MODULE TITLE : CONTROL SYSTEMS AND AUTOMATION

TOPIC TITLE : BASIC PRINCIPLES

LESSON 5 : BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

CSA - 1 - 5

© Teesside University 2011

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________________________________________________________________________________________

INTRODUCTION
________________________________________________________________________________________

For simulation purposes, it is useful if a system can be represented mathematically.

In this lesson we introduce techniques employed to achieve this. You will find
that throughout later lessons the subject recurs frequently.

________________________________________________________________________________________

YOUR AIMS
________________________________________________________________________________________

On completion of this lesson you should be able to:

• describe different error detection techniques

• mathematically derive an overall transfer function for a closed loop

system from a given series of individual transfer functions.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

BLOCK DIAGRAMS AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

________________________________________________________________________________________

We saw in an earlier lesson that a simple closed loop system can be

represented by a block diagram similar to that which follows:

Error or
deviation signal
Forward path
Desired
value Control Correcting Plant or Controlled
Comparator element (actuator) condition
or set element process
point
Controller

Sensor (detecting
/measuring element)

Feedback path

FIG. 1

The part of the loop containing the controller, correcting element and the
process is known as the forward path, and the part with the measuring element
is known as the feedback path. We have introduced into the loop the
comparator and the control element, which together make up the controller.

We will consider the control element in some detail later, but for the present
consider it to be an amplifier.

The comparator takes the measured value from the measuring element and
subtracts it from the desired value. The resulting value, therefore, represents
the error or deviation between the actual system output and the required
system output.

Some typical comparator mechanisms are described on the following pages.

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DIFFERENTIAL LINKAGE ARRANGEMENT

As you can see from the linkage arrangement in FIGURE 2, when the link
which is attached to the measured value moves down, the error linkage moves
up. Also, when the desired value linkage moves down, the error linkage
moves down.

The symmetry of the linkages means that if both measured and desired value
linkages are moved together either up or down there is no resultant error
linkage movement. In practical terms this means that when the measured
value is in line with the desired value anywhere on the instrument scale, then
no corrective action will be taken because the error linkage is in the "no error"
position.

Fixed pivots Desired

value
Measured
value

End linkage

Error linkage

Nozzle
Flapper

FIG. 2

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The movement of the error linkage satisfies the two basic conditions for a
comparator device which are:

• its direction of movement is dictated by the "direction" of the deviation

(i.e. high measured value or low measured value)

• the amount of movement of the error linkage is proportional to the

magnitude of the deviation.

OPPOSITION BELLOWS

Desired value (Dv)

Movement when Dv greater

Movement when Mv greater

Measured value (Mv)

FIG. 3

The system should be self explanatory. Each set of bellows receives a

pneumatic signal. One signal represents the process measured value and the
other represents the desired value. The resultant movement of the right-hand
side of the beam is dependent on the magnitude and "direction" of the
difference between the signals.

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VOLTAGE DROPS IN OPPOSITION

The system shown in FIGURE 4 employs two resistors which are an identical
"matched pair". Any individual resistor failure, therefore, requires replacement
of both resistors.

Desired +
X
value +

VD R

– –
VOUT = VD – VM
–
VM R

Measured +
value Y
+

FIG. 4

The two circuits have a common return. This ensures that the voltage drops
across the resistors are in opposite directions. If the current representing the
measured value is higher than that of the desired value then the voltage drop
across the bottom resistor will be the greater. Therefore, at the output
terminals, terminal Y will be positive with respect to terminal X.

By a similar argument, if the measured value is less than the desired value then
the voltage drop across the bottom resistor will be smaller than that across the
top one. Terminal X will, therefore, be positive with respect to terminal Y.
Hence,

• the magnitude of the output voltage is proportional to the difference

between the desired value and measured value

• the polarity of the output voltage is determined by the "direction" of the

deviation.

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From a block diagram point of view it is normal to represent a comparator,

whatever the type, by the following symbol.

Desired (D ) (ε) Deviation

value v + or error
–

(Mv)
Measured
value

FIG. 5

Mathematically, the relationship between the deviation (ε, the Greek letter
‘epsilon’) and measured and desired values is given by the expression

ε = Dv – M v

For the rest of the “blocks” shown in the control loop of FIGURE 1, we will
assign them mathematical expressions which we will term transfer functions.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

TRANSFER FUNCTIONS
________________________________________________________________________________________

Transfer functions can range from a simple algebraic expression to complex

differential equations and we will look at some of these in more detail later in
this module. In this lesson we deal only with the simplest relationships.

A transfer function can be defined as the mathematical relationship

between the input and the output of a system.

Consider a single element within the block diagram as shown in FIGURE 6.

X Y
K

FIG. 6

X is the input signal to the block

Y is the output signal from the block
K is the transfer function of the block.

We will assume, in this case, that the block represents a simple amplification
of the input signal – known as gain. Therefore, the relationship represented by
the block is given by:

Y
= K
X

or Y = XK

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This is the mathematical way of saying that the element’s output equals the
element’s input multiplied by the transfer function for the element. It is
normal in Process Control engineering to denote the input and output variable
by the symbol 'θ ' (the Greek letter 'theta'), such that:

θi = X the system input

θo = Y the system output.

In terms of transfer functions the block diagram for the closed loop system in
FIGURE 1 becomes:

θi ε θo
+ Kc Kv Kp
–

Mv
Km

FIG. 7

where ε is the deviation or error

θo is the final controlled condition
θi is the desired value (set point)
Mv is the measured value
Kc is the transfer function of the controller
Kv is the transfer function of the correcting element
Kp is the transfer function of the plant or process
Km is the transfer function of the measuring element.

The notation can be used to simplify the system and reduce it to a single block.

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Consider the forward path of the system as shown in FIGURE 8.

ε A B θo
Kc Kv Kp

FIG. 8

These blocks are "in cascade" because the output of one block becomes the
input to the next. For example, A is the output of the first block and the input
to the second block. Writing the equation for the output of each block in terms
of its own input and transfer function we obtain the following set of equations.

A = ε Kc Equation 1

B = AKv Equation 2

θo = BKp Equation 3

Using Equation 1, we can substitute for A in Equation 2 to give:

B = εKcKv Equation 4

Now, using Equation 4, substitute for B in Equation 3:

θo = εKcKvKp Equation 5

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Kc, Kv and Kp are constants representing gain values which can be represented
by a single gain term, K, where:

KcKv Kp = K

This allows us to simplify Equation 5 into the form of Equation 6 below

θo = ε K Equation 6

and to reduce the block diagram shown in FIGURE 8 to the form given in
FIGURE 9.

θi ε θo
+ K
–

Mv
Km

FIG. 9

You might like to pause at this point and check that you can clearly see how
FIGURE 9 is derived from FIGURE 8. If you are unclear, then study the last
few pages again as this particular problem is considered again in Self-
Assessment Question 1 of this lesson.

We shall now proceed to simplify the system further.

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From FIGURE 9 we can see that the output of the comparator is given by:

ε = θi – Mv Equation 7

and Mv = θoKm Equation 8

Using Equation 8, substitute for Mv in Equation 7:

ε = θi – θoKm Equation 9

but earlier we had θo = ε K Equation 6

and substituting for ε from equation 9 into equation 6 gives:

θo = (θi – θo Km)K

Hence θo = θi K – θoKKm

Collecting θo terms:

θo + θoKKm = θi K

Factorising:

θo(1 + KKm) = θi K

θi K
Hence: θo =
(1 + KK m )

θo K
=
Giving:
θi (1 + KK m ) Equation 10

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Equation 10 relates the system output and input, therefore,

K
1 + KK m

can be regarded as the transfer function for the complete system.

This allows the block diagram to be reduced to a single block, as shown in

FIGURE 10.

θi θo
K
(1 + K Km)

FIG. 10

You should now appreciate that block diagrams and transfer functions can be
used to simplify complex systems.

Block diagrams can also be drawn to illustrate how an actual instrument itself
functions because many instruments have internal feedback and hence form a
type of control loop which is often part of a larger loop.

For instance, consider a "current to air" or I/P transducer. FIGURE 11 shows a

schematic diagram of such a transducer. This device may be part of a larger
process control loop.

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a c

Input coil
Iin Nozzle
Feedback
bellows
Magnet Relay

Air supply

Pout

FIG. 11

FIGURE 12 shows the block diagram representation of the I/P transducer

shown in FIGURE 11.

With reference to FIGURE 12, note that the nozzle is a comparator device. It
compares the movement of the beam due to the input coil force with the
movement of the beam due to the feedback bellow force. Any net movement
of the flapper directly in front of the nozzle alters the back pressure and
ultimately the output pressure from the transducer.

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Movement of
flapper beam due to
input current

Force created by current

and magnet creates Net movement of flapper
movement of beam which beam in front of nozzle
is magnified by lever rule

Input
current Pout
Flapper/nozzle Relay
KI K=b +
a characteristics characteristics
–

Feedback
Movement of flapper Km = b bellows
c
beam due to feedback characteristics
bellows

FIG. 12

Having looked at transfer functions, attempt the following Self-Assessment

Questions to test your understanding of the lesson.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTES
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________________________________________________________________________________________

SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
________________________________________________________________________________________

1. Determine the overall gain of the system shown in FIGURE 13, if

Kc = 4, Kv = 10 and Kp = 0.5.

ε A B θo
Kc Kv Kp

FIG. 13

2. Given the system shown in FIGURE 14, derive the overall transfer
θ
function o .
θi
(Hint: the feedback path has no “block”; therefore, it has a transfer
function of unity, i.e. 1).

θi ε θo
+ G
–

FIG. 14

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3. (a) Given the following system shown in FIGURE 15, derive a

mathematical expression for the overall transfer function.

θi ε θo
+ G
–

FIG. 15

(b) If G has a gain of 12 and H has a gain of 0.25 determine the gain of
the closed loop system.

4. For the I/P transducer shown in block diagram form in FIGURE 16

(overleaf), determine the closed loop transfer function.

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Iin x ε Pout
K1 K= b + K2 K3
a
–

Km = b B
c

FIG. 16

K1 represents the relationship (transfer function) between the input

current and the coil force

K2 represents the transfer function of the nozzle/flapper

K3 represents the transfer function of the relay

B represents the transfer function of the feedback bellows.

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________________________________________________________________________________________

NOTES
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________________________________________________________________________________________

ANSWERS TO SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

________________________________________________________________________________________

1. The overall gain of the system is as follows:

θo
= Kc KvKp
ε

= 4 × 10 × 0.5

= 20

2. For the comparator ε = θi – θo Equation 1

For the forward path θo = Gε Equation 2

From (1), substituting for ε in equation (2).

θ o = G (θ i – θ o )

= Gθ i – Gθ o

θ o + Gθ o = Gθ i

θ o (1 + G ) = Gθ i

θo G
∴ =
θi (1 + G )

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3. (a) FIGURE 15 is reproduced for your convenience.

θi ε θo
+ G
–
Hθo

FIG. 15 (Reproduced)

Note the feedback signal to the comparator is modified by block H to

Hθo which has been added to the figure.

θ o = Gε

but ε = θi – Hθo

Substituting for ε:

θ o = G (θ i – H θ o )

θ o = Gθ i – GH θ o

θ o + GH θ o = Gθ i

θ o (1 + GH ) = Gθ i

θo G
∴ =
θi (1 + GH )

This is the overall transfer function of the system.

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(b) If G = 12 and H = 0.25

θo 12
=
θi (1 + 12 ( 0.25 ))
12
=
1 + 3

= 3

4. I x ε Pout
in
K1 K= b + K2 K3
a
–

Km = b B
c

FIG. 16 (Reproduced)

Pout = K 2 K 3ε

but ε = x – y
K1bI in
where x = K1 KI in =
a
b
and y = BK m Pout = B Pout
c
hence Pout = K 2 K 3ε = K 2 K 3 ( x – y )

⎛ b b ⎞
= K 2 K 3 ⎜ K1 I in – B Pout ⎟
⎝ a c ⎠

⎛ b ⎞ ⎛ b ⎞
= ⎜ K 2 K 3 K1 I in ⎟ – ⎜ K 2 K 3 B Pout ⎟
⎝ a ⎠ ⎝ c ⎠

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b b
Pout + K 2 K 3 B Pout = K 2 K 3 K1 I in
c a

⎛ b⎞ b
Pout ⎜ 1 + K 2 K 3 B ⎟ = K 2 K 3 K1 I in
⎝ c⎠ a

b
Pout K 2 K 3 K1
= a
I in ⎛ b⎞
⎜⎝ 1 + K 2 K 3 B ⎟⎠
c

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________________________________________________________________________________________

SUMMARY
________________________________________________________________________________________

Block diagrams can be used to represent complex control systems.

Transfer functions can be used to mathematically describe complex control

systems.

For the following typical system:

θi ε θo
+ G
–
Hθo

FIG. 15 (Reproduced)

θo open loop gain

Closed loop gain = =
θi {1 + open loop gain × feedback path gain}

θo G
=
θi (1 + GH )

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Hence the closed loop in FIGURE 15 can be simplified to one block as shown
in FIGURE 17.

θi θo
G
(1 + GH)

FIG. 17

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