3D Printed Foods A Comprehensive Review On Technologies Nutritional Value Safety Consumer Attitude Regulatory Framework and Economic and

Food Reviews International
ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20
3D Printed Foods: A Comprehensive Review on

Technologies, Nutritional Value, Safety, Consumer
Attitude, Regulatory Framework, and Economic
and Sustainability Issues
Antonietta Baiano
To cite this article: Antonietta Baiano (2020): 3D Printed Foods: A Comprehensive Review on
Technologies, Nutritional Value, Safety, Consumer Attitude, Regulatory Framework, and Economic
and Sustainability Issues, Food Reviews International, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2020.1762091
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1762091
Published online: 15 May 2020.
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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2020.1762091
3D Printed Foods: A Comprehensive Review on Technologies,

Nutritional Value, Safety, Consumer Attitude, Regulatory
Framework, and Economic and Sustainability Issues
Antonietta Baiano
Dipartimento Di Scienze Agrarie, Degli Alimenti E dell’Ambiente, University of Foggia, Foggia, Italy
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Three-dimensional printing can be successfully applied in the food Additive manufacturing;
sector to fabricate 3D foods with complex geometries, customized customized food; digital
texture, and tailored nutritional contents. The concrete application of gastronomy;
3D printing to foods began in the early 2000 s. This work is aimed to extrusion-based printing;
personalized nutrition
provide a comprehensive overview of 3D printed foods. Details and
issues concerning ingredients and technologies available for 3D food
printing are supplied as well as the discussion of aspects such as
nutritional values, safety, acceptability, sustainability, and legal frame-
work of 3D printed foods.
The main 3D food applications are based on the extrusion technol-
ogy and concern natively printable materials such as cereal derivatives
and chocolate. However, interesting applications concern alternative
ingredients such as proteins and fibres isolated from insects, algae,
microorganisms, and agri-food residues. Microbiological contamination
and migration of toxic substances from printer elements can occur, but
effective cleaning protocols and the use of materials authorized to
come into contact with foods guarantee the necessary safety stan-
dards. A serious issue concerns acceptability of 3D printed foods, since
it is greatly affected by their unusual appearance. From a legal point of
view, 3D printed foods should be considered as “novel foods”. 3D food
printing should be considered an opportunity for the development of
new business strategies as well as a way to increase the food supply
chain sustainability. The future perspectives of 3D food printing
include the combination of 3D food printing and cooking on a single
machine and the development of the 4D printing.
Introduction
The growing interest of researchers toward 3D food printing is proven by the high number of
scientific articles published on this topic. The search of “3D printed food” keyword in one of
the most accessed abstract and citation database (https://www.elsevier.com/solutions/scopus)
gave a result of 261 researches from 2010 to 16th March 2020.[1] Distribution of the papers by
publication year, Country, document type, subject area, and language is reported in Fig. 1.
About 93% of papers have been published since 2015 and 9.5% of them have been published in
the first 2.5 months of 2020 (Fig. 1a). The most active researchers in this field come from
North America, far East, and Western Europe. In fact, about 23% of papers have been
published by US researchers, followed by Chinese (~20%), and Australian (~16%), scientists
CONTACT Antonietta Baiano antonietta.baiano@unifg.it Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti

e dell’Ambiente, University of Foggia, Via Napoli, 25, 71122 Foggia, Italy
© 2020 Taylor & Francis
2 A. BAIANO
Figure 1. Number of the research papers by (a) publication year, (b) Country, (c) document type, (d)
subject area, (e) language.
(Fig. 1b). Concerning the document types (Fig. 1c), journal articles account for about 69%,
followed by conference paper (~18%), and review (~7.7%). The high percentage of conference
papers represents an exception in the panorama of scientific literature. This is because the
progress of research on 3D food printing is very fast and the obtained results must be
disseminated just as quickly. Only 18% of the papers are open access. Regarding the subject
area (Fig. 1d), most of the papers are classified in the ‘Engineering’ and ‘Agricultural and
Biological Sciences’ (~38% and 31%, respectively), followed by ‘Chemistry’, ‘Computer
Science’, and ‘Materials Science’, each of them accounts for 17-18%). Most of the papers
(98%) are written in English (Fig. 1e).
The use of 3D printing for food production has also gaining the interest of inventors
and potential applicants. Many progresses have been made since the early patents were
published. The first applications generally concerned cakes. In particular, the patent 6
USD,280,784 B1 concerns a method to use 3D printing for production of foods with
complex structures such as customized birthday cake.[2] The patent describes the way to
produce a computer-aided design, which could be a drawing, an image, or a geometry
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 3
representation, and provides a support suitable to hold the cake during fabrication and
a dispensing head that delivers strands of the food formulation. This food formulation also
includes a volatile ingredient useful to maintain the same formulation in a fluid state and
that can be rapidly removed when the formulation is dispensed onto a support. After
removal of the volatile ingredient, the dispensed formulation solidifies and the resulting
rigid structure can support the overlying layers. The patent 6 USD,280,785 B1 differs from
the previous invention for the state of the food formulation, which is not fully solid since
amounts of water, cooking oil, egg, syrup, liquid chocolate, and icing are present.[3] This
non-solid state does not compromise the stability of the structure whose rigidity and
strength is sufficient to support the weight of the overlying layers.
Table 1 provides an overview of the most relevant patents concerning 3D food printing
and published worldwide from 2013.[4] The patents found cover topics such as 3D food
printers, 3D food printing methods, and 3D food materials.
3D food printing
3D printing is an additive manufacturing process in which a three-dimensional object is
fabricated by laying down successive layers of material.[5]
The history of 3D printing can be ideally divided into three stages: from 1981 to 1999;
from 2000 to 2010; from 2010 to now. The origins of 3D printing date back in the1980 s,
when it was known as ‘Rapid Prototyping’ (RP), a term referred to techniques applied to
quickly create a scale model of an object using three-dimensional computer-aided design
(CAD) data.[6] The first uses of 3D printing were just the creation of engineering
prototypes. Successively, Rapid Prototyping techniques have been increasingly used in
no prototyping applications and, for this reason, the term ‘layered manufacturing’ can be
considered as more appropriate since it better explains the underlying fabrication process.
The following dates marked the first stage of the evolution of 3D printing:[7]
● 1984: Chuck Hull invented and patented a stereolithography apparatus machine;

● 1986: in the United States, Carl Deckard, Joe Beaman, Paul Forderhase and others
started from the ideas of Chuck Hull and patented an invention concerning Selective
Laser Sintering (SLS);
● 1988: Crump patented the Fused Deposition Modelling;
● 1993: Electron Beam Melting (EBM) was patented.
In the second stage of the 3D printing history (2000–2010), the first 3D printed organs
were produced. In particular, 3D printing was used to supply the scaffold of the organ to
be planted. Then, the scaffold was coated with human cells taken from the real patients in
order to avoid the implant rejection. In that stage, the first functional kidney, prosthetic
leg, and bio-printed blood vessels were 3D printed. In 2005, an Irish company started to
use an additive method named Paper 3D laminated printing. A 3D printer able to print on
its own the majority of its components was realised thanks to the technology of the Self
Replicating Rapid Prototyper. All the products created with this project were published
with open source licences (open-source RepRap and FAB@Home projects). In 2009, the
‘Kickstarter‘ website was created. It is a worldwide known funding platform for creative
projects that has allowed the crowd-funding of several 3D-printing-related projects.
4 A. BAIANO
Table 1. List of some of the most relevant patents concerning 3D printed foods published from 2013.[4].
Publication
Topics of the Patents Publication number date
Automatic food detection, 3D food printing processing and method CN109875085 (A) 2019-06-14
3D food printing CN209017876 (U) 2019-06-25
3D food printing equipment with drying structure CN208909117 (U) 2019-05-31
3D thermoelectric printer for foods CN109645538 (A) 2019-04-19
Continuous food 3D printer CN109645536 (A) 2019-04-19
Equipment and method for microwave-assisted 3D food printing CN109363221 (A) 2019-02-22
3D food printer CN109349674 (A) 2019-02-19
3D printing of salty and fresh rice flour type dessert CN109156710 (A) 2019-01-08
Equipment and method for 3D printing of tailored nutritious food CN109007945 (A) 2018-12-18
3D printed foods WO2018226217 (A1) 2018-12-13
Preparation and use of 3D printed material based on dried persimmon CN108813708 (A) 2018-11-16
3D food printer based on IR sensor housing KR101910589 (B1) 2018-10-22
Preparation of composite starch 3D printing material WO2018171630 (A1) 2018-09-27
3D printing of ready-to-eat food WO2018171629 (A1); 2018-09-27
WO2018171629 (A9)
Preparation of potato starch-based 3D printing material WO2018171050 (A1) 2018-09-27
Shower nozzle of 3D food printer CN207855006 (U) 2018-09-14
Use of concentrated fruit pulp for 3D printing of bicolor sandwich dessert CN108477540 (A) 2018-09-04
3D Printer and Cloud Operating System for Monkey-bars KR101975336 (B1); 2019-02-20
KR20190017372 (A)
Method and device for 3D food printing CN109419028 (A) 2019-03-05
Microwave-assisted 3D food printing CN109363221 (A) 2019-02-22
Device for whipping cream preparation KR20190005476 (A) 2019-01-16
Cartridge units, food forming device, and cooking equipment CN109310139 (A) 2019-02-05
Washing device for 3D food printer CN109288106 (A) 2019-02-01
3D printing equipment to process complex material KR20190001463 (A) 2019-01-04
3D food printing equipment and method KR101971093 (B1); 2019-01-07
KR20190001948 (A)
3D food printing of material rich in dietary fiber CN109198650 (A) 2019-01-15
Eco-friendly manufacturing method of peptide derived from cocoon KR101931363 (B1) 2018-12-20
3D food model printer CN109170994 (A) 2019-01-11
3D enzymatic food printing and method CN109170875 (A) 2019-01-11
3D milk candy preparation method CN109090322 (A) 2018-12-28
3D printing of minced shrimp material CN109077259 (A) 2018-12-25
3D printing of minced fillet material CN109077256 (A) 2018-12-25
3D printing of minced meat material CN109077251 (A) 2018-12-25
3D food printing equipment CN109042788 (A) 2018-12-21
3D printing of high-protein semifluid instant food CN109090616 (A) 2018-12-28
3D food printing equipment CN109049675 (A) 2018-12-21
3D printing of nutritious tailored food CN109007945 (A) 2018-12-18
Discharging device for 3D multi-material food printer CN109007942 (A) 2018-12-18
3D printing of composite starch and persimmon juice CN108851021 (A) 2018-11-23
3D food printer equipped with an extrusion system based on force/position CN108851159 (A) 2018-11-23
mixed control
3D printing of persimmon juice and flour CN108835513 (A) 2018-11-20
3D printing of dried persimmon-based material CN108813708 (A) 2018-11-16
Ink-jet 3D food printer equipped with an image sensor positioning for high KR101910596 (B1) 2018-10-22
precision printing
Ink-jet 3D food printer equipped with an IR sensor housing for high KR101910589 (B1) 2018-10-22
precision printing
3D printing for preparation of instant milk protein gel CN108740284 (A) 2018-11-06
3D printing method for improve digestibility of highland barley starch WO2018196356 (A1) 2018-11-01
3D printing of composite starch WO2018171630 (A1) 2018-09-27
3D printing of ready-to-eat food WO2018171629 (A1); 2018-09-27
WO2018171629 (A9)
3D printing of potato starch material WO2018171050 (A1) 2018-09-27
Shower nozzle for 3D food printers CN207855006 (U) 2018-09-14
(Continued )
Table 1. (Continued).
Publication
A 3D print -head for producing puffed food CN207803427 (U) 2018-09-04
Thermoelectric heating spray head for 3D food printer CN108402506 (A) 2018-08-17
3D printing of thawed surimi system US2018199614 (A1) 2018-07-19
3D printing of instant recuperation mashed potato US2018199615 (A1) 2018-07-19
Linear peristaltic pump for 3D food printing CN108260840 (A) 2018-07-10
3D printing of potato starch-based food CN108208768 (A) 2018-06-29
3D food printing KR101940063 (B1); 2018-06-08
KR20180061679 (A)
3D cake printer CN207519525 (U) 2018-06-22
Screw drive extruder for 3D printing of semifluid food CN207341161 (U) 2018-05-11
Detachable 3D food printing equipment CN108113038 (A) 2018-06-05
3D printing of Chenopodium quinoa mashed potato food CN108029947 (A) 2018-05-15
3D printing of purple perilla mashed potato foods CN107927656 (A) 2018-04-20
3D pancake printer CN207167567 (U) 2018-04-03
3D food machine CN207136083 (U) 2018-03-27
3D food printer CN207140357 (U) 2018-03-27
3D printing equipment for mix food CN207136199 (U) 2018-03-27
3D printing equipment and extrusion device for mix food CN207136080 (U) 2018-03-27
3D birthday cake printer CN207100350 (U) 2018-03-16
Extruding system for 3D food printers CN107802023 (A) 2018-03-16
Rapid shaping device for 3D food printing CN107788054 (A) 2018-03-13
Formula regulating and control method for improving moldability and AU2017206188 (A1); 2018-03-08
precision performance in 3D printing of high-sucrose system AU2017206188 (B2)
3D pizza printer CN207040660 (U) 2018-02-27
3D chocolate printer CN207023131 (U) 2018-02-23
Extrusion system for 3D half-fluid food printer CN107752113 (A) 2018-03-06
Flexible 3D food printing system CN107752111 (A) 2018-03-06
Addition of functional carbohydrate to improve moldability and 3D US2018049464 (A1) 2018-02-22
precision printing performance of high-fiber dough
3D food printer with two printing nozzles WO2018027889 (A1) 2018-02-15
3D printed food US10349663 (B2); 2018-02-15
US2018042245 (A1)
3D printing of gelatinized confections CN107668306 (A) 2018-02-09
Food safety and 3D food printer KR20170126107 (A) 2017-11-17
Mechanism for feeding of raw material to a 3D food printer TWM549150 (U) 2017-09-21
3D food printer WO2017177576 (A1) 2017-10-19
3D food printer US2017295816 (A1) 2017-10-19
3D printing of nutritious coarse cereal cookie CN107242266 (A) 2017-10-13
Platform device of 3D food printer CN206078992 (U) 2017-04-12
Temperature-adjustable 3D food printer CN107223748 (A) 2017-10-03
3D printing of muffin preblend powder CN107136150 (A) 2017-09-08
3D mixed food printer CN107125280 (A); 2017-09-05
CN107125280 (B)
3D printing Method of nutritive staple food grain biscuits CN107079958 (A) 2017-08-22
3D printer for pancake preparation CN206390111 (U) 2017-08-11
3D pizza printer CN106942308 (A) 2017-07-14
3D cake printer CN107006549 (A) 2017-08-04
3D printing to produce supplemented children foods CN106983140 (A) 2017-07-28
3D printing squeezing assembly for blended food CN106983171 (A); 2017-07-28
CN106983171 (B)
food 3D food printer equipped with spraying components CN106901391 (A) 2017-06-30
Cylinder body reciprocating type extruder used for 3D food printing CN106863797 (A) 2017-06-20
3D food printing pen CN106819312 (A) 2017-06-13
3D ice cream printer CN206284298 (U) 2017-06-30
3D food printing HK1221876 (A1) 2017-06-16
Powder bed 3D food printing US2017164650 (A1) 2017-06-15
3D food mold processing CN206227699 (U) 2017-06-09
(Continued )
6 A. BAIANO
Publication
3D food printing method CN106723241 (A); 2017-05-31
CN106723241 (B)
3D printing precision molding for preparation of glutinous rice ball cake CN106720897 (A) 2017-05-31
regulated ice cream
3Dprinting of nano minced meat powder CN106616388 (A) 2017-05-10
Device and method for 3D food printing CN106579516 (A) 2017-04-26
Device and method for 3D ice cream printing CN106578317 (A) 2017-04-26
3D food printing apparatus CN206119134 (U) 2017-04-26
Use of ultrasounds for preparing food mixtures before 3D printing TW201700156 (A) 2017-01-01
Multi -functional 3D food printer CN206025173 (U) 2017-03-22
Motion control system for 3D printing of fluid food CN106490663 (A) 2017-03-15
3D food printer with two printing nozzle CN205993485 (U) 2017-03-08
3D food print system CN205947092 (U) 2017-02-15
Automatic adjustment and dynamic compensation system for the gap TWM530234 (U) 2016-10-11
between discharge port and loading platform in a 3D food printing
3D food printer with a piston motion that spouts material in succession CN205902748 (U) 2017-01-25
3D printing device for liquid-state food material CN106262994 (A) 2017-01-04
3D printing of coix seed rice flour CN106261484 (A) 2017-01-04
3D printing device for solid food CN106235366 (A) 2016-12-21
3D food printing device CN106235365 (A) 2016-12-21
3D printing of oat and rice flour CN106234931 (A) 2016-12-21
3D printing of hawthorn rice powder CN106234933 (A) 2016-12-21
3D printing of Fructus momordicae rice flour CN106234932 (A) 2016-12-21
3D printing of red-date-rice-flour CN106213156 (A) 2016-12-14
3D printing of mung bean rice flour CN106213153 (A) 2016-12-14
3D printing of Longan and rice flour CN106213154 (A) 2016-12-14
3D printing of Chinese yam and rice flour CN106213155 (A) 2016-12-14
3D printing of fig rice noodle CN106213132 (A) 2016-12-14
3D printing of sweet potato-rice flour CN106173891 (A) 2016-12-07
3D printing of pumpkin rice flour CN106173867 (A) 2016-12-07
3D printing of blueberry rice flour CN106173866 (A) 2016-12-07
3D printing of mulberry rice noodle CN106173868 (A) 2016-12-07
3D printing of corn and rice flour CN106071742 (A) 2016-11-09
Extrusion device for 3D food printing CN205695626 (U) 2016-11-23
3D printing of Hericium erinaceus rice noodle CN106071739 (A) 2016-11-09
3D printing of tomato rice flour CN106071740 (A) 2016-11-09
Method and device for 3D food printing CN105982342 (A) 2016-10-05
Extruding device for 3D food printer CN105982343 (A) 2016-10-05
Removable nozzle module for 3D food printer KR101655091 (B1) 2016-09-07
Method for high resolution food decoration GB2551834 (A) 2018-01-03
3D printer for candies CN205409458 (U) 2016-08-03
Curing and conveying device for 3D food printer CN105639015 (A) 2016-06-08
Suspension type 3D food printing method CN105661426 (A) 2016-06-15
3D food printing equipment with far-end feeding CN105661607 (A); 2016-06-15
CN105661607 (B)
3D food printing equipment and method CN105595386 (A); 2016-05-25
CN105595386 (B)
3D printing of edible Compositions US2016106142 (A1) 2016-04-21
Food composition WO2016150960 (A1) 2016-09-29
Method for rapid 3D food printing CN105394801 (A) 2016-03-16
3D food printer equipped with a mechanical arm CN105341280 (A) 2016-02-24
3D printer for chocolate CN204949368 (U) 2016-01-13
3D equipment for coloured food printing CN105196553 (A) 2015-12-30
3D printer for rare sea food CN105196542 (A) 2015-12-30
Multi-functional 3D food printing equipment CN204811722 (U) 2015-12-02
Quick 3D food printing CN204763065 (U) 2015-11-18
(Continued )
Publication
3D printing of palmin type chocolate CN104996691 (A) 2015-10-28
3D food printing US2015287123 (A1) 2015-10-08
3D printing of cocoa butter substitute chocolate CN104938738 (A) 2015-09-30
Material and method for 3D food printing CN104938562 (A); 2015-09-30
CN104938562 (B)
3D food printer CN104921281 (A); 2015-09-23
CN104921281 (B)
Detachable 3D foodprinting device CN204635061 (U) 2015-09-16
3D food printer with Five-af linkage CN204540780 (U) 2015-08-12
Storage device suitable for 3D printing of non-dairy cream CN204426503 (U) 2015-07-01
3D printing equipment and process of non-dairy cream CN104687222 (A); 2015-06-10
CN104687222 (B)
3D food printer with five-axis linkage CN104643277 (A); 2015-05-27
CN104643277 (B)
3D printing of multi-flavour sandwiched foods CN104365954 (A) 2015-02-25
3D food printing equipment with three linkage arms CN204104797 (U) 2015-01-21
3D printing of edible wax-based materials CN104294405 (A) 2015-01-21
3D printing equipment for multi-material food CN204070482 (U) 2015-01-07
Triple-arm 3D food printing and rapid prototyping equipment CN104207319 (A); 2014-12-17
CN104207319 (B)
Equipment and method for laser 3D food printing CN103932368 (A); 2014-07-23
CN103932368 (B)
3D printing equipment and method for controllable powder spray food CN103932367 (A); 2014-07-23
CN103932367 (B)
3D printing of personalized cake CN103907662 (A); 2014-07-09
CN103907662 (B)
Device for 3D printing of desserts CN203661901 (U) 2014-06-25
Device and method for 3D printing of desserts CN103734216 (A); 2014-04-23
CN103734216 (B)
3D food printing device and method CN103720021 (A); 2014-04-16
CN103720021 (B)
3D printing equipment for soft foods CN103315371 (A) 2013-09-25
Multifunctional 3D food printer CN203136994 (U) 2013-08-21
Always in that stage, the progress in 3D printing technologies and the production of
printable materials allowed to obtain 3D printed objects comparable with the traditionally
manufactured ones.[5]
The last decade (from 2011 to now) is characterized by cheaper and more user-friendly
3D printers, increasing accuracy of 3D printing, easier design of 3D models, and avail-
ability of free software.
The use of 3D printing technologies for the fabrication of food products is increasingly
stimulating the interest of researchers and producers. It can be defined as a digitally
controlled, robotic process suitable to fabricate complex solid foods layer by layer and to
fuse layers together by applying phase transitions or chemical reactions.[8] The first food
printer concept date back to 1960 s, when the popular movie Star Trek described
a “replicating machine” able to produce meals upon request.[9] But only in 2001,
Nanotek Instruments Inc. patented a method for 3D fabrication of customized birthday
cake (it was described in the Introduction). Nevertheless, no physical prototype was built.
Successively, a Moléculaire concept design, which introduced molecular gastronomy into
a 3D food printer, was presented to the Electrolux Design Lab competition. This concept
concerned the possibility of printing multiple materials using a small robotic arm and
8 A. BAIANO
creating a customized meal starting from conventional food ingredients. Another concept
idea concerned the Philips Food Creation Printer, in which food cartridges could be used
to create custom-designed foods and an interactive graphical interface allowed the choice
of the ingredients, and the setting of dosis and food properties. Other three conceptual
designs, named Virtuoso Mixer, Digital Fabricator, and Robotic Chef and combining
digital gastronomy concept and food printer design were proposed by the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology (MIT).[9] The evolution of 3D food printing was marked by other
fundamental steps such as the application of extrusion technology to the 3D printing
(2006), and the 3D printing of: sugary materials (2006–2009); foods easy to chew and
swallow for elderly people (2012–2015); sugar sculptures (2013); in vitro meat (2013);
chocolate (2014), and pasta (2015).
A standard food printer mainly consists of three blocks: a computer, which allows the
interaction between the user and the printer through a software; the software, which allows
the computer to communicate with the motor control box; and the food printer motors,
which is controlled by the control box.[10] In turn, the food printer platform consists of
a XYZ three axis motorized stage, one or more dispensing/sintering units, and a user inter-
face. As a result, the food is produced in a real-time way by deposition or sintering, point by
point and layer by layer, according to computerized design modelling and path planning. The
functions proposed are: metering, mixing, dispensing, and heating/cooling.[11]
The 3D food printing is performed through three-steps: 3D model building, objects
printing, and post-treatment. The 3D model building is obtained through the designing
of 3D model by Computer-Aided Design (CAD) or, as an alternative, by scanning the
workpiece sample. However, there are also pre-established models available online.
Then, the model is converted into a Standard Triangle Language (STL) file and the
model is slicing layer by layer. The requirements for 3D printing models and the critical
parameter in the slicing processes have been analytically described by Guo et al.[12] G-
and M-codes codes are generated for each layer and then transferred to the printer.
G-codes concern the numerical control language generated by the CAD software and
serve to supply the motors with information concerning printing region, speed, axis,
etc. Instead, M-codes concern auxiliary commands.[13] The 3D object is finally printed
and is ready for further operations such as trimming, cooking, baking.[14]
The classification of food printers can be made on based on the type of platform:
● food printers based on commercial platforms, in which existing open source 3D

printing platforms can be customized. An example was represented by the
Fab@Home Model 1, which was developed by some researchers from Cornell
University and is suitable to print foods by extrusion of liquid materials[15;]
● food printers based on self-developed platforms, which make the fabrication process
flexible;
● user control interface design, in which users have the full control of shape, ingre-
dients, and materials.[9]
With the rapid development of the information technologies, design modelling can be
performed in three ways: by creating online virtual customized foods and inviting
customers to share their models; by configuring online visual products for self-service
and online order; by providing food co-creation sites dedicated to the production of gifts
consisting in unique food products.[16] As a result, food designs created by chefs and
expert of gastronomy can be reproduced everywhere, by downloading the corresponding
original data files and using a 3D printer.[9]
Ingredients for 3D food printing

An undoubted advantage of the food printing technology is the wide range of food sources
that can be used and that include both traditional and non-traditional food materials such
as insects and vegetable and animal by-products.
Ingredients can be classified in the following categories: liquids, powders, and cell
cultures. The deposition of liquid-based materials can be performed via extrusion or
inkjet processes. Powdered materials are printed by deposition followed by application
of a heat source (represented by laser or hot air) or a particle binder. The deposition of cell
cultures, known as bioprinting, is a technique applied to print meat analogue.[17] In any
case, the food material must be flowable during layer deposition while it must guarantee
high mechanical strength of the already printed layers and this strength must be main-
tained after deposition. The flowability can be achieved by ensuring that the food material
is made of small-size particle but also by plasticization and melting. The self-supporting
structure is achieved by the reverse process or by gelation.[17] Given the importance of
these two requirements of printable food formulations, it is advisable to create shear-
thinning food inks. In fact, these food inks are characterized by the following require-
ments: a high shear at the printing nozzle that allows a regular flow through the nozzle
and onto the print plan; no shear after printing so that the shape is retained. These
requirements are possessed by hydrocolloids, which are able to form macromolecular gel
networks that disentangle under shear and reforms at rest.[18]
Ingredients for food printing can be divided into three categories: natively printable
materials; non-printable traditional food materials; alternative ingredients.[9] The natively
printable materials can be directly extruded from a syringe (this is the case of dough,
cheese, chocolate, icing, hummus, butter) or are in form of powder (sugar, starch, etc).
Generally, they can be extruded without the addition of flow enhancers and, after
deposition, they are able to support their own structure. Flow and viscosity enhancers
must be added to the non-printable traditional food materials, which include meat, rice,
vegetables and fruits, in order to make them suitable for the extrusion process. Substances
commonly used include starch, pectin, gelatin, xanthan gum, agar, and alginate.[19–21]
Alternative ingredients include novel sources of functional and bioactive compounds such
as proteins and fibres isolated from insects, algae, microorganisms, and residues from
agricultural and food processes.[,22,23] For example, Severini et al. printed snacks made of
wheat flour dough and ground larvae of Yellow mealworms (Tenebrio molitor) to increase
their content of essential aminoacids.[24] The authors had to optimize formulation, time
and temperature of baking, since the addition of ground insects resulted in a softer dough
that irregularly flowed during deposition causing changes in shape and weight. Crunchy
snacks were produced by 3D printing and successive baking or drying of pastes consisting
of more than 75% out of scraps of bread, cooked rice, and overripe fruit.[25] These pastes
were obtained by mashing and sieving the various scraps in different amounts with
possible addition of herbs and spices. But 3D printing is also effective in the exploitation
of agri-food residues. For example, ground potato by-products (a food material having
10 A. BAIANO
a high fibre content) can be mixed with yam powder and hot water to obtain a printable
paste usable to produce air-fried snacks.[26] The work of Feng et al. highlighted the effects
of the internal structure design on the texture of both printed and printed + air-fried
products. In fact, printing variables affect weight and porosity of the printed products,
which in turn affect their textural properties. Products with high infill level had higher
weight, lower porosity and higher hardness, and vice versa. Furthermore, during the air-
frying process, most of the water evaporates from the sample, causing cracks and void
formation. The fibre provided by potato by-products allows the formation of a stronger
barrier film and the resulting samples are more likely to form small air bubbles inside than
samples with a lower fibre content. During the air-frying process, the porosity favours the
entry of hot air and the consequent uniform evaporation thus reducing the sample
deformation. 3D printers can also print foods that doesn’t exist in nature. This is the
case of the concept food called “edible growth” that is a self-contained, multi-ingredient
food enriched with living edible plants and fungi that grow from them.[27] This food
should be produced by Fused Deposition Modelling applied to an edible matrix made of
dried vegetables/fruits, nuts, or Agar Agar. Successively, seeds of edible plants, spores of
fungi, and yeast and bacterial cells are added to this nourishing matrix and covered with
and edible film made of proteins or carbohydrates. Seeds and fungi use the matrix as
a growing substrate. Within few days, plants and mushrooms grow up and the snack is
ready to be eaten.
The printing of high fiber ingredients deserves a more detailed discussion. Despite
a rich fiber diet exert positive effects on health, in particular by acting on the digestive
system, printability of fibre-rich material is not well explored due to concerns occurring
during processing and in the post-processing step. In fact, large size fiber particles can
cause clogging of the nozzle, shear-induced agglomeration, and phase separation with
detrimental effects on printability, post-processing stability, and texture acceptability. The
printing of materials with high fiber contents requires the presence of starch and/or
proteins in order to obtain a plasticizing effect. If not already present in the materials to
print, proteins and starch could be added or, as a useful alternative, multicomponent
systems such as composite flours can be used.[28,29] Krishnaraj et al. performed an
interesting work to develop a printable composite flour formulation made of green
gram, barnyard millet, fried gram, ajwain seeds, and taste enhancers, and rich in dietary
fibers and proteins. They also optimized printing parameters (nozzle diameter and height,
printing and extruder motor speed, movement speed of the axes), and post-processing
treatments (deep frying, hot-air drying + deep frying, microwave drying), taking into
account the printing characteristics of the starting materials and evaluated the post-
processing acceptability of the resulting 3D-printed snacks.[30] The authors found that,
independently on the post-processing treatments, all the samples showed acceptable
sensory attributes, but microwave drying better retained nutrients, color, and texture.
Several studies are available on the optimization of ingredient formulations and print-
ing parameters for the production of 3D-printed foods. As shown in Table 2, the experi-
mental works fall into one or more of the following categories: type of the starting food
material; nutritional aim of the 3D printed foods; creation of printable formulations;
tailoring of texture and structure. As can be inferred by Table 2, most of the ingredi-
ents/foods submitted to 3D printing are of vegetal origin, including fruits, vegetables,
legumes, tubers, and cereals.[31–37] But often these ingredients are mixed to eggs, milk or
Table 2. List of some of the most recent studies published on 3D printed food formulations.
Classification Description of the object of the studies References
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Change of the Addition of calcium chloride to low methoxylated [21]
conventional food materials into printable pectin to obtained printable pectin gels. Use of
formulations bovine serum albumin and sugar syrup to provide
specific gel porosity and viscosity
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Production of healthy Use of extrusion-based 3D printing technology [28]
snack foods starting from various protein, starch and fiber-rich
food ingredients and their mixtures. The best results
were achieved with pastes containing: 10% cold
swelling starch + 15% skimmed milk powder; 60%
semi-skimmed milk powder; 30% rye bran; 35% oat
protein concentrate or 45% faba bean protein
concentrate
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Change of Use of an aqueous suspension consisting of 1.6% w/ [28]
conventional food materials into printable w cellulose nanofiber to change milk powder or
formulations starch in digestible
proteins and carbohydrates
Food of vegetal origin/Production of customized Use of an 11% w/w pectin solution to modify a puree [31]
healthy snacks of desired shape and dimension/ consisting of banana, white canned beans, dried non-
Change of conventional food materials into fat milk, lemon juice and dried mushrooms into
printable formulations a printable food ink/Production of fruit-based snacks
containing from 5 to 10% of the required energy,
calcium, iron and vitamin D for children from 3 to
10 years old
Food of vegetal origin/Change of conventional food Study of the effects of different gums (gum arabic; [32]
materials into printable formulations guar gum; k-carrageenan gum; xanthan gum, XG) on
rheological and 3D printing characteristics of vitamin
D enriched orange concentrate/wheat starch blends.
The best printing conditions and mastication
properties were achieved by addition of
k-carrageenan gum.
Food of vegetal origin/Change of conventional food Use of potato starch (best results at 15% [33]
materials into printable formulations concentration) to make lemon juice printable
Food of vegetal origin/Change of the conventional Use of edible colloids (a mixture of gellan gum and [34]
food materials into printable formulations/ locust bean gum) as gelling agents to improve the
Production of meal for people with swallowing behavior of broccoli puree before, during, and after
difficulties the printing process.
Food of vegetal origin/Change of conventional food Optimization of soy protein isolate (SPI), gelatin, and [35]
materials into printable formulations sodium alginate mixtures to obtain printing food
materials. The SPI mixtures with sodium alginate and
2–10% gelatin gave products with stable geometry.
Food of vegetal origin Printing of ready-to-eat 4D foods [36]
showing spontaneous color change with
anthocyanin-rich purple sweet
potato induced by pH. 15% acid mashed potatoes,
23% neutral mashed potatoes and 27% alkaline
mashed potatoes gave printed samples with better
color change.
Food of vegetal origin/Tailoring of texture and Modification of dimensional properties, and of [37]
structure textural and structural qualities of 3D printed mashed
potatoes as a function of infill levels (10, 40 and
70%), infill patterns (rectilinear, honeycomb and
hibert curve), and number of shell perimeters (3, 5
and 7)
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Production of healthy Application of extrusion-based 3D printing [38]
foods/Change of conventional food materials into technology to mixtures of egg yolk or egg white and
printable formulations rice flour to obtained healthy and stable foods
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Change of Optimization of formula of baking dough in order to [39]
conventional food materials into printable make it technically applied to 3D food printing. The
formulations optimized recipe included water (29 g), sucrose
(6.6 g), butter (6.0 g), flour (48 g) and egg (10.4 g)
per 100 g of formulation.
(Continued )
12 A. BAIANO
Classification Description of the object of the studies References
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Tailoring of textureOptimization of chocolate 3D printing by using cross [40]
and structure or parallel support structures. Cross support was
more effective than parallel-support to create stable
hexagonal shaped constructs.
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Change of Use of two commercially available breakfast spreads, [41]
conventional food materials into printable Vegemite and Marmite, and of Food Layered
formulations Manufacturing (FLM) to produce 3D structures onto
bread substrates. Printing of edible circuits of
Vegemite and Marmite onto the bread substrates
with a custom-made 3D printer and exploiting
conductivity of these spreads.
Food of vegetal-animal origin/Alive plant cells/ Printing foods that resemble plant tissues. [42]
Creation of new printable materials Development of a 3D printing method based on the
extrusion of bio-inks composed of a low-
methoxylated pectin gel, embedded lettuce leaf cells,
and bovine serum albumin. Objects containing up to
5 × 106 cells/mL were 3D printed. Viability of the
encapsulated plant cells varied from 50 to 60%
depending pectin concentration.
Food of animal origin/Change of the conventional Use of gelatin to make a mixture of water and [43]
food materials into printable formulations cooked meat/fish printable
Food of animal origin/Change of the conventional Addition of whey protein isolate (WPI) to milk protein [44]
food materials into printable formulations concentrate (MPC) to reduce the apparent viscosity
and soften the MPC paste. The best results were
obtained with a milk powder paste mixture prepared
with MPC/WPI at a ratio of 5/2.
Food of animal origin/Change of the conventional Optimization of printability of a surimi gel, with the [45]
food materials into printable formulations best results obtained by combining silver carp surimi
with 1.5% NaCl
Food of animal origin/Change of conventional food Development of a new 3D printing food constructs [45]
materials into printable formulations based on fish surimi gel. The addition of 1.5 g NaCl/
100 g helps the slurry to
flow out from the nozzle and, after deposition, makes
it viscous for holding its shape.
Food of animal origin/Change of the conventional 3D printing of canned tuna blended with spring [46]
food materials into printable formulations/ water
Production of meal for people with swallowing
difficulties
their derivatives in order to obtain or improve printability.[21,28,38-43] Interesting applica-

tions of 3D food printing also involved meat/fish based gelatins and pastes.[44–46] In a case,
the resulting printed foods do not exist in nature since it resulted by the encapsulation of
alive lettuce leaf cells into pectin-based bio-ink.[42]
Technologies for 3D food printing

Currently, the techniques available in the food sector are the following four types: extrusion-
based printing, selective sintering printing, binder jetting, and inkjet printing.[47]
Extrusion-based printing
The extrusion-based printing is also known as fused deposition modelling (FDM). It was
invented by Scott Crump in 1988 and was defined as an automatic, non-laser-based
technology that uses non-toxic materials for the rapid fabrication of objects. It was
introduced to produce plastic objects but is become one of the main 3D food printing
technologiies.[48] With this technology, melted semi-solid thermoplastic materials are
extruded from a movable head and then deposited into ultra-thin layers layer by layers.
The material is heated at temperatures slightly above the melting point so to both quickly
solidify after extrusion and allow the fusion of each layer with the underlying one.[8] In the
food sector, the extrusion-based printing has been applied to soft materials such as
chocolate, dough, mashed potatoes, cheese, and meat paste. The advantages of this
technology include the wide choice of materials that can be printed and the simplicity
of the printing system. The main disadvantage concerns its unsuitability to fabricate
complex structures. The printing precision is affected by factors related to the materials
to be printed, processing parameters, and post-processing actions. More specifically, it
depends on: rheological, mechanical, and thermal properties of the materials and their
moisture content; processing factors (printing height, nozzle diameter, printing and nozzle
movement rate); post-processing operations (drying, cooking, etc.). The extrusion-based
printing can be performed through three extrusion mechanisms, namely screw-based, air
pressure-based, and syringe-based extrusion.[47] In the screw-based extrusion, the nozzle
feeding is continuously guaranteed by a screw that moves the food material. As
a consequence, this mechanism is unsuitable for food materials having high viscosity
and mechanical strength. In the air pressure-based extrusion, the material is pushed to the
nozzle by air pressure, thus it can be applied only to liquids or materials with low
viscosity. The nozzle feeding is discontinuous.[49] In the syringe-based extrusion,
a displacement plunger exerts a force onto the material. This mechanism is suitable to
print food materials having high viscosity and mechanical strength and guarantees only
a discontinuous nozzle feeding.
Selective sintering printing

In the selective sintering technology, the energy generated by a sintering source, represented
by a laser or hot air, allows the fusion of specific areas of the particulate bed by scanning cross-
sections. The process is repeated layer by layer until the object fabrication is finished.[50] Each
layers of the food matrix could contain different food material components, i.e. this technol-
ogy can be suitable applied to multi-materials.[28] The starting materials are represented by
powdered foods, such as sugars, fats, and starch granules. In facts, the selective binding
technology is based on the powder binding obtained through the melting of the fat and/or
the sugar contained in the composition.[51] The main factors affecting printing precision
include: material properties such as particle size, melting temperature, flowability, glass
transition temperature; processing factors (laser types, power, energy, spot diameter, and
thickness); post-processing operations (removal of excess parts).[47] This technique is not
suitable to fabricate healthy foods, since it could determine a significant decrease of the
nutrient concentration, especially when heat is used to fuse the layers.
Binder jetting printing

In the binder jetting printing, powdered materials are deposited layer by layer and small
droplets of binder (diameters < 100 μm) are ejected and deposited on the power bed surface
to bind the layers. After deposition of the binder, the surface is usually heated by irradiation,
14 A. BAIANO
in order to increase the mechanical strength and allow the deposition of the successive layer.
These steps are repeated for each layer.[52] During the fabrication process, the unfused
powder supports the fused parts while, at the end of the process, it is removed and
recycled.[9] The printing precision is affected by: material properties (particle size, wettability,
binder viscosity); processing factors (printing rate, nozzle diameter, layer thickness); post-
processing operations (baking, surface coating, etc.).[47] Some of the advantages of the binder
jetting printing are the following: large number of printable materials; high printing speed;
ability to create complex structures. The disadvantages include the obtainment of foods with
a rough appearance and the necessity to dehydrate the final products or to further process the
structure in order to improve its strength. The binder jetting printing can be applied to
powdered materials such as chocolate, starch, sugar, protein, and fake foods.[53]
Inkjet printing
In the inkjet printing, a stream of droplets is dispensed from a thermal or piezoelectric
head to realize surface fillings or decorations of products such as cookies, cakes, and
pizza.[54] Two types of inkjet printing methods are applied: continuous and drop-on-
demand printing. In the first methods, ink is continuously ejected through
a piezoelectric crystal that vibrates at a constant frequency. The ink flowability is
achieved by the addition of conductive agents. In the drop-on-demand printing, ink
is ejected from a head due to the pressure exerted by a valve. The drop-on-demand
printing is slower than the continuous printing, but it shows higher resolution and
precision.[47] The printing precision is affected by the ink rheological properties, the
surface properties, and processing factors such as temperature, printing height and rate,
and nozzle diameter. This technology can be applied to low viscosity materials such as
chocolate, liquid dough, icing, meat paste, jams, gels.[17] The high resolution and
accuracy and the ability to print multiple materials must be counted among the main
advantages of this technology. The following disadvantage must be highlighted: inkjet
printing is suitable only for surface filling/decoration while is unsuitable to fabricate
complex food structure; the support materials cannot be recycled.
An interesting application of 3D printing is the so-called ‘bioprinting’, firstly applied to
build tissues scaffold and currently used to print meat analogue. This application concerns
the deposition of biological materials and culture of living cells through technologies such
as inkjet, micro-extrusion, and laser-assisted printing.[55] Bio-printing involves the use of
self-assembly of cells. Forgacs et al. patented a bioprinting application suitable to produce
edible porcine tissues.[56] The process consisted in the deposition, through an inkjet
nozzle, of droplets of the bio-ink particles made of multicellular aggregates onto
a support of agarose rods. The obtained product needed to stay in a bioreactor for
maturation before being used.
Availability of 3D food printers

The year 2015 will be remembered as that of the first food 3D printer available on the
market. Several 3D food printers are currently available.[57] They are produced mainly in
China but also in countries such as Netherlands, United Kingdom, Spain, Canada, South
Korea, United States, Poland. Their prices are included in the 300–6000 USD range. Some
of them can be used to print almost any kind of paste-type food since they are equipped
with temperature control systems. Other 3D printers are projected to be used for the
production of specific foods such as chocolate and pancake. Some of them are thought for
domestic or professional use while other 3D printers can be even mounted within vending
machines. Most of the commercially available printers are based on the extrusion
technology.
In addition to the 3D food printers, there are two types of printers used to create food
decorations. They include the coffee 3D printers and the cake ornament 3D printers. The
first concerns a combination of 3D printing and inkjet printing technologies that allows
these machines to draw images on the top of any foam-covered beverage. Thanks to edible
sheets of paper and ink, the cake ornament 3D printers can print images to decorate cakes
and pastries.[57]
The main 3D food printers available on the market, generally for under 6,000 USD, are
listed and described below[18,57:]
● Focus (byFlow, Netherlands), is a portable multi-material 3D printer that works with

refillable cartridges and allows 3D printing of both foods (with ant kinds of paste-
type ingredients) and plastic materials. It is mainly targeted for professional uses in
the bakery industry. The manufacturer allows the downloading of several recipes
from the website;
● Mycusini (Procusini, Germany) is a desktop 3D printer that uses extrusion 3D
printing technology to print chocolate;
● Choc Creator V2.0 Plus (Choc Edge Ltd., UK) is mainly targeted for professional
uses in the confectionery industry. It works with a syringe loading system. Two apps,
namely CHOC DRAW, MIX & MATCH and CHOC TEXT, help users to draw and
write on their 3D printed chocolate;
● QiaoKe chocolate printer (3DCloud, China) is used to produce chocolate. It has
a solid feed system that does not require preheating and allows users to add solid
chocolate chips through a feeding hopper. Additionally, the printer has a non-stop
extrude feature;
● 3D Food Printer (Createbot, China) is a multi-material food 3D printer that can print
various paste-type materials, including cookie batter, mashed potatoes, chocolate,
and others;
● Food 3D printer (Micromake, China) is a desktop printer that can print a wide range
of paste-type materials, such as tomato sauce, chocolate, salad sauce;
● Chocolate 3D printer (Mmuse, China) uses solid chocolate beans (diameter of
around 2–4 mm) as 3D printing material. Then, the 3D printer heats up the
chocolate to melt and make it ready for extrusion;
● RoVaPaste (ORD Solutions, Canada) can print almost any paste-type or liquid
material, both inedible or edible. It is equipped with a syringe-like dual extruder
that users can refill. The device can print ingredients such as Nutella, ice cream,
chocolate, peanut butter, marshmallow, jam, honey, ketchup, mustard, cream cheese,
cheese;
● VX (ZMorph, Poland) is a multifunctional desktop 3D printer equipped with a dual
extruder able to realize multi-material and multi-colour 3D prints, with ingredients
such as chocolate, dough, cream cheese, and others;
16 A. BAIANO
● Discov3ry 2.0 extrusion system (Structur3D Printing, Canada) is a universal extruder

that can be paired with most desktop 3D printer systems. It can be used for both
edible and inedible materials. It is equipped with a dual syringe setup that allows to
mix two feeds in a spiral just before deposition;
● Foodini (Natural Machines, Spain) is a desktop printer targeted for both professional
and domestic uses. It works with an open capsule system that users can fill with fresh
ingredients. Foodini can be used to print food pastes, crushed nuts, etc.;
● Commercial Art Pancakes Printer F5 (ZBOT, China) is suitable to produce thin-layer
foods such as pancakes;
● Pancakebot 2.0 (PancakeBotTM, Norway) is suitable to produce thin-layer foods
such as pancakes. It is a desktop printer that uses a batter dispensing system, that
allows the 3D printing of the liquid pancake batter directly onto a griddle;
● Fab@Home Model 3 (Creative Machines Lab, USA) operated from 2005 to 2012 and
was the first multi-material 3D printer available to the public, and one of the first two
open-source 3D printers. It had a syringe-based deposition system and could print
materials included chocolate, cookie dough, and cheese.
An interesting project in the industry sector is represented by Barilla pasta printer. It

has been developed thanks to the collaboration of the famous Italian company and The
Netherlands Organisation for Applied Scientific Research (TNO). It is able to print pasta
in unusual shapes starting from dough exclusively made of durum wheat semolina and
water. It is not yet commercially available.[58]
BeeHex food printer (USA) also deserves a specific mention although its costs are still
high being around 65,000 USD. It started as a NASA project to create a 3D pizza printer,
but successively it has been made usable for printing of cakes and pastries thanks to
a dessert-decorating robot able to print from up to six cartridges. The robot can fabricate
up to 21 cakes or up to 500 cookies per hour.[59]
Nutritional and functional characteristics of 3D printed foods

3D food printing technologies can be used for the production of a large variety of ready-to
-eat foods suitable to satisfy the demand of both people with specific food-related diseases
(for example, celiac disease, diabetes, hypertension, obesity) and people with personal
nutritional habits (vegetarian, vegan, etc.).
3D food printing can alleviate chewing and swallowing issues, a pathology also known
as dysphagia. Dysphagic patients can be fed only through mashed meals that are
objectively unappealing and sometimes nutritionally inadequate. In fact, 3D printing
can use pureed and strained foods as printable materials to reproduce their original
appearance or to create new acceptable textures without reducing their nutritional
intake.[60]
3D food printing can be used to produce customized meals for elderly people, athletes,
pregnant women, and children by varying nutrient concentrations, reducing or eliminat-
ing undesirable substances such as anti-nutritional factors, introducing healthy ingredients
such as vitamins, fibres and phytochemicals in tradition, and making the food shape and
structure pleasant.[61]
3D food printing technologies can be also addressed to reduce the problem of the lack
of food in the developing countries. These results can be scored by building new food
structure to which the desired nutrients can be added at the desired amounts but also by
exploiting unconventional food sources.
Some examples of the application of 3D printing to produce nutritive/healthy foods are
reported in the literature. The fruit-based snack produced by Derossi et al. was nutritionally
customised in order to supply the 5–10% of energy, calcium, iron, and vitamin D required by
children of 3–10 years old.[30] Severini et al. printed smoothies made of fruits (carrots, pears,
kiwi, and avocado) and vegetables (broccoli raab leaves) whose antioxidant activity remained
unchanged during a 8-day storage at 5°C.[15] Lille et al. utilized 3D printing technology to
produce healthy structures rich in fibre and protein but low in fat or sugar.[28] Azam et al.
used arabic guar, and k-carrageenan gums to produce 3D printed orange concentrate/wheat
starch blends enriched with vitamin D.[31] Zhang et al. applied the fused deposition model-
ling to produce cereal-based food structures containing probiotics.[62] They observed that by
increasing the surface-to-volume ratio of the structure, it was possible to reduce the baking
time (6 min at 145°C) thus obtaining a product that met the definition of probiotic foods
(viable counts of bacteria > 106 CFU/g) after baking.
Few researchers have investigated the effects of specific 3D printed techniques on the
nutritional values of the printed foods. For example, it has been verified that the use of hot
air as a sintering source in the selective sintering technology causes the reduction of the
nutritional value of the final product.[53]
Recently, Liu et al. developed an air-fried 3D printed snack that could be considered as
an alternative snacks with reduced oil content if compared to the already marketed potato
snacks.[63] As in the work performed by Feng et al., the researchers observed that hardness
and fracturability of air-fried potato snack are affected by infill pattern, and significantly
decreased when infill level decreased.[26]
Another interesting application of 3D prining is the production of functional foods by
incorporation of probiotics in the printed structures. The challenge is represented by the
effects of the printing parameters on the cell viability. As an example, Liu et al. optimized
nozzle diameter and printing temperature for the incorporation of Bifidobacterium ani-
malis subsp. lactis into 3D printed mashed potatoes. They found that only the small nozzle
diameter (0.6 mm) and the maintenance of the mashed potatoes at 55°C for 45 min
resulted in the reduction of probiotic viability. The storage of the 3D printed functional
food at 5°C for 12 days did not affect probiotic viability.[64]
To conclude this paragraph, it is useful to highlight that most applications of 3D food
printing have been developed exclusively for testing their ability to build geometrically
complex structures without nutritional value. Regardless of the great potential of additive
manufacturing, only few groups of researches are actively involved in the study of
printable formulations suitable to give rise to 3D functional foods.[17]
Safety of 3D printed foods

The safety of 3D printed food is not a simple matter. It is related to the contact between
the parts of 3D printers and the food ingredients/food under production and may concern
microbiological aspects as well as migration of leachable substances.
18 A. BAIANO
Before extrusion, most of the food materials need to be heated in order to create a malleable
paste suitable to pass through the extrusion nozzle. Instead, after printing, the food structure
needs to be cooled in order to increase its mechanical strength. Heating and cooling opera-
tions might make food more susceptible to microbial growth.[14,65] In the already cited study
on printed smoothies, Severini et al. found a microbial load of 4.28 Log CFU/g, thus
suggesting the need for sanitization, before printing, of each part of the 3D printers that
come into contact with food both in domestic/catering uses and at industrial scale.[19]
In addition to the general discussion on food safety, specific issues must be taken into
account when food is processed by 3D printing. As the conventional food equipment, the
parts of a 3D printer into the contact with foods must have the following requirements: be
safe under normal use conditions, durable, corrosion-resistant, non-absorbent, and acces-
sible to inspection; have easily cleanable surfaces; have no breaks and sharp internal
angles. Thus, the printed food safety depends on the type of 3D printer and the applica-
tion of effective cleaning protocols. The 3D printers specifically built for food use meet all
these requirements but, sometimes, are very expensive. Instead, the 3D printers that have
additional food printing functions are relatively cheap but many of their components are
made of plastic materials, which may release ultra-fine toxic particles during the printing
process and lead to adverse health effects.[66] In order to reduce the risk of particle
migration and bacteria growth, it is advisable to coat the 3D printed parts with food
grade epoxy or polyurethane resins to seal their surfaces.
Based on the low number of scientific articles on this topic, the question of the safety of
3D printed foods is far from being sufficiently studied.
Acceptance of 3D printed foods

Acceptability and pleasantness of 3D printed food are interesting topics and several
studies have been conducted with the aim of individuate their driving factors.
A study of Brunner et al. just concerns the formation and evolution of the consumers
attitude toward 3D food printing and the resulting food concepts.[67] Two hundred and
sixty German-speaking residents from Switzerland having a low initial knowledge level of
3D-printed food were involved in the survey. The researchers observed that targeted
information supplied to the participants were not able to overcome neophobia towards
3D printed foods.
In another research, Lupton analysed online news concerning 3D printed food tech-
nology from a sociocultural perspective, and found that 3D food printing is generally
identified as a futuristic, creative, healthy, efficient, and sustainable technologies.[68]
According to the author, these themes were closely related to food issues that interest
contemporary people, i.e. safety, health and nutritional aspects; novelty; convenience and
time-saving; environmental impacts.
Lupton & Turner carried out a qualitative study aimed to investigate consumers attitudes
to 3D food printing.[69] They undertook an online focus group discussion with 30 Australian
people over a four-day period in March 2016. Their study highlighted a certain reluctance to
consider 3D printed foods as safe and even edible due to unfamiliar elements such as: the
processing of these foods through a digital technology a technology that few people have
directly experienced; the appearance of the 3D printed foods that can be unusual or strange;
the ingredients used to fabricate these foods that can include substances considered non-
edible or unacceptable as foods in western cultures (for example, insects, algae). Participants
also expressed doubts on the healthiness of 3D printed foods, due to: their sugar, salt, fat, and
preservative contents; the safety of the conditions in which food is manufactured; the
presence of allergens; and the ability of the process to preserve nutrients. According to the
authors, people would appreciate 3D printed foods more readily if their appearance was
acceptable and features such as quality, nutritious properties, and freshness were guaranteed
and rendered transparent to consumers.
The consumer attitudes towards 3D printed foods in comparison with conventional
food products were further investigated by Manstand and McSweeney.[70] Firstly, they
conducted two focus groups to identify what consumers believe about 3D food printing.
Then, they used the responses from the focus groups to create an online survey that
involved 329 participants, all residents in the Atlantic Canada area. As results of the
survey, three clusters of consumers were identified: the markedly interested cluster (140
participants), made of people that wanted to know more about 3D food printing and
persuaded that this technology could reduce the cost of food and increase benefits; the
moderately interested cluster (98 participants), made of people excited to try 3D printed
foods; and the not interested cluster (91 participants), made of people convinced that 3D
printed foods were unacceptable and not safe.
Concerning the application of bioprinting to produce meat analogues, Marga observed that
the bio-printed meat could be accepted by both vegetarians and people with religious
restrictions on meat consumption.[71] More recently, Lupton & Bethaney performed a study
involving an online discussion group with Australian participants concerning their attitudes
to 3D food printing.[72] They found that only few participants showed interest in 3D-printed
food products made from cultured meat. Most of them considered this new meat analogue as
“unnatural,” and therefore not fresh, potentially harmful, and lacking in taste and nutrients.
According to Fougier, a disruptive food innovation is more accepted if it is developed
by small producers that, in a short circuit, are able to emphasize their naturalness and
positive effects on health, environment, and society.[73]
Recently, Mantihal et al. performed a study to assess the preferences and perceptions of
texture-modified three-dimensional (3D) printed chocolate.[74] Thirty semi-trained panel-
lists were asked to express their overall preference, based on appearance and hardness, on
three chocolate samples printed in a honeycomb pattern with infill percentages of 25%,
50%, and 100%, respectively. Successively, the same panelists were asked to express their
preference between the 3D printed sample with infill percentage of 100% and a cast
commercial chocolate sample. Regarding hardness perception, the Friedman test did not
highlight significant differences while the panelists significantly preferred the appearance
of the samples having infill percentages of 25% and 50%. No significant differences were
highlighted between the cast and 100% infill samples.
Current legal framework

Dankar et al. highlighted the importance of developing explicit legislations for 3D food
printing facilities and personnel.[75] Nevertheless, the real question is if new regulations
need to be generated or the current laws are valid and should be applied to the 3D
printing industry since, historically, legislation evolves more slowly than the technologies
to which they refer.[76]
20 A. BAIANO
As all the other kinds of foods, 3D-printed foods could: contain allergens, be adulter-
ated, and give rise to food poisoning if improperly produced or stored. Such issues are
already regulated by national, federal, and international mandatory standards.
Another interesting legal issue concerning 3D-printed foods comes from their labelling.
3D-printed foods could be qualified as imitation foods and should be labelled differently from
the foods they are inspired by. Alternatively, if the production of conventional foods cost more
than 3D-printing and the conventional and printed foods are indistinguishable, the sale of 3D
printed foods without a specific labelling would represent a food fraud.[76] However, regard-
less of the generally unusual appearance of the 3D printed foods that make them perfectly
distinguishable from the conventional foods, a specific labelling would be strongly advisable as
already done in the case of food containing or made from genetically modified organisms
(GMO). The regulation on 3D printed food labelling should also include the case in which
only some of the ingredients used to produce a food are. A threshold (for example, less of
a certain percentage) would be set as the labelling cut-off.[76]
In the European Union, 3D printed foods could be considered as ‘novel foods’, i.e. food
that has not been consumed to a significant degree by humans before 15 May 1997, i.e. in
the which the first Regulation on novel foods came into force. The novel foods are actually
regulated by the new Novel Food Regulation 2283/2015.[77] The term ‘novel Food’ just
includes innovative foods, foods produced using new technologies and production pro-
cesses as well as food which is or has been traditionally eaten outside of the European
Union. According to this Regulation, ’novel foods’ must be: safe for consumers; properly
labelled, in order not to mislead consumers; and, if they are intended to replace other
foods, they must not differ in a way that the consumption of the ‘novel food’ would be
nutritionally disadvantageous for the consumer.
In Canada, “novel foods” are defined in the Food & Drug Regulations as substances
that do not have a history of safe use and have been manufactured, prepared, preserved, or
packaged through a process that has not been previously applied to those foods. Since 3D
printing is innovative and does not have a history of safe use, a pre-market approval by
Health Canada should is necessary prior to advertising or selling. The timelines for
approval can vary from 6 months to 2 years.
Actually, food printing technologies are based on the use of food materials to assemble
food products. A hypothetical future scenario for 3D food printing includes their use to
create new foods from chemical (not food based) compounds in order to solve famines or
food scarcity. In such situation, a further specific regulation will be necessary in addition
to epidemiological studies on the short- and long-term effects of these kind of foods on
the human body.
In addition, independently on the application fields (foods, objects of common use,
medical devices), the diffusion of 3D printing has determined the increase of illegal
printing of products thus resulting in the violation of laws concerning intellectual property
right, patent law, and copyright law.
Commercial and economic issues of 3D food printing

3D printing has been considered as the technology behind the ‘third industrial revolution’
since it could dramatically change business models, alter the world economic order, shift
the place in which fabrication occurs, and modify supply chains.[78] The value of the whole
3D printing market was equal to 6422.5 million USD in 2019 and it is expected to reach
44520 million USD by the end of 2026. The calculated compound annual growth rate
(CAGR) should be 31.4% during 2021–2026.[79] Nevertheless, 3D printing is not yet
a formidable rival to the economies of scale obtained in the mass-produced commodities.
In fact, at least until now, it shows a great potential only for highly customized objects
provided they are produced in small quantities. 3D printing could be a great opportunity
for developing countries. 3D printing offers a flexible technology to both small manufac-
turers and industries. In fact, the first one can easily and quickly adapt to demand while
the second can simplify their supply chain by creating in-house 3D printed spare parts and
finished products. 3Dprinting is also a quite cheap technology since it did not require
substantial infrastructure investment. Conversely, traditional manufacturing techniques
would be too expensive for developing countries due to their requirements of physical
infrastructure and human resources. 3D printing is a promising technology also for the
developed countries, since it offers business opportunities to individual freelance workers
and small manufacturers.[80]
From a strategic foresight perspective, applications of 3D printing to food might be
economically disruptive as well as an opportunity for the development of business innovation
strategies. In fact, it has the potential to change the dynamics of production in terms of labour
and material supply, consumer demand, supply chains, pricing competition, and government
policy.[81] 3D food printing could have a great impact on the global economy, closing the gap
between small and large-scale businesses and modifying food industry in several ways. As
examples, the production of food on demand will make the inventory management easier and
cheaper and will allow the optimization of the resource management will be optimized.
Furthermore, food innovation and culinary creativity will increase.[82] 3D food printing will
change the supply chain in a similar way to that determined by the applications of additive
manufacturing in other sectors. In particular, production facilities will move closer to the final
users thus reducing shipping and transaction costs. This means that market structures, firm
competitiveness, and vertical relations in the food manufacturing industry will be re-
designed.[83] This revolution, which someone has called as Food Economy 4.0, will be
characterised by a smart food production. Production and processing will be localized, leading
to a decreasing use of food additives and packaging needs, and to a reduction of the distances
travelled by foods.[84]
Only few studies concern the practical implications of the adoption of 3D food printing
from economic, social, and sustainability perspectives. To fill this gap, Dabbene et al. used
the system thinking methodology to develop an economic model able to evaluate the
effects of the introduction of additive manufacturing technology in the food market on
small-batch production firms such as restaurants, bakery and confectionery, which seem
to be the most promising companies for the adoption of this technology. The study also
evaluated the effects on the other actors of the food chain as well as the possible feedback
effects, i.e. how the changes occurring to the supply chain can influence the adoption
itself.[85] The model was composed of three main sections: suppliers of food capsules
containing the raw materials; new skills; and printer producers. According to the model,
when the adoption of 3D printing technology starts, the demand for food capsules
increases. As a consequence, the production volumes increase and, with the economies
of scale made possible by the adoption of innovative techniques or machines, the produc-
tion costs and the selling prices of the food capsules decrease. At this point, the supply
22 A. BAIANO
chain changes: in fact, the suppliers of the traditional raw materials will serve both the
small-batch production firms (but their demand decreases) and the producers of food
capsules (and their demand increases). The use of 3D printers requires skills such as the
knowledge of computer-aided design and of food characteristics that the small-batch
production firms have not. In the brief period, the problem can be solved by calling on
experts that already possess these kinds of knowledge. In the longer period, the small-
batch production firms have to internally develop these skills. Concerning the third
section of the model, when the adoption of 3D printing technology starts, the market
for 3D food printers is small. Nevertheless, it increases with the increasing application of
3D food printing technologies. The increasing profits guarantee financial availability that
can be reinvested in R&D activities thus providing innovations.
Actually, there are a limited number of commercially available foods obtained through
a 3D printing technology. An example is represented by Barilla, an Italian factory, which
spun out the startup BluRhapsody, a 3D pasta printing e-commerce service.[86] The
project should evolve through a couple phases. In the first phase, customers can access
the e-commerce platform and order from a catalogue of pre-designed pasta. In the second
step, customers will be able to use an interactive online tool to personalize shapes,
ingredients, and texture of the pasta. Customers can purchase printed noodles in batches
of 4 to 22 and in shapes such as comets, snowmen, vases, clam shells and a proprietary
geometry called a “vortipa”, with prices ranging from 24.90 to 55.67 euros.[86] There are
startups such as Redefine Meat and Nova Meat, active in the 3D printing of plant-based
meat that mimic appearance, taste, and nutrition characteristics of meat without arming
animals.[87] The Germany company Katjes produces 3D printed candies within the Magic
Candy Factory experiment.[68] La MIAM Factory is a Belgian company active in 3D
printing of chocolate, by creating 3D model or using those supplied by the customers.[88]
Thanks to the present and future applications, the global 3D food printing market,
whose value was 8.75 million USD in 2016, is expected to grow at a CAGR of 50% during
the period 2017–2024, reaching the value of 400 million USD.[89] North America and
Europe are the two most important markets due to the technology democratization and its
utilization among the food service channels.[90] The fused deposition modelling technol-
ogy is expected to obtain more than 64% share of the total 3D printing market.[91]
3D printing and food packaging

3D printing could represent a disruptive alternative to the over 90% of plastics produced
from virgin fossil feedstocks. According to a study of the World Economic Forum, “95%
of plastic packaging material value (80–120 billion USD) is annually lost, with 32% of
plastic packaging that, escaping from collection systems, generates significant costs and
heavily contribute to greenhouse gas emissions.[92] 3D printing could be profitable used to
produce food packaging starting from recycled plastics (after operations such as cleaning,
drying, shredding, and extruding) but it would require strategic planning and processing
systems alternative to the existing ones. From an energy impact perspective, 3D printing
has the potential to reduce input costs and energy needs and to change labour dynamics
towards digitized production chains.[93]
Today, 3D printing is revolutionizing food packaging design prototyping. Prototyping
performed with older technologies can require months, while prototyping performed
through 3D printing technology can be finished in weeks. In fact, possible changes to

shape, label content, and other features can be incorporated into prototypes within few
days thus accelerating commercialization. 3D printing allows users to design and make
their own customized packages. Due to its inherent features, 3D printing can be suitable
applied to design and manufacture singular shapes of food packages such as bottles, trays,
and cups. For example, 3D printing can be used to create three-dimensional effects onto
package surfaces. In addition to stereographic design applications, 3D printing can be
useful applied to fabricate active food packaging., by printing layers of barrier materials
into thermo-formed containers.[94] The use of 3D printing to fabricate a limited number
of packages is cheaper than the use of standard plastic processing techniques like injection
molding, thermos-forming and blow molding. Nevertheless, as the number of packages
increases, standard technologies become much more economical compared to 3D
printing.
Another interesting challenge is represented by the use of 3D printing to produce biode-
gradable packaging starting from agri-food wastes. As an example, a recently published
research of Nida et al. concerned the optimization of printing conditions of rice husk fractions
of different size. They found that the addition of guar gum was useful to convert non-printable
rice husk into a printable form and the result was a 3D printed box for food use.[95]
The use of 3D printing to combine both product and packaging into a single entity is
another interesting development. Mission Viejo, a Californian company, has created a line of
3D printed, self-stirring, and biodegradable cups with energy drink ingredients encapsulated
within the cup itself. Users only need to add water to produce the drink. This new technology
could significantly change the future of beverage manufacturing and delivery.[96]
Sustainability of 3D food printing

An important issue concerns the sustainability of 3D food printing in terms of reduction
of both resource consumption and food waste production.
Galdeano performed a Lyfe Cycle Assessment study in order to evaluate if a food
production based on 3D printing technologies and theoretically applied worldwide
could be sustainable and environmentally friendly. The authors performed a study
focused on pasta production and its supply chain due to popularity and extended
market of this product that can justify an industrial implementation of 3D printing.
The study compared the actual traditional process with the extrusion-based printing
technology obtaining interesting conclusions. In fact, the equipment necessary to print
pasta fits well on the pasta industry since it uses extrusion technology. Furthermore,
moulds should not be used and less processes should be required. Finally, since in
Europe most of the total waste derives from manufacture and householder, an
implanted 25% of 3D printing would allow to reduce the total waste of 19 million
tonnes per year as well as to save time, water, and energy resources necessary to produce
that amount of food.[97]
A Dutch startup named Upprinting Food recycles food that would otherwise be
wasted by producing 3D printed snacks from unsellable but still edible foods such as
old bread, overripe/ugly fruits and vegetables, and residual food flows by restaurants.[98]
24 A. BAIANO
According to Davies and Garrett, 3D printing could be one of 12 technology platforms

useful to develop sustainable urban food ecosystems as a response to the increasing world
population and the limited availability of land, water, and energy.[99]
Future perspectives of 3D printing of foods

The costs of 3D food printing are becoming competitive for smaller production such as
those referred to customized foods and personalized meals. This technology will allow to
produce foods designed and fabricated to meet individual needs through the control of the
amount of the printing material or of its nutrition content.[66] In fact, 3D printed foods
will respond to the following requirements: meal composition adapted to individual diets;
use of new components; sensorial and functional customization of the foods.[19] The
nutritional customization will be achieved when food printers will be integrated with
nutrition models, so that users will able to control their diet and exactly calculate calories
by selecting ingredient amount and type and the corresponding production parameters via
an interface.[66]
Another promising area of growth is represented by the long duration space missions.
To the aim of improve life support systems duration during space missions, NASA
(National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is exploring the possibility of develop-
ing 3D printed food systems. These systems should be able to provide foods having the
following characteristics: safety, acceptability, variety, nutritional stability, shelf life of
several years, use of the least amount of spacecraft resources and crew time, waste
minimization.[100] Similarly, 3D printed foods could be convenient for the feeding of air
passengers and military personnel.[69] In the case of soldiers engaged in war operations, it
will be possible to monitor their physiological status through real-time sensor, to transmit
their biometric data to 3D food printers placed near the battlefields, and to deliver the
printed food to the fighters.
As highlighted in a previous paragraph, the 3D food printing could strongly modify
food supply chains (in particular those referred to the online shopping) as we actually
know it. A hypothetical customized food supply chain could be the following: customers
search for an online food design platform, then they select the desired food and finally the
customized food is delivered.[101] It is already a reality a vending machine based on unique
algorithms that print Oreo cookies – consisting of two shortcrust pastry disks containing
a cream – based on what is trending on social media in real time. The machine has 12
different flavour options for the cream, two options for the pastry disks, and four different
pattern options for printing the centre of the cookies, creating more than 4,000 possible
combinations.[101]
Another interesting perspective of 3D food printing is represented by the use of 3D
food printers in the kitchens of gourmet restaurants. In 2016, Food Ink, a pop-up style
restaurant specialized in 3D printed dishes was opened with the promise of delivering
gourmet cuisine from “pixels to printer to plate”. Food Ink produces its dishes with the
multi-material 3D printer by Flow.[102] Another company projected a restaurant in which
the entire service (tables, cutlery, and the food) was 3D printed. Other restaurants in the
world are introducing some 3D printed dishes in their menu. Some of the elements of the
molecular gastronomy, such as the use of sodium alginate to induce liquid jelification, can
be used in extrusion-based digital fabrication processes. The result is represented by a new

science called ‘digital gastronomy’.
The ultimate goal is to combine 3D food printing and cooking on a machine. Actually, 3D
printed foods that require cooking after printing are processed through traditional convective
or conductive methods. This is a critical issue, since it strongly limits the possibility to
combine multiple materials having different cooking behaviour in a single food. The research
is focused on the use of different type of lasers or infrared lamps to cook food during printing,
with the blue laser that produces a penetrating cooking effect, and the infrared laser that
mainly acts on the surface. Moreover, infrared heating is suitable to reproduce various
cooking methods such as drying, baking, roasting, and broiling. The onboard cooking allows
users to combine different ingredients and cook each of them selectively. An interesting
application was described by Hertafeld et al., who built a 3D food printer starting from
a commercially available three-axis Cartesian milling machine.[103] The infrared lamp,
mounted next to the printer extruder, allowed cooking while printing by generating tempera-
tures up to 1800°F onto very small areas. By selectively heat and cooking the food as it is built
layer by layer, the researchers were able to print and cook a twisted pyramid consisted of three
different ingredients, namely sesame, chicken, and shrimp pastes.
At last, some organisations have begun exploring the potential of 4D printing, consist-
ing in incorporating in the layers of 3D printed objects additional materials that change
shape or colour when activated by an external stimulus such as water, acid solutions, or
temperature. In this field, a peculiar application has been developed by the researchers of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). They developed pasta or noodle flat
sheets which transform into 3D shapes when water is added. This result was obtained by
incorporating thin layers of gelatine of various densities which, obviously, swell to differ-
ing extents in the presence of water. On the surface, a patterned cellulose layer prevents
the swelling of the gelatine surface. The production of ‘flat-pack’ pasta could be useful to
dramatically reduce packaging, and storage and transport costs.[104] Another example of
4D printing was obtained by Gazal et al.[105] They produced a 4D healthy food, in which
two 3D printed gels were combined: an anthocyanin-potato starch gel and a lemon juice
gel. The 3D printed anthocyanin-potato starch gel changed its colour (the 4th dimension)
both when the 3D product was sprayed with different pH solutions and as a response to an
internal pH stimulus coming from the lemon juice gel.
Despite significant research in the 3D food printing sector, there are still many barriers
to the adoption and deployment of this technology. For example, in Europe, food printing
is an immature field due to the lack of highly specialized figures, machine producers, and
suitable raw materials.[106] Furthermore, there are still many challenges that mass food
customization through 3D printing has to face and overcome. They include: a better
knowledge of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of the material to print; the
development of more performing food inks; the understanding of the relationships among
the properties of the feedstock materials and those of the printed food; the development of
new feeding mechanisms (for example, cooling device) capable to shorten the time
required to create the rigid structure able to support the overlying layers; and last but
not least, the actual limited printing speed unless a high number of printers simulta-
neously work together. For all these reasons, 3D printing technology cannot replace the
conventional food productions but it can be considered as an interesting way to produce
customized foods intended as prototypes or small productions.[107]
26 A. BAIANO
Conclusions
3D printing is a promising technology also in the agri-food field. Many 3D food printers
are already suitable for professional, industrial, and domestic uses, but also for the
production of ready-to-eat food through devices such as the vending machines. The
advantages of this innovative way of producing foods are numerous: 3D printing is time-
saving since it requires only the setting of the printing parameters so that user can attend
to other tasks in the time between the launch of the print and the end of the fabrication
process; it stimulates user creativity; it allows the production of customized foods and the
preparation of personalized meals; it can contribute to the reduction of food waste and to
an overall improvement of the environmental sustainability due to the reduced transport
and storage needs and the de-centralization of food preparation. 3D printing could
alleviate world hunger through a more efficient use of the available foods and the use of
alternative food sources. Among the disadvantages, the following ones should be con-
sidered: currently, not all the foods can be printed and not all the operations of
a traditional food processing can be performed; at least for now, this technology, intended
for a professional use, is quite expensive.
Furthermore, there are two important issues to consider: consumer acceptance and
legal framework that, often, go hand in hand: it is obvious that, as any new initiative that
implies a behavioural change, also the 3D food printing food will require time to be
accepted and implemented in the current use.
Finally, it is necessary to gain the consumer confidence, by clarifying the nature of these
products and giving information related to their safety through more explanatory labelling
systems.
Disclosure statement
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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3D Printed Foods: A Comprehensive Review on Technologies,

CONTACT Antonietta Baiano antonietta.baiano@unifg.it Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, degli Alimenti

● 1984: Chuck Hull invented and patented a stereolithography apparatus machine;

● food printers based on commercial platforms, in which existing open source 3D

Ingredients for 3D food printing

their derivatives in order to obtain or improve printability.[21,28,38-43] Interesting applica-

Technologies for 3D food printing

Selective sintering printing

Binder jetting printing

Availability of 3D food printers

● Focus (byFlow, Netherlands), is a portable multi-material 3D printer that works with

● Discov3ry 2.0 extrusion system (Structur3D Printing, Canada) is a universal extruder

An interesting project in the industry sector is represented by Barilla pasta printer. It

Nutritional and functional characteristics of 3D printed foods

Safety of 3D printed foods

Acceptance of 3D printed foods

Current legal framework

Commercial and economic issues of 3D food printing

3D printing and food packaging

through 3D printing technology can be ﬁnished in weeks. In fact, possible changes to

Sustainability of 3D food printing

According to Davies and Garrett, 3D printing could be one of 12 technology platforms

Future perspectives of 3D printing of foods

be used in extrusion-based digital fabrication processes. The result is represented by a new

[70] Manstan, T.; McSweeney, M. B. Consumers’ Attitudes Towards and Acceptance of 3D

Forecasts (2019-2024). https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industry-reports/food-3d-

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