiav Toiav5e- opofax; 5c ou5£ yuvaiKi TTEOOOV 906piov Scooco.

advice such as this here pessary, pebble destructive
ayvGoq SE Kai ooicoc; SiaTqpqoco pfov TOV E(JOV Kai TEXVQV Tqv £|jqv.
&yvo<;,r|,6v =pure keep a close watch on
ou TE|JGO SE OU&E (jqv* XiOicovTac;, EKx^PH000 ^€ EpyaTaiq avBpaoi

those suffering ticxcopeco get out of the workers,
from stones way of, yield to practitioners
(t< + x&P01 = place)
npaÊcoq TqaSs. EIC; oiKiaq 8s onooaq av eioia), EioEXEuoo|jai EH' cI)9EXEi(jt
t\ npa^K deed, work
, EKTOC; div TTcxoqc; aSiKiac; Eicouoiac; Kai 96opiaq,

£KTO<; -outside of + gen. £icouoio<;,a,ov t] 980910 destruction
willing, voluntary
Tqc; TE aXXqc;* Kai a9po8io(cov Epycov EHI TE yuvaiKEicov ocopaTCOv Kai

sexual (of Aphrodite) female male
EXEu0Epoov TE KOI SouXcov. a 8' av EV SEpaiTEi^ q 'i^co q OKOUOCO,

^Xeu9epo<;,a,ov - free 6oGXo<;,q,ov treatment, therapy
(as adj.) slave
q Kai OVEU 0EpanEia<; KOTO piov avOpdoncov a |jq XPH TTOTE EKXaXE?o0ai E^CO,
blab out ££o> (adv.) out,
outward
oiyqooijai, appqTa qyoupcvoq cTvai TO ToiaOTa.

oiyaco - hold in silence fippqTO<;,ov - not to be spoken of;
not spoken (£p& is future of Xeya>)
opKov IJEV oSv |joi TovSs EniTEXq noiouvTi Kai pq ouyxôvTi,

^niTcX^,€^ ouyxeco pour together, jumble, confuse
fulfilled, having a TtXo^ (ouv + x^co = pour)
EnaupaoOai KOI piou Kai TE/vqc;

enjoy the benefits of 5o£a(a> have a (good) opinion of, hold in esteem
opinion, reputation)
napa naaiv avOpcbnoic; E!C; TOV asi xP^vov napapaivovTi SE
KOI ETTIOpKOUVTI TOVOVTia TOUTCOV.

£niopKca> swear falsely = TO £WT(CI
qv -is a particle used to strengthen assertions - "/ mean it" "verily" or "/ swear"
** This is a Greek idiom. SXXo<; TE comes first; one could say that fiXXo^ TE anticipates the contrast.
Whereas we say in English, "/ read this book and the others" a Greek might say, TO TE SXXa
ToOTo avEyvoov. "7 read both the other books and this" So in this passage: "7 will stay away from
injustice, both other [injustice] and [the injustice] o f . . . "
213
T H R E E MEDICAL SYMBOLS
Asclepius, as we have seen in an earlier essay, is both a divine healer and

the patron of physicians. His emblem is a staff entwined with a sacred
serpent; it represents the healing and rejuvenation that Asclepius brings.
The symbol itself occurs in other cultures. For instance, in the book of
Numbers of the Bible, Moses places a brass serpent upon a staff as a
source of healing. Asclepius' emblem has become one of the major
symbols for doctors throughout the world. Asclepius' serpent and staff
are often combined, as in Figure 1, with one of the aphorisms of
Hippocrates: "Life is short, art is long, the crisis is urgent." This
aphorism points to the complexity of the physician's training and the
necessity for difficult and prompt medical decisions.
Figure 1.
The American Medical Association officially adopted the staff and serpent
of Asclepius as its symbol in the 1920s. The World Medical Association
followed in 1956. Both groups believed that their former symbol, Hermes'
caduceus, was not as appropriate to their role as physicians as is the emblem
of Asclepius. The American Medical Association symbol, as shown in figure
2, is a stylized version of Asclepius' staff and serpent. In this graphic,
particular attention is given to the staff that represents the flourishing of life.
Figure 2.
The staff of Hermes, the caduceus, is however still used as a symbol for
the healing profession; it is currently the emblem of the U.S. Army
Medical Corps. It consists of two snakes facing each other entwined on
a winged staff. It has often been confused with the Asclepian staff and
serpent, even though that emblem has only a single serpent. The
symbolism of the caduceus may also be interpreted as one of
rejuvenation, since one of Hermes' functions is to escort souls to and
from the underworld. A related function is that of awakening sleepers
with his staff- an analog of resurrection. The wings on the caduceus
refer to Hermes' ability to transcend realms in a swift flight from heaven
to earth to the underworld. However, since Hermes is most commonly
a messenger god, the emblem probably developed as a herald's staff. It
would originally have been an olive branch entwined with ribbons that
allowed safe passage and signified peace. In time the ribbons could have
been interpreted as snakes. Even as a traveler's staff, however, the
caduceus is still appropriate to ancient physicians. The Hippocratic
doctor traveled from city to city. It is from his journeys from deme
("district") to deme that the word "epidemic" derives.
Figure 3.
214 Lesson 53.
Within the group of-pi verbs are the "Big Four": Tf0qpi, Yqpi, ToTqpi, 5i5copi.
These are important verbs, commonly used, and have unusual aorists as well as athematic forms
on the continuous stem.
3, 28qica, T€0qica, TeOeipou,
I put
ACTIVE ACTIVE M-P MIDDLE
CONTINUOUS AORIST CONTINUOUS AORIST
T(0q|JI TI0£|JEV Kqica £0£|jEv E0EPHV E0EPE0Q
"ri0q<; TfOcTE f0qica<; £0ETE TI0EOai T(0E00E E60U E0EG0E
Ti0qai(v) Ti0£aoi(v) C8qKc(v) E0Eoav TI0ETQI TI0EVTai E0ETO E0EVTO
£TI0qV ETI0£p£V ETI0EpqV ETI0Ep£0a

ETI0EI<; ETI0ETE ETI0EOO ETI0EO0E
ETI0EI ETI0EOCIV ETI0ETO ETI0EVTO
TI00> TI0&PEV 0a> 0a>p£v Ti0cbp£0a 0co|jai
TI0Q<; TI0qTE 0fi<; OHTE Ti0qo0£ BQ 0qo0E
TI0Q TI00>Ol(v) 6q 0<Sai(v) Ti0a>vrai 0qrai 0a>VTai
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
TI0EiqV TI0£T|J£V 0£ir|V 0E?p£V Ti0£ip£0a
TI0Eiq<; TI0E?T£ 0£iq<; 0EHTE TI0£7o TI0E?00E 0E?0 0E?00E
TI0£iq TI0E?£V 0Eiq 0E?EV TI0E?TO TI0£?VTO 0£rro 0ETVTO
TI0£I TI9CTC 0E<; 0ETE TI0EOO TI0E00E 00U 0E00E
TI0ETO) TlWvTGW 0ETO> 0Evrra>v TI0E00CO TI0E00GJV 0E00CO 0E00COV
INHN1 riVE INHNITIVE

TI0EVQI 0E?vai Ti0£oOai 0Eo0ai
TI0£IC;,E?Oa,EV 0£i<;,0EToa,0EV
0£|j£vo<;,q,ov
gen. Ti6cvTCx;,eior}<;,£vTO<; gen. 6cvrcx;fE(oq<;^VTO<;
Stem 3 (aorist Active/Middle) of Ti0q|ji is the shortest stem: simply 0£.

Notice the "disappearing K" of the Active aorist singular (e'0qica, like k'ScoKa). The K drops
out and is not part of the stem.
Notice the Active optative endings-fqv, iqc;, iq, etc.
1. k'Oqicac; 3. Ti0qai 5.0£v 7.0£>VTai 9. 0q(2ways) 11.0qo0E
2.0E?EV 4. TI0Q (2 Ways) 6. ETi0£l 8. Ti0£l 1O.0E?VTO 12. Ti0£VT(A>v (2 ways)
When you see a verb ending with -0cb, -Ociqv, etc., or a participle ending, or -0£i<;, 0€?oa, 0£v,
etc., remember: it may be an Aorist Passive OR it may be the Active aorist of a compound
of Ti0q(ji. Common compounds include: ouvTi0q|ji put together, napcmOqpi put alongside,
KaTaTi0q|Ji put down, (J€TaTi6q|Ji put differently, change, npOTi6q|Ji put forth, propose.
I Exercise ft: Distinguish: 1. aa>0cfq / ouv6cfq 2. KaTa0EV / icpi0£V 3. npax0ETaa / rrapaOcTaa.
Yqpi, qoco, f\<a, efca, eTpou, eVoOqv 215
Tf| p I / release, let go (utter words, £A00f arrows, etc.)
Yqpi YEÎEV f\<a -ETpsv YEJJCU iE)jE6o

Yqc YETE fjica<; -EiTE Ysoai YEOOE -EToo -EToOE
Yqoi(v) iaoi(v) ^KE(V) - EToav YETQI YEVTQI -Etro -E!VTO
Yqv YEÎEV JEpqv iEpsOa

YEK; YETE YEOO YsoSE
YEI YEOQV YETO YEVTO
SUBJUINJCTIVE SUBJU>ACTIVE
"ojjjai ~co|j£0a
iq<; iqTE Iq IqodE "(J) ""rjoOs
Ig iaxji(v) ~5 'ioi(v) IqTai IcivTai
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
idqv icTfJEv -sYqv -sTpEv lEipqv iEijjEOa -EYjjqv -EYjJEOa

isiqc isTTE -EYq<; -E!TE !E?O i£To0£ -£To ~ETo0£
isiq !E?EV -sYq -E!EV |E?TO isrvTo -slro -E!VTO
YEI YETE -EC -ETE YEOO YEo6£ ~o5 -E00E

IETC*) IEVTCJV -ETO) -?VTO)V -£000) -E00GOV
INFINmVE INFINITIVE
iEvai -ETvai YEoOai -Eo0ai
i w
*~* "
iEi<;,EToa,Ev •sY<;, -sToa, -?v -£jJ£VO^,q,OV
gen. iEvro<;,Eioq<;,EVTO<; gen. -£vTO<;reYor)<;rlS/TO<;
Yr|(ji is like Ti6r|(ji except that the stem is even briefer. The aorist stem t is seen only in
compounds for the most part, and it can seem to disappear in them. Sometimes only the rough
breathing is left as a clue.
I Exercise y: 1. iaoi(v) 3. F\*a 5. iq (2 ways) 7. id> 9. YEOQV 11. YEI
Translate: 2. YEVTO 4. 6. YEOO (2 ways) 8. YEOOU 1O. IEÎEVOV 12.
I Exercise 8: Distinguish: 1. / p£Ta0£i<; 2. aîEvai / arriEvai 3. IETCO / YTO>
Class work: Read: Graveyard #29, Thesauros p. 230

Reread ++ New Testament #1 and Heraclitus #14, Thesauros pp. 221 and 225.
Learn the opening lines of the Iliad below:
Mqviv , Sea, Sing to me, goddess,the wrath of Achilles,

the baneful wrath which put upon the Greeks
, q (jupi1 'AxaioTc; a Aye 1 e0qKev... pains ten-thousand fold...
?p y a -Write the forms of T«0r|Mi and Yqpi. Be able to recognize them.

-Read Hecuba's lament in The Trojan Women by Euripides. This has been taken by many
to be a moving antiwar plea, one that is all too relevant today.
216 THE TROJAN WOMEN by Euripides
Hecuba grieves over the dead Astyanax and condemns irrational fear.
f\ &OTTK;, gen. aoTTi5o<; - shield

8£oO' ajJ9iTopvov (8* "Eicropcx; T
Xunpcx;ta,6v - painful, distressful
well-rounded Hector TO ncSov - ground
TO - sight
Xunpov Ocapa KOU 9iXov XEUOOCIV E(JOI. -> theater
Aeuooco = 6paa> (a poetic word)
TO 5opu - spear, gen. So
or (poetic) 5opo<; <—> tree
J> |jei£ov' oyicov Sopoq C'XOVTCC; q 9peva>v, rel. to 5pu<; = oak, ~> Druid
6 6yKcx; = mass, bulk, weight
i^l <ppqv, gen. 9pevo<; - (usually
in plural) - heart, mind, wits
TI I, TTa?8a
--> frantic, frenzy
Greeks
6 <povo<; - murder, bloodshed;
KOUVOV 8i€ipyaoao0e; pq Tpofav TTOTE 1160 blood
Siepyaôpai workout Troy
TTCooOaav 6p0d>o€i€v; ouScv ^T apa, opGooo - make upright (6p06<;)>

raise up, restore
- then (used to draw a

o0* "EiCTopcx; (jcv EUTUXOUVTOC; €<; 86pu conclusion)
- flourish, have good

fortune
5ia)XXu|j€o8a jjupiac; T' a
5 ioX Xu }j i - destroy utterly = xc i po<; pupkx;,a,ov - numberless, countless
(from pupiac; = 10,000)
~> myriad
5' aXouoqq icai Opuycov
- acts as aorist to
having been captured Phrygians (= Trojans)
6X(oKopai = I am captured
part &Xouq,oGoa,oGv
TooovS1 eScfoaT1- OUK aivco 9opov 1165
Too6o8€,TOoa8c, ToaovSc - of
TO Ppôq = embryo praise
such size as this here
(Hecuba exaggerates for effect)
5ie£cpxopai - go through
OOTIC; ov Xoycp. thoroughly
Put the rounded shield ofHektor on the ground,

a painful sight, not dear for me to see.
You Greeks, whose spears swell bigger than your brains,
why this child-why, in fear of him, did you work out
a new way of murder? Lest some day he might lift up
our fallen Troy? Were you nothing then
when by your spear we perished, while Hektor
yet was flourishing and many another strong arm?
But now, the city taken and the Trojans slain,
so small a babe you feared? I do not praise the fear*
that someone fears unreasoning.
* The listener first hears "/ do not praise fear," then amends: "/ do not praise whoever fears a fear"
Lesson 54. Ycrrqpi, 5f5o>|ji 217
i, cnrqoco, £OTqoa - stand, setup "/ set up a gravestone." (middle: / set up my...)
Terra pa i, eoTq^co, c'crrqv, frrrqica - stand (intransitive) "I am standing."
Ycnrapoi, oTa8qoopcu or oTqoopcu, €OTa6qv - be stood (passive) "The stone is being stood up."
YoTqjJI I set up (intrans. / stand, I have stood)
ACTIVE M-P INTRANSITIVE INTRANSITIVE

CONTINUOUS CONTINUOUS AORIST PERFECT
/ am setting up / am setting up my... (True Middle) / stood / have stood = I am standing
I am being set up (Passive)
/ am standing (Intransitive)
INDICATIVE INDICATIVE INDICATIVE INDICATIVE
Yorqpi YorapEv Yarapai ioTapsOa Earqv Eorqica EarapEv
Yarq^ YaraTE Yaraaai Yarao6£ etc. EarqKa<; EOTOTE
Yarqai(v) iaraai(v) YaraTcu Ycrravrrai Eorqicriv) Ecrraoi(v)
(See p. 211)
Yarqv YarapEv iarapqv iarapEOa Eiarqicq EarajjEv
Yarq<; YOTCITE Yaraao iaraaOE Eiarqicq<; EOTQTE
Yorq Yaraaav YcrraTo Yaravrro EiorqiCEi Earaaav
SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJ. SUBJUNCTIVE
icrrca ioroopEV iara>pai iara>p£0a OTO) EOTCi EOTCipEV
iarq<; iorqTE IOTQ iorqo6£ etc. EOTQ<; EOTQTE
iorqTai iord>vTai Earq £ar<2>oi(v)
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE OPT. OPTATIVE
iaraiqv iara?[jEv iaraijjqv iaraipEOa arafqv Eoraiqv Eara?|jEV
ioraiq<; iara?TE iaraTo iara?o6£ etc. EOTaiq<; Eara?T£
icTafq iara?EV iarcuTo iaraTvTo EOTQiq EOTCUEV
IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE IMPER. IMPERATIVE

Yorq YOTQTE Yaraao Yarao9£ orqGi EOTaGl EOTQTE
iaraTco iaravToov iarao6a> iorao6cav elc. EOTOCTO) Eoravrcov
INFINITIVE INFINITIVE INFINITIVE iNHNirrvE

iaravai Yorao6ai arqvai Earavai
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
gen. ioTavro<;,aor|<;,avTO<;
icrrap£vo<;,q,ov or6i^,OTaoa ,arav
^.^ss^
,~ ,, Ir , has the usual "Big Four" configuration on the continuous stem. Its stem is iora/q and
endings are added directly, with the -iqv, - iqq, -fq optative. It has a disappearing K, but in the
intransitive perfect (a perfect as present) rather than the aorist.
If you see Toj/ioT, that is a sign of the continuous stem. (There is actually a time-marker, the i is
long in the imperfect, but Greek spelling does not reveal that) If you see k'oT/EioT/c'oT, that is a
sign of the perfect.
1. iorai|jqv 4. iorcnqv 7. Vcrrq (2 ways) 1O. Eorciaai 13. arav
2. araiqv 5. VarapEv 8. VOTQ (2 ways) II.EioTqicq 14. YoraoQai
3. EOTaiqv 6. EaraîEv 9. OTq6i 12. ioravrE<; 15. EOTOOI
218 The continuous stems of the "Big Four" are made by reduplicating the short aorist stems:
Ti6q|ji was originally 6r8qpi, (but the Greeks did not pronounce two theta sounds near each other).
Yqpi was actually yi-yemi, with the same sort of reduplication.
Yorqyi was originally ororqpi.
8(8oo|ji has the most obvious reduplication.
, SCOOGO, ifScoica, ScScoKa, SeSopai, cSoOqv give

8(80)^1 I give
INDICATIVE INDIO^TIVE
SiSoopi 5iSo[JEv eSootca tSojJEV SiSopai E86fjqv
8!8oo<; 8!8oT£ k'Scoicac; k'SoTE 8i8ooai 8i8oo6E E8ou E8006E
8iocooi(v) 5i66aai(v) E8a>KE(v) sSooav 8i8oTcu 8i8ovTcu E80TO E'8ovrro
c8!8ouv £5i6o|jEv £8186 |jqv

E8i8ou<; sSISoTE £818000
eSiSou e8i8ooav ESISOTO sSiSovTo
81800 5i5oo|jEv 8cb 8<2>|JEV 81800 pai 8co|jai 8ob|je6a

8i8ax; SIOOOTE 8a>^ 8TE 81800 6 1 60006 E 8ooo6E
81803 SiSoooi(v) 8<^ 8<2>oi(v) 8i8oovTai SooTai SobvTai
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
SiSoiqv SiSoTjjcv Soiqv 8o?pEv 8i8oiyqv 8i8oi|jE6a Soipqv 8oi|jE0a

SiSoiqc; 8i8o?TE 8oiq<; SO?TE 8i8oTo 8i8oTo6E 8oTo 8oTo6£
8i8oiq 8i8oTev Soiq 8o?Ev 8i8o?To 8i8oTvTo SO?TO 8oTvTo
8(8ou 8i8oTE 86<; BOTE 818000 8i8oo6E Sou 86o6£

8i8oToo 8i86vTcov SOTOO SOVTCOV 81860600 8i86o6oov 860600 86o6oov
INFINITIVE INHNITIVE
8i86vai 8ouvai 8i8oo6ai 860601
8i8ou<;,oOaa,6v 8ou<;,8ouoa ,86v
8i86|jE vc*;,q,ov 86|jEvo<;,q,ov
gen. SiSovTCx;, etc. gen. BOVTCX;, etc.
The stem of SiScopi ends with o/co, and many of its forms have endings like those of 6qA6o>.
1. eSi&ou 3. Sou 5. 816006011 7.6o> (2 ways) 9.66v
2.5i6ou 4. Souvai 6.86vrE<; 8. £5a>KE(v) 10.5i5oirj
Classwork: ++ Read Famous Sayings #17, Thesauros pp. 233. 4^> Reread Graveyard #2 and 20,
Famous Sayings #7, and Diogenes #5, Thesauros pp. 227,229,232, and 234.
-Write the forms of Yorqfji and 8i8oojji. Be able to recognize them.

-Read the exchange between Oedipus and Teiresias by Sophocles. For once, instead of using
translationese, make the most beautiful translation you can.
(Read as many translations as you can. You will find that no translator can convey the pith and speed
of the dialogue. There are inevitable sacrifices and distortions. After just one year of learning Greek,
you can understand why Greek literature needs to be read in the original.)
OEDIPUS TYRANNOS by Sophocles 219
Oedipus challenges the blind seer Teiresias.
OIA- f\ TotuTa SQT' aveicTa npoc; TOUTOU icXueiv; av£KTo<;,r)f6v - bearable

fi asks a question (especially beginning a series) = &KOUCIV
npcx; + gen. - from, at the

OUK eic; oX€0pov; ouxt O&ooov; ou naXiv 430 hands of
destruction = B&TTOV naXiv back
ayoppo<; O'I'KCOV T<2>v5' anooTpa9€i<; &TTEI; * orpc<pco - turn, twist; mid and
going back passive - turn oneself
aorist pass. £orpaq>qv
—> streptococcus
TEIP- ou5' IKOMOV cycoy av, c! ou pr) 'icaXeiq. **
aTToorp£<pa> - turn away
1
OIA- ou yap TI a Q5q pcopa 9CA)vr)OOVT\ £TTEI
9G>v^G) speak since
cniAAoa - prepare, send;

oxoXq o1 av O'IKOU^ TOU<; ^(jouq ÔTCiXajjqv.
at leisure~i.e., not soon, hardly at all
mid and passive - summon
TEIP* qpcTc; ToioiS1 ûpcv, cbc; pcv ooi SOKC?, 435 96(0, 9600), fcpuoa -
bring forth, grow, produce;
intr. aorist ?9uv -1 was,
(jcipoi, yovEuoi 51, oY o1 frpuoav, c^povcc;. grew, came to be;
6 yovctx; begetter ?p<ppa)v,ov sane, intr. perfect TTÛKOI -1
in one's wits (9pcvt<;) am by nature
--> physics, physical
OIA' noloioi; pcTvov. TIC; 6c (j1 €K9U€i ppOT&v; --> future (via Latin)
^960) beget
TEIP* q8' r)|J€pa 9^^î oc Kai 5ia98€p£?.

SioupBefpco ruin utterly
aiviKTo<;,r)t6v - expressed in
riddles (fromaMTTojjai -
OIA- cbc; navT ayav alviKTa Kaoa9q Xcyeiq. speak in riddles)
fiyav too much, too
aoa<pq<;,E<; - unclear
(oa9q<;,£<; = clear)
TEIP- OUKOUV ou TauT1 apioroc; cupioicciv ?9uq; 440
from oOic + oOv
OIA- ToiauT1 6v€i6iC oTq €(j* eupqoeiq (jcyav.

reproach, blame
TEIP- auTq y€ (JCVTOI o1 q TUXH SicoXcoEv. yc (postpositive) - at any rate

nonetheless
OIA* aXX 1 €i noXiv Tqv5' €^£ocoo', ou |joi pcXci.

^Ka4>(a) thoroughly save
*One way of giving a command in Greek is to ask a negative question in the future tense: Will you not do this!
i.e., Do this! (And remember cTî acts as a future.) You now know three ways of giving a command in
Greek: imperative, subjunctive of prohibition, and future negative question. In fact, if you read the continuation
of this passage in Sophocles, you will find a fourth way: the infinitive (9aoicciv).
** Without the 99% principle you cannot make sense of this statement. (See p. 130.)
220 The greater the work, the greater the challenge of translating, it seems. Examine the two
translations below. How have the translators caught the pithiness and speed of these exchanges?
Where have they succeeded? What have they been unable to render? How different are they?
How much does the "style of the times" affect translation?
Look for other translations, too, and compare them. You will realize that in learning Greek, you
have given yourself a gift that can be gotten no other way: to be able to read in the original
documents of remarkable power, depth, and beauty.
OIA* f\ TauTa SqV avEKTa np6<; TOUTOU icXuEiv;

OUK E!C; oXcOpov; ouxl Oaaaov; ou naXiv
fcyoppcx; OMCGOV TcovS* ancxrrpa9£i<; STTEI;
TEIP* ou8' JKopr|v £ycA>y' fiv, ci ou pq 'KaX£i<;.
OIA* ou yap TI a q8q pcopa ^cjvqoovrr', ETTEI

oxoXq o' av oVicou<; TOUC; £pou<; EOTEiXajjqv.
TEIP* ^psk ToioiB1 EÛÊV, dx; psv ooi OOKE?,

poopoi, yox/Euoi S', oV o1 E9uoavt Ep<ppovE<;.
OIA* TTOIOIOI; (JE?VOV. TIC; SE p* EKÛEI ppoToov;
TEIP* qS' i*)|JEpa 9UOEI OE ica! 5ia90Ep£T.
OIA* clx; navT fiyav aiviKTa Kaoc<9q XsyEi^.
TEIP* OUKOUV ou TOUT' fipioro^ EupiaKEiv E9U<;;
OIA* ToiauY 6vEi8iC' oT<; EJJ' EupqoEic; (jEyav.
TEIP* aiirq yE |j£vrroi o' f] TUXH 5ia>XEOEv.
OIA* aXX 1 E! noXiv Tqv8' EÊOCAXJ', ou poi JJEXEI.
Thomas Dale 1824 Dudley Fitts and Robert Fitzgerald 1939*
Oed: Must I then brook such shameless taunts from thee? Oed: Am I to bear this from him? "Damnation
A curse light on thee, babbler! to thy home Take you! Out of this place! Out of my sight!
Away, and rid us of thy hateful presence.
Teir: But for thy summons, I had never come. Teir: I would not have come at all if you had not asked me.
Oed: I little deemed that thou wouldst prate so weakly Oed: Could 1 have told that you'd talk nonsense, that
Or never had I sought thy presence here. You'd come here to make a fool of yourself, and of me?
Teir: Though to thy better wisdom void of sense Teir: A fool? Your parents thought me sane enough.
We seem, thy parents once esteemed us wise.
Oed: Who are they? Stop, and tell who gave me birth. Oed: My parents again!-Wait: who were my parents?
Teir: This day will show thy birth, and seal thy ruin. Teir: This day will give you a father, and break your heart.
Oed: How wild, and how mysterious are thy words! Oed: Your infantile riddles! Your damned abracadabra!
Teir: Art thou not skilled t' unriddle this enigma? Teir: You were a great man once at solving riddles.
Oed: Reproach the path that led me up to greatness. Oed: Mock me with that if you like; you will find it true.
Teir: That very path hath led thee to perdition. Teir: It was true enough. It brought about your ruin.
Oed: I reck not that, so I preserved the state. Oed: But if it saved this town?
"Translation is from SOPHOCLES: THE OEDIPUS CYCLE, AN ENGLISH VERSION by Dudley Fitts and
Robert Fitzgerald, copyright © 1949 by Harcourt Brace & Company and renewed 1977 by Cornelia Fitts and
Robert Fitzgerald; reprinted by permission of the publisher.
a / 221
6qoaupo<; *
NEW TESTAMENT
Lesson
1. TI SE (SXEnEic; TO Kap9oc; TO EV TCO 090aX|JCo TOU 6(86X900 oou, T^|V 6e EV TCO oco 6
look at speck, splinter, chip your
co 8oic6v ou KaTavoE?<;; q n£><; epcTq TCO a5EX9<!o oou "

beam, perceive how will you say Come on let me throw out,
roofbeam get rid of
TO Kap9O<; EK TOU O99aX|jou oou," Kai I5ou ^| 5oic6q EV TCO 6960X^10) oou;**
speck =loou -behold!
unoicpiTa,*** EKpaXc npcoTov i< TOU 098aX(joO oou T^|V SOKOV, Kai TOTE
vocative of OnoKpiTq^ first then
lyEic; EKpaXE?v TO Kap9oq EK TOU O90aX|jou TOU a6EX9oO oou.

you will see clear speck, splinter, chip Matthew 7: 3-5
2. 6 ayaGoc; avGpconoc; EK TOU ayaGoO Oqoaupou Tqc; icapSfaq npQ$>EpEi

•rings forth
T6 &ya06v, KOI 6 novqpoc; EK ToO novqpou npo9EpEi T6 Trovqp6v.

wicked Luke 6:45
3. Mr) 0qoaupi^€T£ upTv Oqaaupouc; im jqc; yqq, onou oqc; Kai ppcooiq a9aviî, 8
store treasure for you earth where moth rust make disappear,
destroy, spoil
KOI onou KAcTTTOM Siopuooouoi KCU KXEHTOuoiv. 0qoaupiÊT£ &£ u(j?v 0qoaupou<;
6 KXcnrq^ = thief dig through
EV oupavcp, onou OUTE oqc; OUTE ppcooic; a9aviÊif Kai onou KXsnTai ou
Siopuooouoiv ou6E KXsnTouoiv. onou yap EOTIV 6 Oqoaupo^ oou,
EKE? EOTOI Kai q Kap5fa oou.

there will be Matthew 6: 19-21
* The Thesauros contains only selections in genuine ancient or Koine Greek. (The dialect of the New Testament
is Koine.) Some passages have been MnormalizedM-given in Attic Greek. Bold face shows the grammar learned in
the Lesson where the reading was assigned. Lesson number is shown to the left
** Notice difference in accent, oou - yours (unemphatic). oou - yours (emphatic)
*** 6 unoKpiTrjc; - hypocrite, originally = actor. In the beginning there were perhaps only choral performances.
An actor may have been introduced in performances as one who "replied" (cf. inoKpfvopai) to the chorus or
perhaps who "interpreted" or "spoke for" them.
222 Lesson
4. 6 pq dxyarrcov ÎEVEI EV TCO SavaTcp. nac; 6 pio&v TOV a5EX90v OUTOU 18

pioccj - hate
avGpcorroKTovoc; EOTIV, KOI oV&aTE OTI nac; avGpconoKTovoc; OUK EXEI £a>qv
killer, manslayer you (pi.) know
aicoviov EV auTco plvouoav. o<; 5' av E'XQ TOV |3iov TOU Koopou KOI 6Ecopq
eternal whoever has, life world beholds,
should have should behold
Ka T
TOV a5EX90v OUTOU xpeiav fyovTa * K^^'^Q ^ onXayxva auToO
need shuts, guts as seat of compassion,
should shut inward parts
an' auToO, TT£><; q ayanq TOU 8eou JJCVEI ^v auTco;

how love ' First Letter of John, 3:15,17
5. 6 X£ycov EV TCO 9COTI cTvai <ai TOV a8cX96v auTou piocov EV TQ OKOTI^ EOTIV 18
darkness
ECOC; apTi. 6 &yan£>v TOV a5eX90v auTou cv TCO 9COTI JJEVEI, <ai oicavSaXov
up to now stumbling block,
cause for offence
ev OUTCO OUK EOTIV. 6 8c (Jiocbv TOV a5€X90v OUTOU ev TQ OKOTI^X EOTIV <ai
EV TQ oKOTiqt nEpmaTE?, <ai OUK oT5E nou unayEi, OTI q OKOTia ETU9XcooEv
is walking about where he is going blinded
TOUq O90aX|JOU^ aUTOU. First Letter of John, 2: 9-11
6. pq ayanaTE TOV Koopov (jqSs Ta EV TCO Koopco. Eav TI? ayana TOV KOOJJOV, 19
world if ever loves, should love
OUK EOTIV q ayanq TOU flaTpo^ EV auTco* OTI rrav TO EV TCO Koo|jco--q EniOupia
desire
Tqq oapKoc; KOI q EniOupia TCOV o90aX|jcbv Kai q aXaôvEia TOU PIOU--OUK EOTIV
i*) oapt - flesh desire boasting, pretension
EK TOU FlaTpoq, aXXa EK TOU Koopou EOTIV. Kai 6 Koopoc; napayETai Kai
goes by
q EniOujjfa auTou, 6 5E noicov TO OEXqpa TOU GEOU (JEVEI E!C; TOV alcova.
desire will eternity
First Letter of John 2:15-17
7. 'HKOUOOCTE OTI EppE0q* 'AyanqoEic; TOV irXqaiov oou KOI (JioqoEic; 23

You heard it was said Thou shall love nearby, i.e., neighbor thou shall hate
TOV ExOpov oou. £yd> SE Xsyco uî?v ayanaTE TOUC; Ex6pouq upcbv KOI
enemy
npOOEUX€00E UTTEp TCOV SlCOKOVTCOV 0^5? OHCOC; yEVqO0E Uloi TOU flOTpO^ U(JCJV
pray for SICOKCO - pursue, prosecute so that you may become
TOU EV oupavoTc;, oc; TOV qXiov OUTOU avaTEXXEi EHI novqpouc; KOI aya0ouc;
causes to rise wicked
99^
LL
Lesson ^
Kai PpEXî ETTI SIKOIOUC; KOI aSiKouc;. £av yap ayanqoqTE TOUC; ayanoovTac;
rains just if ever you love, should love
Ka
6pac, Tiva (Jio66v E'XETE; °^X* ' °' TEXcovai TO OUTO noioGoiv; KOI EOV
wage, payment tax collectors if ever
aoTTaoqo6E TOUC; aScôuc; upcov povov, TI nepiooov TTOIE?TE; ouxi Kai

you welcome, should welcome extra
(&ona(o|jai = greet lovingly)
oi sOviKoi TO auTo noioOoiv; EOEO0E oSv upcTc TEXEIOI

"of the nation," foreign, gentile you will be perfect, complete, fulfilled
cbc; 6 FlaTqp upciv 6 oupavioq TcXcioq COTIV.

as perfect, complete, fulfilled Matthew 5,43-48
8. 'HKOUOCXTE OTI EppE0q TO?C; apxaioiq- Ou fovcuocic* ex; 51 av 9OVEUOQ, 29

it was said to the ancients <poveuo> - murder (aorist subjunctive)
EVOXOC; EOTai Tq Kpioei. 'Eycb 5c Xcyco 6(j?v OTI nac; 6 opyiôpcvoc; TCO a5EX9Cp
held in, liable to judgment
auToO Evoxoq EOTQI Tq KpioEi. oq 5' av cVnq TCO a5eX9<;o OUTOU M<PaKa,u
held in, liable to whoever says, should say a term of abuse, tr. "youjertt"
EVOXOC; COTOI TCO ouvcSpfco- oc; 8' av Ernq "McopE," Evoxoq EOTOI EK Tqv yEEwav
held in, liable to Sanhedrin = [&pt xThe valley of Ge-hinnon is
die Hebrew equivalent of hell)
TOU nupoc;. Matt 5,21-22
9. 'HKOUOOTE OTI EppE0q- Ou (JOIXEUOEIC;. 'Eyco SE Xsyco upTv OTI nac; 6 pXsncov 29
it was said fjoixeuco - commit adultery
yuva?<a npoc; TO EniOupqoai auTqv q5q EIJOIXÛOEV auTqv EV Tq KapSi^ OUTOU.

Matthew 5,27-28
10. EOV TIC; EVnq OTI " 'Ayanco TOV OEOV," Kai TOV &8EX9OV auTou pioq, 37
if ever says, should say
yEUOTqq EOTIV 6 yap pq ayanaiv TOV a8EX9OV OUTOU ov icopaKEV,

liar 6pao>
TOV OEOV ov oux icopaKCV ou SUVOTOI ayanav. First letter of John 4,20
11. Mq KpfvETE, Yva |jq icpiSqTC* EV & yap KpfjjaTi KpfvETE KpidqaeaOe, 49
<pivco - judge judgment
KOI EV & (J^PV METP€^T€ MCTPn®^l°CTai ^H^v-

TO î€Tpov - measure peTpeco - measure Matthew 7,1
12. aiTE?TE, KOI 8o8qoETai upTv iqTE?TE, KOI EupqoETE- KpouETE, Kai 49
SiScopi
divoiyqocTai u|j?v.
as if made from an aorist passive &vcpyqv (Avofyvupi- open) Luke 11,9
224 HERACLITUS*
Lesson
FLUX
1. navTct (be?. 4
£ECO - flow
2. noTajjoTc; TO?q auTO?g eppaivoplv Te KOI OUK Eppaivopev. 4

noTajJo^ - river we go in
3. Sic; sic; T6v aOj6v TTOTapov OUK av cppaiqc;. 4

twice you could not go in
4. TTOTapoTc; ToTq auTO?<; £(jpaivouoiv CTEpa Kai €T£pa uSara cnippc?. 4

to those stepping in other waters flow by
OPPOSITES
5. n6X€|joq navTcov pcv naTqp EOTIV, TTOVTCOV 8e paoiXeuq, Kai TOU? piv OEOUC; 9
War father
k'SciÊ TOU? 52 avOpcbnouq, TOU? piv SouXouq erroiqaE TOU? 8i cXcuOEpouc;.

shows slaves makes free
6. *O 0€oq q|J€pa £U9povq, x^'H^v 9^P°^» noXcjjoq Eipqvq, Kopoq Xipoc;. 11

night winter summer war peace satiety famine
lit, "kindly time"
7. voooc; uyiEictv enoiqoEV q8u Kai ayaOov, Xfpoq Kopov, KapaTO^ avanauaiv. 11
health makes sweet, pleasant famine satiety toil, pause,
weariness rest
8. GaXaTTo uScop KaOap&TQTOV Kai (JiapooTOTOV, ixOuai JJEV noTipov Kai 11

sea water KaSapcx; - pure piapcx; - foul, polluted for fish drinkable
ocoTqpiov, avOpconoiq 8e OTTOTOV Kai oXcOpov.

saving undrinkable destructive
9. TCO TO^CO 6vo|ja PIOC;, Epyov 6c Oavaroq. (The bow = PICK; in Greek.) 11
bow death
THAT WHICH IS HIDDEN
10. 6 ava£, oO TO |javT£?6v EOTI TO ev AEX907C;, OUTE Xcysi OUTC KpunTEi 12

prophetic seat, oracle hides
aXXa oq(jafv€i.
shows by a sign, signifies
11. xpu°ov oi 5i£q|Jevoi yqv noXXqv opuTTOuoi Kai cupiOKOuoiv oXfyov. 12

gold seeking, pursuing dig find little
12. 9uai<; KpuTrreoGai 9iXe?. 12

nature to hide
*The text of Heraclitus is especially conjectural. Texts come from many sources. Choices were made to favor
exposition of grammar.
Lesson 225
13. apfjovia oâvqc; 9avEpa<; KpEiTTCov. 21
harmony, lit. nonapparent <pavep6t,&,6v apparent better
a "fitting together"
14. o! noXXoi ou ouviaoiv OTTOX; 8ia9EpopEvov 4auT<J> opoXoysr 23

auvfqfji - understand, differing from itself, agrees with
lit., "throw together" lit, being brought apart
naXivTOVoc; appovia oncoonEp TO£OU Kai Xupaq.

back-stretched just as lyre
(variant: naXlvrporro^
-back-turning)
ONE
15. 686c; avco KOTCO pia KOI q auTq. 17

upward downward
16. yva9Eicp 686c; Eu0E?a Kai OKoXia* pfa EOTI KOI f] auTq. 17
fuller's comb straight crooked
17. £uvov apXO <a» nEpaq ETT} KUKXou nEpÊpEiaq. 17

common beginning end circle circumference
18. SiSaoKaXoc; SE TTXEIOTCOV 6 'HofoSoc;- TOUTOV EniOTavTai nXsToTa EiSsvai, 32

teacher Hesiod they understand most to know
OOTIC; qpEpav Kai EU9povqv OUK EyfyvcooKEV EOTI yap ?v.

someone who night
lit, "kindly time"
a euphemism
19. noXu|ja8ia vouv E'XEIV ou SiSaoKEi. 'HoioSov yap fiv £8f8a£c KOI 32
Hesiod
CluOayopqv, a58ic; TE z€vo9avq TE <ai '

Pythagoras Xenoîanes Hecataeus (a geographer)
WISDOM
20. F\Qo<; av0po)TTCA> Saipcov. 33

character
21. PjOoc; avOpconciov JJEV OUK E'XEI yvcbpaq, OsTov SE EXEI. 33

wise opinions, wisdom divine
22. EV TO 0090V ETTioTaoOai yvcb|jqv qTic; iKup^pvqoc rravTa 8ia TTOVTCOV. 33

wisdom Kufkpvaa> - steer
23. yuyqc; neipara ioov OUK av l^cupoio, naoav ininopEUOpEVOc; 656v 46

soul boundaries going ££eupfoica> - find out, discover = rropeuofjcvcx;
OUTGO Pa6uv Xoyov

deep
226
XENOPHANES
Lesson
1. eTc; Oeoc;, EV T€ 0€o?oi Kai avOpconoioi |jeyiOTO<; 34

= 6eoT<; = &v6pconoi<;
OUTI 5€|jaq 0vqTO?oiv 6(jouoq ouSc voqjja.

o O + T I TO 8ejja<; mortals (subject similar TO voqjja
form toBavcmx;) = 6poTo<; thought
2. oGXoc; opa, oOXoc; 8£ VOE?, oOAcx; 5€ T' aicouEi. 34

= 6Xo<; volco - perceive,
whole think
3. aXX' oi ppoToi SOKÔUOI ycvvao8ai Ocouq 34

to be bom
Tqv o9£T€pqv 5' coOqTa fc'xeiv 9c*>vqv T€ Scpac; TC.

their own clothing TO&CJJOK; form
4. Ai0ion€c; TE Oeouq O9€T€pouc; aipouc; (jlXavac; TE ^4

Ethiopians their own snub-nosed black
GPQKEC; T€ yXauKou<; Kai nuppouc; 9001 neXeoOai.

Thracians blue-eyed red-headed =eTvai
5. aXX 1 £i xe^Pa(^ ^Xov POEC; Ynnoi T1 qc XCOVTCC; 32

= £?xov cows =t\ lions
q ypayai xîp^^î <ai cpya TEXcTv ancp avSpcq,

write, paint works, statues
YTTTTOI |j£v 0' Ynnoioi POEC; 8c je pouoiv opofaq

horses = TC cows
Kai KE OECOV IScac; €yPa9ov Ka

* ocopaT1 ETTOIOUV
= ftv forms bodies
Toiau0' oTov n€p KauToi Scpac; cTxov CKOOTOI.

of such sort as =KaiauToi TO Sepac; - form
6. OUTOI an1 apXH^ navra 06oi 0vqTO?o' uncSciâv, 34

beginning 6 OvqTCx; - mortal OnoSeiicvupi = Sekvupi - show,
indicate, mark out
aXXa xpovcp (nT0^VT€(i ^9^vjpioKOuoiv apcivov.

^9eup(oKco - discover,
find out, invent
MOTTO FOR LEARNING GREEK!

227
A WALK THROUGH A GREEK GRAVEYARD*
Lesson
BODY AND SOUL
1. oo>pa oqpa. 14
body tomb (literally, "sign," tomb as sign of a burial) Orphic saying
2. Tqv yuxqv ocniScoKEv EC; &£pa, o&pa BE npoq yqv. 14

soul he, she, it gave back = d<; 6 &i*)p = air p. 32
3. Zcjoipq q rrpiv Eouoa povc^ TCO oc&pom SouXq

before = oOoa being slave 14
icai TCO o d> pom vuv qCpov cAcuOcpfav.

I found freedom p. 305
THE TOMB
4. MiKpoq ou (JiKpov icaXunTco Tuppoc; KvSpa.

= Kpunra> tomb p. 227 16
5. "AAAoc; CXEI nAouTov Kaycb ToSc oqjj1 6 ycpaioc; . . .

= icai ^ya> -^ /
rravTiiJov, noXusuicTov, oncp 'woiqaa npoicpivaq

all-honored, much prayed-for = ^nolqoa rrpoKpfvoa - judge before, i.e.,prefer
highly valued
(jaAXov SXEIV nXoujou, KOI TeOvecbc; ayapai.

I admire p. 227
THE SORT OF PERSON I WAS
6. TETpacTqc; &v cXinov qXiou TO yXuKU 9€yyo^.

four years old light p. 162 24
7. nap0evo<; oCoa T€0vqKa AEOVTCO cbc; VEOV avGoc;...

maiden I have died, am dead TOfivOcx;- blossom 24
KOI (jcXAouoa ya|jco 8 EKanevTctETqc; (J€iyvuo0ai

fifteen years old ycfy vupi - mix
EV 90i(J€voic; KE?|jai unvov EXOUOQ paicpov.

those wasting away (the dead) sleep p. 192
8. Iqpa OpaaiKXEiaq- Koupq KEKXqao|jai aEi

maiden I shall have the name, I shall be called 26
CXVTI yajjou napa GECOV TOUTO Xaxouo' ovopa.

Xayx&va) - receive as one's share p. 192
9. ou ya|jov, oux UJJEVQIOV iScbv, ou vuîa XEiCTpa,

wedding song of a bride or bridegroom bed(s) 44
KETpai epooc; noXXcov, 4oo6(JEVO<; nXEOvcov.

sexual tove, here = "darling" = ÔOJJCVQ^ p. 193
* This is a gathering of thoughts about death. Many of them come from Themes in Greek and Latin Epitaphs, by
Richmond Lattimore, Urbana, 1962, where there is a translation and some commentary. Page numbers refer to
Lattimore; bold face shows an inscription (rather than a literary passage). The spelling has been normalized.
228
Lesson
10. TccuTa XcyovTec;, TOUTO 9povouvT€<;1 ^XOopev Tqv apeTpqTov 656v EK; 'AfSav. 26
= TO aura <ppovea>- think unmeasurable Hades p. 248
11. 'Ev0a5' cycl) K€?(jai €P68io<;- Ta ycXoTa OIGOTTGO, 17

here from Rhodes jokes I keep silent
Kai onaXaiccov oXeGpov XEITTCO Kara ycuav ttnaoav.

moles destruction Heave the whole (strengthened form of naoav) p. 287
12. Kai |ja Ai1 OUK cTSov spauTou &pe(vco uXoTO|Jov 21

by Zeus ipauTOV- myself woodcutter
(pa is used instead of vq in oaths with negative statements.) p. 285
13. OVQOKGJ SE 6y5d)KovTa <ai €^ eoiScbv Xuicapavjac; 16

I die eighty six having looked on years
KOU naTBaq nai&cov Xefnco un' qEXicp . . .

Heave = Âfco p. 211
14. noAAa âycov <ai iroXXa nicbv <ai rroXXa KOK' Elncbv 26
Kaica Xeyc*) Tiva - say bad things
to or of someone (2 ace.)
(cf. "badmouth" someone)
avOpcorrouc; KeTpai TipOKpccov 'PoSioq.
FRffiNDS AISfD ENEMIES / LOVE AND HATE
15. auTq q yevvôaoa <ai icq&cuoaoa in^ypaya 27

ycwaa) - give birth KqScuco - care for
ax9oc; cxouoa KpaSiac; TTEvScoc; OUK oXfyou

burden = tcapSiac; grief small p. 180
16. Tcp6e 76190) K€?Tou XaipEOTparq qv 6 OUVEUVOC; 27

grave husband, bedmate
ÔTCpê (jcv ^cooav, inlv6qocv 5c 8avouaav.

OTEpya) - cherish TTEvOcco - mourn p. 275
17. OVQOKCA) 5' oiKTpoTaTco OavaTco 5ia Tqv aXoxov pou 27

olicrpoc; - pitiful wife
KXeyfyajjov (Jiapav qv ncpi Zcuc; oXcoai.

marriage-cheating foul may Zeus destroy utterly (nepi6AXu|ji)
TauTqv yap XaOpioc; ya|J€Tqq Kaipov ycvoq aioxcov

secret husband =<a\ ^pov atoxcco - shame
cTX^^ |JE KCX9' uyouq 8iOKop6Xqoe veov.

^XKCO - drag = Kai 6no TO (5yo<; - cliff SiOKopoXcco - throw like a discus p. 118
WHAT MAKES LIFE GOOD?
18. Au1 q|j€pou yuvaiKoc; EIOIV qSiorai, 36
STQV yapq TIC; K&K9€pQ T€0vqKu?av.

= Kai *K9£pQ dead Hipponax
229
Lesson
19. MaKap IcxpoKXEqc;, o<; noXuv xpovov piouq 28

blessed Pi6a> - live,fcplcovI lived (like 2y vcov)
6tTTE0avEv Eu&aipcov avqp KOI Seîoq,

on the right side, i.e., lucky, fortunate; also = clever
rroXXac; noiqoac; KOI KaXaq TpaycoSiaq,
KaXax; 8' ETEXEUTqoEV, ouSEv uno|JEiva<; KOKOV.

TcXeurao) - make an end, die unopevco - undergo, endure Phrynichus
20. ou TToXE|j6v TTOTC I5cov, ou x€^Pa ôvoiai (Jiavac; 42

696vex; - blood, murder pialvco - stain
Xpovioq 6 KCU 'ApTEiJiBcopoc; EuoSioq cvOaSc K€?(jai,
E^qKOVTdETqq, yuva?Ka TE (jqSapou yqMa^

60 years old nowhere = never
(jqTE 8iKqv EVnac;, (jqT* opicov 5ouq TTOT' ojjofc*).

lawsuit here = equal
EUTUxiav SE (3fou TauTqv vopiaov, napo8E?Ta.

passerby p. 269
NO CHOICE
21. EK yafqq yap navTa Kai EI^ yqv navra TcXcuTî. p.259 Menander 31
endup
22. TOUTO (jovov 6vqTO?q Toov TTEXEI EK Aioq aVaqq, 32

equal = £OTI decree, destiny
Traoi 0avE?v KOI ^coc; qEXioio XIHE?V
ei 51 ^v apyupiov Kai xpîov OUTO npiaoOai

buy
ou&Ei<; Sv nXouToc; EIC; 'Ai8ou KOTEpq.

= nXouoioq Hades p. 253
THE GREAT EQUALIZER
23. EinE?v TIC; 5uvaTai aKqvoq XinoaapKov 6t0pâa<; 27

TO OKqvo<; - which flesh &6pca> - peer at
hut (= body) has left
E'ITTEP rYXac; q GEpOErrqc; ?jv, d) napo5E?Ta;

Hylas = a beautiful boy in Iliad passerby p. 175
Thersites = an ugly man in Iliad
24. yqq £n£pqv yupvoq, yupvoq 0' UTTO yaTav anEijJi, 28

naked =TC
Kai TI (JOTqv |jox0co, yupvov opcov TO TEXoq;

in vain I toil p. 320 (Palladas)
230
Lesson
25. "Av0pcoTioc; TOUT' EOTI. TIC; eT PXETTE icai TO pcvov OE. 45
EiKova Tqv6' Eoopcov oov TO TEXoc; Xoyioai.

t\ E!KO>V - image (icon) Xoyftopai - reckon Cf. "As I was so be yee, p. 256
As I am ye shall bee."
26. pavqc; oOTOc; avqp ?jv £cov TTOTE- vuv SE TE0vq»ca>c; 37

madman
Toov AapEicp TCO pcyaXco SuvaTai.

Darius (Idng of Persia) Anyte
WHAT IS LIFE? WHAT IS DEATH? CHOICES
27. TO |jq yap cTvai icpe?TTOV q TO ^qv KOKOX;. Sophocles, fragment488 21
28. TO 9co<; To5' avOpconoioiv ^BIOTOV pXcnciv, 21
Ta V€p0£ 81 ouScv. [jaivETai 81 oq cuxcTai

below rave, be mad pray
0av€?v. KQKOOC; £qv Kp£?TTOV q icaXcoc; 0av€?v.

to live p. 46 Euripides Iph. Aid. 1250-52
29. OKqvq nag 6 pfoq Kai naiyviov q pa0E TTOIÊIV 53

stage, plaything, game play
because originally a tent was used for the actors to change
Tqv onouSqv pCTaOctc q 9Ep€ TOC; 66uva<;.

seriousness having put aside pains Palladas
SHALL I PONDER?
30. a E9ayov EXCO, a KaTEXinov ancoXEoa. aXq0ax; E!HE 4>iXioTicov. 40

Kara Xef na> - leave behind
6 pioc; T0o6v8e.
so much, this much p. 261
31. TIC; oTSsv EI TO ^qv JJEV EOTI KOT0avE?v, 47
TO KaT0avE?v SE ^qv KOTCO vopHcTai;

below p. 84 Euripides fragment 639
32. TIC; oTSEv EI TO £qv (JEV EOTI KaT0avE?v, 47
TO HVE?V BE SEITTVETv, TO 8E K00EU5EIV KO)8lOV;

breathe sheepskin fleece Aristophanes' spoof, Frogs 1477-78
33. ToO IJEV 0av6vToc; OUK av Iv9oupo(pe6a, 51

^vOufJcojja i - think about, ponder on + gen.
E'I' TI 9povo?pEv, nXE?ov qpEpac; (Jiac;.

9povea> - be sensible Semonides
Lesson 231
WISHES AND CURSES
34. xa^P€ Ka
* £ ' v 'At&gr icou9q SE TE ya?a KaAuTrroi. 39
= £v Hades light in weight = Kpurrroi p. 57 (Meleager)
35. KOU9q 001 x^v fcnavcoOc TT£OOI, yuvai. 39

light earth on from above p. 65 Euripides Alcestis, 463-64
36. vuv SE OE pq <ou9q KPUTTTOI KOVIC;, aXXa papE?at 39

light dust, earth heavy (on partridge killed by a cat)
|Jf) TO TEOV 'KEIVq XEiyaVOV EÊpUOQ

= oov = îcefvr) remains £xeP&° ~ ^ôut
(the cat) p. 66, Agathias
37. E^qKOVTOUTqc; AIOVUOIOC; Ev9a5E KE?(jai 45

60 years old here
TapGEuq, |jq yqpac;. a'iBc SE (jq8' 6 naTqp.

= elBc (Anonymous)
38. oq av SE KOCKOX; TCO avSpiavTi noiqaq, 6p9ava TEKVCC XITTOITO, XHPOV P'ov» 46
statue children widowed
oTKov Epqjjov, EV nupi rravTa SapoiTO, Kaiccov UTTO X€^Pa^ ^XoiTO.

empty, desolate *5ap=aorist passive stem at the hands of 6XXupi - destroy, lose,
be overcome, tamed, destroyed middle - perish p. 112
39. EOTQI SE tniicoiT&paTOc 6 ToioGjcx;, Kai oaai apai EV TCO AEUTEPOVOJJICO 47

accursed of such son curses biblical reference for short cut!
i.e., who defiles tomb
ciol yeypapjjcvai aujco TE KOI TEKVOIC; icai Eicyovoic; <ai navTi TCO yEVEi
children descendants
auTou YEVOIVTO. p. 114

Cf. message on Shakespeare's tomb: "Blest be the man that spares these stones
And cursed be he that moves my bones."
40. naoa yq SaicpuooTCO. p. 180 42
41. EjjoO 6avovTo<; ya?a |jix8^|T€O nupf. 48

pelyvupi - mix
ouSEV |JEXEi (joi. Tapa yap KaAcoc; EXEI.

= Ta iya Anonymous
232
FAMOUS SAYINGS, OR SAYINGS OF THE FAMOUS
Lesson
1. A lioness: AECMVCJ 6vEi5i£o|jEvq uno aXconEicoq ETTI TO 5ia navTO^ £va 19
lioness being rebuked by fox all die time
T(KT£IV, "c'va" E9n "*Ma AeovTa."

he, she, it said
2. Aphrodite: *H Kunpiq Tqv Kunpiv £vi KviSco cTncv 18ouoa 26

Aphrodite (goddess in Cyprus) Knidos
"4>EU, 9EU- nou yupvqv eT&c JJE npaîTEXq^;"

where? naked Praxiteles (a sculptor)
3. Solon: loXcov cmopaXcbv uiov EKXauoEv. ElTr6vTog 5c TIVO? npoc; aurov, 28

Solon &noâXXa> - lose icAafa>,?KXauoa - weep
ax; ou5ev npoupyou HOIE? icXaicov, "81' auTo yap TOI TOUTO" €9q "KXaico.11
of advantage (ylcnow)
4. Philip of Macedon: (WXiTmoc; cXcye Kp€?TTOv cTvai oTpaToncSov cXa9CA)v 28

camp 6,1^X090^ - deer
XÔVTO? OTpaTnyouvToq q X€OVTCA)V iX6«9OU OTpaTqyouvToq.

6 Xccov - lion OTpaTqyca) - be general
M
5. Zeno: "6ia TOUTO" £9q 5uo cI>Ta EXO(JEV, aTopa SE cv, 35
TO oB<; mouth
Yva nXcfova JJEV ducoucopev, QTTOVO SE X£yc*)|j£v.M

nXe(a)vfov - more ^Tra>v,on - less
6. Alexander the Great: 6 'AXcâv&poc; 'Avaâpxou nepi KOGIJCOV ancipiaq QKOUCOV 37

Anaxarchus, a philosopher worlds, universes limitlessness
cSoKpucv. Kai TCOV 9iXcov EpcorqaavTcov aujov TI SaicpuEi, MOUK aîov" E9q
worthy
"SaicpuEiv EI Koopcov OVTCOV anEipcov, EVOC; ouSEnco Kupioi y£y6vap€V;M

worlds limitless not yet
7. Philip: EpcoTcojjEvoc; oOoTivaq (jaXiora 9iXE? Kai oOoTivaq (jaXiGTa JJIOE?, 38

being asked
"TOUC; (JEXXovTac;,11 E9q "npo5i86vai (jaXiOTa 91X00, TOUC; 81 q6q npoSsScoKOTac;

npo8i8o>pi - betray having betrayed
(jaXiOTa piooo."
8. Socrates: IcoicpaTqq EXsyE TOUC; (JEV aXXouq avOpconouq ^qv Yva ioSioiEV, 39
auToc; SE EoGiEiv Yva Jcpq.
optative of £ac*>
9. Gorgias: EpcojqOEic; nofî SIOITQ xPc*)M€VO(i € '^ Maicpov yqpaq PjXOEv, 40

having been asked what (sort of) way of life, diet old age
*Most of these sayings and those of Diogenes were taken from The Greek Reader, by Frederic Jacobs, New York, 1831.
Lesson ^ 3 3
ouSETTOTE1* &pq "npoq qSovqv 9aycbv OUTE Spaoac;."

5p&a> - do (-> Spa pa)
10. Themistocles: €pcoTq9€i(; 5c noTEpov 'AxiXXEuc; IpouXcT1 8v cTvai q "Opqpoc; Review

having been asked Achilles Homer p. 172
"ou 5£ dUTcx;" &pq VroTepov Sv fjOcXeq 6 VIKGOV EV 'OXupniaoiv q 6 Kqpuoocov

Olympic games announce
Touq VIKGOVTCK; ETvcu;"

VIK&O) - be victorious
11 . A Persian soldier, upon hearing that the Greeks, against whom the Persians were about to fight, 43
were competing in the Olympics for the prize of an olive wreath:
"nornou, MapSoviE, noiouq en' avSpac; qyayec; paxqoop£vou<; qpac;,

paxopai-dobattle
oTou ncpi xpqM°TCOV TOV ayciva TTOIOUVTCM aXXa ncpl

things, money contest excellence
12. Empedocles: TCOV 'AKpayavrivcov Tpu9qv IScov, ^Xeyev 'AicpayavTTvoi 43

some people in Sicily luxury
pev cbc; aupiov AnoOavoupcvoi, oiiciac; 8e icaTaoiccua(ovTai

- luxuriate tomorrow KaTaaKeua(a) - equip, fit out, build
navTa TOV
PICK*) - live, future = Pi
13. A camel: KajjqXcx; ivayKaôplvq 6n6 TOU I5iou BeonoTou opxqoaoOai eTnev 47
own, private master 6pxcopai- dance
aXX' ou povov 6pxou|j£vq cipi otoxqpcx;, aXXa KOI TTEpinaTouaa."

ungraceful nepinare - walk around
14. Phillip. EV Xaipcovef^ TOUC; 'AOqvaiouc; (JEyaXq VIKQ cviKqae 4>fXinnoc;. 47

Chaironea Athenians
'EnapOcic; 5c TQ cunpayitjc COETO SE?V auTov unopipvqaiceaOai

£nafpa> -lift up success OnopijjWjOKCo - remind
OTI avSpconoc; EOTIV, ical npooETaÊ TIVI naiSi TOUTO Epyov E'XEIV.
npooraTTCo - appoint slave
Tpu; SE EKaoTqq qjJEpaq 6 none; EXEyEV auTcp- NcJ>iXinnE, avOpcorroc; ET.M

three times
15. Zeno. SouXov EHI KXOTTQ EfjaoTiyou- TOU SE EinovToq "eYpapTO (Joi KXEyaT 48
theft paoriyoo) - whip, flog it was fated
E9q "KCU 5apqvai.M

Sepco - flay, thrash
16. ou TO Cqv TTEpi noXXou noiqTCOV aXXa TO EC £qv. 52

to be made much of
17. Gorge, the wife of a king of Sparta: TOU uiou auTqq ETTI oTpctTEiav 54
campaign
M
, Tqv aoniSa Im8i5ouoat ETnEv q TCCUTOCV q EHI TOUT^."
shield £TTi6f8a>pi - give, bestow Spartans pronounced "a" rather than "q"
234
DIOGENES THE CYNIC
Lesson
DEFINITIONS
1. Tqv 9iXapyupfav elm (jqTponoXiv navTcov TCOV KCXKOOV. 24

greed, love of silver a pqrponoXK sends out colonies («> metropolis)
2/Avanqpouq e'Xeyev ou TOUC; Ka>9ouc; <ai TU9Xouc;, aXXa TOUC; pq e'xovTac; nqpav.* 24
maimed he used to say mute blind wallet
3. TOV eporra [sine] oxoXa£6vTcov aoxoXiav. 31

6 £pco<; - love oxoXatco - be at leisure
4. TOUC; cpcovTac; e'9q npoq q5ovqv aTux^Tv. 31

Epacx) - be in love be unfortunate, fail to get ( = ArroTuyxaveiv)
SNAPPY ANSWERS
5. epcoTqOeic; TI noicbv KUCOV KaXcTTai, £9q "TOUC; JJEV 8i56vTa<; oaivcov, 24

having been asked he is called participle of 5(5copi fawning on
TOUC; 6£ pq SiSovTac; uXaKTcov, Touq 5e novqpouc; Sa

barking at good-for-nothing biting
(in NT. = wicked)
6. fiTEl noT€ avSpiavTa- EpcoTqOdc; SE 8ia TI TOUTO TTOIC?, "JJEXETCO" 30

statue having been asked jjeXETac*) - practice
7. epcoTqOsiq noTov oTvov qSgcoq nivei, E9q "TOV aXXoTpiov." 36

having been asked what sort of someone else's
8. npoc; TOV nu06|JEvov noia copa 5e7 apioTav, "ci [jev nXouoioq" k'9q " oTav 36
hour dine
, EI 5
9. enavqpxeTO €K AaKeSaijJovoc; eic; 'AOqvotc;- npoc; oQv TOV nuOopevov 40

i -set out Sparta Athens rruv9avo|ja i - inquire
"no? KCU noOcv;" "EK Tqc; av5pcoviTi6oc;" eTnev "eic; Tqv yuvaiKcov?Tiv."
men's chamber women's chamber
10. epcoTqGeiq n60ev £Vq HKoo|jonoXiTqc;" e9q. 41
11. oTe aXouc; Kai ncoXoupevoc; f*|pcoTq0q TI oT5e noieTv, aneKpivaTo 48

having been captured ncoXeco - sell
"avSpcJov apxeiv." <ai npoc; TOV KqpuKa "Kqpuooe" e9q "eV TIC; eOeXei
herald announce
SeonoTqv auTco npiaoOai."

buy
OUTRAGEOUS WORDS AND DEEDS 35
12. 0eaoa|jevoc; uiov eTaipac; X(6ov eiq oxXov paXXovTa "Trpooex^"

6eao(ja i -behold prostitute crowd = npooexe vo^v
Lesson ^ 3 5
&pq "yrj TOV naTEpa TT
13. npoq Ai5u(jcova TOV poixov laTpEuovTa TTOTE Kopqq 090aX|j6v "opa" 9qof 35
Didymon lecher maiden = 6pore watch out
"pi*| TOV 090ctXpov Tqq nap0Evou 0EpanEucov Tqv icopqv

maiden t\ Kopq = (1) maiden 96c(pco - ruin, corrupt
(2) pupil of eye
14. Mox0qpou TIVOC; av0pconou EniypayavToq EHI Tqv oiiciav MHAEN EIIITO 39
wicked let (it) enter
KAKON "6 oCv Kupioc; Tqc; olidac;" E^q "nou eioeXOoi fiv;M
§ tf tf
15. flXcxTcovog 6pioaplvou, ''AvOpcono^ EOTI Côv SITTOUV anTEpov 43
= Plato 6p((co - divide two-footed featherless
i - mark out for oneself, define
EuSoKifjouvToc;, TiXac; aXEKTpuova EioqvEyKEv auTov EI<; Tqv

enjoy a good reputation T( AAo> - pluck rooster school
KCU 9qoiv, "oOTOc; EOTIV 6 FlXaTcovoc; avOpcorroc;.1'
16. SuoicoXov QTEI* TOU BE EinovToq "sav |JE TTEiOQc;'1 E9q Vi' OE E5uva|jqv nE?oai, 43
grouch
av OE &TT&y£ao6ai.N
- strangle
17. 0Eaoa(jEvo<; HOTE Touq lEpopvqpovaq TGOV Tapicov Tiva 9iaXqv U9Qpqpevov 44
i - behold temple magistrates treasurers bowl 6<paipeo>- steal
E9q Moi (jEyaXoi KXETTTOI TOV (Jiicpov airayouoiv.11
18. iScbv TOôTqv a9uq napa TOV OKOHOV EKa0i£EV Eincbv Tva pq nXqycb.11 48
archer untalented target T^co - sit
19. Xuxvov |JE0' qpEpav ayac; nepiQCi Xlycov "avOpcoiTov £qTob.M 52

portable lamp by day &TTTOO = kindle ncpieipi - go around
DIOGENES AND ALEXANDER
20. 'AXEâvSpou HOTE iniOT&VTO? icai c!n6vTO? "sycb EI(JI 'AXEâvSpoc; 28

fcnf +ToTa pa i = stand over
M
6 pEyac; (JaoiXEuq," Kai Eyco" 9qo( "AioyEvqq 6 KUCOV."
21. 9001 SE KOU 'AXEâvSpov EinE?v cbq EVnsp 'AXEâvSpoc; pq ^ycyovciv 37
M
q0EXqoa av AioyEvqq yEVEO0ai.M
22. EV TOO KpavEico qXioupEvco auTcp 'AXEâvSpo^ ETTIOTOK; 9qoiv, 42

t] X i oopa i - sun oneself having stood over
|JE o 0EXEiq." Kai oc;, " 6nooic6Tqo6v |jou"

anoc<OTEc*)- get one's shadow off
*Irresistible pun: 'The truly disabled are the disoboled." (An obol is a Greek penny~the smallest coin.)
PARADIGMS* 237
A-GROUP NOUNS
F F short a short a long a (for q after e,i.p) M M
nom. 9Govq XEXa>vq yXGOTTCt OaXaTTa oiicia 0Ea noiqTq<; noXiTqc;
ace. 9Govqv XEXcovqv yXayrrav OaXaTTav oiKiav 0EOCV noiqTqv TToXfTqv
gen. 9covq<; XEXcbvqc; yXcoTTqc; OaXaTTqc; oidac; 0Eac; TTOiqTOU TToXlTOU
dat 9GOVQ XEXcovq yXGOTTQ GaXaTTq OIKI9( 0E& TTOiqTQ TToXlTQ
nom. 900 va i XEXGOVCM yXarrrou GaXaTTai OIKIQI 0Eai rroiqTai noXTra i

ace. 9 GO vex c^ XEXGOVCK; yXcoTTac; 0aXaTTa<; oiKia<; 0Ea<; noiqTOf<; noXiTac;
gen. 9GOVGOV XEXGOVGOV yXGOTTGOV OaXaTTGov OIKIGOV 0EGOV TTOiqTGOV TToXlTGOV
daL 9covaT<; XEXcbvcuc; yXcoTTaic; GaXaTTonc; oidaic; 0EaTc; noiqTaT^ noXiTaic;
O-GROUP NOUNS
M M M N N F
0EO<; |ju0o<; av0pGOTTO<; SGOpOV 686<;
0EOV [jG0ov av0pGonov SGOpOV 686v
0EOU |ju0ou av0pGonou Scopou 68ou
0EGO M60cp av0pGOTTCp 5<oPV
0EOI }JU0OI av0pGonoi 8a>pa 9ap)jaica 65oi

0EOU<; |ju0ou<; av0pd)nou(; 8copa 9ap)jaica 65ou<;
0EGOV [JU0GOV aV0pGOTTGOV ScopGov
0£oT<; |JU0oi<; av0pa)TTOi^ Scipoic; 68oT<;
TfflRD GROUP NOUNS

M/F M F F F M
8ai|jGov KGOVGOy KuXl^ aani<; Xapic; noXic; JlXE
Saijjova KGOVGona KuXlKOC aani8a Xapiv noXiv paaiXsa
Saijjovoc; KGOVGOTTOC; KuXiiccx; aaniScx; XapiTc
8aijjovi KGOVGOHI KLfXlKI aaniSi XapiTi noXsi
XapiTE<;
KuXiKac; aarriSac; XapiTa<; n6XEi<;
8ai|j6vGov KGOVGOTTGOV aaniScov noXEGOv
8ai|jooi(v) aarriai(v) Xapioi(v) n6XEai(v) paaiXEuai(v)
TfflRD GROUP NOUNS

N N N M/F F M
u8Gop noiqjja ysvcx; na?<; HqTqp avqp yuvq
noiqjja yEVcx; naT8a [jqTEpa avSpa yuvaT<a
uSaTcx; noiqjjaToc; yEVOuc; nai86<; uqTpoc av8po^ yuvaiKoc;
u8cm noiq[jaTi yEVEl rraiSi uqTpi av8p( yuvaiKi
yEvq TTctT8E<; jjqTEpEc; avSpEc; yuva?KE<;

yEvq nalSac; jjqTEpa^ avSpac; yuvcuicac;
naiSoov JjqTEpGOV avSpGov yuvaiKGov
uSaai(v) TTOiq|jaai(v) naiai(v) jjqTpaai(v) av8paai(v) yuvaiî(v)
* Students may wish to reproduce and staple the Paradigms to have them handy for reading.
For vocatives and dual of nouns in all groups see p. 240.
238
ARTICLE O-A-O ADJECTIVE O-A-O ADJ. with long a

M N M F N M F N
6 f\ TO npc*>TO^ npayrq npciTov

TOV Tqv TO npcoTov npcoTqv npa>Tov
TOU Tq<£ TOU nparrou Trpd>Tr|<; irpcoTou
TO) TQ T0> TTpO>TO>
oi ai TO nparroi Trparrai
TOU<; TO<; TO npa>Ta fS(xSia
TCOV TOOV TOOV npa>Tc*>v
TO?c; TCM<; fSci5!ai<;
TWO-ENDING ADJ. , /ar^ (irregular) much, many (irregular)

M/F N M F N M F N
aSiicov noXXq noXu
aSiicov jjcyav jJEyaXqv iroXuv noXXqv noXu
aBiicou îcyaXou |JEyaXq<; noXXou TioXXq^ noXXou
pcyaXcp noXXa) noXXq noXXco
peyaXai pcyaXa noXXoi TToXXai noXXa

aSiKouc; SSiica noXXas noXXa
aSiiccov îeyaXa>v noXXciv noXXoiv noXXciv
[JEyaXaic; peyaXoi<; noXXou; noXXau; noXXoTc;
U-A-U -co STEM THIRD GROUP COMPARATIVE

M F N M/F N M/F N
aXq9q<; aXq9E<;
aXqOq aXr|0E<; afJEivova SÎEIVOV
aXr|6oO<; aXr|6ou<; apEivovcx;
i*)8E?
aXqOq [&pc(vou<;] apsivova

aXqOoov aXfjOcov
i*)SEai(v) aXq0Eai(v) aXr|0Eai(v)
NUMBERS nac; every, all (3-A-3) no one, nothing (3-A-3)

M F N M F N M F N
fjfa EV na<; naoa nav OU&EK; ou5E|jia ouSiv
^
Eva piav EV navra naaav nav ou&Epiav OU&EV
EVOC; EVO<; navTcx; naoqc; TTOVTOK; OU&EVO<;
EV( EVI navri naoQ TTOVTI ou5Evi ou8Evi
M/F N
Tpia naoa i TTOVTO ou6E}jiai ouBiva
Tpia naoa<; navTa ou8£va<;
navrcav naociv navTa>v ou5Eva>v
TplOl(v) TplOl(v) naai(v) rraoai^ naoi(v) ou8Eoi(v)
/, me you him, her, it* him(self), her(self)*
239
OU [OUTO<;] [airrq] [OCUTO]

EjJE |JE OE OE auTov airrqv CIUTO E (viv) E (VIV)
E|JOU JJOU OOU OOU auTou auTq<; auTou ou ou

EjJOl |JOI ooi 001 auTcp auTq auTCO oT oi
[auToi] [auTai] [aura] O9EK;

auTouc; QUTCK; aura
UjJCOV auTGov CIUTGOV CIUTGOV acpcov
ujjfv auToTc; auTaTc; auTou; oxpiaiM
this, these this here, these here that, those
oO-rcx; auTq TOUTO 65E EKE?VO<; EKEIVq £KE?VO
TOUTOV TOUTqV TOUTO TOV&E EKE?VOV EKEIVqV EKE?VO
TOUTOU TauTq<; TOUTOU TOUÊ EKEIVOU EKEIVq<; EKEIVOU
TOUTCp TaUTQ TOUTCO EKEIVCO EKEIVq EKEIVO)
OI)TOI auTai TauTa O'I'OE O'I'OE TOIOE E KE?VO I E (CE?Va I E KE?Va
TOUTOU^ TauTa<; TauTa Touo6£ Tao5E Ta6E EICEIVOUC; EKEiva<; EKETva

TOUTC*>V TOUTCOV TOUTCOV TCOV&E TCOV&E EKEIVCOV EKEIVGOV EKEIVCA>V
TauTOM<; TOUTOIC; EKEIVOIC; EKEivai^ EKEIVOIC;
who, which (relative) who, which (interr.) whoever, whichever (indef. relative/indirect interr.)
M N M/F N M F N
6 Tl OOTIC; qTic; 6 TI
Sv 6 Tiva TI SvTiva qvriva 6 TI
TIVO<; [TOU] T!VO<; [TOU] O&TIVOC; [OTOU] ^QTIVO<; oCTivo<; [OTOU]
TIVI [TCO] TIVI [TCO] ctmvi [OTCO] I^TIVI C!>TIVI [OTCO]
oi ai a TIVEC; Tiva STIVO

ouc; Sc; a Tivac; Tiva ouoTivac; aTiva [OTTO]
cov cov >v TIVCOV TIVCOV COVTIVCOV [OTCOV]
oTc; aT<; oTc; TIOI(V) TIOI(V) oTaTioi(v) [OTOK;] aTaTiai(v) oToTiai(v) [OTOIC;]
myself (reflexive) yourself (reflexive) himself, herself, itself (reflexive)
E(jauTOV EjjauTqv OEOUTOV* OEauTqv sauTOv* EauTqv sauTO

EjjauToO EjjauTqc; OEOUTOU OEauTqc; EauToO EauTqc; EauTou
EjJOUTCO OEOUTCO EaUTCO EQUTQ EaUTCO
auTou<; auTac; ujja^ OUTOUC; upac; OUTOK; EauTou<; EauTac; sauTa

qîcov OUTCOV u|jcov auTcov ujjcov auTcov EaUTCOV EaUTCOV EaUTCOV
auToc; auTa?<; upTv auToT<; OjjTv auTaTc; EauToT<; EauTau; EQUTOK;
* Also = oauTov * Also = QUTOV
*Him, her, it in all cases except nominative; same or him/ her/itself (emphatic) in all cases.
**This pronoun is sometimes used as an indirect reflexive-to refer back to the subject of the main clause
from within another clause. ECIUTCO oiocooi 6oopa - He gives himself gifts. AEysi OTI f] yuvq oT
SOXJEI ocopa - He says the woman will give him(selfi gifts.
240 PARADIGMS WITH VOCATIVE AND DUAL
nom. noXiTqc; YTTTTCX; 6cbpov paaiXsuc;

ace. XEXcbvqv noXiTqv YTTTTOV Saipova
gen. XEXcbvqc; TTOXlTOU Yrrnou cxopou SOUJJOVCK;
dat. noXiTQ YTTTTCA) paoiXsT
voc. noXTra YTTTTE Bcopov SaTpov
Dual
nom. /ace. TToXrra YTTTTCO Sa>pa>
gen./dat. XcXcbvaiv TToXiTaiv YTTHOIV 5cbpoiv Baipovoiv
nom. noXrrai YTTTTOI 8copa 5aipovE<;

ace. TToXiTa<; Ynrrou<; 8obpa Saipovac;
gen. noXiTcov Ynncov 5ai)j6vcov
dat. XEXcivcuc; noXiTaic; Ynnoic; Bcbpoic; 5ai[joai(v) paaiXEuai(v)
All dual and plural vocatives are the same as thek respective nominatives. All neuter vocatives, sing.or pi., are the same
as their respective nominatives. In Third Group the vocative varies: 6a?pov, Kcovcoy, KuXi£, &OTTI, x°P'» 116X1,
In the dual there is a single form for both nominative and accusative, and one for both genitive and dative.
3-A-3 PARTICIPLES
Continuous Active Aorist Active (E/O) Aorist Active (aa,Xa)

Xucov Xuouoa Xuov Xind>v Xinouoa Xinov KeXeuoa<; KeXeuoaoa KcXcuoav
XuovTa Xuouaav Xuov XIHOVTO Xinouoav Xinov KeXeuoavra KeXtuoaoav KeXeOoav
XUOVTO^ Xouoqc; XUOVTOC; XinovToc; Xinouoqq Xinovroc; KeXeuoaor|<;
XUOVTI Xuouoq XUOVTI XIHOVTI XITTOUOQ Xinovri
Xuovrec; Xuouoa i XUOVTO XIHOVTEC; Xinouoai Xinovra KcXeuoaoai iceXeuoavTa

Xuovrac; Xuouaa^ Xuovra XITTOVTOC; Xinouoaq Xinovra KcXEuoavrac; KcXcuoaoac; KEXcuoavra
XUOVTCOV XUQUOCJV XUOVTCOV XITTOVTOJV Xirrouoa>v XITTOVTCJV KCXEUOOVTCOV KcXuoaOCOV KEXEUOaVTCA>V
Xuouoi(v) Xuouoa K Xuouoi(v) XinoOoi(v) Xinouoai<; XinoGoi(v) KeXeuoaoi(v) KcXeuoaoaic; KcXeuoaoi(v)
E-Contract A-Contract O-Contract

9 1 AGO v 9iXouoa 9iXouv 5qXo>v SqXouoa SqXouv
9iXoGvra 9iXouoav 9>Xouv 6pa>vra SqXouvTa SqXouoav 5r|Xouv
9iXoOvro<; 9iXouoq<; 6pa>VTO<; SqXouvToq 5r|Xouor|<; SqXouvTcx;
9iXouvTi 6pcovri 5qXoGvTi SqXouoq S
9iXoOvT£<; 9iXouoai 6pa>oai 5qXoGvTE<; SqXoGoai SqXoGvra

9iXou\nra<; 9iXouoa<; 6p<2>VTa<; 6pd>oa<; SqXoGvrac; 6qXouoa<; SqXoGvra
9iXouvrcov 9iXouoa>v 5qXouvTCOV 5qXouov 5qXouvTO)v
9iXouoi(v) 9iXouoai<; 9iXouoi(v) 6pa>oi(v) 6pcooi(v)
5qXoGoi(v) 5qXouoai<; 5qXoGoi(v)
Perfect Active Aorist Passive

XsXuicdx; XEXu<uTa XEXUKOC; Xu0Ei<; Xu9E?oa
X EX U KOTO XsXuKuTav XEXu<6<; Xu0EVTa XuBsToav XuOsv
XEXUKOTCK XEXu<u(a<; XEXUKOTOC; Xu6EVTO<; Xu6£ioq<; Xu6EVTO<;
XfiXUKOTI XEXuKuiq XEXUKOTI Xu6EVTI XU0EIOQ XU0EVTI
XEXUKOTEC; XsXuKuTai X EX U KOTO Xu0EVTE<; Xu9E?oai

XEXUKOTOC; XEXu<u(a<; XEXU<OTO Xu9Evra<; Xu0Eioa<;
XEXUKOTCOV XEXUKUI&V XEXUKOTCOV Xu6EVTO)V XU0EIOWV XU0EVTCOV
XEXUKOOl(v) XEXUKUIOK; XEXUKOOl(v) Xu0E?oi(v) Xu0Eioai^ Xu0E?oi(v)
nauco
ACTIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
/
nauco nauopEv nauoco nauaojJEv Enauaa Enauaa|JE\/ TTETTaUKa 77ETTaUKa|JEV
nauEiq nauETE nauoEiq nauoETE Enauoac; EnauaaTE HEnauKac; HETTaUKaTE
nauEi nauouoi(v) nauoEi nauoouoi(v) EnauoE(v) Enauoav nEnauKE(v) nEnauKaai(v)
irrauo|JEv EHETrauKq EHEnaUKE|JEV

£nauE<; ETTOUETE EHEnauKqc; ETTEHaUKETE
£nauE(v) ^nauov GHETTO UKEI(V) ^TTETTaUKEOaV
SUBJUNCTIVE
nauco nauco |JEV nauoco TTEnauKclx; cl)
nauqc;
/ nauqTE - nauoQc; nauoqTE etc.
naucoai(v) nauaq nauacoai(v)
OPTATIVE
/
nauoipi nauoijjEv nauooi(jEv nauoai|JEv nsnauKcbc; E*i'qv
nauoiq TTOUOITE nauaoic; nauooiTE nauoEiac; * nauoaiTE etc.
nauoi nauoiEv nauooi nauaoiEv nauoEiav *
IMPERATIVE
/
nauE nauoov nauoaTE HEnauKcbc; 1061
nauovTcov rrauoaTco nauaavTcov etc.
INFINITIVE
rrauoEiv nauaai TTETTaUKEVCM
PARTICIPLE
naucov,ouoa,ov nauocov,ouoa,ov
nauovro^fouoq^,ovTcx; nauoovTOc;,ouaqc;,o\/Tcx; nauoavTO^,aoq<;,avTO^ TTEnauKOTo<;luia<;,6Tcx;
* Also: nauoai|ji, nauoaic;, nauaai / nauaaijJEv, nauoaiTE, nauaaiEv
to
to
4^
to
TTOCUCO
MIDDLE VOICE
INDICATIVE
nau6(j€0a nauaofjai cnauoapqv €nauoa|j£0a TT£na6|J€0a
nau£o0€ nauoQ* Enauoco €nauaao0€ nlnauoai TT€nauo0€
naueTcu TTOCUOVTOM nauocTai nauoovTai ^nauaaro ^nauoavTO ncnaujai
£nau6|jqv £nau6|je0a
^TTcrrauoo
inEirauvTo
SUBJUNCTIVE
Traucb|j£0a nauocopa i nauoob|J€0a
Trauqo0€ nauoq nauaqo0€ etc.
TrauqTcu TrauoqTct i na UOCOVTO i
OPTATIVE
Trauoi|jqv Trauoi|J€0a Trauaoi|jqv nauooi|J€0a Trauoaipqv nauaai|JE0a n£nau|J6vo(;£Vqv
nauoio nauoia0€ nauaoio rrauooio06 nauoaio nauaaio0€ etc.
nauoiTO nauoivTO nauaoiTO nauaoivjo nauaairo nauoaivTO
IMPERATIVE
TTOUOU TTaU£00E TTauoai nauaao0€ mnauao **
nau€O0co nau€O0cov nauoaa0co nauoaoOcov n£Traua0co ncnauoOcov
INFINITIVE
naueo0ai Trauo€00ai nauoao0ai n€nauo0ai
PARTICIPLE
|,ov nauoa(j£voc;,q,ov
* or nauci (present), nauoci (future) ** or periphrastic: n£nau(j£vo<; Vo0i, etc.

nauco
PASSIVE VOICE
INDICATIVE
nau6|j£0a nau0r)oo(jai nau0qo6|j£0a £nctu0qv n£nau|j£0a
Trau£o0£ nauSqoQ* nau0qa£o0£ £nau0q<; mnauaai n£nauo0£
nau£Tai nau0qo£Tcu nau0qoovTai £nau0qoav TT£nauTai
£nau6|jqv £nau6|j£0a £H£nau|j£0a
£nauou £nau£00£
SUBJUNCTIVE
nauob|j£0a TTOtU0(2> nau6co|j£v n£nau(j£voc; &
nauqo0£ nau0q<; nau0qT£ etc.
TTauqTcn naucovjai nau0q Trau0cooi(v)
OPTATIVE
nauopqv nau0qaof(jqv nau0qoofp£0a nau0£iqv nau0£?|j£v TT£TTaU|J£VO(;£iqV
nauoio nauoio0£ nau0qooio nau0qaoia0£ TTau0£iqc; nau0£?T£ etc
nauoiTO nauoivTo nau0qooiTo nau0qooivTo nau0£iq nau0£?£v
IMPERATIVE
nauou nau£00£ nau0qTi nau0qj£ •ninauoo * n£nauo0£
nau£a0co nau£o0cov nau0qTco n£na uo0co n£na uo0co v
INFINITIVE
nau£G0ai nau0qa£00ai TTau0qvcu n£nauo0ai
PARTICIPLE
nau0£ic;,£Taa,£v
* or nau£i (present), nau0qa£i (future) ** or periphrastic: Va0i, etc.
to
4^
LO
to
STRONG AORIST: cT|ji

ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE ACTIVE
ElfJI £0|J£V £T|JI 'l'|J£V
£GT£ £T IT£
k'XlTTOV £XlTTO|J£V £Xin6|jqv £OTl(v) £IOl(v) £Toi(v) 'i'aai(v)
£'XlTT£<; £XlTT£T£ cXinou £Xin£o0£
k'Xinov €XlTT£TO Pj or ?)v
^M€V 3a* iJMCv
r'joav ÊIV* Qoav*
6a
SUBJUNCTIVE ^ SUBJUNCTIVE
r
Xinco Xincopai Xincb|j£0a obfjEv || VGO V(O|J£V
XITTQC; Xinr|T€ XIHQ Xfnqo0£ iqT£
XITTQ Xincooi(v) Xinqjai XITTGOVTCU cooi(v) || VQ Vcoai(v)
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
X(noi|ji Xinoi|j£v Xinoipqv Xinoi|j£0a E'i'qv £T|J£V || VoifJI Voi|J£V
XlTTOIc; XlTTOITE XlHOlO XlTTOIO0£ £iqq
i/
£TT£ Voic; VOITE
Xfnoi Xinoicv XIHOITO XIHOIVTO Voi£V
XIHCTCO
XlTT£T€
XIHOVTCOV I
INFINITIVE
XinOU
XlH£00CO
XlTT£O0£
Xin£00COV
io0i
£OTCO
£OT£
£OTCOV l| VTGO
INFINITIVE
|| 'iBl IT£
iovTcov
| XlTT£O0ai i£vai
Xincbv,oOaa,6v Xm6(j£voc;,q,ov icovjouoajov
XinovTo<;,ouor|<;,6vTO(;
*Or Q£IV, QEIC;, Q£l
For the full Middle of Acina), see p. 185. For information on E|(JI and E!|JI, see p. 210.
CONTINUOUS STEM
ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE

91X00 9iXoGpai 9iXoupe9a TIJJOOJJCV SqXoo SqXoGpev SqXoGpou
cT 9iXeTo9e 5qXo?<q 5qXoGT£ 8qXoT 8qXoGo9c
9iXeT 9iXoGoi(v) 9iXe?TOi Tip? Tlp&Ol(v) SqXoT 5qXoGoi(v) 8qXoGvrai
^TtpOOV £8qXou[jqv
in pare ISqXoG £8r)XoGo6e
irlpoov

91X00 TIJJOO Tipcopcv T i poo pa i
8qXo?<; 6qXoT SqXcboOe
9iXqrai 9iXobvrai TlpOOOl(v) 8r|XoT 5qXa>Ta i
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE OPTATTVE
9iXo(qv 9iXo(pqv SqXolqv SqXofpqv 5qXof|je6a

9iXo(q<; 9iXoTo 9iXoTo6e 8qXo(q<; SqXoTrc SqXoTo 5qXoTa6e
9iXoIq 9iXoTev 9iXo?ro Tipcpcv SqXolq SqXoTcv 8q XoTro 8q XoTvro

9iXoG TIJJCO SqXou 8qXoGj£ 5qXoG 6qXoGa6e
9iXeIa6a> 9iXe(a6cov Ti|joa9co Ti|jaa9cov SqXouTO) S 6qXouo6co 8qXouo6a>v
INHNTIIVE INHNmVE iNnNmvE

9iXeTv I 9iXeTa9ai 5qXoGv I 5qXoGa9ai

91X00^, ouca,ouv 9iXoujjevcx;,q,ov 5qXobv,oOaa,ouv I
-oGvrrcx;touoq<;,oGvTCx; |
to
to
4^
0\
Scficvupi Continuous Aorist

ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE M-P
SEIKVUJJI SEMCVUJJEV TI0ELJCU TI0£^0a £0qica ?0£Lj£v
BEIKVIK; SEIKVUTE TI0q<; TI0ETE TI0£Oai TI0E00E E0qica<; E0ETE E00U E0E00E
SEIKVUOlM SsiKVUdOlM SEIKVUTOI SEiKvuvrrai Ti0qoi(v) Ti0Eaoi(v) TI0ETai TI0EVTCU k'0qK£(v) E0Eoav
£SE(KVUV E&EIKVUPEV iSEiicvupqv i&EiKvup£0a 4TI0qV ^TI0E|JEV
£5£iicvu<; SEIKVUTE 4TI0EI<; $TI0£TE ETI0EOO iTI0E00E
&EIKVU l&Eiicvuoav iSEiicvuTo KEIICVUVTO ETI0ETO 4TI0EVTO
SEIKVUGO BEIKVUOOLJEV SEIKVUCOpai 8EIKVUO)(JE00I TI0CO TI0CO|JEV 000 000LJEV 000JJQI 0CO|J£0a
SEIKVUQS 8EiicvuqT£ SEIKVUQ SEiicvuqo0£ TI0Q<; TI0qT£ TI0Q TI0q00E 0Q<; 0qTE 0fj 0qo0£
SEIKVUQ SciKvuoooKv) SEiKvuqrai 5EiKvua>vrai TI0Q TI0COOl(v) TiOqrai TiOcovTai 0q 0oooi(v) 0qrai Ooovrai
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE
SEIKVUOIJJI SEIKVUOIJJEV SEiKvuoipqv SEiKvuoi|jE0a TI0EiqV TI0E?|JEV 0£iqV 0E?LJ£V 0£i|jqv 0£ip£0a
SEIKVUOIC; SEIKVUOITE SEIKVUOIO 5EiKvuoia0E TI0Eiq<; TI0E?TE TI0E?0 TI0E?00E 0Eiq<; 0£?T£ 0E?0 0Eib0E
SEIKVUOI SEIKVUOIEV SEIKVUOITO SEIKVUOIVTTO TI0£iq TI0£?£V Ti0E?ro Ti0E?vnro 0£iq 0£?EV 0E7TO 0E?VTO
SEIKVU SEIKVUTE SEIKVUOO 8EiKvua0E TI0EI TI0£T£ TI0EOO TI0E00E 0E<; 0ETE 00U 0E00E
SEIKVUTCO SEIKVUVTCOV 8EIKVUG0CO 5EIKVUO0COV TI0ETCO TI0EVTCOV TI0E00CO TI0E00COV 0ETOO 0EVTTOOV 0E0000 0E00COV
SEIKVUVCU TI0EVQI Ti0E00ai 0E?vai 0E00ai
Ti0Ei<;,ETaafEV
-EVTO<;rEiaq<;,-EVToq
ToTqpi: Continuous* ToTqpi: Perfect Tqyi*: Cont. Yqpi*: Aorist 9QM|: Cont.
ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE ACTIVE ACTIVE ACTIVE

INDICATIVE INDICATIVE INDICATIVE INDICATIVE
Ycrrqyi YoraîEv Yora pa i lora |JE0a ÔTqKQ ÔTOjJEV Yqpi YEJJEV
Ycrrq<; YoraTE YOTOI oa i YOTOI G0E ?oTqKa<; SOTCITE Yqc;** YETE F\«XS "ElTE
YoTqoi(v) lcrraoi(v) YaraTai YaravTcu 2aTqKE(v) iaraoi(v) Yqoi(v) iaai(v) ?)KE(V) -ETaav 9qai(v) 9aoi(v)
Yorqv YoraÊv lora|jqv Ior6ipE9a ElarqKq ?orap£v Yqv YEJJEV

Yarq^ YoraTE Yaraoo YoraaOE YEI<; YETE
Yarq Yoraoav YoraTO YoravTo YEI YEOQV &pq âaav
SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE SUBJUNCTIVE

IOTU> IOTO>|JEV larcbfjai larcbpE0a iorci iorcofJEV ico icbjJEV ~& ~pEV 9CO CDCJUEV
ITQS larqTE iorq iorqo6£ iq<; IqTE ~M^ "*T£
lorqTai lorcivTai 4orq 4ora>oi(v) Iq iciai(v) CPO CDCAÔIvV/
OPTATIVE OPTATIVE OPTATIVE OPTATIVE

iorafqv lorcuyEv iarafqv 4araTp£v iEiqv ieTpev -EYqv -£Tp£v 9aiqv 9aT|j£v
laraiq^ IOTCMTE laraTo IoraTof6E lEiqc; i£?T£ -EYq<; -ElTE 901 iq<; 9a?T£
iorafq !ora?£v IOTCUTO loraTvTo iarafq âra?EV iefq i£?ev -£Yq -£t£v 9aiq 9a?£v
IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE IMPERATIVE
Yarq YoraTE Yoraoo YoraaOE Eora9i ?araT£ YEI YETE -&; -?TE 9661** 9&TE
loraTO) IOT&VTGJV lar&o6cA> ioTao0a>v ioraTCA) iaravrcov !ETCA> IEVTCOV
INFINITIVE INFINITIVE INFINITIVE iNFiNrriVE
laravai Yorao6ai ioT&vai isvai -ETvai 9avai
PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE PARTICIPLE
ioTa<;,aoa,av i£i<;,E?aa,£v -£T^,~£Toaf-£v 961^,961001 ,96 v
ioT&Hcvo<;,n,ov
IaravTO<;,aoq<;,a\/Tcx; i£vrcx;fEiaq<;,EVTO<; - ^VTOC;,- - eYoqc;,- ^VTO^ 9avTcx;,aoq<;,avrT(
M^SS^
For aorist see p. 211. The middle forms of Yqpi resemble those of T(6q|ji * or E9qa6a
** or isTc; ** or 90161 (enclitic)
to
to
A
oc
5(6copi: Continuous 8f8o>Hi: Aorist oT8a: PERF. ACTIVE

ACTIVE MIDDLE-PASSIVE ACTIVE MIDDLE PASSIVE ACTIVE
8i8o>|ji 8i5o|j£v 8i8o)jai 8iS6|jE6a oT8a TO[JEV
5iSox; 5|80TE 8i8ooai 8i8oo6E oTo6a TOTE
8!5o)oi(v) 8i56aoi(v) SfSoTCU 8I8ovrrai £80x01 E'SOJJEV ^Sopqv fcuOLJEvOt oTSsCv) Toaoi(v)
E5coKa<; 28oT£ E80U EoOOv/E
£8i8ouv £6i8o|j£v £5i56)jqv £8i86|jE6a E8o>KE(v) £8ooav ESOTO ?8ovrro nRn* ^fiuFxy
1
^
1 |wl 1 IIWMCV
£8iSou<; *S|80TE iSiSooo E8i8oo6E
q8qo6a* (JjoTE*
£8i8ou £8i8ooav 48f8ovTo
^SEI(V)* fjjoav*

SiSo) 5|500 JJEV 5 1800 pa i SiScopsea 8co 8oopEv Soâi 8cb|j£0a Ei8co EiScopEV
8iS<£<; 5|8COTE 5i6co 8i8a>o6E 8<?x; 8COTE 6co 8oxj6E siSqc; EiSqTE
SiScp SiScjoi(v) 5i8coTai 8i8cbvrrai 89 8o>oi(v) ScoTai SCOVTOI ElSq El8a>ai(v)

SiSofqv 8i8oT|JEv 8i6oi|jqv 8i8oifjE6a Sofqv SoTpEv Soifjqv 6oi}jE0a E!8EiqV £!8E?pEV
SiSoiqc; 8l8o?TE 8iSoTo 8i8oTa0E Sofq^ 8o?TE 8o?o 8o7o6£ EiBEiq^ EiSErrE
8i8oiq 8i8o?Ev SiSoTro SiSoTvTo Soiq SO?EV SO?TO SoTvTo EJSEiq EiSE?EV

SiSou SISOTE 818000 6i8oa0E Sex; SOTE 8ou 66o0e To6i TOTE
8|80TO) 8i86vTa>v 8186060) 8i86o6o)v SOTO) 86vrro)v 86060) 86o6o)v TOTCO Toro)v
INFINITIVE INFINITIVE INFINITIVE

SiSovcu 8180060 8ouvai 86o6ai Ei5Evai
8i8ou^,ouoa,6v f\\t Sou<;f8ouoaf86v Ei8ox;,uTa,6<;

i oÊvo<;,q,ov op£voc;,q ,ov
Si56vTos,oi;oq<;,6vTO<; 86vrroc;,ouoq<;,6vro<; EiSoTo<;,uia<;,6TO<;
*Or
PRINCIPAL PARTS 249
irauco, nauaco, fcnauaa, ncnauica, TTETraupai, EirauOqv (And other regular -co verbs)*
TTOIEGJ, noiqoco, Enofqoa, nenofqica, ncnofqpai, £noiq0qv (And other regular -ECO verbs)
Tip&o), Tinqoco. ETtMqoa, TETfnqica, TrrljjriHai. *TiHq0qv (And other regular -aco verbs)*
8qX6co, 8qX<J>aa>, EBf^Xcooa 8£8f^XeoKa, 8E8f^Xa>Hai, E8qX<o0qv (And other regular -oco verbs)*
Learn by heart the first three principal parts of the starred verbs below. Be able at least to recognize or look up the rest.
Forms for which it would be very hard or impossible to guess the first principal part are in bold print.
Most verbs have some stems that do not follow the normal pattern. (And not all verbs have all principal parts. |j£6ua>,
orevo>, and XPQ^co have only one stem.) A dash means that a form is found only in compound.
*ayy£XXco, ayyeXco, qyyEiXa, qyyEXica, qyyEXpai, qyy£X0qv - announce
*ayco, 6£co, qyayov, fa01* ^YM ai » fa0nv - kad, drive
9800, $oo|jai$ fiaa, — , fiajjcu, fia0qv - sing
*aip£(o, aipqoco, ETXov, fipqica, Qpqnai. QP^nv - ta'ce (middle = choose)
*aio0avofjai, aioOqoopai, qoGofjqv, QaGqpai -perceive
*a»couco$ dtKouaofjai, qicouoa, a^qicoa, — , qicouaGqv -hear
STTTCO, ayco, ?)ya, — , 7)Mpai v q<p6qv - fasten (middle = hold on to, take hold of)
, Sp^ca, ?)pâ, — , ^pypai, qpx®qv - rule (middle = begin)
*paivco, Pqao|jai, s'Pqv, Pspqica -go
*paXXco, paXco, E'paXov, pipXqica, P^Xqîai, EpXqGqv -throw
PXEHCO, pXEvopai, k'pXEya - see
Poaco, Poqoopai, ipoqaa, — - shout
*pouXopai, pouXqaopai, EpouXqGqv, pspouXqâi - will, wish (passive deponent)
ya|j£cot yajj<2>, syqjja, ysyapqica yEyajjqjjai, EyapqGqv - marry (active, of a man),
to be married (middle or passive, of a woman)
*ysXaco, yEXaoopai, EysXaaa, EyEXaoOqv - laugh
*yiyvo[jai, yEvqoopai, EyEvopqv, ysyova, yEyEvqpcu, EyEvqOqv -become, be
*yiyv(ooK(o, yvcoaofjai, Eyvcov, k'yvcoica, Eyvcoapai, EyvcoaOqv - know
*yp&9co, ypayco, Eypaya, yEypa9a, yEypappai, Eypa^qv - write
*5£xo|jai, 5E£o|jai, ESEâîqv, — , SESEypai, -ESExGqv - receive (middle deponent)
5iaXEyo|jiai, SiaXEôpai, 8iaXEâîqv / 8iEXEx0q / 8iEXsyqv, 8iaXEx0qoo|jai / 6iaXEyqao|jai -converse
*Si5<oyi, Scooco, E8coKat SeSooKa, 8E6opai, £&60qv -give
*5oKEco, So^co, k'Soâ, — , SeSoypcu, -E56x0qv - seem, think
*8uva|jail Buvqoojjai, E8uvq0qv, 8£8uvqpai -be able (passive deponent)
*£yEipco, EyEpco, k'yEipa, Eypqyopa, EyqyEppai, qy£p0qv -awaken
*E0EXco, E0EXqo<o, q0£Xqoa, q0£XqKa -wish (also0EX<o)
*E!|JI, Eoojjai -be
*ET|Jl - Come, go (with future force) For coming/going use £pxopai as present indicative, but -i (from cT|ji) for
other moods on the continuous stem and also for the imperfect (fia, etc.). Use cTpi as future = will come/go
ETiopai, Eyopcu, Eon6pqv - follow
*k'pxo|jai, EXEuoo}jai, ?|X0ov, EX/)Xu6a - come, go (EXEUO- in optative, infinitive, etc.; E!|JI = future indie.)
* £00 1 GO, ?8opai, âyov, IS/|8oKa - eat
*Eupioicco, Eupqoco, qOpov (OTEOpov), qupqica (or EupqKa), Eupqjjai, EupE0qv - find, discover
*EXCO (imperfect E!XOV), E£CO or axiâco, loxov, foxqica - have
0arrrco, 06yco, E0aya, — , TE0a|jpai, ETO9qv - bury
0au|ja£<o, Oaupaoopai, (rest is normal ) - wonder
*0vT|oicco, -0avoupai, -E0avov, TE0vqica -die (usually in compound ano0vr|OKco)
*Yqpi, ôo), ?)Kaf sTKa, ETpai, EtOqv - send forth
*iKVEopai, -'£o|jai, -iico^qv (long i) , Typai (long i) -come (usually in compound
*Tarqpi, arqoco, Eorqoa, Eora|jai, Eara0qv - stand (transitive), set up
Yorapai, oTqoopai, foTqv, forqKa (perfect as present) - stand (intransitive)
Other regular verbs that have been learned: pooiAeuo), Xuo>, nai8cuo>t nopcuca. Other regular -co> verbs: &5i<eco,
6nci6ea)t yecopycco, ^niBupeco, £r|Tea>, KOIVCOVCO), Aunea), peTpcco, pioecj, voocco, 6)joAoyea>, noveco, a>9eXca>,
6pxco|jai, 90^0^01. Other regular -ao> verbs: £pa>Taa>, Caco (regular stems, irregular present), viicaco, oiyaa),
o, ToXpaco. Other regular -6o> verb: EXEU0£poco.
250 Ka6aipa>, ica9apa>, Eica9qpa, KEicaOappai, eicaOapOqv - purify
Ka6eu5a> (imperfect Eica9£u8ov or ica9qu&ov) , Ka9£u6qoa>, •- - sleep
Ka6((a> (imperfect. £ica6i£ov), icaOico, eica6ioa - seat someone (middle = sit down)
"tea A EGO, icaXa>, eicaXeoa, KEicXqica, KcicXqîai, EicXq9qv -call
KCCJJVCO, KayoGjjcu, Eicapov, K£iqjqica - be sick or weary, toil
KETjjcu, KEiaopcu - to be laid (used as passive of Ti9qpi); lie, lie down to rest, be situated
*icXeTTTco, icXEyco (sometimes KXeyopai), EicAeya, KEicXo<pa, icEicXEppai, cicXanqv - steal
''icpivGo, KpivGo, Eicpiva (long i), KEKpiica, KEKpipai, EKpiOqv - discern, judge (anoKpivojjai is from Kpivco)
^KpuTTToo, Kpuyoo, Eicpuya, KEicpiKpa, KEKpu|j|jai t EKpu^Gqv - hide (normal stems)
"icTaopai, KTqaopai, EKTqaapqv, icEia-qpai, EicTqOqv - acquire (perf. = possess) (middle deponent)
^KTEIVCO, KTEv£>, EKTEiva, "EKTova (perfect) - kill (usually in compound anoKTEivGo)
^Xafjâvco, Xi^yopai, EAaôv, iTXq9a, cYXqîpai, tX^Bqv - take
ÂavOavoo, Xiôa), k'XaOov, XEXqOa - escape the notice of (middle = forget)
*XEycA>, tpo>, cTnov, cTpqica, AEAEypai, tpp^)9qv - say; also XE£O>, E'AE^Q, EXExOqv
*AEITTCO, Xsiyco, sXinov, XEXoina, XEXEippai, EXEi<p0qv -leave
^pavOavo), paOqoopai, EpaGov, jjEjjaGqKa -learn
ÎJEXXo), (jEAAqoco, EfjEXXqoa - be about to
^JJEVCA), fjEvco, EjJEiva, [JEfJEvqKa -wait
^VOJJI^CA), vopico, Evopioa, vsvojJiKa, vEvopiopai, EvopiaQqv -consider
oTyvupi, -0*1^00, Ecoâ, -Ecpya, -EcpYMai, -EO)x0nv - °Pen (usually in compound; avoiyvupi more common)
okTipco, oiKTipco, ^KTipa (long i) - pity (also oiKTEipoo)
olfjcbCco, oi|jcbô|jai, copcâ - lament
*o'i/o|jai (also oTpai), oiqoopai, a>q0qv -think
*8AXupi, -oXco, -caXEoa, -oXcoXEKa - destroy, ruin, lose
oXXupai, -oXoupai, -coXopqv, -6Xa>Xa (intransitive perfect as present / am ruined) - perish, be ruined or lost
*6[jvu|ji, 6|joupai, copoaa, 6jjcb}joKa, 6pa>popai, cbfjoaGqv - swear
*6pa(A), 5yopai, cT5ovt Eopa<a and Ed>pa<a, icbpapai and ipjjai, £>90qv - see (and oT5a - know)
6py!t(A>, -6pyi<2>, cSpyioa, —, cipyiopai, a>pyiaeqv - anger (more frequent as passive = be angered)
opuTTco, -opu£co, &pu£a, -opcbpuxa, opcbpuyjjai, cbpuxBqv -dig
*TTaoxeo, nEfoopai, £na8ovf TrcnovOa - suffer, undergo, experience
*TTEi0oot TTEKXA), k'nEioa, nsnEiKa, nETTEiapai, EnEia0qv - persuade; middle or passive = believe, obey
TTETToi0a (intrans. perfect) = trust
*n£|jTTa>, nE|jycA>, ETTEpya, TTETTOfjâ, nETTEjjpai, EnE|J90qv - send
nETopai, -TTTqoopai, -EHTOjjqv and -Enrapqv - fly
*TTIV<A>, niopai (or nioupai), EHIOV, nEncaica, -nETro|jai, ~En69qv - drink
*TTITTTCO, TTEOOUpai, EHEOOV, TTETTTCJKa - fall
*nXqTTc*> (also nXqyvupi), -nXq^co, -EnXqâ, HEnXqya, TTEnXqypai, ErrXqyqv (in compound -EnXayqv) - strike
*TrpaTTco, npaâ, snpaâ, nenpaxa and Trlirpaya, nEnpaypai, EnpaxOqv- do
*aqpa!va>, oqjjavco, Eaqjjqva, OEoqpaofjai, EaqjjavGqv - signify
*oiyaco, aiyqaopai, Eoiyqoa, etc. - be silent (forms regular except for future)
*oco£<A>t odxjco, Eocooa, oEacoica, oEoa>|jaif EocoGqv - save
*TE|JVCA>, TEÎCO, ETEÎOV, -TtTpn Ka » -TtTHnM a '» tTpÔqV - CUt
*Ti0q[ji, Gqoa), E0qKa, TE0qKa, TE0Eipai, ETE0qv -put
*TIKT(A>, TEôpai, ETEKOV, TETOKQ - bring forth, give birth, beget
*Tuyxava), TEuôpai, ETUXOV, TETuxqica - hit the mark, happen, obtain
uTTioxvEoyai, unoaxqaopai, un£axc>Mnv» uTTEaxqM ai -promise
*9aivco, 9avcb, fyqva, nâyKa, nâopai, E9av6q - show (transitive)
9oiivo|jai, 9avoO|jai / 9avqaoîai, âvqv, n£9qva - appear (intransitive)
*9£po>, oToco, qvEyKa and qvEyicov, Evqvoxa, EvqvEypai, qvExOqv - bear, carry
*9£uyo>, 9Euôpai, £9uyov, n£9Euya - flee
9qpi (imperfect £9qv), 9qaa>, E9qoa - say (Note: £9q is used as aorist - he, she, it said)
*9GEipoo, 96Epcbt E96£ipat k^QapKa or -fyGopa, k^Gappai, E96apqv - spoil, corrupt
*9uXaTToo, 9uAAa^co, £96X0^0, n£9uXaxa, n£9uXay|jai, E9uXax9qv -guard
Xaipco, x^'pn000' ^X^Pn v (intransitiveaorist), K£x«pqica -rejoice
*xpa°Ma|» xpn°°Ma|» ^xpn°^Mnv» ^xpnM01* ^xpn°^nv •use
GREEK-ENGLISH DICTIONARY 251
This dictionary has all the words used in stories. By subtracting words in parentheses, the dictionary may be used
for a final ocabulary review. (Words in parentheses are simple roots of compound verbs or words used in charts or
lists but not in conversation or stories.) The coding of information is as follows:
06 word in bold print paradigm of word is given in Paradigm Section pp. 237-248
PXETTCO underlined word simple root of verb used only in compound in the readings
(OOTU) words in parentheses words from a chart, list, poem, etc. not used in stories or conversation
19 plain text numeral page on which word is glossed

(13) numeral in parentheses page on which word is used in script or story (but not glossed)
92 underlined numeral page on which word is discussed or included in a box, chart, or list
80 numeral in bold print page on which word appears in a paradigm
When a verb changes meaning in a middle, passive, or intransitive form, those forms are listed separately. For
example, AavGavojjcu is glossed separately from Xav0avoo because it is encountered first, before the system of
Active and Middle has been learned. This dictionary is for use at every stage.
This dictionary gives only those principal parts that are glossed. Consult pp. 249-50 for principal parts.
a
or / av (alpha privative) - 15,46 aiîapqTEco - dispute 119,128, ano + gen. - away from 38
aya06<;tq,6v - good 19 imperf. qîapq-rouv 121 anopXETrco - look off or away 157
ayysTov, TO - pot, vessel 140 a(j90TEpoi,ai,a - both 92, 94 anoSiScofji - give back 140
ayysXoc;, 6 - messenger 84 av - contrary-to-fact 133-4, ano6ioGO|ji x°Plv 194
ayyEXXco - announce, report 70, + subjunctive 150 anoSoTEov - one must give back
qyysiXa 118 + optative 161 197
aypo<;, 6 - field 38 (ava - up [seen in compounds]) ano0vr]aKCO - die 91, aor.
ayoo - lead 119 avapaivco - go up 121 aTT£0avov 140
a&EXcpq , q - sister 26, 28 avapXETTGo - look up 121 aTTOKpivojjai - reply 29,
aoEX9o<;, 6 - brother 30, 97 avapoaa) - shout out 125 anEKpivaTo 114, 119,
aoiKEa> - do an injustice 122 avayiyvobaicGo - read (9) anoKpi0Eiq 197
&6iico<;,ov - unjust 47, 48 avaXajjpava) - take up, pick up CXTTOKTEIVGO - kill 142
a5oo - sing 177 94 anoXappavco - take back 100
asi - always 57 avanauo|jai - rest up, rest 181 anoXXuîai - (middle) perish,
a0u|jEGo-be disheartened 135 avEKTo<;,q,6v - bearable 197 with intrans. perfect
cm/iyjja, TO - riddle 188 avE[jo<;, 6 - wind 111 arroXooXa 191
aipEojjai - choose (mid of alpeco) avsu + gen. - without 81 anoXXujji - destroy, lose 128
97 avExofjai - endure 131 anopEGo - be at a loss 165
aipEco - take, seize 135 OVEXCO - hold up 111 anoTEjJvco - cut off 70
a!a0avo|jai - perceive + ace. or avqp, av5po<;, 6 - man, male, (anoTuyxavco - lose [11])
+ gen. 140 husband 77, 79 onrocpEpco - bring or carry back
aiTEco - request, ask 28, with two avqp nEvrj<; - a poor man 84
accusatives 38, beg 121 (redundant avqp) 89 anTopai - hold on to + gen. 119
aiTqjja, TO - request 194 6v0poonoc;, 6 - person, man, (OHTGO - fasten [a noose] p. 118)
aKouco - hear, listen (13), + gen. human, 28, 34 Spa - used to ask questions 125
person, ace. thing 51, perf. aviaTa|jai - stand up 19 apyupiov, TO - money, silver
aicqicoa 170 avoiyvupi - open up 149 coin 19, 122
aKpo<;,a,ov - at the furthest avTi - instead of + gen. 44 apyupoc;, 6 - silver 184
point: topmost, tipmost, etc. avco - upward 121 apioTo<;,a,ov - best 92, 94
162 aîoâôv - worthy, worth or apxofjai - begin 119
aXq0£ia, q - truth 128 worthy of + gen. 157 «PX°° - ruê over + §en- 177
aXq0r|<;fE<; - true 79, 95 anayyEXXco - report back 70 (aoTu, TO - town 183)
aXq0a><; - truly (adv.) (2) anayco - lead away now 197 aTono<;,ov - strange, odd 97
aXXa - but 19 aTTEi0Eco - disobey 149 a00i<; - again (1)
aXXqXouc; - each other (1) OTTEIIJI - go away, imper. airi0i aupiov - tomorrow 177
aXXo<;,q,o - other (3), 48 89 auTq - fern, pronoun (in all cases
a|ja - at the same time, together anEpxo|jai - go away (aorist but nom.) 36; f] auTq same
(1) anqX0ov 111) 36,38; auTq q herself
aÊivcov, ov - better 92, 114, anqX0ov - see above (emphatic) 50.51
197 ani0i - command of anEipi 89 auTq - this 67 (fern, of OUTOC;)
252
OUTQ - to her (16), 36 yq, q - earth, land 64 5iKaoTq<;, 6 -judge 81
airrqv -her(2),26 yqpac;, ao<;> TO - old age 170 SiKq, q -justice 128
auTq<; - hers, her, of her (1), 26 yiyvofjcti - come into existence, 5ioTi - since (13), = 6ia + OTI 48
auTiKa - immediately, at the very become, be, arise 89 SOKEGO - seem, aor. k'Soâ 119,
moment 184 yiyvGooKGo - know (1), 19, aorist three uses: seem, seem best,
OUTO - it 26, 38, auTo TOUTO 70 k'yvGov 120. system 211 think + ace. + inf. 142
auTov - him (2). 36 (k'y vcoKa perfect as present 158) 56<; -give! (16),permit! 122
auTov = EauTov 96 yXuicu<;,E7a,u - sweet 70, 5ouXoc;, 6 - slave 135
auTov,r|v,6 - him, her it yXuicuTEpo<;,c(,ov - sweeter 70 5pa|ja, TO - drama (16)
(except in nom.) 26 yXuKUTaTo<; - sweetest 70 Suvapai - be able 57, SuvqaoiTo
6 auToc;, etc. - the same (all yvGOjjq, q - wisdom 170 194
cases) 26, 38, 50 ypa|j|jc(, TO - letter (of alphabet) 5uo - two 32
CIUTOC; 6, etc. - him / her / itself (3) Su>pov, TO - gift 44
(emphatic) 50, 51 ypa9co - write (3) OCOOGO -1 will give (future of
auTou - his, of him (1), 36 yuvq, yuvaiKo<; $ f\ - woman, 8i5co|ji) 125
auTcp - to him (16), 36 wife 77, 84
c<9iq|ji - let go of, release 165 E
6(9iKVEO|jai - arrive 157, aor. 5 Eav + subj. - if ever 150. 157
c<9iK6|jqv 181 8ai|jcov,ovo<;, f]/o - spirit, iauTov.q.o - (reflexive)
divinity 68, 97 himself, herself, itself M, 97
P SaicpuGo - cry 19 EyEipoo, fut. EyEpcb - awaken 131
PCMVGO - step, go 81, PCUVGOV 82, SaKTuXoc;, 6 - finger 32 £yo>, ÎE, etc. - 1 , me, etc. (3), 96
k'Pqv 120, Pq0i 121 OE (postpositive) - but, and (weakest E'SGOKE - he gave, aor. 8i8co|ji 181
paXXco - throw, hit by throwing linking word 12) £0£Xco - wish, be willing (3)
44, aor. E'paXov 94 JJEV / SE 28, 6 SE 48, 48 E0q<a -Iput, aorist of TiGqpi 149
papu<;,£Ta,u - deep, 184 6 JJEV, 6 SE 53 s i - if(11)
paaiAEucEO)^ 6 - king 44, SE? - it is obligatory, one ought, E! yap - if only + opt. 161. 162,
164 one should (lit., "it is binding" + past tense 182, 184
paaiXEuoo - be king, rule over + from SEGO - bind) 97 sT - "you are" (EIJJI) vs. E! = "you
gen. 142 BEIKVUHI - show (16), 198, go" see p. 25, 210
paaiXiKo<; t q,6v - kingly, royal 119 aor. E'SEIÊV 162 EiSsvai - to know, inf. of oT8a
Pq0i - aorist imperative of PCUVGO oEivoc^rôv - awesome, terrible, 142, 159, EiSEiqv 194
121 strange 140 EiSdx;,uTa,6<; - knowing (part.)
pipxiov, TO - book (2), 30 SsTnvov, TO - meal, dinner (13) 165; x^P lv e '8Evai - to know
pioc;, 6-life91 SEonoTnc;, 6 - master 131 thanks, be grateful 194,
PXETTco - look at, look 121 (in 5EUTEpo<;,a,ov - second 32 sTSov -1 saw (aorist of opaco) 51,
avapXETTco and KaTapXenco) Sloped - receive, accept 140 aor. imper. middle I8ou 19
POOGO - shout 119 5q (postpositive) - emphatic = EiSox;,uTa,6<; - knowing, participle
POUXEUGO - plan, deliberate 142 "underline the word before" 67 of oT8a 159, 165
pouXojjai - want, wish (9) SqXoc^riiOv oroc;,ov - clear 48 Ei19E - if only + opt. 161, 162
PpoToc;, 6 - mortal 114 SqAoco - make clear 194, 208 + past tense 182. 184
6qTa (postpositive) - more ETXov -1 took, seized (aor. of
y emphatic than 6q 170 aipEGo) 135
yajjEGo -marry (13) Aia - Zeus (ace.), "by Zeus" (2) Eipi - / am, Ecm(v) he, she, it is
yap (postpositive conjunction) - 5ia + ace. - through, on account of (1), 210, Eiai(v) they are 19,
for 29 48; + gen. through, by EOTI(V) exists, is possible 54,
yEXaco - laugh, aor. EyEXaaci 119 (agent), as in by myself 162 inf. sTvai 51, fut. E'DTCU 72
ycXoTo<;,a,ov - funny, laughable -i- gen. - through (spatial) 194 Ely i - / go, will go (used as
119 SiaXEyojjai - converse, converse future of EPXOIJOI) 19, 210,
yEvoc, TO - race, kind, class 94, with + dat. 119 imperative'iBi 51
95 8i8a>pi - give (16), 218, future ETvai - to be 51
y£pcu6<;,a,6v - old 131 SGOOGO 125, aorist sScoKa 181, E'mEp - if in fact 121
yEpoov, yspovToc;, 6 - old man; perfect OEOGOKCI 199, aorist E!TTOV -1 said, used as aor. of
as adj. - old 69, 149 command 56<; give! (16), XsycoSl, 114
yEGopyEGo - farm, work the earth 81 86<; aspermitl 122 Eipqvq, q -peace 187
yEGopyoc;, 6 - farmer 81 SiEpxojjcu - go through 122 (ETpqica -1 have said: perf. of
yXwTTa, i*| - tongue (2), 26, 37 SIKCUOÔÔV & o<;tov - just 128 Xcyco 156)
253
£i<; (E<3 - into + ace. 29 ETTiOupEco - desire, have a desire for tc^,»>)-life72
£T<;, pfa, £v - one 8Q, 80, 89 + gen. 97 Ca>ov, TO - living thing, creature
Eioayoo - lead into 135 ETTiarafjcu - understand 28 70
Eiopaivoo - go into 114 ETTioToXr), f] - letter 28 £o>cx;,r| ,ov -alive 72
eTaeipi - go in, imper. EiaiOi 64 ETTopcu - follow + dat 165
ElaEpxojjai - come or go in 48 Epyov, TO - work, deed (6), 79 n
EIOI(V) - they are 19 Epxopai - come 19 f] - the (fern.) see 6, t\, TO
cioopaco - look into 149 Epa>Taa> - ask (1), with two ^ - or (11), than (in comparison)
EK (I?)- out of + gen. (9), (13), accusatives 38 56,57
44 spon-qija, TO - question (3) q . . . rj - either... or 57
£Kaaro<;,q,ov - each 48 Eo0la>-eat(13) f\ - I was (OR = a question-asking
£icaTEpo<;ta,ov - either (of two) 93. Eorai - he, she, it will be (fut of particle 219)
94 EinO 72 I'lyEopai - consider 140
EKpaivco - go out 111 EOTI(V) - is (1), with dative of q&E - this-here (fern.) See o5£,
EicpaXXco - throw out 135 possession 22, uses of EOTI 54 qSc, ToSE
EKE?-there 131 EOTI(V) - exists, there exists 38 q6q - already, now 72
iiccTvocn«0 - that 13, 65 (always accented that way at qSioTocn.ov - most pleasant 22,
EKTToScov (adverb) - out of the way beginng of sentence and also 183
lit., "out of the feet" 51 when it means existence) J|8ucE?atu - pleasant (13), 70,
E'Xapov - aorist of Xappavo> 111 EOT! HOI -1 have, literally "is to 183
E'XaOov - aorist of Xav0avo> 165 me" 29,54 ^XOov - awistof k'pxopai 114
£XEu0£p6a> - set free 199 ET£po<;,a,ov - other (of two) 22, inf. EXOsTv 97
(EXEu0Epo<; = free) 94; other (of many) 93 qXicx;, 6-sun38
EXE9a<;,avTo<;, 6 -elephant 119 ETI - yet, still 72 (time), ^fja^ OUTOU^ - ourselves, etc.
EX0E?v - infinitive of ^X0ov, 135 (degree) 96
aoristof EPXOJJCU 97 -ETO - past tense ending (M-P) 111 ^JJEM;, i*)Ma<;, f\\*£>v, i^Tv -
('tXX n v,6-Greek(10)) £Toipo<;, - ready 91 we, us, our, to us (1), 96
'EXXnviKocq.ov - Greek (22) ETCX;, TO -year 114 i>)M*pa. I s )-day 32
(EXniCa) - hope 124 + fut. inf.) ETUXOV - aorist of Tuyxavcj 125 r^pETEpcx;, a,ov - our 100
EpauT6v,i*)v - myself 2£, 97 £5-well 21,72 ?jv + subj.= EQV if ever 150
EjjE - ps (emphatic) 81,91,96 EuyE - well done! well said! (1) ^v -1 was OR he, she, it was 38,
£|j6<;,r),6v -my97,28 EuSoipovia, f\ - good fortune, 70, there was 111
EÎOU - gen. of Eyco (emphatic) happiness 89 qvEyicov aorist of <p£pa> 67,114
23,96 Eu5ai}ja>v,ov - fortunate, happy, (also nveyica)
EV - in + dat. 28 in good fortune 80, 84 qOpov - aorist of supioKco 84
EV £> - while compar. Eu&aifjovEOTEpcx; 181
(= EV T<J> xpovcp EV c|> ) 91 EuSa> - sleep (in ica6Eu5a> 121) e
EV - one (neuter) 80 EupETqc;, 6 - discoverer, inventor O&AaTTa, f] - sea 34, 157
EvavTio<;,a,ov - opposite 128 170 0avaTo<;, 6 - death 79
EwoEopai - reflect on, consider EupioKoo - find, discovw 67, aor. OotTTTO) -bury 114
(have in one's voG<;) 128 qSpov, inf. EupsTv 84, 89 6aTTo>v,ov - faster 92.114
EvraOOa - here, in this place 142, £9' = ETTI - on, over 184 0au[jaCa> - wonder, marvel, be in
here, to this place 165,163 £<pq - he, she, it said (fr. 9nnO 122 a state of wonderment 177
EVTuyxavGo - chance upon + daL breaks up quote 131 0auHaoTcx;,r),6v - wonderful,
94 £X6pcx;,a,6v - hateful, hostile; marvelous 177
EôupEco - take out 194 hated, enemy 187 6c6c 6 and 6c&, f\ - god,
Eâi9vqc; (adverb) - suddenly, EXPH v - acts as imperfect of xpq goddess 44 (Note: GECK; can be
instantly 184 121 used of goddess as well-see
EÊIJJI - go out 48 EXCO - have, hold, possess (2), Hippocratic Oath)
EÊpxojjai - come or go out 122 EXGO + inf. be able; have the Oqoaupcx;, 6 - treasure house,
E£CA> - outside, + gen. outside of 142 ability to (9), EX<*> + advert) = treasure 37
(EiTEiSav + subj. - whenever) be in a condition 197, EXEIV 6r)oa> - fut of TiOnMi 142
EnEiTa - then, next 70 EV voo> - have in mind, intend OvrjOKco - die (in cmoOvrjaKGo)
ETTEOOV - aorist of ninTO) 111 121 91,128, perfect as present
ETTI + ace. - to (13), 184 TE9vq»ca 157, optative
+ gen. - on (position above) 48 C T£0vaiqv 79, part TEGVEOX; 91
+ daL - at (13), over (body) 199 Cao>- live 114,114 orT£0vqKox; 157
CqTEco-38
254
Opovoc;, 6 - chair 48 icaico5ai)ja>v, ov - unfortunate, KuXi^jKcx;, f\ - cup 69, 157
0upa, f] - door 64 (pi. for double unlucky 84 icupio<;,a,ov or o<;,ov - in charge
doors) tcaiccx;,r),6v -bad 19 of, master of 64
KaXEo> - call, invite (13), 19 KUOJV.ICUVCX;, i>|/6 - dog (2), 70,
i KaXXioro<;,q,ov - most KaXcx; 77
iaTp6<;, 6 - doctor 19 22,111
i5oO - See for yourself! See! (icaXXia>v,ov - more icaX6<; 92) X
(aorist middle command) *aX6<;,r|,6v - beautiful, fair, Xaâvoo - take, get, receive (24),
also iBou 221 noble, fine, good 48 aor. EXapov 111, imperative
iEpo<;,a,6v or 6<;,ov - holy 64 K&pvo) - be weary; be sick 19 XapEl22Q62)
THMI - 214 let forth, release, let Kapnipcx;,ov - fruitful 149 Xav0avopai + gen. - forget, be
go; also = utter, throw; in icapncx;, 6 - fruit, harvest 111 forgetful of 64
a<pir|pi 165 KOTO - + ace. down the length or Xav0ava> - escape notice 165
IB i - Go! imperative of E!|JI 51, course of 48; according to 91 XEGUVCI, f\ -lioness94
TOi EKTTo6d>v Get out of the way! + gen. down from, against XEyco - tell, say (1) say that (OTI,
iicav6<;,r),6v - sufficient, enough (as in KdTayiyv&oicco) ox;) (11), tell, command 44,
135 KaTapaivco - go down 121 three uses 44
JKVEopai - come 157 (acpiKVEopai) KaTapXEnco - look down 121 Xsyoo xaipciv - say goodbye to
ijjcmov, TO - cloak, piece of KQTayiyvcjoica) - make 157
clothing 48 accusation against + gen. 79 Xcfnco - leave 125. E/O aorist
Tva + subjunctive - so that 148. KaTEpxopcu - go down; come or system is in Paradigm Section.
149 go back, return 44 Segments of the paradigm are
YTTTTCX;, 6 - horse 70 KsTpai - lie down 19, inf. KE?o0ai scattered throughout the book:
YoOi - know! imper. of oT5a!62 KEKTqpai - possess, pert, of 109, 112, 113, 123, 147, 155,
Vacx;,r|,ov - equal, equal to + daL 91 KTao|jai = acquire, perfect as 160, 169, 175, 179, 182, 185
(Torapai - stand, root of present) 157,159: KEKTqoETcu XEuic6<;,r)t6v - white 194
aviorapai 13) 197 Xi0o<;, 6 - stone, rock 142
Yarnpi -set up, stand up KEXEUCO + acc. or dat + inf.- Xoycx;, 6 - word, speech, line of
(transitive) 217, aor. k'arqaa urge, bid, command someone reasoning, rational account 64
140, aorist passive Eor&Oqv to do something 70 XoiTTcx;,r),6v - remaining 67
199, intr. aor. Eorr|v 120, KIV&UVCX;, 6 danger, risk 142 Xurreoo - cause pain of mind or
system 211, intr. perfect as KXETTTH<;, 6-thief81 body, vex, distress 111
present EOTrjica 158 KXETTTCO - steal 81 middle - be distressed 187
iaxupcx;,a,6v - strong 89 KXivq, i>|-bed 191 Xunr|f f\ - grief, pain 135
Taax; - perhaps (adverb from Tocx;) KXoTrq, f] - theft 128 Xuo> - release 194
187 KOIVCOVEO) - share, share
(iX0u<; - fish 183) something (gen.) with M
someone (dat) 67 paicpcx;,a,6v - long, high, tall
K OcpomoTo<;%r|,ov - best, strongest (11)
Ka0' = Kara before rough 22, a superlative of ayaOcx;) paXa - very (with adjective) 48, H;
breathing KPEITTCOV,OV - better, stronger 22, with verb very much, indeed 64,
KaGaipco - cleanse, purify 114 114,114 (compar. of aya0cx;) IS
Ka0ap6<;,a.6v - pure, clean 114 Kpiva> -judge91 paXiora - most, exceedingly (with
Ka0Eu8a> - sleep, lie down to icpioi<;,Eax;, f] - judgment, contest adjective) 7 L 72: most
sleep 121, imperf. Eica0Eu8E 91,94 exceedingly (with verbs) 64,28
121 Kpouoo - knock (on a door), clap ox; paXiora + adj. 21
Ka0i£o|jai - sit down 44 (hands) 181 + verb 32,2S
icai - and (connective) (2), KPUTTTCX; - hidden 191 paXXov - more (with adjective) 21,
too, also, even (adv.) (11), 5Q KpuTrrco - hide 114, Kpuyaivro more (with verb) 23; rather
Koti . . . KCU - both ... and (2) 187 (with verb) (2S), 170
icai 5f) icai and especially 67 KT&opai - acquire, come to paXXov q rather than 2S
ou povov aXXa KOI 51 possess, often in perfect as pavOavco - learn (11), aor. EjjaOov
Kcuvo^rôv -new 135 present KEKTrjM0' = I possess (13)
KcuTTEp - even though (+ part) 157; fut. perf. KEKTqoETai paXn -battle(13),37
Si, 89 197 PE - me (acc.) (2)
icaidcA>v,ov - worse 22» 131 KTEivo) - kill, future ICTEVCO (in p*ya<;, M^Y&An. H^Ya ' big.
icaKiarcx;,r|,ov worst 22, 100, 140 anoKTEiva) 142) great (13), 54
255
jj£yicrro<;,q,ov - biggest, greatest vo[ji|jo<;,ov - customary 64 onax; + subj. so that 148. 149,
89,22 (also = lawful) how(ever) (ind. question) 163.
(j£0uco-bedrunk(13) vojjcx;, 6 - custom, tradition 32, 165
JJEI£OOV,OV - bigger, greater 92,94 law 142voo£CA> - be sick 19 opaoo - see (2), part. 82
IJEXEI yoi - it is of concern to me, voooc;, q - sickness, disease 84 opyiCojjai -beangry44
i.e., / care about 72 vouc;, 6 - mind (in E'XEIV EV vcp 6p06<;,q,6v - straight, correct, right
HEXXco - be about to, intend 67 121 and in rrpooEXEiv vouv 142
(often + future inf., 125) pay attention 142 and in 6p<o<;, 6 - oath 79
(|j£|jvq|jai - remember, perf. as EVVOEOJJCU have in mind 128) 6pvic;,i0o<;, 6/q - bird 97 (ace. 69)
present 159) vuv - now (2) opoc;, TO - mountain 165
JJEV - ("on the one hand") with BE; vu£, VUKTOC;, q - night 57, 77 opuTToo - dig 165
6 IJEV, 6 8s construction 53, opxEoycu - dance 177
-JJEVOC; - in M-P perf. part. 179 8c q, o - who, which 62. 64;
(JEVGO - wait, remain 67 £Evitc6<;,q,6v * or 6<;,6v - foreign causal 6^, q, 6 165
jjEpoc;, TO - part, portion 95, 100 142 oaiocôiiov - hallowed, divinely
|j£ao<;,q,ov - middle, in the £EVO<;, 6 - guest, host, foreigner sanctioned 79
middle of 94 , position 94 135 ooiTEp, qn£p t onsp - the very one
JJETO - + ace. after 51, who 122
+ gen. in company with 122 o OQTIS, q-n<;, 8 TI - whoever,
JJETCX XP°VOV - after a time 135 6, f\, TO - the (definite article) (3) whichever 158, 162
|j£TanE|jTToyoii - send for, etc., 21 (uses) 6 and q are oTav + subj. - whenever, = OTE +
summon 184 proclitic av 72. 150
jjETpEco - measure 142 6 SE - and he, but he 48 OTE - when (22)
jjETpov, TO - measure, oBc, q5E, ToBc - this-here 65, 67 OTI - that (indirect discourse) 11,
measurement 142 6S6<;, f\ - road, way, path 44, 45 138 , OTI + superlative 56
jjq - negative with imperative 19, oryvuM 1 - open (in avoiyvu|ji 149) ou t OUK, oux - not (1), (2), ou 72
negative for other than facts 44, oTSa - know (1), 19, perf. as ou - where 44 OR of whom (=
generalizing 98, + subjunctive present 158, 159, oT6a x^P lv - gen. of o<;)
= lest 148. pq vs. ou forms know thanks, be grateful 194, ouSajjox; - in no way 44
121,133 negative of "if clause inf. EiSEvoti 142, ou5E - nor 48, not even 67
jjqSEu;, |jq5£[jia, (jq8sv - part. EiSdxûTaiOc; 165, ou6Ei<;, ouSepia, OU&EV -
no one, nothing 121 imperativeVo9i 162 no one, nothing 80, 91
JJQKETI - not yet (see box p. 121) oiKEco - dwell, inhabit 79 ou5Ev - nothing (see above)
|jqXov, TO -apple44 okia, f\ - house, home 38, 45 ou5£T£po<;,a,ov - neither (of two)
yqTqp, îqTpo<;, f\ - mother olKTipco (also oiKTEipco) - pity 119
19,77 111 OUKETI - no longer 91
jjia - one (fern.) 80 oipoi - alas 19 oOv (postpositive) - therefore, so
luiiKpoâôv - small (9) oijjcbCcA) - say alas 131 29
JJIOEGO - hate 44 oTvcx;, 6 - wine (13) OUTTOTE - never 72
jjoi - to me (dat.) (1) oib|jai - think, consider 191 oupavoc;, 6 - heaven, sky 70
|jovov - only (adverbial ace.) 29, oTaOa - you know (1), 159 ou<;tcbT6<;, TO - ear 77, 122
ou JJOVQV aXXa Kai - not only oXXujji - destroy, ruin, lose (in OUTE . . . OUTE - neither . .. nor 81
but also 51 an6XXu|ji 128) o5Toc auTq, TOUTO - this (3),
|jovoc;,q,ov = only, sole, alone 64 6Xo<;,q,ov - whole 119 65, 67
IJQU - of me, my (gen.) (1) -6|jEvo<; - participle ending M-P 55 ouTco(0 - thus, in this way, so 66,
pG6o<;, 6 - story (13) 37 ojjvujji ~ swear 79 79
}jcopo<;,a,ov - foolish (13), 57 o|joio<;,a,ov - similar 97 OUTOX; . . . COOTE + inf. - so . . . as
ojjoXoyEco - agree, say the same to 84 (+ indie. - so ... that)
v thing, agree with + dat. 97 ouxi - no (2)
vai - yes (10) ovojja, TO - name (1) 690aX|j6<;, 6 - eye 19
(vaG<;, f] - ship 183) -OVTO - past ending M-P 111 oyojjcu - future of opaco 197
v£o<;,a,ov - new 48, young 142 orroi - to wherever 165
vq - swearing particle (goes with 6noTo<;,a,ov - what(ever) sort 163 n
ace. of swearing, as in vq TOV onoooc^q.ov - however much 163 naiSEuco - educate, bring up 142
Aid, vq Tqv KUVCI) (2) OTTOU - wherever 131,162,165 TTQU;, nai56<;, 6/f] - child,
viKCfoo - conquer, win 191 OTTOTE - whenever 161,170,197 son, 19, 77, 84
viicq, q -victory (13) 6n6T£po<;,a,ov - which(ever) (of TraXai6<;,a,6v -old48
vofjiCco - consider 51 two) 57 naXiv - back; again; in turn 100
256
TT&VTEC; - all persons, everyone (1) TioiqTfo, * - poet (13) fSqorcx^n.ov -easiest22
navTa - all things, all, every (3), no7cx;,a,ov - what sort of a? 140 #ia>v,ov - easier 22, 162
64,80 noio<;,a,ov - some sort of a 170
napa - + ace. to (the side of) 81 TToXEpoc 6 - war 84 o
+ dat. at (the side of) 48 TToAit, Tr6AcfcK, f\ - city-state OQKICOC;, 6 - sack 149
+ gen. from (the side of) 44, 164 auT6v,^|v = OEQUTOV 26
napepxopai -goby 125 (TToAf-rnc 4 - citizen) OE (unemphatic) - you (2)
napExoo - provide 149 noXXa - many (13) See noXu<; OE (emphatic) - you 81
TT&S, Traoa, nav, noXX<J> - by far (daL of noXu<;) 100 ocauT6v,/)v - yourself 96
gen. navTO^, naoqc;, TravTO<; • TToXucnoXXi^noXu - much, oEXqvq, f] - moon 57
every, all 80, 84 pi. many (3), 54 oqpa, TO - sign 81
naaxco - suffer, undergo aor. TTOVEGO - tOU 111 oqpaiva) - signify 121
ETiaOov 157, perf. HEnovOa (irovqp6<;,a,6v - wicked fr. no vex; aiyaco - be silent 94
162 52) oiyq, f] - silence 142
TTaTqp, naTp6<;, 6 - father 77, novcx;, 6 - toil 111 CHTOC 6 - grain, food 32
149 nopEuopai - travel, journey 29, oKEXcx;, TO -leg 119
Tiauopai - (M) stop (oneself) 177 aor. EnopEuoaTo 131 oKrjvq, q - tent 44; stage (Graveyard
naua> - stop (someone or some- nopo<;, 6 - way across a river, #29)
thing else) 91 (M cease 177) solution to a problem 142 oicoTia, f] - darkness 38
TTEi8opai + dat. - obey, believe in TTooo<;,q,ov - how much? 19,163 ocx;, of], oov - your 26, 97
191, intr. perf. TTETToi0a 194 noTaîcx;, 6 - river 94 oou (unemphatic) - your, of you (1)
TTEi6a> - persuade 122 TTOTE -when? 70.88.163 oou (emphatic) - your, of you
TiETva, f] -hunger84 TTOTE - once, ever 70, £8,163 oo<pcx;,r),6v - wise 29, clever 79
TTEivaoo - be hungry 32 noTEpov (adverb) - whether (as ocxpia - wisdom 162
TTEPTTCA) - send 28 question-ask^-) 72 oTTEpya, TO - seed 111
TTEvri^ryKx;, 6 - poor man or TTOTEpo<;,a,ov - which (of 2) 72,21 onou5r|, f] - haste 142, also =
used as adjective 84 TTOU - where? SS, 89,162; seriousness, zeal, fuss
(redundant nEvr|<; avqp 89) TTOU yffc - where on earth? 89 ora6po<; - weight 142
TTETToiOa -1 trust (intrans., perf. as TTOU - somewhere 88,163 OTEVCO - moan, sigh, groan 131
present) 158.194 nou<;t noScx;, 6 - foot 77, 79 orovcx;, 6 - moan, groan 131
TTETiovOa - perfect of naaxa) 162 npaTTO) - do, fare, act 125, crrpaTriyo^, 6 - general 191
TTEP - indeed, in fact (adds force to TT£TTpa£ETai 197 orpcmanTic 6 - soldier 44, 45
preceding word; sometimes is npiv - before + inf, until after a ou, at, (oc), etc. - you (sing.)
joined to it, as in E"TTEP, negative verb + indie. 12Q, 170, (l)(2).2fi
KCMTTEp, OOTTEp, &aiT£p) 89 used adjectivally 187 ouyyiyva>aKa> EQUTCO - be
TiEpi -i- gen. - about (concerning) npo - in front of, before + gen. conscious of, acknowledge,
(13), 79, + ace. about (around) (space) 94 (time) 170 confess + (nom) participle 170
spatial 142 npopaivw - step forth 122 ouXXaâvco - collect, gather 149
TTEToycu -fly70 npo<; + ace. - to, towards, against auppouXsuco - advise 142
nETpa, f] - cliff 162 44 middle - consult with + daL 170
TTETPCX;, 6 - rock 162 npooEpyopai - come toward 181 ou^pouXcx;, 6 - adviser,
TTEcpuica - perf. as pres. 158 npooExco vouv apply the mind to, counselor 142
Trivoj - drink (13), pay attention 142 ouv - with + dat. 97
TTITTTCA) - fall 38, aor. E'TTEOOV 111 TrpooTTiTTTO) - fall toward 57 OUVOIKECJ - dwell with 194
ninTco sic; UTTVOV 131 TTpooooTTov, TO - face (npoc; + OTT ouvTi0qyi - put together 100
nioTEuca - trust, trust in + dat. 140 as in oyopai, that which one o<p66pa - intensely, strongly 157
nX£?oro<;,q,ov - most 92 looks at) 177 axoXq, f\ -leisure29
TrXEicov.ov - more 22,149 np£>Tocq,ov = first 32, 46 oa>£a> - save 125, oEooxjpE0a 177
nXqv - except 4- gen. 64 nTEpov, TO - feather 97 oa>pa, TO -body 119
as conjunction 142 TTTEpu£,uycx;, f\ - wing 97
nXqTTco - strike, aor. k'nXqÊ 122 TTup,nup6<;, TO - fire 77, 89 T
nXouoio<;,a,ov - wealthy 48 nox;-how? 88,91,162 T6-the(3)
nXouTcx;, 6 - wealth 188 nc*><; - somehow 88,163 Ta&E - these here things 64,65,67
TTOIECA) - do, make (3), make TauTa - these (9), 65
(factitive) + two ace. M P T&xiaTo<;,q,ov -fastest22,122
TTofqpa, r6 - poem (thing made) ^Sioca,ov - easy (11), 52 Taxu<;,E?a,u - fast, quick 94
(11) fbanTqc;, 6 - tailor 191
257
TE (postpositive, enclitic) - and D5cop, OSaToc, T6 - water 67, XaA£TTo<;,q,6v - difficult, hard (11)
TE icai - (both) and 32 (TE icai is 68 X&PK.ITO^, ^| - ace. xapiv -
weaker than tcai icon but stronger uicx;, 6 - son 84, 183 favor, grace, thanks 194 (in
than KOU alone) uAq - forest 197 X&piv anoSi&ovai, X^P IV
TE?XO<;, TO - wall 119 upa<;, QUTOU<;, etc. - ourselves ElBEvai)
TEOvafqv - may I be dead 79 (reflexive) 96 XEip, x EI P^» f] ~ hand» a™ (2)»
TE0vEax;,u?a,6<; - dead 91 upcTc upac;, up&v, upTv - you 77, 79
TE0vqKa, TE9vr)icax; - die, dead [pl.l 96 (XEipCA>v,ov - worse 92)
(perf. as present) u^j£TEpo<;,a,ov - your (pi.) 98. 100 XcA&vq, ^| - turtle (2), 37
TEKGJV, gen. 6vro<;, 6 - father, uTiiaxvEopai + fuL inf. - promise Xpaofjcu - make use of + dat. 140
begetter, pi. parents 149 124,125 Xpq - it is necessary (acts as verb)
TEAEUT&O) - end 197 unvo^, 6 - sleep 114, TTITTTEIV EI^ (11), 19, imperfect sxpqv 121,
TEAo<;, TO - end (13), 95,100,3& iinvov 131 infinitive xpn vai 149
TEpVO) - CUt (hi aTTOTEjJVO) 70) uno -f gen. - by (gives agent with Xpqvai-see above
T£TapTo<;,q,ov - fourth 119 passive verb) 12Q, 191 XprjCco + gen. - need, have a lack
TETTapE<;,a - four 89,105 by = under the influence of 194 or want of 140
TqAs + gen. far from 149 ucrrEpa?o<;fa,ov - later, next 67, Xpqoipo<;,q,ov or o<;,ov - useful
Tqv - the (13), 31 (often in TQ ucrrEpafp i^pp 57
TI - what? (1), 87 why? 32, SS with r*)HEp? omitted) Xpovoc;, 6 - time 19
Tiva - what? (13), 87 uaTEpcx;,atov - later; uorEpov as Xpuocx;, 6 - gold 111
Tk - who? (3), 87 adv. - later, afterwards 100 Xpuoou<;,q,oOv - golden, of gold
TfOqyi - put, place 81, 214 157
fut. Oqooo 142, aor. E'Gqica 149 9
TIKTGO - give birth, give birth to 9aivojjai - appear, seem, aor. V
+ ace. 84, aor. E'TEKOV 140 E<pa vqv 191 \i/Eu8q<;,E<; - false 79
Tipaoo - honor 131 9&ppaicov, T6 - drug, medicine
Tijjq, f] -honor 131 19, 37, poison 79 CO
Tipioc;,a,ov or o<;,ov - honored, <paGAo<;,q,ov - crummy, & - used with vocative (1)
valued, valuable 142 second- rate 48 4> - dat. of ck, o 62
TK, Tf - who? what? (1) (3) SI cpEpoo - carry, bear, bring; bear, E V < & - while 91
TK, TI - (as adjective) some, a endure 44, aor. qvsy KOV - 67,114 cI>8E - thus, in this here way
certain (13), (as noun) somebody, <p£u - exclamation of grief, anger, (adv. of 68E) 57,66
something 67, 79, 87, 89 astonishment or admiration 19 &v,oOoa,6v - being 98
TO - this (1), 31 9Euyco - flee 142 &pa, f] -season 111
TO&E - this hoe (see O&E) <pqpf (with enclitic forms) - say dx; - (1) relative - as 64 (ox; voîoc;
TOI -y'know 125 142,210, usually seen as E\pq EOTIV)
ToiouTo<;,q,ov - of such a sort 149, 122, breaks up quotations 131 (2) how! (in exclamations) 94
162 96Eipo> - ruin, spoil 194 (3) ox; = OTI how, that 79, 138
ToApaoo - have the heart, dare, 9iA*co - like, love (1), 32 (4) ox; -»- superlative = as ...
endure to 149,197 9iXo<;, 6 or 9iAq,i*) - friend (1), 32 as possible 32,56, U, 78
TO£OV, TO - bow 94 9iAo<;,q,ov-dear97 (5) dx; + participle - on the
TOTTCX;, 6 -place91 91AGOv (part.) - 82 grounds that (gives
TooouTo<;,q,ov - so great, so 9opEopcu - fear, be afraid of + ace. assumption) 83
much, so many 162, 163 19 (6) cJx; + subjunctive - so
TOTE -then 162,197 96pcx;t 6 - fear 142 that, in order that 148. 157
TOUTO - this (3), 65 9op£pcx;,af6v - fearful 142 &OTTEP - just as 97
TPE?<;, Tpfa - three 84,105 9opEo> - carry around, wear 48 &OTE + inf. - so as to 52
Tprnx;,q,ov - third 119 9uA&TTa) - guard, protect 79 + indie. - so that, and so £4
Tuyxavco - happen; succeed 900vi*), f| - voice (22) OUTOX; &OTE + inf. 81
aor. ETUXE<; 125 9<xx;, 90>TO<;, TO - light 38, 57 OUTOX; &OTE + verb 84
Tu<pA6<;,q,6v - blind 119 cIxpEAEGo + ace. - benefit, be of
Tuxq, f\ - fortune, chance 140 X service to 125
Xaipco - rejoice (1), rejoice in + dat.
u 64, AEyo> xaipciv - say goodbye
uyi£ivcx;,q,6v - healthy 19 to 157
ENGLISH-GREEK DICTIONARY 259
These are the words needed to translate the exercises and sentences assigned in this book. To create your own
Greek, look through the Vocabulary Reviews.
a, an - Leave untranslated bury - 0aTTTa> find - EupioKco + part, or inf.

(for a certain, use TI<;,TI) but-aXXa. (8E = aweakfeuf) in ind. disc,
accept-8£x°Mai but he, but she -6 BE, f] BE (if finger - 6 5aKTuXo<;
afraid, be afraid of - <popcopou new subject) fire - TO rrup, TTupo<;
+acc. but they - oi BE, ai OE (if new food - 6 oTTo<;
after - can be expressed by use of subject) foolish - pa>po<;,a,ov
the aorist participle in a by- dative of means, foot - 6 TTOUC;, TTo56<;
genitive absolute UTTO + gen. with passive verb for (prep.) - Use dative case
agree with - opoXoycoo + dat dative of agent (with perf. pass.) friend - 6 9iXo<;, f] 91X1*1
all - plural of TT&<;» naoa, nav certain, a - TIC;, TI gift - TO Scipov
although - icaiTTEp + participle child - o/t] TTCM<;, gen. naifccx; give - SiScopi
always - aci choose-aipEopai go - tTfji, E'pxopai, paivco
(always) - Use continuous city, city-state - f] noXi<;, gold - 6 xpuao<;
and- icai noXEax; good - aya66<;,r),6v,
announce - ayyEXXoo + 3 come - tipi, Epxopai superl. Spioro<;,q,ov
constructions in Ind. Disc, consider - vopi£a> (+ ace. -i- inf.) or KpaTiaro<;,q,ov
anyone - TIC;, TI creature, living - TO (4>ov goodness - Use TO aya06v
appear- âivopai cry - 8aKpuo> great- pEya<;,H£yaXn, M^Ya
apple - TO jjqXov custom - 6 vopcx; Greek - 'EXXr|viic6<;,r|,ov
are - E!OI(V) (neut. sing + EOTI) dance-opxEopai guard - 9uXaTTo>
as... as can be - dx; paXiora . . . day -1*) f'liJEpa hand - f\ xîp, XEIP6<;
ask - epcjTaco dead - TE6vEox;,u7a,6v or happen to - Tuyxavco + dat.
at - Use dative of place where, TE0vqiccI><;,u?a,6^. For be dead happiness - f] tuSaijjovia
time when, or circumstance; use TE0vqica (perf. as present) happy - EuSaipcov^v
for at night use gen. of time dear-9iXo<;,q,ov
when (VUKTOC lit., within night) hate - jjioEo>
deed - TO Epy ov have - E'XC*>, OR use EOTI + dat.
bad - icaic6<;,r),6v
die - OVQOKGO, anoGvrjOKoo healthy - uyi£ivcx;,r),6v
battle - f\ fjaxn
difficult - xaXETTCx;,r),6v hear - aicoucj + 3 constructions
be, to - sTvai (inf. of EIÎ)
dinner - TO SETTTVOV in ind. disc.
be about to - yEXXc*>
do, make - TTOIECO her - auTqv, airrq^, auTQ
bear - yipu
doctor - 6 iaTpo^ herself - (reflexive) EauTqv,
beautiful - icaXcx;fr|,6v
dog - 6, f\ KUGOV, KUVO<; EauTq<;, EauTQ orauTqv,
before - npiv + inf.
drink - TTIVCA) auTq<;, auTQ OR use Middle
being - &v, ouaa, ov (participle
of dpi) dwell - OIKECO Voice; (emphatic) auTq
best - SpioTo<;,r|,ov, or each other - aXXqXou<;,a<;,a hide - KpuTn-a> (hide oneself
Kpcmaro<;,r| ,ov (superlatives ear - TO o5^, orroc KpUTTTOjjai)
of&ya660 easy - fôio<;fafov him, his - QUTOV, QUTOU, auT

better - apeiva>v,ovf KPEITTGJV,OV eat - Eo€io> himself - (reflexive) EQUTOV,
(comparatives of &ya66<;) elder - 6 y£po>v, yspovrcx; £auTou, EQUT<J> orauTov,
big, great, large - M*ya<;, evCT - HOTE auTou, OUTC^; (emphatic)
IJEyaXq, p£ya,compar. every, all - na<;,TTaoa,nav auTo<; OR use Middle Voice
PEI(CA>V,OV evil - Use TO Kaicov honor - Tijjaco
bird-f\ t 6 opvi<;, -i6o<; exceedingly - Use superlative or horse - 6 Ynnoc;
book - TO P^Xiov paXiora house - f] oiicia
both ... and - KOI A icai B, fall - TTITTTGO hungry, be - n£ivaa>
or A TE icai B false - yEuSr)<;tE<; I - Eya> (only emphatic)
bring, carry - 9£po>, fuL ofoco father - 6 naTqp, gen. naTpo<; if only - EIÊ or EI yap -f opt.
Mother - 6 aSsX^cx; fear-9op£opai or opt alone in future wishes,
burst into tears - Use appropriate field - 6 aypo<; Eftte or E! yap + past in
stem of Saicpuo) impossible wishes (see p. 182)
260
in - EV + dat. (For "in" 5 days use much, many - noXu<;, noXXq, noXu
gen. of time withink which; my - jjou (emphatic EÎOU), robe - TO ipomov
for rejoice "in" xa'P" + dat-) or E|j6<;,q,6v save - oo>tw
in order that - Tva, ax;, OTTOX; myself - (reflexive) EpauT6v,oO,<2> say - Xsyco OTI, dx; or acc. inf.
in reality - TCO OVTI or EpauTqv,q<;,Q OR use in ind. disc.
in the following way, in this here Middle Voice; (emphatic) 9q|ji + inf.
way - £>6c OUTO<;, airrq see - opaco, PXETTCO
in this way - OUTU>(<;) name - TO ovopa seek - tqTEO)
intend - |jEXXa> + future infinitive new - veo^,a,ov seem - BOKEGO, (paivopai
into - sic; + ace. night - f] vu^, gen. VUKTO<; send - TTEpna>
invite - KaXEo> no one - OU&EK;, ou5£pia share, take or give a share of -
is - EOTI(V) , from cipi noble - icaXcx;,r|,6v KOIVCOVECJ + gen.
is possible - EOTI (accented) not - ou, OUK, ouy; MH short - pncpcx;,a,6v
it - OUTO, auTou, OUT$ nothing - OU&EV show - 6eiicvu[ji
judge - 6 8ncaarr)<; of - Use genitive case sick, be - VOOECO
just - SiKaio<;,a,ov old - naXai6<;,a,6v silence, keep - aiyaa>
keep silence, be silent - oiyaoo (of people - yEpaicx;,a,6v) silent, be - oiyaa>
kind - TO YEVO<; once-noTE; (once)- Shows that since - STE + participle,
king - 6 paaiXEut;, gen. -EOX; aspect is aorist SIOTI (conjunction)
know - yiyvdxjKO), oTSa one - ET<;,p(a, EV small - |jiicp6^fat6v
large - H^ya<;, HEyaXr|, M^Ya one / another - Use article (6, f\% so as to - oSoTE + inf.
laugh - ysXaco TO sing, or pi. in any case) so ... as to - OUTOX; . . . CÔTE
law - 6 vopo<; + y£v, article + SE +inf.
learn - pav9avco -f OTI/OX; or order someone to do something - so as for X to - COOTE + acc. + inf.
part, in Ind. Disc, KeXeuoo + acc. or dat. + inf. so that - &OTE + indicative verb
leave - AEITTGO order, in order that (purpose) - Tva (result)
leisure - f) oxoXq or ax; + subj. Tva, ax;, OTTOX; -»- subj.
lest - pq our - i^jjoov ; r*)pETEpcx;,a,ov (purpose)
let - Use third person imperative ourselves - i^pac; QUTOU<; or so ... that - OUTOX; . . . COOTE
letter - CIUTCK;, i^pcov auTcav, i^pTv + indicative verb
(correspondence) f) EnicrroXr), auToTc; or auTa?<; soldier - 6 orpaTia>Tq<;
(of alphabet) TO ypoppa people - plural of fivOpconoc; some - do not translate OR (= a
life- OR omit with masc. plural certain) use a form of TI<;,TI
like - adjective some / others - oi (j£v, oi BE
lioness- f\ XEOIVO perceive - aio0avo|jai + 3 orai IJEV, a! SE
listen - aicouGo constructions in ind. disc. somehow - nax;
live- Caco -p. 114 person - 6 fivQpcono^ OR omit someone - TI<;, TI
living creature - TO Ccoov with masc. singular adjective something - TI
persuade - neiGco speak - Xeyoo
long - paicp6<;,a,6v
love - (piXEco poem - TO nofqpa, gen. speech - X6yo<;, 6; make a speech
majority - oi noXXoi - Xoyov noioupai
poet - 6 noir)Tr)<; stay - PEVGJ
make - TTOIEGO; make a speech -
Xoyov noioufjai possible, it is - E'OTI + dat. or steal - ICXETTTCO
aco inf. step - Paivo)
man (person) - 6 av6po>no<; OR
promise - unioxvEoyai + future stop - nauoo, stop oneself
omit with masculine adjective
man (male, husband) - 6 avqp, infinitive nauopai
question - Epa>Taco story - 6 p00o<;
gen. avBpcx;
read - avayiyvo>oKCA> strange, guest-host - 6 £EVO<;
many - pi. of noXu^,noXXr),noXu
reality - TO ov (p. 98) strong - !oxupcx;,a,6v
me - IJE, EIJE, etc.
messenger - 6 SyyEXcx; receive - suffer - naaxco
money - TO apyupiov swear - opvupi + inf. in ind. disc.
more (adj.) - TTXEIGOV,OV reoce - sweet - yXuKu<;,£?a,u or
more (adverb) - pSXXov OR use rejoice in - xaipco + daL
remain - (JEVO> swift - Taxu<;,E?a,u,
comparatiave
most (adverb) - paXiora OR use remaining - Xoino<;fr|f6v compar. 6a-rrcA>v,ov
superlative rich - nXouoio<;,a,ov take - Xa(jf3ava>
mother - f\
261
tell - X£yo>; tell someone to - three - Tpsu; (declined p. 105) which(ever)? (in indirect question)
Xcyo> + dat (or ace.) + inf throw - P&XXco - OOTK;, QTI<;, o TI
OR ICEXEUGJ + dat + inf. thus - OUTO>(0 which (relative) - &;, q, 6
tent - f\ oicr|vr| time - 6 xpovo<i OR use a participle;
terrible - 5Eivo<;,r),6v to - often shown by use of dat. whichever) (indefinite relative)
than - Use q + same case or (sometimes npo<;, ETTI, EK;, - OOTK;, qTi<;, o TI
gen. of comparison all with the accus.) who? (in direct question) - TK;,
that- (in indirect discourse) OTI tongue - f\ yXcoTra TIVEC;
OR untranslated in indirect travel- nopEuopai who(ever)? (in indirect question)
discourse with infinitive; true - aXr|0r|<;,E<; - OOTK;, O'ITIVE^
(as demonstrative) EKE7vo<;,r|,o; turtle - f\ x^Xcavq who (relative) - o<;, q, o
(as relative) cx;,n,o unjust - &SIKO<;,OV OR use a participle;
the - 6, f \ , TO until - npiv + indie, verb who(ever) (indefinite relative)
their - auToov with negative main verb - OOTK;, ?yn<;, o TI
their own - aCrroiv, ECIUTGOV us - f\ya<ij to/for us - i^Tv why? - TI
them, their, to/for them - aCrrou<;, useful - xpn°lljo^»rl»v or 0<^»ov willing, be - E0£Xo>
QUTOK;, airra, etc. wine - 6 oTvcx;
themselves - (reflexive) - 1\ vficq wing - f] TTTEpu£, TTTEpuyo<;
EauTou<;, sauTa<;orauTou<;, voice - f\ wise- oo9o<;,r),6v
auT&<; OR use Middle Voice; want - wish - £0£Xo>, pouXoîai
(emphatic) airroi, aurai, aCrra way, in such a way as to - with - often shown by dative;
there is, there are (neut. pi.) - EOTI OUTOX; CJOTE + inf. also IJET& + gen.
these - plural of oCfoc;, in such a way that - (accompaniment)
TOUTO OUTOX; &OTE + indie. woman, wife- f\ yuvq, yuvaiiccx;
these the following, these here - wealthy - TrXouoio<;,a,ov OR omit with fern, adjective
wear - ôpcco worthy - a£io<;,a,ov + gen.
thief - 6 icXETTTr)<; well - EC write - ypacpco
thing - Leave untranslated. (Use were - ô0a, ^v, ôav, etc. (Use you - ou, oou, etc., up£?<;, etc.
neuter of an adjective.) your - aou (emphatic aou);
imperfect of EiÔ
think - voyiCco (+ ace. + inf.) ,6v; upciv;
what? (in direct question) - TI, Tiva
this - oOfcx;, ctlh-q, TOUTO
what(ev^)? (in indirect question)
this-here or this-the following - your own - upciv QUTCOV
- OOTIC;, QTI<;, o TI
O&E, q5£, TOOE yourself, yourselves - (reflexive)
whatever (indefinite relative)
in this-here way, in this-the- a£auTov,r)v; ujjac; auTOuc; or
- OOTK;, QTIC;, o TI
following way - <L8E auTac; OR use Middle Voice;
which? (in direct question) - TK;, T(;
those - plural of EKE?vo<;,qfo (emphatic) auToi, auTai
INDEX 263
Greek and English letters are interspersed
Bold page numbers indicate especially important information.
First use of a grammatical form in conversation may be included
5 after £,i,p -45,52 Ambiguities in English - 28, 29, 50, 57, 63, 87, 96,
a- Aorist (oa- and Xa-) - 117-18 138,170,204 (review sentences)
a Contract Verbs - See -aoo Verbs Ambiguities in Greek - 68, 80, 82, 92, 95, 109, 120,
A-Group - 24,26 (a8EX<pn and yXooTTa), 30,45 126,134,138-139 (in indirect discourse), 147,
(oTpaTiTr|<; and oiicfa), 46 (O-A-O adjectives), 151 (?)v), 162 (anoKTEivQ), 164,169, 175, 182,
52 (O-A-O), 82 (3-A-3 participles), 183 (U-A-U 184 (nPX*To), 185,186,189,195,203 (review),
adjectives) 207 (-aa> verbs)
Accents - 3, 12, 18, 23, 26, 28, 33-35,37 (review), Anticipated Object -125
46 (ETOI^CX; masc. sets pattern), 47 (recessive with Aorist - 13, 89,108 (overview of aspect), 112-13
alpha privative), 51 (enclitic), 52 (series), 53 (E/O aorist, also called "strong" or "second" aorist;
(recessive in Sappho), 54 (EOTI), 62,65,71 translationese of aorist; E/O aorist participle),
(adverbial -£<;, ox;), 72 (final 01), 77 (Third Group 117-18 (a- aorist = "weak" aorist, oa- and Xa-),
one-syllable stems), 80 (recessive EuBaipov), 82 118 (ingressive aorist), 119 (special aorists k^qv,
(contract participles), 87 (TK; vs. TI<;)» 88,90 ?orr|v, fcyvojv), 124 (principal parts), 125 (aorist
(proclitics and enclitics), 92 (recessive in Third as prior past), 130 (having X'd, aorist participle),
Group comparatives), 95 (recessive in Sappho), 130 (99% principle), 133 (contrary-to-fact), 137
104-105 (review), 109, 110 (time-marker), 113 (indirect discourse), 137 (gnomic aorist), 146
(aorist participle), 117,122,126 (-ECO verbs), 151 (overview), 147 (subjunctive) 147-48
(EiHi), 160 (optative), 164 (noXEox;), 169 (subjunctive active, forms and uses), 151 (no
(imperative), 179 (perfect M-P), 190 (-TO<^TO<;), aorist for EIÎ), 160 (optative active), 169
206-208 (contract vats). (imperative active), 175 (aorist middle), 176
Accusative - 26, 27, 30 (av<;-> a<;, ov<; --> ou<;), 38 (secondary endings), 176 (middle deponents), 182
(imperative middle), 182 (past impossible wishes),
(verb with two ace.), 41 (direct object, extent of
time and space, end of motion), 51 (OKOUCO), 52 189 (aorist passive stem distinct), 190 (aorist
passive stem basis of -TCK;/TO<; words), 192-93
(ace. + inf. in indirect discourse), 68 (Third Group
ace.), 69 (noXiv), 71 (comparative and superlative (aorist passive), 211 (aorist system of E^qv,
EOTHV, Ey vo>v; aorist passive stem basis of -TECX;
adverbs), 84 (TTOIEO> factitive), 88 (adverbial
accusative), 99 (inner and cognate accusative), 103 words), 192-3 (aorist passive forms)
(review), 122,125 (anticipated object), 130 (ace. + Apodosis = "then" clause 133
inf. with npiv), 138 (in infinitive construction, Article - 9 (position), 11 (in generalization), 22
(position), 24 (learning vocabulary), 31 (forms
indirect discourse), 164 (i-Stem) and uses), 47 (with adjective, noun understood), 48
Active Voice -173-74 (overview), 175 (middle and (6 SE construction), 49 (bound, unbound), 53 (6
active share steins), 189 (conversion to passive),
HEV / 6 SE), 88 (articular infinitive), 90 (proclitic)
193 (uno with active verb)
Aspiration - 4,6
Adjectives - 9 (position introduced), 22,28,41
Aspect - 13,89,108 (overview), 109 (stem), 110
(predicate adjective), 46 (O-A-O npcjTo^.q.ov), (normally aspect only in infinitive and participle),
47 (two-ending 85iico<;,ov), 47 (with noun 112,130 (99% principle), 136 (future is tense in
understood), 52 (o^,a,ov), 56 (oo9ci>TEpo<;, system of aspects), 146 (tense and aspect only in
acxpeoTOTcx;), 71,80 (Third Group Eu8aipcov,ov), indicative), 147 (no future subjunctive because
82 (3-A-3 participle Pafvo>v,ouoa,ov), 92 (Third subjunctive shows aspect not tense), 148 (aspect
Group comparatives apEiva>vfov), 95 primary in subjunctive), 148 (homework
(aXn6r)<;,E<;), 98 (possessive), 183 (U-A-U assignment), 159 (show aspect when parsing), 160
Taxu<;,eTafu), 190 (verbal adj. ending in -TCX;), (optative shows aspect not tense), 161 (exercise),
211 (verbal adj. ending in -TEO<;) 162 (choose best aspect for OTTOICTEIVQ), 167
Adverbs - xx, 3 (aXn6ox;), 66 (OUTOX;, &BE), 71 (optative shows aspect not tense), 169 (imperative
(ax;,ax;), 71 (comparative, superlative), 88 shows aspect not tense)
(adverbial accusative), 197 (EXCO + adverb) Aspiration -6
Athematic -120,198,211,214
Agreement - 24 (adj. / noun), 30 (neut. pi. + sing,
Attraction of Relative-122
verb), 46,122 (attraction of relative)
Augment -109 See Time-Marker
Alpha Privative -15,46
OUTCX; (all uses) - 1, 2, 16, 36,50
Alphabet - 4-5,7-8, 13 (story)
-ao> Vats - 23, 82 (participle), 117 (aorist), 129,
207
*See Dictionary for pages where paradigms and key Greek words can be found
264
Bound Position - 9, 22, 49, 83 (participle) 210 (forms compared with E!|JI) See sTvai and
Breathing marks (rough or smooth) - 4, 96,151,155, EOTI
215 (aorist of'i'nMO sTvai - 51, 84 (cases with sTvai)
Elision - 38
Cases (general) - 27,41-43, 82 (with prefixed verb), EfjauTov (reflexive) - 96
84 (with ETvcu) See Nominative, Accusative, Enclitics - 51, 90, 91
Genitive, Dative English - 6 (aspiration), 12 (stress language), 14-15
Causal o<; -165 (Indo-European; cognates and derivatives), 26
Circumstantial Participle - 83 (fewer forms of nouns), 27 (cases, "of," word
Cognate vs. derivative -15 order), 28 (homonyms), 29 (omits conjunctions;
Cognate Accusative - 99 "for"), 31 ("the" and "a/an"), 38 (elision), 42
Commands- See Imperative ("of1), 46 (alpha privative "a-," "an-"), 47
Comparatives - 56 (-oTcpcx;, coTEpoc;; gen. or same (generalizing), 49 (word order), 50 ("himself1
case with q), 71 (with yaAAov), 71 (adverbs), 92 intensive and reflexive), 52 (indirect discourse), 53
(Third Group forms) (nothing like JJEV/SE), 56 (comparative and
Compound vs. Uncompounded Verbs -128 superlative), 57 (same form for direct and indirect
Conative Imperfect -162 question), 63 (same form for relative pronoun and
Conditions -133 (contrary-to-fact), 134 (mixed), 134 interrogative), 66 (translation vs. translationese),
(99% principle), 150 (subjunctive in present 70 (dative of disadvantage: car died "on me"), 71
general and future more vivid), 167 (optative in (adverbs), 73 (parts of speech, parsing), 84
past general, optative in future less vivid), 172 (factitive verbs), 87 ("who" "whom" sing, or pi.),
(review) 93 ("most" = "exceedingly"), 96 ("you" for sing,
Conjunctions - 63 (coordinating vs. subordinating) and pi.), 96 (emphatic and reflexive "myself), 99
Connectives -12 (5e) ("sing a song," "fight a fight"), 108 (perfect), 108
Consonant Combinations - 12,14,179 (in perfect) (two futures), 109 ("yfaH"), 111 (conversion in
See Sigma indirect discourse), 112 ("drive/drove" vs.
Continuous - 108 (overview), 109-110 (forms; "stay/stayed"), 113 ("go/went"), 120 (awkward to
translationese), 110 ("continuous participle" translate genitive absolute), 124 ("Froggie went a-
preferable to "present participle"), 112 courting") 125 (prior past tense; English grammar
(translationese of aorist and continuous infinitive less relaxed than Greek), 128 ("remember" -
and participle) And passim in verb paradigms compounded vs. uncompounded verbs), 133
Contract Verbs / Contraction - 23,117 (act- aorist) (Suckling poem), 136-37 (indirect discourse),
See -aco, -ECO, -oco Verbs 137 ("faint heart never won fair lady"), 148
Contrary-to-Fact Condition - 133-34, 172 (review) (English subjunctive), 150 (stilted "should"), 154
Crasis -199 ("I had X'd"), 163 (English series: "where,"
"there," etc.), 166 (periphrastic forms in English),
Dative - 27 (indirect object), 29 (possession with 170 (no relative wish clause), 170 ("do well"), 174
EOTI), 32 (instrument), 32 (time when), 42-43 (active vs. passive; no middle; transitive verb
without object may have middle meaning), 196
(the preceding uses plus means, manner,
("burned" vs. "burnt"), 204 (mastery of English
instrument, place where, circumstance), 54
includes vocabulary)
(possession with EOTI), 70 (advantage or
-£<; stem Adjectives - 95 (aXq0r)<;tE<;)
disadvantage), 100 (degree), 103 (review), 193
EOTI - 1,29 (dative of possession), 32 (EOTI fjoi), 34
(agent with perfect passive)
Declension -109 See A-Group, O-Group, Third Group (enclitic), 47 (may be omitted), 49 (omitted), 54
Demonstrative - 65 (pronouns), 66 (adverbs of (uses, including EOTI(V) exists, is possible)
demonstrative pronouns), 163 (series) -ECO Verbs - 23, 82 (participle), 117 (oa- aorist), 126-
Deponents - 176 (middle deponents), 193 (passive 27, 206
deponents; middle deponents with true passives)
Derivatives vs. Cognates -15 Factitive Verb - 84
Digamma-4, 113, 159 Feminine - 24, 26,45 (Feminine O-Group q 686<;), 68
6i5co|ji - 16, 122, 125, 181, 199, 218 (Masc./Fem. Third Group) See Genitive Plural
Diphthongs - 4, 6, 12, 33, 109, 126, 156, 176, 201, Future -108 (a tense in a system that shows aspect),
206 123 (XEiyco), 124 (future infinitive with
Direct Question vs. Indirect - 57 anticipatory verbs; future participle of purpose),
Double Negatives - 43 150 (future more vivid condition), 175 (middle),
Dual - 26, 93 185-186 (middle), 195 (passive; future perfect
E- Contract Verb - See -ECO Verb passive; future middle used with passive sense),
EOIUTOV (reflexive) - 96 219 (future question as a command)
Eycb -91,96
Ei[ji - 19, 25, 38, 49 (omission), 54 (uses) 70, 98 Gender - 24 (for learning vocabulary), 46 (agreement of
(participle), 111, 151m (forms), 156 (noperfect), noun and adjective), 62 (agreement of relative
166 (optative), 169 (imperative), 180 (all forms), pronoun)
265
Generalizing - 1 1 (article), 98 (MH) See also Meter -12
Conditions MH -11 (poem), 19 (negative of command), 44
Genitive - 1, 27 (possessive), 42 (partitive, (negative of other than indicative), 98
possession, separation, comparison, joker), 56 (generalizing), 121 pr) forms vs. ou forms, 133
(genitive of comparison), 70 time within which, (negataive of "if1 clause), 148 ("lest" with
103 (review), 120 (genitive absolute), 187 subjunctive)
(possessive genitive as predicate) Mi-verbs - See OEIKVUJJI - 16,162,198; ETjJi - 19,
Genitive Plural of A-Group - 26, 33, 46, 80, 82 210; VriMi - 165, 215 (forms); fern MI - 19, 120
Gnomic Aorist - 137 (EOTHV), 140, 158 (EOTHKO), 199, 217; Ti0nM«
81, 149, 214; 9^1 122, 131, 142, 210
i-Stem Nouns - 164 (noAic;)
Middle Voice -173-74 (overview), 175-76 (forms;
If Clause ( = protasis) - 133, 134 (omitted) middle and active share stems; primary and
See Condition secondary endings), 179 (perfect middle), 182
Imperative - 1, 146, 169, 182, 186 (perfect (imperative middle), 185-86 (all forms; perfect
imperative middle), 195 (perfect imperative imperative middle)
passive) Mixed Conditions -134
Imperfect - 109-110 (forms, meaning, translationese, Mood -146 (overview) See Indicative, Subjunctiv,
time-marker), 111 (-ETO, -OVTO), 112 Optative, Imperative
(translationese), 1 17 (endings shared with aorist), Movable Nu - 2, 25
121 (imperfect of icaGeuSco), 133-34 (contrary-to-
fact conditions), 134 (99% principle), 139 (indirect Negatives ou and MH - 1»2,11 (poem), 19,43 (double
discourse ambiguity), 139 (imperfect of prior negatives), 44 (ou vs. MH)> 98 (generalizing |jq),
past?), 151 (?jv), 162 (conative imperfect), 167 104 (MH with participle), 121 (ou / jjq forms), 130
(past general conditions), 175 (exercise), 176 (negative verb usually introduces npiv), 133 (MH
(secondary endings), 182 (impossible wishes), in "if clause, ou in "then" clause), 138 (ou
184, 210 (&pq) negative of infinitive in indirect discourse), 147
Impersonal Construction - 72 (JJEÊI |joi), 191
(jjq is negative of subjunctive), 148 (negative in
(EAEyETo), 211 (KaTapaTEOv)
subjunctive of prohibition), 148 (MH + subjunctive
Impossible Wishes - 182
= "lest," negative is ou), 150 (generalizing (jq),
-iv Accusative -69
161 (MH negates optative of wish), 182 (yq is
Indefinites - 88 (TIC;, TI vs. TIC TI), 158 (indefinitive
negative of past impossible wishes), 219 (negative
relative), 163-4 (the series)
future question as command)
Indicative - 146 (overview of moods), 175 (indicative
Neuter - 30 (neuter O-Group noun forms; neuter
middle), 185-6 (indicative M-P) nominative = neuter accusative; neuter pi. subject
Indirect Discourse - 52, 84 (cases with sTvai), 112
and singular verb), 47 (neuter adjective with article
(translationese for infinitive), 125 (anticipated makes abstract noun), 68 (Third Group neuter), 71
object in indirect statement), 136-39, 160, 167 (neuter used to make comparative and superlative
(reason future optative exists) adverbs), 74 (infinitive is neuter noun), 95 (neuter
Indirect Object - 27, 41 (Indo-European), 42 -EC; stem nouns), 99 (neuter adjective as inner
Indirect Question - 57 (indirect question vs. direct), 158
accusative), 211 (neuter verbal ending in -TEOV as
(ocm<;), 163-64 (the series)
impersonal verb)
Indirect Reflexive Middle - 174 Ninety-nine per cent principle - 130,134
Inflection - 109
Nominative Case - 24,27,41, 84, 103 (review), 138
Infinitive - 11, 23 (-aco infinitive), 43 (articular
(in indirect discourse)
infinitive), 57 (with OOOTE), 74 (with object), 84 Nouns - See A-Group, O-Group, Third Group, Cases
(with GOOTE), 110 (no time-marker), 124 (future Numbers -105
infinitive with jjEAAco, etc.), 130 (with rrpiv),
136-39 (Indirect Discourse, including ambiguity of 6, q, TO -See Article
infinitive) o- Contract Verbs - See -600 Verbs
Ingressive Aorist - 1 18 O-Group - 24, 30 (otoôc;, pipAiov), 45 (oooc;), 46
Inner Accusative - 99 (O-A-O Adjectives: npooTo<;trj»ov), 52
Intensive KOI - 50
(fbcx5io<;,a,ov)
Intensive OU&E - 67
-o[jcii Verbs - 9, 11, 16, 175-6,189,195
Interrogatives / questions - 1, 10 (semi-colon as
-6|j£vo<; Participles - 55
question mark), 12, 88 (TK;, TI), 125 (Spa),
Optative - 146 (overview), 147 (no time-marker), 160-
163-64 (the series), 219
161 (forms; optative of wish, potential optative,
optative in past or optative sequence), 166-167
Linguistic Change - 14-15, 30, 68, 69, 82 (optative of EIMI, periphrastic perfect optative,
optative in conditions and indirect discourse)
[jaAa, jj&AAov, (jaAioTa -71,78 ou - See Negatives above
MEV / 5s - 38, 53 -oco Verbs - 208
266
Parsing - 73-76, 110, 118, 159, 173; (as instruction) Punt - xx, 19 (defined), 156 (most perfect actives easy
118, 120, 124, 130, 134, 148, 159, 160, 173, to punt), 166 (perfect subjunctive and optative can
176, 180, 183, 195 be punted), 176 (middle easy to punt if you know
Participle - 32 (OCKOUCOV), 55 (-opevcx;), 63 (way of primary and secondary endings), 195 (future
subordinating information), 74 (can take object), passive and future perfect passive easy to punt),
82-3 (verbal adjective; forms including contract 198, 206,209; (as instruction) 19,29, 64,70,
participles; bound and circumstantial), 98 119 (four times), 129,131,149,170,176 (two
(&v,ouoa,ov; generalizing pq with participle), times), 177, 194, 199
110 (no time-marker; "continuous participle1*
preferable to "present participle"), 113 (aorist vs. Questions - 72 (noTEpov), 125 (Spa), 163-4 (the
continuous participle), 124 (future participle of series)
purpose), 138-39 (in indirect discourse), 165
(supplementary) Reduplication 155-56
Passive Voice -173-74 (overview), 175 (true Relative Pronouns - See Pronoun, Relative above
passive), 189 (passive system), 190 (UTTO + Result - 57, 84
genitive of agent), 193 (perfect passive with dative
of agent; passive deponents; true passive of middle oa- Aorist -117 And passim
deponent), 195 (all forms: AEinopar. future Secondary Endings -176
passive, future perfect passive, nonperiphrastic Series (Demonstrative, Indefinite, Relative, etc.) -163
perfect imperative passive) Sigma (changes) - 13,14,69,123,179
Perfect -108 (overview), 154-56 (perfect and Smooth Breathing Marks - 4 (best omitted)
pluperfect active: meaning and forms; Special (= Athematic) Aorists -120,211
reduplication); 158 (perfect as present), 179 Special Words for Pairs - 93
(perfect middle), 186 (perfect imperative middle), Stem - See Principal Parts, Continuous, Aorist,
193 (dative of agent with perfect passive), 195 Future, Perfect
(nonperiphrastic perfect imperative passive) Strengthened Superlative - 56
Periphrasis -166,195 (nonperiphrastic forms) Strong Aorist - See Aorist
Pitch - See Accents Subjunctive - 1, 72, 146 (overview), 147-48 (forms;
Pluperfect -154-155 (active), 179 (middle; pluperfect no time-marker, aspect not tense; hortatory,
as past tense), 189 (M-P), 196 (Greek and English) deliberative, prohibition, purpose, fearing), 150
Position - 3, 29 (postpositives), 49 (bound = (with relative pronoun; temporal; in present
attributive position vs. unbound = predicate general and future more vivid conditions)
position), 64 (povoc;), 65 (demonstratives Subordination - 63
unbound), 80 (na<;), 83 (participle: bound or Superlatives - 56 (of adjectives; strengthened
circumstantial), 93 (a|j<p6T£po<; and EK&TEPCX;), superlative), 71 (of adverb), 92 (Third Group), 93
(superlative as "exceedingly")
94 (HEOO<;) See Postpositives
Syllable Division -12
Postpositives -12 (&E), 29 (Se, oBv, yap), 32 (TE), 38
(H*v/SE),219(yE) Tense -108 (vs. aspect), 136 (indirect discourse), 146
Predicate - 41 (predicate noun, predicate adjective), 187 (only in indicative), 158 (perfect as present), 161
See Position (optative in past sequence), 176 (pluperfect as past
Prefix - 9,82,110 (time-marker) tense), 182 (past tense in impossible wishes)
Prepositions - 9,13,28 See Prefix And passim See Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect,
Present -1,13,109 (active), 110 (continuous Pluperfect
participle), 150 (present general condition), 158 -T£cx;,a,ov / -TEOV - 211
(perfect as present), 175 (middle), 176 (primary Theme Vowel ( = thematic) -117,120
endings), 195 (passive) Then Clause (= apodosis) -133 See Conditions
Primary Engings - 176 Third Group - 24,68-9 (Nouns), 77 (one-syllable
Principal Parts - 124, 156, 249-50 stems; family terms), 80 (adjectives), 92
Prior Past - 125,137, 139,154 (comparatives and superlatives), 95 (neuter -EC;
Proclitics - 34, 72, 90
stems), 164 (noXic;, paoiXeuc;), 183 (U-stems)
Pronoun, Demonstrative - 65 (o5fo<;, 88E, E*ETvo<;)
Time-Marker -109-110 (E or lengthened vowel;
Pronoun, Personal - 1,24, 25,91,96 And passim comes after prefix), 112,113,117,121,146, 156,
Pronoun, Relative - 62-3,122 (attraction), 150
(subjunctive + relative + Sv), 158 (indefinite 203 (subtract to look up word in dictionary), 217
(time-marker on VaTqpi)
relative OOTK;)
-Tcx;rTo<; -190
Pronunciation / Sounds - 4-6,12, 14,164,179
Translation - 66 (vs. translationese), 100 (traduttori,
(perfect middle) See Accents, Contract Verbs,
traditori), 147 (subjunctive), 154 (perfect active),
Sigma
196 (perfect passive)
Protasis = "if1 clause - See Conditions
Punctuation -12
267
Translationese - xx, 66 (introduction to
translationese), 109 (present vs. imperfect), 112
(aorist vs. imperfect; aorist vs. continuous
participle), 147 (subjunctive), 150 (subjunctive),
154 (perfect active), 164 (indirect relative vs.
indefinite interrogative), 171 (entire verb
paradigm), 175 (isolated middle),
True Passives -174
Two Accusatives - 38 (cpcoTac*), ahico), 84 (TTOIEO))
Two-Ending Adjective - 47 (S8iico<;,ov)
U-A-U Adjective -183

U-Stem Nouns -183
Unbound Position - 49, 65, 83
Verb - xviii, 200-201 (review of forms) And passim

See Voice (Active, Middle, Passive), Tense,
(Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect,
Pluperfect, Future Perfect), Aspect (Continuous,
Aorist, Perfect), Mood (Indicative, Subjunctive,
Optative, Imperative), Infinitive, Participle, -aco
Verbs, -ECO Verbs, -6a> Verbs
Verbal Adjectives -190,211
Vocabulary - xix, 24 (learning nouns), 204
(importance); Vocabulary Reviews: 25,60-61,
106-107,145,205,251-257 (dictionary as final
review)
Vocative - 26
Voice -173-174 See Active Voice, Middle Voice,
Passive Voice
Vowels - 6 (long and short, diphthongs)
Wishes -160 (optative), 161 (optative of wish), 170

(relative subject of wish clause), 182 (impossible
wishes)
WordOrder-27
Appendix: Embroidery in Conversation 269
The following conversation, an expansion of the script for Day # 4, is taken without change from
an audiotape of the fourth day of a beginning ancient Greek class I taught at Butler University
September 4, 1992. Time of the tape is 2 minutes and 7 seconds. I speak at nearly normal
speed, students far more slowly. Pronunciation is with uncontracted vowels.
During the two-minute interchange 155 Greek words (based on 13 lexical entries) are used
by teacher and students, 149 correctly. It is possible to present an extraordinary amount of
ancient Greek in a short time by speaking. Imagine how many Greek words could be read in two
minutes by the fourth day of class. Considerably less!
The conversation is far from boring to students. Speaking ancient Greek is challenging, and the
kernel utterances keep changing slightly. The progression goes from (a) opaco TaOra TOC
ypappaTa, (old material), to (b) eOcXco ypa9€iv Tauja ra ypappaja (more complex old
material), to (c) c'xco ypa9€iv TctuTa TO ypappara (new use of £xco), to (d) C/CA) Aeyeiv
Ta ypappaTa (new use of c'xco with new vocabulary word, Xeyco).
There is repetition of the old and sequencing of the new. We go from the better known to the
less known to the unknown. The first and second person are the most familiar. They are used
over and over again before the less familiar third person singular--^ i -is slipped in, probably
for the second time in the course.
Learning is natural and effortless. In two minutes students have earned a new usage (s'xco), a
new vocabulary word (Aeyco), have re-used the infinitive (learned the day before), and have
reviewed the hortatory subjunctive (learned on the first day), as well as having heard familiar
words over and over. Multiply this by about twenty, and you can imagine how much students
can learn, and how well they can learn it, in a single class period.
By using ancient Greek conversationally, students acquire in two weeks a working vocabulary of
over 50 words—not precariously, by studying and reading them several times, but naturally and
firmly, by repeated use, having heard these words probably 80 times on average.
Mistakes are underlined. Corrections, both self-corrections and corrections by the teacher, are in
bold face. We can see a student absorbing correction. Cammie (who will go on to be an A+
student) begins by mispronouncing e'xco and also Taura. In the end, after being gently corrected
a second time, she makes the sound of E'XCO correctly, and without any prompting, pronounces
TauTot correctly on her second time around. This is learning in action!
No one has been left out Eric has the most difficulty of all. He is never shamed. He goes at his
own slow pace. He learns primarily by visual means and is often uncomfortable without
something written in front of him. He has been told that he will be able to "catch up" once the
material is learned primarily through reading.
I once suggested sharing a panel on conversational ancient Greek with an expert on Greek
pronunciation. He replied with horror, "Oh no, I would never do that—not until I can speak
without errors." I was grateful to him for showing me the attitude that has to be forsaken if
ancient Greek is ever to be spoken. In the words of John Henry Cardinal Newman:
A man would do nothing if he waited until he could do it so well
that no one would find fault with what he has done.
Skill in embroidery develops over time. (The transcript was made during my fifth year of
teaching ancient Greek by conversation.) Please keep in mind that even the most rudimentary
conversation will please your students and is highly educational.
Paula Saffire
Butler University 1999
97O
^ 'u Conversation Based on Script for Day # 4 (p. 9)
Teacher: £> 91 Aq (looking at Cammie*, pointing to alphabet on blackboard)
opaeic; TOUTO Ta ypappaTa;
Cammie: va f, opaoi— (Cammie pronounces the omega as if it were 01.)
Teacher: (with an intonation of approval, as a prompt not a criticsm) "6p&co"—
Cammie: TOTO—
Teacher: (with the same intonation) "TauTa"—
Cammie: TO ypa|j|jaTa.
Teachen'Ta ypappara. "TOUTCC T& ypa|j(jaTa.H
Kai au, Eric, 6pa€i<; Taura TO ypappaTa;
Eric: vai, opacic—

M
Teacher: 6pao)M— (pause) "rauTa Ta—"
Eric: TauTa TO— (pause)
Teacher: "TaypappaTa11—
Eric: Taypa|j|jaTa.
Teacher: <a\ ou, & Judy, cGeXeic; ypa9€iv Taura TO ypappaTa;
eOcXciq ypoc9€iv TauTa Ta ypa(j|jaTa;
Judy: vai, eOcXcA) ypa96iv TQUTO Ta ypa|j|jaTa.
Teacher: Kai— And you know... If I say k'xco with one of those "to do" forms, with an
infinitive, it means "are you able to?" It sounds like "do you have to?" but it really
means "do you have the power to?" EXÎC; ypa9€iv TauTa Ta ypappaTa;
& Shelley, cxe|C ypa9€iv TOUTO TO ypappaTa;
Shelley: k'xco yp&9€iv TOUTO TO ypa|j|jaTa.
*Names have been changed. Gender remains the same.

271
Teacher: Yes, M E'XCO ypcÊiv TOUTO TO ypappaTa." EXEIC; Acyciv TauTa TO ypappara;
AlyEiv means "to say." Vera, EXEIC; AEyEiv TOUTO Ta ypappaTa;
Vera: vai, E'XCO Acy--?
Teacher: "AEyEiv"--
Vera: Tayrou? TOUTO?
Teacher: "TauTa11—
Vera: TaOra Ta ypa|j|jaTa.
Teacher: <L Cammie, Vera EXEi AsyEiv Taura TO ypafjjjaTa; VeraEXEi AsyEiv?
Cammie: vai, Vera XEXEI—
Teacher: (in prompting tone) " £xci"~~
Cammie: ^xci ^yciv TOUTO—TOUTQ TOC ypa|j|jaTa.
Teacher: <ai ou, EXEIC; AsyEiv TaOra Ta ypafjjjaTa; Kai au (pause), EXEIC; AEyEiv;
Cammie: vat. EXOI""
M
Teacher: fx w """
Cammie: Oh, fcx6^- ^X03 ^^yciv TOUTQ Ta ypa|j|jaTa.
Teacher: HOVTO TO ypa|j|jaTa; navTa TO ypappaTa; All of them?
Cammie: vai, HOVTO TO ypa|j|jaTa. (Cammie laughs at her own confidence.)
Teacher: ECyE. AEycojjEv—what is AEycopEv, with that -CO|JEV ending?
What is AEycojjEv?
Class (at more or less the same time): "Let's!"
Teacher: "Let's say." AEyooÊv HOVTO TO ypajjjjaTa. TTCXVTEC; a pa.
OK? All together. (Class proceeds to read the alphabet out loud from the blackboard.)
Twas brillig, and the slithy toves
Did gyre and gimble in the wabe:

All mimsy were the borogoves,
And the mome raths outgrabe.
from "Jabberwocky" by Lewis Carroll
This is nonsense, but it is controlled nonsense. We can understand the

grammar of the verse even if we don't know what the words mean. This is
what a passage in ancient Greek should look like to you after the first year.
Second-year Greek is for building up vocabulary. First-year Greek is for
mastering the grammatical forms so that the structure of a sentence will be
clear.
It is not always a trivial matter to unravel grammar. In "Jabberwocky" it is

hard to guess that "outgrabe11 is the past tense of "outgribe" as "gave11 is of
"give." So it will be in Greek. Some Greek will be immediately and
delightfully clear. At other times, the Greek will be more of a puzzle. It is
my hope that this book will give you enough information to make a start on
reading, dictionary in hand, whatever Greek you choose.
—xaipETe, & 91X01
—X°up£» & 91X5
—XoupE, & 9iXq

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ANCIENT G R E E K ALIVE

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PAULA 5 A F F I R E A N D CATHERINE FREI5

CHAPEL HILL AND LONDON

Second revised edition copyright © 1992 by Paula Reiner.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

SCRIPTS FOR CLASSES 1

Lesson 3. Accents 33 Your Handwriting is Bad 35

Lesson 4. QUTCK; as Pronoun 36 Heraclitus #1-4 224

Nasrudin and Socrates 39

LessonS. Use of Cases 41 Nasrudin Gives Figs (Nasrudin) 44

Lesson 6. Masculine A-Group Agent Nouns 45 New Testament #1 221

Lesson 7. O-A-O Adjective (npa>To<;,r|,ov) 46 New Testament #2 221

Lesson 8. Bound vs. Unbound Position 49 New Testament #3 221

Lesson 9. £,i,p Adjectives (£9<Sio<;,a,ov) 52 Heraclitus #5 224

Lesson 11. Comparatives and Superlatives 56 Heraclitus #6-9 224

Two Ionian Philosophers 58

VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 1-59) 60

Lesson 12. Relative Pronoun: &;, q, o 62 Heraclitus #10-12 224

Lesson 15. Adverbs in -ox;, -ox; 71 Mosquito's Buzz (Nigerian) 72

The New Testament 85

Lesson 19. TIC;, TI / TK;, TI 87 New Testament #6 222

Lesson 20. Proclitics and Enclitics 90 Who is Poor? (Part 3) 91

Lesson 21. Third-Group Comparatives and Superlatives 92 Heraclitus #13

Lesson 23. Personal Pronouns % Heraclitus #14 225

Lesson 24. cov o5aa, 6v 98 Graveyard #6-7 227

Turtle Tales 101

REVIEW OF GRAMMAR and SYNTAX 103

VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 62-100) 106

VERB OVERVIEW: ASPECT and TENSE 108

Lesson 27. The a-Aorist (aa or Aa) 117 Graveyard #5,15-17, 23

Lesson 30. £<*> Verbs (y\\iu>) 126 Diogenes #6 234

Lesson 31. aco Verbs (TIJJOCO) 129 Graveyard #21 229

Lesson 34. More on Indirect Discourse 138 Xenophanes #1-6 226

PRINCIPAL PARTS 141 Weighing the Elephant (Chinese)

VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 108-144) 145

VERB OVERVIEW: MOOD 146

Lesson 35. The Subjunctive 147 Famous Sayings #5 232

The Personal Muse 152

Lesson 38. oaric ryn<;, 6 TU 158 Famous Sayings #7 232

Lesson 39. The Optative 160 Graveyard #34-36 231

Lesson 41. Optative of elyi 166 Diogenes #10 234

POETRY REVIEW 168 'AonfSi ptv Zoucov 168

REVIEW OF VERB FORMS 171

REVIEW OF CONDITIONS 172

VERB OVERVIEW: VOICE 173 Famous Sayings #10 233

The Human City 178

Lesson 44. The Perfect Middle 179 Diogenes #17 235

Lesson 45. Middle Imperatives 182 Graveyard #25, 37 230, 231

Lesson 48. The Aorist Passive 192 Graveyard #41 231

REVIEW OF VERB FORMS 200

VOCABULARY REVIEW (pp. 145-199) 205

Lesson 53. TiOqpu Vripi 214 Graveyard #29 230

Lesson 54. VaTr|M'» SiSoapi 217 Famous Sayings #17 233

PRINCIPAL PARTS 249

GREEK-ENGLISH DICTIONARY 251

ENGLISH-GREEK DICTIONARY 258

APPENDIX: Embroidery in Conversation 269

For other stories, I thank the following storytellers and publishers:

Everything I learned by speaking I remember.

A number of people have helped to make the book what it is today:

Paula Saffire, Butler University, 1999

Bronze Age Greece

Iron Age Greece