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Hydrothermal Alteration, Ore Fluid Characteristics, and Gold Depositional

Processes along a Trondhjemite-Komatiite Contact at Tarmoola, Western
Australia

Article  in  Economic Geology · May 2004

DOI: 10.2113/99.3.423

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 Economic Geology
BULLETIN OF THE SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS

VOL. 99 May 2004 NO. 3

Hydrothermal Alteration, Ore Fluid Characteristics, and Gold Depositional Processes

along a Trondhjemite-Komatiite Contact at Tarmoola, Western Australia
PAUL DUURING,†,* STEFFEN G. HAGEMANN,
Centre for Global Metallogeny, Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Western Australia, Crawley, W.A. 6009, Australia

KEVIN F. CASSIDY,
Geoscience Australia, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia

AND CRAIG A. JOHNSON

U. S. Geological Survey, Mail Stop 963, Denver Federal Center, Denver, Colorado 80225

Abstract
Tarmoola is a structurally controlled Archean orogenic gold deposit hosted in greenschist facies metamor-
phosed komatiite and trondhjemite in the Leonora district of the Eastern Goldfields province, Yilgarn craton.
High-grade (>1 g/t Au) orebodies are located in komatiite wall rock adjacent to the eastern and northeastern
margins of the asymmetrical, north-south–striking, Tarmoola trondhjemite intrusion. Gold-bearing veins post-
date trondhjemite emplacement (ca. 2700 Ma), quartz diorite dikes (ca. 2667 Ma), and regional greenschist fa-
cies metamorphism.
Textures and crosscutting relationships in gold-bearing veins indicate two stages of hydrothermal fluid infil-
tration associated with a single gold-related hydrothermal event: a volumetrically dominant, but gold-poor,
stage I fluid and a gold-rich stage II fluid. Gold-bearing veins contain stage I milky quartz and pyrite that are
overprinted by stage II quartz-ankerite-muscovite-chalcopyrite-sphalerite-galena-gold-tellurides ± albite ±
chlorite ± fuchsite ± epidote ± scheelite. Stage I hydrothermal alteration assemblages are different in trond-
hjemite and komatiite due to contrasting reactions between a common ore fluid and disparate wall-rock chem-
istry. Stage II fluid-wall rock interaction was minor compared to stage I and is indicated by the overprinting of
stage I mineral assemblages by stage II microveins. Wall-rock alteration proximal to veins in trondhjemite is
characterized by replacement of igneous plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, and metamorphic chlorite by hy-
drothermal quartz, muscovite, ankerite, calcite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tellurides, and gold,
whereas in proximal alteration in komatiite, metamorphic chlorite and talc are replaced by ankerite, quartz,
muscovite, albite, chlorite, fuchsite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tellurides, and gold. The stage II
fluid was enriched in H2O, CO2, Si, Ca, K, Na, S, Au, Ag, Cu, Pb, W, Bi, As, Mo, Zn, and Te.
Based on fluid inclusion studies and stage II mineral equilibria, gold deposited from a homogeneous, neu-
tral to slightly alkaline (pH 5.1–5.5), reduced, low-salinity (<5.5 wt % NaCl equiv) fluid that had a bulk com-
position of 78 mole percent H2O and 21 mole percent CO2, and trace amounts of CH4, C2H6, H2, Ar, H2S, and
He. Gold deposition occurred at 300° ± 50°C and 0.5 to 3.0 kbars. Assuming lithostatic fluid pressures, gold
precipitated at a 2- to 10-km depth. Stage II gray quartz δ18Ofluid values range from 5.9 to 7.5 per mil, whereas
δDfluid values calculated from the dehydration of muscovite grains and measured directly from bulk fluid in-
clusion analyses of stage II gray quartz have ranges of –9 to –35 and –27 to –28 per mil, respectively.
Hydrothermal ore fluids were transported from greater crustal depths to the site of gold deposition during
the district-scale D3 event by shallowly W dipping, reverse brittle-ductile shear zones in supracrustal rock and
along the steeply east dipping trondhjemite contact. Associated subhorizontal east-west shortening caused the
reactivation of the eastern trondhjemite margin and subparallel foliation, which facilitated the transport of hy-
drothermal fluids and the generation of gold-bearing veins and hydrothermal alteration zones in komatiite.

† Corresponding author: email, pduuring@mail.earth.monash.edu.au

*Present address: School of Geosciences, P.O. Box 28E, Monash University, Victoria 3800, Australia.

©2004 by Economic Geology, Vol. 99, pp. 423–451

0361-0128/01/3418/423-29 $6.00 423
424 DUURING ET AL.

East-west–striking fractures in trondhjemite aided the lateral migration of ore fluids away from trondhjemite
margins and the formation of east-west–striking gold-bearing veins and broad alteration zones. Gold was most
likely transported in the stage II fluid as bisulfide complexes. The sulfidation of trondhjemite and komatiite
wall rock by the stage II fluid caused the destabilization of Au bisulfide complexes and gold deposition. Potas-
sium, Ca, and CO2 metasomatism of komatiite wall rock may have enhanced gold deposition via the acidifica-
tion of the stage II fluid.
The physicochemical characteristics of the Tarmoola ore fluid and relative timing of gold mineralization are
consistent with the Yilgarn-wide, 2650 to 2630 Ma gold event. The host-rock chemistry, vein, and proximal
wall-rock alteration mineral assemblages, and fluid temperature and pressures during gold deposition are also
similar to that of earlier (ca. 2755 Ma) gold deposits in the Leonora district.

Introduction However, the timing and fluid characteristics for the Tar-
THE TARMOOLA gold deposit occurs in the Leonora district, moola deposit have not been previously established.
about 265 km north of Kalgoorlie in the Eastern Goldfields Duuring et al. (2001) document the geometry and timing of
province of the Yilgarn craton. The Leonora district has been structures at Tarmoola. In this paper, we present an inte-
explored and mined for gold for over a century and includes grated structural and hydrothermal fluid model for the Tar-
the Tarmoola (116 t Au production and resource; Sons of moola gold mineralization event. The mineralogy, texture,
Gwalia Ltd., unpub. data) and Sons of Gwalia (115 t Au pro- and mineral paragenesis of gold-bearing veins are compared
duced; Witt, 2001) deposits. Smaller deposits in the district in the different host rocks to determine mineral and chemical
include the Harbour Lights (20 t Au production and resource; changes related to the interaction between a common ore
Vearncombe, 1992) and Tower Hill (20 t Au production and fluid and the two main host lithologies. Mineral equilibria,
resource; Witt, 2001) deposits. Tarmoola occurs at the site of
the historic King of the Hills prospect, which was discovered Keith-Kilkenny
121 00' deformation zone 121 30'
in 1897. Gold was mined intermittently by prospectors until 28 30' 28 30'
1918 to produce about 0.4 t of gold at an average grade of 20
g/t Au (Fairclough and Brown, 1998). Open-pit mining be- Bundarra
tween 1985 and mid-2002 produced 45.4 t of gold at an aver- Wonder North Batholith
age grade of 1.98 g/t Au (Grigson, 2002). The deposit is cur-
rently mined by Sons of Gwalia Ltd.; reserves as of June 2002 Celtic
were 16.01 Mt of ore at 1.13 g/t (18.07 t Au).
Gold deposits in the Leonora district have been the sub-
Tarmoola
ject of renewed interest since new structural timing evi-
dence and radiometric dating of molybdenum-gold–bearing
veins indicate two discrete orogenic gold depositional events Puzzle
in the Yilgarn craton (Witt, 2001; Witt et al., 2002). The Mount George Gambier Lass
shear zone
Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia gold de-
Sons of Gwalia
posits occur in amphibolite facies supracrustal rock that lie shear zone Cemetery
Harriston
between the Raeside batholith and the Poker fault. These Jasper Hills fault
deposits are considered to host gold that was deposited be- Raeside Batholith
tween ca. 2755 and 2752 Ma (Witt et al., 2002), an event Riviera
that is considerably earlier than the previously established, Trump
Yilgarn-wide, orogenic gold event that occurred between ca. 10 km
Harbour Lights
2650 and 2620 Ma (Groves et al., 1998). Furthermore, the LEONORA
close spatial and temporal association between gold and the Tower Hill
Raeside batholith (emplaced between ca. 2780–2660 Ma; Sons of Gwalia
Witt et al., 2002), plus the Au-Sb-Mo-W ± Bi metal associa- N Tarmoola
tion in gold-bearing veins, suggest a magmatic contribution Poker fault
Perth
to gold-bearing hydrothermal fluids. These associations are
similar to features of intrusion-related gold systems (cf. 29 00' 29 00'
Lang and Baker, 2001). Leonora townsite Mafic dike
121 00' 121 30'
Tarmoola occurs about 30 km northwest of Leonora, along Gold mine Felsic intrusion
a north-northwest strike from the Sons of Gwalia, Tower Hill, Stratigraphic younging Sedimentary rock
and Harbour Lights deposits (Fig. 1). At Tarmoola, orebodies Movement of hanging wall Conglomerate
are mainly located along the steeply dipping, eastern margin Fault/ shear zone Volcaniclastic rock
of the trondhjemite intrusion in greenschist facies volcanic Antiform Basalt and gabbro
and sedimentary units (Fig. 2). Ore zones at Tarmoola are Geological boundary Ultramafic rock
controlled by the orientation and shape of the trondhjemite
intrusion and the local stress field (Duuring et al., 2001). Tar- FIG. 1. Geologic map of the Leonora district in the Norseman-Wiluna
moola has similar vein and proximal wall-rock metasomatic belt, showing the location of the Tarmoola deposit as well as the distribution
mineral assemblages to that of the early Leonora deposits. of rock types and major structures (after Duuring et al., 2001).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 424

 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 425

fluid inclusion, and stable (S, O, H) isotope studies on gold- North Pit
N

bearing veins constrain the temperature, pressure, and pH of 40 36

the hydrothermal fluid. Previously determined structural
events (Duuring et al., 2001) are then linked to ore fluid com- 80 N
position and evolution. The Tarmoola deposit is also com- 20 250 m
pared to the Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia
deposits to establish the relationship between the timing and
Canyon 50
source of auriferous ore fluids responsible for these deposits. 20
Area
25 60 Pillow structures

Tarmoola Geology 26 Lithological contact

36
Leonora district geology 67
Quartz diorite
50
The geology and structural history of the Leonora district is 14 Trondhjemite

controversial because of poor outcrop in some areas and com- 20 Volcaniclastic unit
plex overprinting of early structures by numerous deforma- 42 Spinifex-textured
20 komatiite
tion events. Leonora district geology is described by Hallberg
70 Siltstone
(1985), Skwarnecki (1987), Williams et al. (1989), Williams
(1998), and Witt (2001). A summary from Duuring et al. 45 Basalt and komatiite

(2001) is given here.

The Leonora district comprises Archean mafic, ultramafic,
and interbedded sedimentary units that are intruded by the
Raeside and Bundarra batholiths. The supracrustal stratigra-
phy is subdivided into domains (e.g., Williams et al., 1989)
based on contrasting volcanosedimentary associations that
exist on either side of north- to northwest-trending structures.
Examples of major northwest-trending structures include the
Sons of Gwalia shear zone, Mount George shear zone, Ceme-
tery fault, and Keith-Kilkenny deformation zone (Fig. 1). The
Sons of Gwalia, Harbour Lights, and Tower Hill deposits are
located near or at the lithologic contact between the Raeside
batholith and supracrustal units. Supracrustal rocks in the dis-
trict have mostly undergone regional mid- to upper-green-
schist facies metamorphism, although amphibolite facies
metamorphic rocks occur between the Raeside batholith con-
tact and the Poker fault (Hallberg, 1985; Williams and Currie,
1993; Williams, 1998).
The deformation history for the Leonora district (Williams,
1998) is compared to structural histories for the Tower Hill
(Witt, 2001), Harbour Lights (Vearncombe, 1992), and Tar-
moola (Duuring et al., 2001) deposits in Figure 3. The Rae-
side batholith intruded mafic and ultramafic units in the
Leonora district between ca. 2760 and 2680 Ma (Witt, 2001;
Witt et al., 2002), predating the last stages of greenstone for-
mation and early deformation generally recognized in the
Eastern Goldfields province (ca. 2710–2675 Ma; Swager,
1997). At Tower Hill, an early foliated granodiorite (ca. 2760
Ma; Witt et al., 2002) is cut by a smaller, massive monzogran-
ite (2753 ± 6 Ma; Fletcher et al., 2001) and several felsic por-
phyry intrusions (Witt, 2001). Early regional extension (De) is
documented for the Leonora district (Williams, 1998) but is
not recognized in the deposits. Low-angle shear zones devel-
oped along granitoid-greenstone contacts, whereas gently
dipping mylonite, orthogneiss, and schist formed parallel to
bedding (Williams, 1998). Early felsic intrusions within the
Raeside batholith contain a well-developed, regional S1 folia-
tion that developed parallel to granitoid contacts during re-
gional D1. The regional S1 foliation is also preserved locally in
low strain areas of supracrustal rock as an east-west–striking
foliation that dips 55° to 60° to the north (Williams et al.,
1989). The Sons of Gwalia shear zone is interpreted to be
S South Pit
South Pit Canyon Area North Pit
S N
100 m
200 m
Spinifex-textured
Basalt and komatiite Siltstone komatiite Volcaniclastic unit
Gold contour
Trondhjemite Quartz diorite Pit outline >1 g/tAu
FIG. 2. Simplified geologic plan of the Tarmoola open pits and a repre-
sentative north-northeast–south-southwest long section looking west-north-
west (modified from Duuring et al., 2001).
either a pre-D1 structure that formed during regional north-
south extension (Williams and Whitaker, 1993; Williams,
1998) or a D1 structure that developed due to top-to-north
movement along a subhorizontal contact between the Rae-
side batholith and overlying greenstones; subsequent tilting
caused apparent normal movement on north-dipping shear
zone surfaces (Witt, 2001). In addition to the Sons of Gwalia
shear zone, the Mount George shear zone and Cemetery fault
are interpreted to have been active during regional D1 (Witt,
2001). East-northeast–west-southwest shortening during re-
gional D2 folded bedding and subparallel S1 foliation into
open and upright, north-northwest–trending, shallowly
plunging folds, which have a steeply dipping (70°–80°) axial
planar S2 cleavage (Williams et al., 1989). The Sons of Gwalia
shear zone, Mount George shear zone, and Cemetery fault
were rotated during regional D2 into their present steep ori-
entation (Witt, 2001).
Constraints on absolute timing of gold deposition in the
Leonora district are limited, although recent dates for molyb-
denite in gold-bearing veins in supracrustal units at Tower
Hill (ca. 2755–2752 Ma; Witt et al., 2002) and structural rela-
tionships at Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia
(Witt, 2001) suggest that gold deposition occurred during an
early orogenic event. This regional D3 event caused mainly

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 425

426 DUURING ET AL.
strike-slip movement on regional faults and shear zones, such
as the Keith-Kilkenny deformation zone. East-northeast–
striking D4 faults cut all earlier structures. The regional D5
event is observed locally and is characterized by a southeast-
striking, gently dipping, widely spaced crenulation (Williams,
1998).
Tarmoola geology
The following is summarized from Duuring et al. (2001). At
Tarmoola, a trondhjemite intrudes a northwest-striking, shal-
lowly northeast dipping, sequence of metamorphosed ko-
matiite, basalt, chloritic siltstones, and a volcaniclastic unit
(Fig. 2). Igneous and sedimentary textures are locally pre-
served and hence the prefix “meta” is inferred but omitted
from lithologic descriptions. The trondhjemite does not crop
out; current pit exposures and diamond drill hole intersec-
tions indicate that the intrusion is north-south elongated and
is at least 300 m wide and 1.4 km long. Several quartz diorite
dikes cut the trondhjemite and adjacent komatiite. The trond-
hjemite is massive and shows no zonation in igneous minerals
or textures over the extent of the deposit. The trondhjemite
contact is sharp with no metamorphic contact aureole in ad-
jacent komatiite. The western trondhjemite margin dips 20°
to 40° to the west, whereas the southern, eastern, and north-
ern margins dip 70° to 90° to the south, east, and north, re-
spectively.
Two main orebody (>1 g/t Au) styles exist at Tarmoola: ore-
bodies that strike west-northwest in trondhjemite and ore-
bodies that occur along the eastern trondhjemite margin and
are hosted by komatiite and trondhjemite (Fig. 2). Higher
grade ore zones (>1 g/t Au) in trondhjemite are 1 to 10 m
wide, strike west-northwest and are surrounded by broader
(10–50 m wide), disseminated, low-grade (<0.5 g/t Au) gold
halos. Higher grade ore zones outside the intrusion are widest
(<30 m) and most continuous within 100 m of the eastern and
northeastern trondhjemite margins in komatiite. These areas
coincide with the transition from shallowly west to steeply
east dipping trondhjemite margins, which represent the
greatest change in the orientation of the trondhjemite con-
tact. Ore zones in komatiite located more than 100 m from
the trondhjemite margins are narrower (1–3 m wide) and are
less continuous.
Structures at Tarmoola are the product of progressive, dis-
trict-scale east-west–directed shortening (Duuring et al.,
2001). The earliest phase of deformation at Tarmoola (DT1a)
corresponds to regional D2 in the Leonora district (Fig. 3)
and involved the emplacement of the Tarmoola trondhjemite
(ca. 2700 ± 11 Ma U-Pb age; D.R. Nelson, writ. commun.,
1996), followed by the folding of the supracrustal sequence.
The folding produced open, asymmetric, shallowly north
plunging, F1 anticlines and a north-striking, east-dipping,
axial planar S1 foliation in volcanic and sedimentary units.
Early quartz-carbonate V1 veins, which were initially east
trending, were isoclinally folded and wrapped with the S1 fab-
ric around the trondhjemite during progressive east-west
shortening. Continued east-west shortening during DT1b
coincided with the intrusion of several 1- to 25-m-wide quartz
diorite dikes (ca. 2667 ± 8 Ma U-Pb age; Fletcher et al., 2001)
that strike east-west in trondhjemite and north-south in
komatiite. The isotropic and competent nature of the
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 426
trondhjemite caused quartz diorite dikes to form parallel to
the direction of maximum principal stress (i.e., east-west
striking σ1), whereas the reactivation of the strongly devel-
oped S1 foliation in komatiite caused the dikes to be oriented
north-south (Duuring et al., 2001). Trondhjemite and quartz
diorite dikes are cut by gold-bearing V2 veins, which define
the DT2 event. Hence, trondhjemite and quartz diorite dike
emplacement ages bracket the regional D2 event (DT1a) at
Tarmoola to between ca. 2700 and 2667 ± 8 Ma. Gold-bear-
ing veins formed after 2667 ± 8 Ma.
The second deformation event (DT2) corresponds to re-
gional D3 in the Leonora district and involved deposit-scale,
subhorizontal northwest-southeast shortening, which caused
west- to northwest-striking, gold-bearing V2 veins in trond-
hjemite and the dominantly reverse movement of the
supracrustal sequence along the shallowly dipping, western
trondhjemite margin (Fig. 3). The reactivation of the steeply
dipping, eastern trondhjemite contact and subparallel S1 foli-
ation in komatiite caused gold-bearing V2 veins to form sub-
parallel to the eastern trondhjemite contact.
The third deformation phase (DT3), corresponding with re-
gional D4 in the Leonora district, caused the formation of (1)
brittle-ductile shear zones along the trondhjemite contact in
komatiite and basalt, (2) west-northwest–striking, steeply
southwest dipping, extensional V3 veins, and (3) northwest-
and north-striking brittle faults. These structures offset the
trondhjemite contact, quartz diorite dikes, and gold-bearing
V2 veins and associated altered wall rock in komatiite and
basalt. Extensional V3 veins, which define dilational fault jogs
in komatiite and basalt, formed during local west-south-
west–east-northeast–directed shortening and were later cut
by north-south–striking brittle faults in trondhjemite, which
indicates later northwest-southeast–directed local shortening.
Methods
Gold-bearing V2 veins and related wall-rock hydrothermal
alteration zones in trondhjemite and komatiite were sampled
from diamond drill core and pit samples for petrologic, geo-
chemical, fluid inclusion, and stable (S, O, H) isotope studies.
The samples were collected over the extent of the deposit to
ensure that they are representative of the Tarmoola system.
Nineteen 1- to 3-kg samples that contained negligible vein
material were used for whole-rock major and trace element
analysis. Major and trace element concentrations were deter-
mined by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry
(ICP-MS) and instrumental neutron activation analysis
(INAA; As, Au, Br, Cr, Ir, Sc, and Se) at Activation Laborato-
ries Ltd., Perth, Western Australia. Sulfur and CO2 were de-
termined by LECO analysis at the University of Western Aus-
tralia. The accuracy, as determined from whole-rock
standards was ±3 percent for major elements, ±10 percent for
K2O and P2O5, and variable for trace elements, depending on
the concentrations. A JEOL 6400 scanning electron micro-
probe at the University of Western Australia was used to de-
termine the chemical composition of selected silicate, car-
bonate, sulfide, telluride mineral phases, and gold. Carbonate
mineral identification and distribution was aided by carbon-
ate staining (Hutchison, 1974).
Fluid inclusion heating and freezing analyses were conducted
on a Linkam THMSG 600 stage with a TMS 93 temperature
 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 427

Event Leonora District Tower Hill Harbour Lights TARMOOLA

(Williams, 1998) (Witt, 2001; Witt et al., 2001) (V earncombe, 1992) (Duuring et al., 2001)
First Orogenic Event E W
DTH1 + DTH2 (ca. 2760 - 2753 Ma)
DT1a
N-S thrusting?
Emplacement of granodiorite; perva-
σ1
sive foliation in granodiorite; emplace-
ment of porphyry; folding of pervasive
De Low-angle, shear foliation
zones along granitoid- DTH3 DHL1
σ1
greenstone margins Raeside Batholith uplift: Normal movement;
Thrust faults, Emplacement of monzogranite + por- pervasive foliation;
D1
sequence repetition phyry intrusions; normal movement S-C fabrics; gold-
and bedding parallel across granite contact; gold-bearing bearing veins
foliation (S 1) veins (ca. 2755 - 27252 Ma)
DT1b
Second Orogenic Event DT1a (ca. 2700 Ma)
D2 ENE-WSW DTH4 E-W shortening
shortening E-W shortening? Emplacement of trondhjemite; aplitic
Upright folds, S2 foli- Reverse movement across granite dikes; open, upright, shallowly N-
ation; reactivation of contact; folding of contact, foliation, plunging F 1 folds; N-striking, perva-
earlier shear zones and veins sive, axial planar S1 foliation; E-W
DHL3?
(reverse movement) DTH5 striking V 1 veins; folding of V 1 veins
ENE-trending
SE-NW shortening crenulation
Upright, open folding of all units and Peak, greenschist metamorphism
fabrics; NE-plunging fold axes DHL2 DT1b (ca. 2667 Ma)
DT2
DTH6 Normal movement; E-W shortening
extensional shear Folding of V 1 veins; E-W striking
Raeside Batholith uplift bands; asymmetric
Renewed normal movement; interme- quartz diorite dikes in trondhjemite;
folding of gold-
diate porphyry intrusion parallel to S1 in supracrustal rocks
bearing veins
D3 ENE-WSW shortening Reactivation of Cemetery fault and DT2
N-S striking, dextral the truncation of Mt. George shear NW-SE shortening
shear zones and sinis- zone Reverse shear zone; reactivation of
tral reactivation of eastern trondhjemite margin and S1
NNW-striking shear foliation; gold-bearing V 2 veins in
zones
trondhjemite and supracrustal rocks DT3
D4 NE-striking faults DTH8? DHL2? DT3
(small displacements) E-W shortening Shallow-plunging E-W shortening
Late brittle faults crenulations V 3 veins; N-trending faults
D5 Shallowly-dipping DTH7? Fault S1 foliation Quartz diorite
spaced crenulation E-W shortening
cleavage V 3 vein Shear zone Trondhjemite
Crenulation of existing fabrics; NNE- V 2 vein
plunging crenulation; axial planar folia- Rock contact Siltstone
tion V 1 vein Aplitic dike Basalt and komatiite

FIG. 3. A comparison of different deformation events proposed by different workers for the Leonora district and the
Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Tarmoola deposits (modified from Duuring et al., 2001).

programmer at the University of Western Australia. The preci-
sion for microthermometric measurements was ±0.2°C for tem-
peratures below 30°C and ±2°C for temperatures above 30°C.
Salinity (wt % NaCl equiv), bulk composition, and density were
calculated using the MacFlinCor program (Brown and Hage-
mann, 1995) and the Bowers and Helgeson (1983) equation of
state for the CO2-H2O-NaCl system.
Gases in fluid inclusions in gray quartz were extracted by
thermal decrepitation and analyzed on a quadrupole mass
spectrometer at the U.S. Geological Survey in Denver, Col-
orado. The accuracy for the simultaneous analysis of multiple
fluid inclusion gases is less than 3 to 5 mol percent (G. Lan-
dis, writ. commun., 2001).
Mineral separates for stable isotope studies were hand-
picked from crushed unweathered diamond drill core. Purity
was about 98 percent for muscovite and 99 percent for sul-
fides and quartz. Oxygen, hydrogen, and sulfur isotope analy-
ses were undertaken at the U.S. Geological Survey laboratory,
Denver, Colorado. The δ34S data are reported in per mil, rel-
ative to Cañon Diablo Troilite (CDT), with analytical accu-
racy and precision of ±0.2 and 0.3 per mil, respectively. Oxy-
gen isotope analyses were performed on quartz using the
method described by Clayton and Mayeda (1963). The δD of
trapped water in quartz was measured by the liberation of
fluid inclusion water by thermal decrepitation, whereas δD
for muscovite was analyzed by the dehydration of muscovite
grains. The δ18O and δD values are reported in per mil rela-
tive to Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW), the
analytical accuracy was ±0.2 per mil for δ18O and ±5 per mil
for δD values.
Mineralogy, Texture, and
Paragenesis of Gold-Bearing V2 Veins
The V2 veins in trondhjemite (Fig. 4A) are up to 1 m wide
and 100 m long, strike west-northwest, and are steeply dip-
ping (60°–90°) to the southwest and northeast. Locally, V2
veins in trondhjemite occur as conjugate vein pairs (e.g., in
the South pit) but more commonly display a large, west- to
north-northwest–striking, spread in orientation over the ex-
tent of the deposit. This spread is likely due to variations in
the local stress field caused by the interaction between the re-
gional stress field and the shape of the intrusion (cf. Duuring
et al., 2001) and variations in differential stress (σ1-σ3), which
caused V2 veins to form at different angles to σ1 (cf. Sibson,
1990).

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 427

428 DUURING ET AL.

A B
trondhjemite
wallrock komatiite
wallrock crack-seal texture

crack-
seal
texture

gold
quartz
z
C milky quartz D pyrite
fractured
pyrite gray quartz
Trondhjemite
wallrock
galena
gold gold
gold

scheelite

galena
gray
1 cm
quartz

E F
gray quartz
gray quartz pyrite
pyrite
galena

galena
pyrite altaite

chalcopyrite chalcopyrite
gray quartz

quartz

FIG. 4. Photographs of V2 vein textures and minerals. The camera lens cap used for scale has a diameter of 5.5 cm; the
photomicrographs were taken using reflected, plane-polarized light. A. Multiply fractured, <20-cm-wide, V2 vein in trond-
hjemite in the eastern wall of the Canyon area (from Duuring et al., 2001). The dominantly quartz-ankerite vein hosts abun-
dant slivers of trondhjemite wall rock that are altered by quartz, ankerite, calcite, muscovite, galena, chalcopyrite, sphalerite,
and gold and are oriented subparallel to vein margins. B. Komatiite-hosted, V2 quartz-ankerite vein oriented parallel to the
western trondhjemite contact that contains hydrothermal chlorite, quartz, ankerite, and gold within crack-seal fractures ori-
ented subparallel to vein margins. C. Hand specimen of a V2 vein hosted in trondhjemite that displays pyrite fractures filled
by gray quartz, ankerite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, tellurides, and gold. D. Photomicrograph that shows fractures in
pyrite grains containing gold that has coprecipitated with gray quartz, sphalerite, and galena. E. Photomicrograph that shows
galena, altaite, and gray quartz filling fractures in pyrite. F. Photomicrograph of a subhedral stage I pyrite grain that is
rimmed by stage II gray quartz, chalcopyrite, and galena.

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
The V2 veins in komatiite (Fig. 4B) are 1 to 3 m wide,
spaced 5 to 20 m apart, and mainly occur subparallel to the
trondhjemite margin and S1 foliation. Locally, 1- to 2-cm-
wide, east-west–striking veins occur adjacent to the north-
eastern trondhjemite margin in intensely metasomatized ko-
matiite. The V2 veins are most common within 40 m of the
moderately to steeply dipping (>45°), eastern trondhjemite
margin and within imbricate reverse, brittle-ductile shear
zones located above the intrusion and oriented subparallel to
the shallowly dipping (~25°) western contact. The V2 veins in
komatiite mirror the change in the orientation of the eastern
and northeastern trondhjemite contact and subparallel S1
foliation.
Mineralogy
Although the modal abundance of minerals varies between
individual veins, V2 veins in trondhjemite mainly comprise
milky quartz (60%), ankerite (10%), and calcite (5%). Less
common vein minerals are gray quartz (8%), muscovite (3%),
pyrite (3%), chalcopyrite (3%), sphalerite (2%), albite (2%),
galena (1%), scheelite (<1%), native gold (<1%), and telluride
minerals (<1%), which include petzite (Ag3AuTe2), altaite
(PbTe), hessite (Ag2Te), and tellurobismuth (Bi2Te3), in de-
creasing order of abundance.
The V2 veins in komatiite comprise mainly milky quartz
(50 modal %) and ankerite (20%), with lesser gray quartz
(10%), muscovite (3%), pyrite (3%), chalcopyrite (3%), hy-
drothermal chlorite (2%), fuchsite (2%), epidote (2%), albite
(2%), sphalerite (1%), galena (1%), scheelite (<1%), native
gold (<1%), and trace telluride minerals, including petzite,
hessite, altaite, and melonite (NiTe2), in decreasing order of
abundance.
Ankerite is the dominant carbonate and occurs in all V2
veins, regardless of host rock, whereas calcite occurs solely in
trondhjemite-hosted veins (Table 1). Ankerite is more Mg
rich in veins hosted by komatiite than in trondhjemite. Pla-
gioclase analyzed in a V2 vein in komatiite is almost pure al-
bite (An <1). White mica in a trondhjemite-hosted vein is
close to pure muscovite (Table 1). Hydrothermal chlorite
from several V2 veins in komatiite has the chemical composi-
tion of brunsvigite. Gold has a fineness [1000 × Au/(Au +
Ag)] of 891 ± 8 (n = 22) in trondhjemite and 906 ± 22 (n =
17) in komatiite (Table 1).
Textures
The vein classification schemes of Hodgson (1989), Poulsen
and Robert (1989), Sibson (1990), and Nguyen et al. (1998)
are used to categorize V2 veins at Tarmoola. They include
shear veins, extensional veins, or extensional-shear veins.
Shear veins are 1 to 10 cm wide and occur within brittle-
ductile shear zones in komatiite above the western trond-
hjemite margin (Fig. 4B). Shear veins display laminated and
brecciated textures and contain inclusion bands that are up to
1 cm wide, occur within 10 cm of vein margins, and are ori-
ented subparallel to vein walls. Inclusion bands comprise
metasomatized komatiite wall-rock fragments that contain
quartz, carbonate, pyrite, galena, sphalerite, chalcopyrite, tel-
luride minerals, and native gold. Intervals of inclusion bands
are commonly separated by 1- to 3-cm-wide zones of milky-
white quartz. The vein textures and microstructures suggest
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429
that episodic, antitaxial crack-seal mechanisms were impor-
tant for shear vein formation (cf. Ramsay, 1980).
Extensional veins are up to 1 m wide, are hosted mainly by
trondhjemite, and occur locally as east-west–striking veins in
metasomatized komatiite in the North pit. Extensional veins
contain coarse-grained (<2 cm), euhedral milky quartz and
carbonate grains, which define mineral growth fibers that are
oriented perpendicular to vein margins, and 1- to 10-cm-wide
vugs located in the center of the veins.
Extensional-shear veins are up to 1 m wide and are hosted
by trondhjemite and komatiite. Conjugate V2 veins in trond-
hjemite in the South pit show extensional-shear fabrics (Du-
uring et al., 2001). Extensional-shear veins have textures that
are similar to extensional veins, such as euhedral quartz and
carbonate minerals and vugs in the center of veins. Mineral
growth fibers are oriented obliquely (45°–80°) to vein mar-
gins. Locally, both extensional and extensional-shear veins
have euhedral quartz and vugs in the center of the veins as
well as 1- to 3-cm-wide inclusion bands located within 10 cm
of vein margins that comprise metasomatized wall-rock clasts,
containing quartz, carbonate, pyrite, galena, chalcopyrite,
sphalerite, telluride minerals, and native gold. Komatiite
clasts may display a weakly preserved S1 foliation parallel to
vein margins. All wall-rock clasts are locally rimmed by
coarse-grained (<1 cm) euhedral quartz and carbonate.
The V2 vein textures, like vein orientations discussed above,
vary over the extent of the deposit, depending on the local
stress field and the heterogeneity and competency of the host
rock (cf. Duuring et al., 2001). For example, extensional min-
eral-growth fibers, vugs, and euhedral quartz and carbonate
crystals are more common in east-west–striking extensional
and extensional-shear veins in trondhjemite because trond-
hjemite deformed as a homogeneous and competent body
during the DT2 gold mineralization event (Duuring et al.,
2001). In contrast, komatiite failed mainly by the reactivation
of the existing S1 foliation, which was oriented at a high angle
to σ1 during the DT2 event (Duuring et al., 2001); hence,
shear and extensional-shear veins are more common in
komatiite.
Paragenesis
The V2 vein minerals are divided into two main stages of
formation (Fig. 5). Stage I is defined by milky quartz and
pyrite. Stage II is paragenetically later and is characterized by
the deformation of milky quartz and pyrite and the precipita-
tion of gray quartz, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, scheelite,
telluride minerals, and gold. Several phases, including calcite,
ankerite, plagioclase, muscovite, chlorite, and fuchsite,
formed throughout the two stages of V2 vein formation.
Stage I milky quartz is volumetrically dominant (milky
quartz represents more than 85 vol % of the total quartz) and
contains abundant fluid inclusions, has irregular, partially re-
crystallized grain boundaries, and displays undulose extinc-
tion in cross-polarized light. Stage II gray quartz appears
translucent in hand specimen, contains minor amounts of
fluid inclusions, has irregular grain boundaries, and has a
straight extinction in cross-polarized light. Stage I pyrite
grains are <1 cm wide, euhedral to subhedral, and occur as
<4-cm-wide clusters (Fig. 4C) or as individual grains. Pyrite is
commonly concentrated along vein margins, in contact with
 TABLE 1. Chemical Composition of Selected Silicate and Carbonate Minerals and Gold from V2 Veins and Related Hydrothermal Alteration Zones in Trondhjemite and Komatiite
430
Plagioclase White mica Chlorite Gold

Sample no. TL03 TA52 TL03 TL71 TL18 TL26 TL18 TL61 TL54 Sample TL71 TL18
Lithology Trondhjemite Komatiite Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Komatiite Trondhjemite Komatiite Komatiite Komatiite Lithology Trondhjemite Komatiite
Location Wall rock Vein Wall rock Vein Vein Wall rock Vein Wall rock Wall rock Location Vein Vein
Type Igneous Hydrothermal Metamorphic Hydrothermal Hydrothermal Metamorphic Hydrothermal Hydrothermal Hydrothermal No. of analyses 22 17
Mineral Albite Albite Muscovite Muscovite Fuchsite Ripidolite Brunsvigite Brunsvigite Brunsvigite
No. of analyses 6 17 11 10 7 6 5 9 9

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SiO2 (wt %) 68.62 ± 0.36 69.00 ± 0.27 44.01 ± 0.38 44.08 ± 0.50 45.66 ± 0.50 24.11 ± 0.32 27.25 ± 0.52 30.20 ± 1.22 26.45 ± 0.41 Au (wt%) 88.08 ± 1.13 89.93 ± 2.71
TiO2 - - 0.34 ± 0.20 0.18 ± 0.07 0.16 ± 0.09 - - - - Ag 10.79 ± 0.77 9.33 ± 2.13
Al2O3 19.52 ± 0.28 19.19 ± 0.12 30.14 ± 2.24 33.50 ± 0.88 30.58 ± 0.89 19.98 ± 0.20 18.66 ± 0.55 15.02 ± 0.66 18.69 ± 0.84 Co 0.08 ± 0.06 0.03 ± 0.04
Cr2O3 - - - - 2.74 ± 0.66 - 1.70 ± 0.50 0.72 ± 0.41 1.74 ± 0.19 Ni 0.07 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.09
FeO - 0.03 ± 0.08 3.24 ± 1.63 1.03 ± 0.35 0.93 ± 0.14 29.84 ± 0.22 14.65 ± 0.65 14.84 ± 0.54 14.50 ± 0.38 As 0.17 ± 0.10 0.27 ± 0.13
MgO - - 1.26 ± 0.65 0.42 ± 0.30 0.93 ± 0.14 10.06 ± 0.30 20.43 ± 0.22 22.65 ± 0.45 20.62 ± 0.40 Sb 0.07 ± 0.11 0.04 ± 0.08
CaO 0.38 ± 0.29 0.05 ± 0.08 0.02 ± 0.05 0.01 ± 0.03 0.04 ± 0.07 - - - - Te 0.12 ± 0.15 0.09 ± 0.13
Na20 11.41 ± 0.22 11.66 ± 0.22 0.27 ± 0.32 0.44 ± 0.36 0.28 ± 0.16 - - - - Pb 0.29 ± 0.35 0.36 ± 0.33
K2O - 0.01 ± 0.03 11.74 ± 0.59 11.69 ± 0.53 10.17 ± 0.15 - - - - Bi 0.08 ± 0.18 0.11 ± 0.24
Total 100.00 ± 0.46 99.99 ± 0.37 91.01 ± 0.45 91.35 ± 0.54 91.50 ± 0.45 84.17 ± 0.43 82.83 ± 1.10 83.85 ± 1.36 82.06 ± 0.91 Total 100.21 ± 0.76 100.58 ± 1.34

Si (no. of ions) 2.99 ± 0.01 3.01 ± 0.01 6.28 ± 0.04 6.17 ± 0.06 6.36 ± 0.06 5.43 ± 0.04 5.74 ± 0.07 6.27 ± 0.19 5.70 ± 0.09 Au (no.of ions) 0.82 ± 0.02 0.85 ± 0.04
Ti - - 0.04 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.01 0.02 ± 0.01 - - - - Ag 0.18 ± 0.01 0.16 ± 0.03
Al 1.00 ± 0.01 0.99 ± 0.01 5.07 ± 0.32 5.53 ± 0.15 5.02 ± 0.15 5.31 ± 0.08 4.64 ± 0.14 3.68 ± 0.16 4.75 ± 0.18 Co - -
Cr - - - - 0.30 ± 0.07 - 0.28 ± 0.08 0.12 ± 0.07 0.30 ± 0.03 Ni - -
Fe - - 0.39 ± 0.20 0.12 ± 0.04 0.11 ± 0.02 5.63 ± 0.04 2.58 ± 0.10 2.58 ± 0.11 2.61 ± 0.08 As - -
Mg - - 0.27 ± 0.14 0.09 ± 0.06 0.19 ± 0.03 3.38 ± 0.09 6.42 ± 0.05 7.01 ± 0.13 6.62 ± 0.10 Sb - -
Ca 0.02 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.00 0.00 ± 0.01 0.00 ± 0.01 - - - - - Te - -

430
Na 0.97 ± 0.02 0.99 ± 0.02 0.07 ± 0.09 0.12 ± 0.10 0.08 ± 0.04 - - - - Pb - -
K - 0.00 ± 0.00 2.14 ± 0.13 2.09 ± 0.09 1.81 ± 0.03 - - - - Bi - -
Total 4.98 ± 0.01 4.99 ± 0.01 14.26 ± 0.14 14.14 ± 0.03 13.89 ± 0.03 19.81 ± 0.04 19.72 ± 0.03 19.77 ± 0.15 20.00 ± 0.03 Total 1.03 ± 0.02 1.04 ± 0.01
DUURING ET AL.

Fe/Fe+Mg - - 0.59 ± 0.07 0.61 ± 0.18 0.36 ± 0.04 0.62 ± 0.01 0.29 ± 0.01 0.27 ± 0.01 0.28 ± 0.01 Au fineness 891 ± 8 906 ± 22
An number 0.02 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.01 - - - - - - - Au/Ag 10 ± 3 8±1
Ab number 0.98 ± 0.01 0.99 ± 0.01 - - - - - - -

Carbonate

Sample TL26 TL26 TL03 TL03 TL71 TL71 TL61 TA52 TL54
Lithology Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Trondhjemite Komatiite Komatiite Komatiite
Alteration zone Distal Distal Intermediate Intermediate Proximal Proximal Distal Intermediate Proximal
Mineral Ankerite Calcite Ankerite Calcite Ankerite Calcite Calcite Ankerite Ankerite
No. of analyses 6 2 2 5 6 6 12 15 9

FeCO3 (wt %) 24.94 ± 0.42 1.33 ± 0.11 33.81 ± 0.53 1.99 ± 0.36 18.42 ± 5.45 2.29 ± 0.75 0.97 ± 0.26 14.63 ± 1.79 10.24 ± 1.84
MnCO3 0.74 ± 0.12 1.99 ± 0.19 0.59 ± 0.25 0.63 ± 0.50 0.77 ± 0.23 0.34 ± 0.17 1.22 ± 0.26 0.76 ± 0.21 0.67 ± 0.15
MgCO3 18.56 ± 0.62 0.77 ± 0.13 14.74 ± 1.68 0.85 ± 0.26 26.55 ± 3.83 1.17 ± 0.25 1.17 ± 0.25 31.66 ± 1.51 34.57 ± 1.39
CaCO3 55.37 ± 0.84 97.37 ± 0.01 50.47 ± 0.85 98.17 ± 1.22 53.46 ± 1.25 97.81 ± 1.18 98.28 ± 1.20 53.02 ± 0.37 53.10 ± 0.34
Total 99.60 ± 0.40 101.45 ± 0.16 99.61 ± 0.56 101.65 ± 1.35 99.21 ± 0.83 101.60 ± 1.75 101.64 ± 1.25 100.08 ± 0.73 98.58 ± 0.67

Fe (no. of ions) 0.43 ± 0.01 0.02 ± 0.00 0.60 ± 0.01 0.03 ± 0.01 0.31 ± 0.09 0.04 ± 0.01 0.02 ± 0.00 0.24 ± 0.03 0.17 ± 0.03
Mn 0.01 ± 0.00 0.03 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.01 0.01 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00 0.02 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00 0.01 ± 0.00
Mg 0.44 ± 0.02 0.02 ± 0.00 0.36 ± 0.04 0.02 ± 0.01 0.62 ± 0.08 0.03 ± 0.01 0.03 ± 0.00 0.72 ± 0.03 0.79 ± 0.03
Ca 1.11 ± 0.02 1.93 ± 0.00 1.03 ± 0.03 1.94 ± 0.02 1.05 ± 0.02 1.93 ± 0.01 1.94 ± 0.01 1.02 ± 0.01 1.03 ± 0.01
Total 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00 2.00 ± 0.00

Notes: - = below detection limit, no. = number

 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 431

stage bladed crystals in contact with ankerite and calcite in the mi-
STAGE I STAGE II crofractures that cut milky quartz. Stage II hydrothermal
vein mineral
chlorite, fuchsite, and epidote are commonly in contact with
milky quartz komatiite wall-rock inclusions. Figure 4B shows an 80-µm-
pyrite wide gold grain in contact with hydrothermal chlorite along
the margin of a komatiite wall-rock inclusion. Epidote is rare
calcite and occurs as <50-µm, anhedral grains with chlorite, gray
quartz, ankerite, melonite, and gold within microfractures
ankerite
that cut milky quartz in the veins hosted by komatiite. Albite
albite (An<1) forms up to 5-mm-long, multiply twinned undeformed grains
that locally grow inward from vein margins and occur in mu-
muscovite tual contact with coarse-grained, twinned ankerite and
chlorite
galena.
Chalcopyrite occurs as <1-cm-wide, isolated anhedral to
fuchsite subhedral grains (Fig. 4F) intergrown with galena and spha-
epidote
lerite. Sphalerite forms <1-cm-wide, anhedral, translucent,
fluid inclusion-rich, honey-colored grains, and locally con-
gray quartz tains <200-µm-wide, disseminated blebs of chalcopyrite.
Galena occurs as <5-mm-wide, anhedral grains that are com-
scheelite monly in contact with gray quartz, sphalerite, altaite, and
chalcopyrite
gold. Scheelite forms up to 2-cm-wide, subhedral crystals that
are commonly fractured and display mutual contacts with
sphalerite sphalerite and gray quartz.
Native gold forms <2-mm-wide, anhedral grains and occurs
galena as (1) discrete grains in contact with gray quartz ± ankerite ±
hessite (Ag2 Te)
chlorite ± fuchsite ± epidote ± chalcopyrite ± sphalerite ±
galena ± petzite ± altaite ± hessite ± tellurobismuth ± mel-
altaite (PbTe) onite along grain boundaries of milky quartz and pyrite (Fig.
tellurobismuth 4D), (2) isolated grains in microfractures in milky quartz and
(Bi 2 Te 3 ) pyrite (Fig. 4C), and (3) in contact or within fractures in
melonite (NiTe2 ) trondhjemite and komatiite wall-rock inclusions (Fig. 4B).
Petzite, altaite, hessite, tellurobismuth, and melonite are
petzite
(Ag3 AuTe 2 ) mostly fine grained (<1-mm-wide), anhedral and have mutual
boundaries with gold grains.
gold
Hydrothermal Alteration Associated with
vol. % of veins 85-95 5-15
Gold-Bearing V2 Veins
FIG. 5. Paragenetic diagram for minerals in V2 veins hosted by trond- Hydrothermal alteration associated with V2 veins overprints
hjemite and komatiite. Minerals are shown as major (thick bar), common
(thin bars), or minor (dashed line) phases.
greenschist facies metamorphic mineral assemblages in all
rock types and ranges from pit (tens of meters) to centimeter
scale. Three diamond drill holes (MDDH93, TARD3276, and
MDDH117) that intersect the eastern margin of the trond-
hjemite intrusion were selected for detailed petrologic and
wall-rock clasts, or as isolated grains that have mutual borders geochemical analysis. These holes intersect variably altered
with milky quartz, ankerite, calcite, muscovite, albite, or chlo- trondhjemite and komatiite in the North pit, Canyon area,
rite. These silicate and carbonate minerals are interpreted to and South pit. Figure 6 shows pit-scale hydrothermal alter-
have formed synchronously with pyrite. ation zonation in trondhjemite and komatiite, pit sample lo-
Stage II gray quartz, ankerite, and the main ore minerals cations, and the position of the examined diamond drill holes.
rim pyrite grains and fill fractures in pyrite and milky quartz All lithologies are altered to some degree, and consequently,
(Fig. 4D-E). Stage II minerals also rim and fill fractures in in- no comparisons are possible with unaltered samples of trond-
clusions of trondhjemite and komatiite wall rock in the veins. hjemite and komatiite. Although other lithologies, such as
Gray quartz occurs in contact with all other stage II minerals basalt, siltstone, and quartz diorite dikes, are variably altered
and is relatively undeformed. Ankerite and calcite occur as they do not host economically significant gold concentrations
50-µm to 2-mm-wide, euhedral to anhedral grains that form and are not discussed further.
along recrystallized boundaries of milky quartz grains and The least-altered trondhjemite and komatiite occur distal
within fractures that cut milky quartz, pyrite, and trond- to the trondhjemite-komatiite contact. In these areas, indi-
hjemite and komatiite wall-rock inclusions. Locally, calcite- vidual V2 veins have up to 1-m-wide, discrete alteration en-
filled fractures cut coarser grained ankerite, although this velopes. In proximity to trondhjemite contacts, the density of
relative timing of stage II carbonates is not the same every- V2 veins increases and the overlapping of alteration envelopes
where. Muscovite occurs as undeformed, <200-µm-long, results in broad, pit-scale alteration zones. Mappable changes

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432 DUURING ET AL.

FIG. 6. Plan view of the distribution of hydrothermal alteration zones to V2 veins in trondhjemite and supracrustal rocks.
The intensity of hydrothermal alteration increases with proximity to trondhjemite margins. The widths of proximal hy-
drothermal wall-rock alteration zones in trondhjemite and komatiite are too small to show on the plan. These are shown in
diamond drill core from the North, Canyon area, and South pits that also show the location of geochemical samples, as well
as sulfide and gold abundance. Samples not shown in the diagram include: TL16, TL18, TL26 from drill hole TARD3242;
TL28, TL31, TL54, TL68 from MDDH73, and TL71 from MDDH74. The enlarged portion of the South pit shows the lo-
cation of samples relative to hydrothermal alteration zones and the location of the east-west cross-section line, WE. Abbre-
viations: ab = albite, ank = ankerite; Au = gold; cc = calcite; chl = chlorite; cpy = chalcopyrite; fu = fuchsite; gal = galena; qtz
= quartz; mv = muscovite; py = pyrite; sph = sphalerite; tel = telluride.

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
in wall-rock textures, color zoning, and metasomatic mineral
assemblages indicate that alteration intensity increases to-
ward trondhjemite contacts (Figs. 6–7). Alteration halos
around veins in trondhjemite are divided into distal (farther
from veins), intermediate, proximal (outer), and proximal
(inner) zones (nearest to veins); fewer zones are evident
around veins in komatiite. Boundaries between alteration
zones are gradational over 1 to 10 cm and are parallel to vein
margins. The widths of the zones vary throughout the deposit
and all of the zones are not always present. Proximal (inner)
alteration zones around veins in trondhjemite and komatiite
locally pinch out along trondhjemite margins (Fig. 6). No ver-
tical hydrothermal mineral zonation exists within the pit or
drill core between the present surface and the maximum ver-
tical drill depth of 450 m.
The presence of antitaxial crack-seal textures and both
stage I and II minerals in V2 veins indicate that the veins
formed as a result of at least two major episodes of fluid infil-
tration and mineral precipitation. The greater abundance of
E W
A ankerite, calcite, quartz, muscovite, pyrite, and chalcopyrite
water
E W
B
20 m
?
FIG. 7. A. The southern wall of the Tarmoola South pit showing a 1- to 2-
m-wide, dominantly reverse shear zone located along the shallowly dipping
western trondhjemite margin (from Duuring et al., 2001). The footwall ko-
matiite is altered to ankerite-calcite-muscovite-hydrothermal chlorite ±
quartz ± fuchsite and contains V2 veins that are oriented subparallel to the
eastern trondhjemite margin and the S1 foliation in the komatiite. B. A
schematic east-west cross section, based on the southern wall of the South
pit, showing thrust movement along the western trondhjemite margin and
the distribution of hydrothermal alteration zones. The reactivation of the
eastern contact and subparallel S1 foliation and the development of low mean
stress zones along the eastern contact caused the formation of ore zones
along the eastern trondhjemite contact.
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433
stage I minerals relative to stage II minerals (about 9/1) sug-
gests that the stage I hydrothermal fluid was volumetrically
dominant and probably caused most of the wall-rock hy-
drothermal alteration at Tarmoola. However, hydrothermal
mineral and geochemical zonation is regarded as being the
end-product of the entire hydrothermal event.
Alteration of trondhjemite adjacent to V2 veins
Distal zones: Distal alteration zones associated with veins
occur greater than 50 m from the trondhjemite contact (Fig.
8A) and are light green, medium grained (2–3 mm),
equigranular, and massive. Igneous minerals comprise about
70 modal percent of the rock and include mainly plagioclase
(60 modal %) and quartz (35%), with minor (<5%) alkali-
feldspar, amphibole, biotite, apatite, and zircon (Fig. 8A).
Metamorphic minerals form about 20 modal percent of the
rock and include white mica, chlorite, and rutile. Plagioclase
is moderately (40%) altered to white mica, whereas amphi-
bole and biotite grains are strongly (>80%) replaced by meta-
morphic chlorite and rutile. Hydrothermal minerals consti-
tute less than 10 modal percent of distal alteration zones and
are commonly spatially associated with quartz-ankerite-cal-
cite veins. In decreasing order of abundance, they include
(Fig. 9A). These minerals partially replace igneous biotite and
amphibole and metamorphic chlorite. Ankerite is the domi-
nant carbonate and also replaces Fe-Mg silicates. Replace-
ment of metamorphic chlorite by sulfides is evidence that
hydrothermal alteration postdates metamorphism in trond-
hjemite. Cryptocrystalline hematite occurs as a fine dust
within igneous plagioclase grains in distal to proximal
(inner) zones in trondhjemite. The timing of hematite with
respect to metamorphism and V2 vein-related metasoma-
tism is uncertain.
Intermediate zones: These zones are found around veins
that occur 20 to 50 m from the trondhjemite contact and are
characterized by cream-colored, medium-grained (2–3 mm),
equigranular, massive trondhjemite with up to 25 modal per-
cent hydrothermal muscovite, ankerite, calcite, quartz, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, and sphalerite (Fig. 9A). Igneous amphibole
and biotite are completely replaced by ankerite, calcite, and
pyrite, whereas igneous plagioclase, alkali-feldspar, and meta-
morphic chlorite are partially replaced by fine-grained
ankerite, calcite, muscovite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and spha-
lerite (Fig. 8B). Ankerite is the dominant carbonate phase
and is enriched in Fe and depleted in Ca relative to ankerite
in distal zones. Calcite is progressively enriched in Fe and Mg
with proximity to V2 veins.
Proximal (outer) zones: Proximal (outer) alteration zones
occur around veins within 20 m of trondhjemite margins. The
zones are cream colored, medium grained (2–3 mm), massive
and contain up to 35 modal percent hydrothermal ankerite,
calcite, muscovite, and quartz with minor (<3 modal %) hy-
drothermal chlorite, pyrite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite, and
trace galena, altaite, petzite, hessite, tellurobismuth, and gold.
Igneous plagioclase is intensely fractured and replaced by
quartz, ankerite, and muscovite. Proximal (outer) zones are
distinguished from intermediate zones in that metamorphic
chlorite is completely replaced by ankerite, muscovite, and
pyrite, carbonate minerals are volumetrically more abundant
434 DUURING ET AL.

A B
plagioclase

chlorite

ankerite
quartz
amphibole

chlorite
chlorite

ilmenite plagioclase
250 µ m 250 µm lath

C D
fine-grained muscovite
ankerite,
muscovite,
and quartz talc

quartz
pyrite
metamorphic
chlorite and
serpentine
quartz

250µm 250 µm

E ankerite F
ankerite vein

metamorphic
chlorite ankerite

metamorphic
pyrite chlorite

ankerite

250 µm 250 µm metamorphic

chlorite

FIG. 8. Photomicrographs taken in transmitted light of textures and minerals of hydrothermal wall-rock alteration adja-
cent to V2 veins in trondhjemite and komatiite. A. Plane-polarized light photomicrograph of distal alteration in trondhjemite
that shows metamorphic chlorite and ilmenite partially pseudomorphous after coarse-grained amphibole and plagioclase par-
tially replaced by muscovite. B. Cross-polarized light photomicrograph of intermediate alteration zone in trondhjemite that
shows a plagioclase lath (shown in extinction) and metamorphic chlorite partially replaced by fine-grained ankerite and
quartz. C. Cross-polarized light photomicrograph of a proximal (inner) alteration zone in trondhjemite. Metamorphic chlo-
rite is completely replaced by fine-grained, hydrothermal muscovite, ankerite, calcite, quartz, and pyrite. Quartz grains have
undulose extinction and are partly recrystallized. D. Plane-polarized light photomicrograph of fine-grained, chlorite-talc-
rich, distal alteration zones in komatiite. E. Plane-polarized light photomicrograph of intermediate hydrothermal alteration
wall-rock zone assemblage in komatiite. The fine-grained talc-chlorite wall rock is partially replaced by ankerite and euhe-
dral pyrite. F. Plane-polarized light photomicrograph of proximal hydrothermal alteration in komatiite. Metamorphic chlo-
rite is replaced by fine- to coarse-grained ankerite and minor quartz.

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 435

FIG. 9. Schematic diagram showing hydrothermal mineral zonation adjacent to V2 veins in: (A) trondhjemite and (B) ko-
matiite wall rock. Proximity to fluid source increases to the right. Minerals are shown as major (thick bar), common (thin
bars), or minor (dashed line) phases. The photographs of diamond drill core show representative hand specimens of V2 veins
and adjacent wall-rock alteration zones for trondhjemite and komatiite from the drill hole MDDH93 (see Fig. 6 for location).
The modal mineralogy diagrams show hydrothermal mineral proportions for V2 veins and hydrothermal alteration zones in
trondhjemite and komatiite.

than hydrothermal muscovite, and they contain the first
trace occurrence of hydrothermal chlorite, galena, altaite,
petzite, hessite, tellurobismuth, and gold. Hydrothermal
chlorite differs from metamorphic chlorite in that hy-
drothermal chlorite commonly forms elongated prismatic
plates that rim euhedral pyrite grains. Ankerite is enriched
in Mg compared to ankerite in distal and intermediate al-
teration zones (Table 1).
Proximal (inner) zones: Proximal (inner) alteration zones
occur around veins within 10 m of the trondhjemite contact
and are pink, fine grained to cryptocrystalline, massive, and
contain up to 40 modal percent quartz with lesser amounts

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 435

436 DUURING ET AL.
(10 modal %) of ankerite, calcite, muscovite, albite, pyrite,
chalcopyrite, sphalerite, galena, altaite, petzite, hessite, tel-
lurobismuth, and gold. Fragments of igneous plagioclase laths
are <1 mm wide, have irregular boundaries, display undulose
extinction, and occur in a fine-grained (<1-mm) quartz, mus-
covite, ankerite, calcite, sulfide, telluride, and gold matrix
(Fig. 8C).
Stage II microveins: Stage II microveins (<1 mm wide) are
present in intermediate to proximal (inner) alteration zones
around veins in trondhjemite. Gray quartz, muscovite,
ankerite, calcite, chalcopyrite, and sphalerite are present in
microveins within the intermediate to proximal alteration
zones, whereas galena, scheelite, altaite, petzite, hessite, tel-
lurobismuth, and gold are restricted to microveins in the
proximal alteration zones. The microveins mostly occur along
the margins of existing V2 veins and cut stage I milky quartz,
pyrite, and ankerite, as well as trondhjemite wall-rock clasts.
Minor east-west–striking, subvertical stage II microveins
occur outside of V2 veins in trondhjemite wall rock and cut ig-
neous, metamorphic, and stage I hydrothermal alteration
minerals.
Alteration of komatiite adjacent to V2 veins
Distal zones: Alteration distal to veins in komatiite, 2 to 50
m away from the eastern trondhjemite margin (Fig. 6), is dark
green and fine grained (<1 mm), and comprises metamorphic
chlorite (60 modal %), serpentine (10%), and talc (10%), with
minor magnetite (3%) and leucoxene (2%). Metamorphic
chlorite and talc define an intense and pervasive north-
south–striking, S1 foliation oriented parallel to the eastern
trondhjemite margin. Hydrothermal minerals constitute up
to 15 modal percent of the rock in alteration zones distal to
the veins and include fine-grained ankerite, calcite, mus-
covite, quartz, pyrite, and chalcopyrite (Figs. 8D, 9B), replac-
ing Fe-Mg–rich metamorphic chlorite, serpentine, talc, and
magnetite grains. The overprinting of aligned metamorphic
chlorite by euhedral ankerite and pyrite grains suggests that
hydrothermal alteration postdated regional metamorphism.
Intermediate zones: These zones occur around veins 0 to 40
m from the trondhjemite margin, are green, fine grained,
weakly foliated, and comprise metamorphic chlorite and talc
with minor leucoxene and magnetite. Hydrothermal ankerite,
muscovite, quartz, and trace pyrite and chalcopyrite repre-
sent up to 30 modal percent of the rock and replace meta-
morphic chlorite, talc, serpentine, and magnetite. Ankerite is
the dominant carbonate species in intermediate zones and
becomes more Mg rich with proximity to V2 veins (Table 1).
Hydrothermal chlorite, muscovite, and ankerite grains rim
euhedral pyrite (Fig. 8E) and overprint the chloritic S1 folia-
tion, resulting in a more massive, competent, and lighter col-
ored rock.
Proximal zones: Proximal alteration is developed around
veins in komatiite within 5 m of the eastern trondhjemite
margin and is bright green, fine grained (<1 mm), and has a
weak foliation caused by the overprinting of the chlorite-talc
S1 fabric by ankerite (Fig. 8F). Hydrothermal minerals com-
prise up to 70 modal percent of the rock. Metamorphic talc
and magnetite are completely replaced by hydrothermal
ankerite, muscovite, fuchsite, Cr-rich chlorite (0.31–2.30 wt
% Cr2O3), and quartz, with minor albite, pyrite, chalcopyrite,
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 436
sphalerite, galena, altaite, hessite, petzite, melonite, and gold.
Metamorphic chlorite is replaced by ankerite, muscovite, and
sulfides, whereas leucoxene is relatively unaltered. Ankerite is
the dominant carbonate and is enriched in Mg compared to
ankerite in the intermediate zones (Table 1). Hydrothermal
albite occurs locally in the veins and in proximal alteration
zones where it replaces muscovite.
Stage II microveins: Stage II gray quartz-ankerite-mus-
covite ± albite ± fuchsite ± chlorite ± chalcopyrite ± spha-
lerite ± galena ± scheelite ± epidote ± tellurides ± gold
microveins are restricted to proximal alteration adjacent to V2
veins in komatiite. The microveins (<1 mm wide) are com-
monly oriented subparallel to V2 vein margins and cut stage I
vein minerals and the S1 foliation in komatiite wall-rock
inclusions.
Geochemical Zonation of
Hydrothermal Alteration around V2 Veins
Major and trace element analyses were performed on 19
variably altered trondhjemite and komatiite wall-rock sam-
ples to V2 veins from three diamond drill holes that intersect
the eastern trondhjemite margin (Fig. 6). One representative
diamond drill hole was chosen for each pit to show deposit-
scale variation in the nature of the hydrothermal ore fluid.
Chemical data from the three traverses are shown in Table 2.
Note that alteration was not observed proximal to veins in the
komatiite in the South pit and Canyon area. Qualitative
chemical changes (i.e., alteration indices) across wall-rock al-
teration zones are discussed below.
CO2 enrichment: The molar ratio CO2/Fe + Mg + Ca is a
measure of the degree of carbonatization in alteration zones
(Fig. 10; cf. Kishida and Kerrich, 1987). The ratio increases
with proximity to V2 veins in most trondhjemite and komati-
ite wall rock but decreases significantly in the innermost al-
teration zones adjacent to veins in trondhjemite. Altered
trondhjemite in the North pit is an exception in that carbon-
atization increases toward V2 vein margins. The increase in
carbonatization is due to the progressive replacement of am-
phibole, biotite, and chlorite in trondhjemite and chlorite,
serpentine, talc, and magnetite in komatiite by ankerite and
calcite. Carbonatization reactions liberate silica, which forms
quartz, muscovite, and albite. The decrease in CO2/Fe + Mg
+ Ca immediately adjacent to veins in trondhjemite is proba-
bly due to a decrease in the abundance of carbonate minerals
in quartz-rich proximal (inner) zones.
Alkali enrichment: The (3K + Na)/Al index measures
changes in alkali metal concentrations in alteration zones
(Fig. 10; cf. Kishida and Kerrich, 1987). Aluminum in trond-
hjemite and komatiite at Tarmoola is present mostly within
chlorite, white mica, or albite. Assuming ideal compositions
for white mica (KAl3Si3O10(OH)2) and albite (NaAlSi3O8), the
ratio 3K/Al = 1 represents saturation relative to white mica,
whereas the ratio Na/Al = 1 represents saturation relative to
albite. The 3K/Al (white mica) ratio increases in trondhjemite
and komatiite from distal to proximal zones but decreases
sharply in the proximal (inner) alteration in trondhjemite in
the North and South pits. The Na/Al (albite) ratio decreases
in trondhjemite and komatiite with proximity to V2 veins but
increases sharply in the innermost zones adjacent to veins in
trondhjemite in the North and South pits. These contrasting
 TABLE 2. Chemical Analyses of Major and Trace Elements from Hydrothermal Alteration Zones in Trondhjemite and Komatiite Wall Rock to Gold-Bearing V2 Veins

Rock type Trondhjemite Komatiite

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
Pit South Canyon North South Canyon North

Sample no. TL07 TL42 TL41 TL39 TL50 TL49 TL48 TL19 TL65 TL64 TL63 TA14 TL44 TAS36 TL53 TL52 TL61 TL60 TL59
Distance (cm) 70 20 10 5 80 30 10 5 140 40 10 5 50 10 40 3 54 2 0.2
Alteration Distal Interm. P. outer P. inner Distal Interm. P. outer P. inner Distal Interm. P. outer P. inner Distal Interm. Distal Interm. Distal Interm. proximal

SiO2 66.60 66.90 66.60 58.10 69.80 69.20 69.60 66.50 70.40 68.80 67.20 80.80 42.80 37.80 43.80 37.00 46.20 35.80 37.20
TiO2 0.25 0.24 0.25 0.05 0.22 0.21 0.22 0.23 0.22 0.21 0.23 0.06 0.30 0.29 0.27 0.25 0.36 0.32 0.28
Al2O3 15.00 14.80 15.20 14.00 14.60 14.40 14.00 13.20 14.60 14.60 15.80 10.20 6.40 5.75 5.90 5.05 7.05 7.50 6.05
Fe2O3 2.40 2.79 2.92 5.25 2.28 2.51 2.17 2.69 2.38 2.85 2.65 1.06 9.30 8.80 9.05 7.70 9.80 8.95 8.35
MnO 0.03 0.04 0.04 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.03 0.02 0.04 0.03 0.01 0.15 0.12 0.12 0.12 0.09 0.13 0.11
MgO 0.81 1.17 1.14 3.99 0.65 0.93 1.21 2.63 0.58 0.87 0.81 0.19 21.40 19.20 24.40 19.80 25.20 21.60 20.80
CaO 3.23 2.54 2.73 2.53 2.46 2.47 2.47 2.21 1.92 2.69 3.18 0.48 7.00 5.80 4.64 5.95 1.90 4.10 3.88
Na2O 4.56 3.74 3.41 7.40 5.10 5.05 4.95 4.15 4.94 4.30 2.47 5.75 0.58 0.09 0.24 0.09 0.50 0.21 0.10
K2O 1.42 1.51 1.94 0.10 1.25 1.23 1.26 1.32 1.74 2.06 2.95 0.38 0.11 0.14 0.25 0.23 0.34 0.25 0.30
P2O5 0.10 0.11 0.16 0.03 0.09 0.07 0.07 0.08 0.08 0.09 0.08 0.03 0.04 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.01
LOI 4.40 4.60 4.60 2.40 2.80 3.00 3.40 3.20 2.60 4.00 4.60 0.40 11.00 21.40 9.60 23.20 8.00 20.60 21.60
Total 98.80 98.44 98.99 93.89 99.28 99.10 99.38 96.24 99.48 100.51 100.00 99.36 99.08 99.42 98.30 99.40 99.47 99.49 98.68

437
S <0.01 0.06 0.13 1.77 <0.01 0.06 0.19 0.57 0.23 0.15 0.23 0.26 0.01 <0.01 0.06 <0.01 <0.01 0.14 <0.01
CO2 3.62 3.76 4.68 3.08 1.52 1.84 2.78 2.28 3.98 2.90 3.64 1.60 4.74 16.22 3.80 16.76 2.18 15.16 15.80
Bi <0.06 0.08 0.13 0.60 0.07 <0.06 0.22 0.15 <0.06 <0.06 <0.06 0.06 0.49 <0.06 <0.06 <0.06 <0.06 0.09 <0.06
Pb 5 <5 <5 138 <5 <5 6 5 <5 <5 <5 6 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5 <5
Au 3 7 24 84 5 141 77 49 48 66 552 29 4 6 3 2 3 <2 94
W 0.6 0.9 1.3 2.3 0.7 2.2 4.1 4.9 2.1 4.6 6.8 2.3 0.3 0.6 <0.2 0.8 0.3 0.4 0.9
Sn <1 1 5 <1 <1 <1 2 <1 3 <1 <1 2 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1 <1
Ag 1.6 <0.5 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 1.9 <0.5 <0.5 0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 1.0 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 <0.5 0.5
TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

Mo <2 9 7 42 4 6 <2 <2 6 8 6 9 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2 <2
Sb <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 0.3 0.2 <0.2 0.2 0.3 <0.2 <0.2 0.8 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 <0.2 0.2
Zr 118 109 110 70 108 107 102 92 110 120 114 60 20 22 16 20 23 20 22
As 4 6.4 7 4.6 2 7.5 10.5 8.9 3.1 3.6 4.3 2.9 <0.5 112 4.7 2.5 2.8 6.2 5.7
Zn 44 49 44 34 46 40 38 26 50 35 47 18 54 79 52 65 66 65 78
Cu 27 50 77 182 14 23 54 80 30 20 18 15 49 100 42 17 40 66 32
Ni 23 21 101 4,228 10 27 46 853 10 41 16 10 927 787 1,125 664 1,146 1,110 947
Co 5 4 9 124 3 4 6 26 4 4 4 1 71 62 79 54 85 85 68
Cr 75 27 26 93 17 53 150 140 20 21 39 19 2300 2000 2400 1900 2700 2700 2400

Notes: Distance = the distance between the sample and the gold-bearing vein, Interm. = intermediate, P. outer = proximal (outer), P. inner = proximal (inner), LOI = loss on ignition, Fe2O3 is the
total iron concentration; major elements, CO2, and S data are shown in wt %; trace elements in ppm; Au in ppb; the locations of geochemical traverses are shown in Figure 6
437
438 DUURING ET AL.

alkali metal enrichment patterns demonstrate that white mica Metal enrichment: Correlation coefficients (r) for selected
is stable in distal to proximal (outer) zones but is replaced by metal concentrations in variably altered trondhjemite and ko-
albite in proximal (inner) zones. matiite wall rock have been calculated from unpublished
company data (Table 3; P. Duuring, unpub. data). In trond-
hjemite, Au correlates strongly (r >0.6) with Ag, Pb, and Zn
North pit and displays a weaker correlation (r = 0.2–0.6) with Cu, Bi,
Canyon Area As, and Mo. In komatiite, Au correlates moderately (r =
South pit 0.3–0.6) with Pb, Bi, and As, whereas Ag, Zn, Cu, and Mo are
CO2/Fe+Mg+Ca
1.0 strongly correlated (r >0.9) with each other. Relative to back-
ground metal concentrations in felsic and ultramafic rocks (cf.
0.6
Perring et al., 1990), V2 veins show significant enrichments in
Au (105); Ag (103); Ni, Cu, Pb, W, and Bi (102); As, Mo, and
Co (101); and Zn, Cr, and Sb (<101).
0.2 S and Au enrichment: The sulfur content of trondhjemite
0 and komatiite reflects the degree of sulfidation, mainly
0.8
caused by chlorite reacting with H2S to produce pyrite and
muscovite. Sulfur abundance increases toward V2 veins in
0.4 trondhjemite and displays a sharp increase in the proximal
(inner) alteration zones of veins in the South pit. Komatiite
(3K+Na)/Al wall rock has a lower absolute S content than trondhjemite
0 (Table 2) and displays negligible change with increasing alter-
0.8
3K/Al ation intensity (Fig. 10). Gold concentrations broadly increase
with proximity to V2 veins in altered trondhjemite and ko-
0.4 matiite (Fig. 10).
Although S and gold concentrations show a broad correla-
tion, gold maxima do not always correspond to S maxima,
0 such as in the North pit and Canyon area. This is also appar-
0.8 ent in Figure 6, which shows the total sulfide abundance rel-
Na/Al
ative to gold content in each of the three diamond drill holes.
0.4 Gold is interpreted to have a broader dispersion in trond-
hjemite wall rock than in komatiite because of the more ex-
tensive microvein network. Sulfur abundance does not corre-
0 late perfectly with gold because pyrite is paragenetically
2 earlier than gold. Other base metal sulfides are temporally
S (wt%)
and spatially related to gold but are less abundant than pyrite.
From the above, H2O, CO2, Si, Ca, K, Na, S, Au, Ag, Cu,
1
Pb, W, Bi, As, Mo, Zn, and Te were present in the hydrother-
mal fluid and were added to trondhjemite and komatiite dur-
0
ing stages I and II wall-rock alteration. Nickel, Co, and Cr
4 were probably released from komatiite during metasomatism
Log10 Au (ppb) and redistributed into V2 veins and proximal alteration zones.
3
2 Fluid Inclusion Study on Gold-Bearing V2 Veins
1 Sample selection
0 Fluid inclusions were examined in 18 polished thin sec-
tions of V2 veins hosted by trondhjemite and komatiite in
trondhjemite komatiite the North pit, Canyon area, and South pit. From the 18 sec-
tions, six doubly polished, 80-µm-thick, sections of V2 veins,
hosted by trondhjemite and komatiite were selected for
microthermometry.
distal interm. prox. prox. vein prox. interm. distal Fluid inclusions were examined in stage I milky quartz and
(outer) (inner) stage II gray quartz and sphalerite. Milky quartz contains
FIG. 10. Variations of CO2 and alkali metal saturation indices for hy- multiple generations of small (<5-mm) fluid inclusions in par-
drothermal alteration zones adjacent to V2 veins in trondhjemite and komati- tially recrystallized quartz grains that display undulose extinc-
ite. Also shown are sulfur and gold concentrations. Alteration indices and el- tion. These inclusions may have experienced volume change
ement concentrations are shown as separate lines for the North pit, Canyon or leakage during postentrapment deformation (cf. Shepherd
area, and South pit; hydrothermal alteration zone widths are not to scale. Al-
teration indices and element concentrations are from chemical data pre-
et al., 1985) and, therefore, were not investigated further.
sented in Table 2. Sample locations are shown in Figure 6. See the discussion Stage II gray quartz and sphalerite grains are relatively
in the text for explanations. undeformed and occur intergrown with gold, galena, and

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 439

TABLE 3. Correlation Coefficients (r) for Selected Elements in Trondhjemite and Komatiite Wall-Rock
Hydrothermal Alteration Zones Adjacent to V2 Veins (calculated from unpublished geochemical data)

Trondhjemite Au As Bi Ag W Mo Cu Pb

Zn 0.62 0.78 0.46 0.88 0.37 –0.08 0.20 0.55

Pb 0.67 0.19 0.91 0.88 –0.07 –0.05 0.36
Cu 0.46 0.04 0.23 0.33 –0.23 0.10
Mo 0.23 –0.19 –0.16 –0.05 –0.16
W 0.02 0.57 –0.07 0.17
Ag 0.77 0.55 0.75
Bi 0.36 0.14
As 0.30
Au

Number of samples = 25

Komatiite Au As Bi Ag W Mo Cu Pb

Zn 0.08 0.01 –0.04 0.97 –0.06 0.95 1.00 0.18

Pb 0.55 0.30 0.62 0.19 –0.10 0.12 0.14
Cu 0.04 0.02 –0.04 0.98 –0.06 0.97
Mo –0.05 0.07 0.01 0.97 –0.06
W –0.09 0.07 –0.05 –0.07
Ag 0.16 0.12 0.01
Bi 0.45 0.47
As 0.34
Au

Number of samples = 22

telluride minerals. From the six doubly polished sections, two
samples (TAS30 and TL28) were selected for detailed mi-
crothermometry. Sample TAS30 is a V2 vein hosted by trond-
hjemite in the South pit (Fig. 6). Six 250- to 750-µm-wide
(avg 400 µm), gray quartz grains that display straight extinc-
tion and are intergrown with galena (Fig. 11A), sphalerite,
and gold were studied in detail. A 1-mm-wide, zoned, spha-
lerite grain was also examined. Four gray quartz grains and a
sphalerite grain were studied from sample TL28, which is
representative of a V2 vein hosted by komatiite in the North
pit (Fig. 6). The unstrained gray quartz grains are 80 to 200
µm wide and surround a 1-mm-wide, zoned, translucent
sphalerite grain, which contains fluid inclusions defining crys-
tal growth zones (Fig. 11B).
Types of fluid inclusions
Two fluid inclusion types were identified in gray quartz and
sphalerite based on phase behavior at room temperature
(25°C) and heating and freezing observations. It is assumed
that the volume and composition of the fluid inclusions re-
mained constant after entrapment because regional green-
schist facies metamorphism is interpreted to have predated
gold mineralization and gray quartz grains display straight ex-
tinction in cross-polarized light and do not exhibit deforma-
tion or recrystallization textures.
Type 1 inclusions: H2O-CO2, three-phase (liquid water +
liquid CO2 + CO2-rich vapor) inclusions occur in clusters or
healed internal fractures within individual gray quartz grains.
The healed fractures do not transgress quartz grain bound-
aries (Fig. 11A) and are, therefore, interpreted to be primary
or pseudosecondary. Type 1 inclusions in sphalerite define
crystal growth surfaces (Fig. 11B) and are considered to be
primary. Type 1 inclusions represent more than 90 vol per-
cent of all inclusions present in gray quartz and sphalerite and
are interpreted to be representative of the stage II hy-
drothermal fluid that precipitated gold in V2 veins.
Type 1 inclusions are up to 50 mm long (avg 6 mm) and 6
mm wide (avg 3 mm). They commonly display irregular,
rounded, or negative shapes and are locally prismatic in
quartz and elongate in sphalerite. Based on visual estimates at
room temperature, the average CO2 content of type 1 inclu-
sions is 53 ± 13 vol percent and ranges from 30 to 70 vol per-
cent. The CO2 content of individual fluid inclusion groups is
relatively constant within individual grains and healed frac-
tures but varies slightly between different fluid inclusion
groups in different grains or healed fractures.
Type 2 inclusions: Aqueous, two-phase (H2O liquid + H2O
vapor) inclusions are irregularly shaped, <3 mm in diameter,
and commonly define trails that transgress gray quartz grain
boundaries. These inclusions clearly postdate gray quartz
crystal growth and the entrapment of primary and pseu-
dosecondary type 1 inclusions. Type 2 inclusions are inter-
preted to be secondary and postdate gold precipitation and
are not discussed further.
Results of microthermometry
Microthermometric data from type 1 fluid inclusions are
summarized in Table 4 and Figure 11C. About 80 percent of
type 1 inclusion analyses was derived from gray quartz since
sphalerite is mostly too opaque and the inclusions too small
(<2 mm) for microthermometric measurement. Type 1 inclu-
sions in gray quartz have CO2 melting temperatures between
–56.6° and –56.8°C, with an average of –56.6° ± 0.1°C. These
inclusions contain mainly CO2 and only trace concentrations

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440 DUURING ET AL.

A TYPE 1 INCLUSIONS
IN GRAY QUARTZ 3.
H2O (l) 1.
At +25oC
4 µm CO2 (l)
CO2 (v) gray
1. 2. 3. quartz
T mCO2 -56.6 -56.6 -56.6
T mClath 8.3 8.2 8.0

T hCO2 30.6 30.9 30.8 Type 1

At +25oC
inclusions 2.
T hTotal
4 µm
307 268 269 fracture/hole
B TYPE 1 INCLUSIONS crystal growth
IN SPHALERITE surfaces younging
H2O (l) Type 1
At +25oC
6 µm CO2 (l) 6.
CO2 (v)
4.
5.
T hTotal Salinity Density
1. 260 4.8 0.8 2.
3.
2. 256 1.0 0.8
3. 244 3.1 0.8
opaque
4. 274 1.6 0.9
1. inclusion
5. 270 1.2 0.9 At +25oC
6. 318 - - 15 µm

C
T mCO2 T mClath Salinity
80 40 n=96
40
n=96 n=96

40 20 20
Number of measurements

-56.9 -56.7 -56.5 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

equiv. wt. % NaCl
50 T hCO2 10
n=96 T hTotal n=51
8
gray quartz
30 6
4 sphalerite
10 2

23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 240 260 280 300 320 340

Temperature ( C)

FIG. 11. Summary of fluid inclusion petrography and microthermometry. A. Photomicrograph of sample TAS30 in plane-
polarized light, showing type 1, H2O-CO2, three-phase (liquid water + liquid CO2 + CO2-rich vapor; at 25°C) fluid inclusions
hosted by translucent gray quartz. The gray quartz is encapsulated by galena in trondhjemite from the South pit. The sketch
shows inclusions that are scattered with irregular sizes and shapes and have consistent CO2 vapor and H2O liquid phase ra-
tios at room temperature. Inclusions are traced at 25°C from a microscope projection of a polished thin section. B. Pho-
tomicrograph of sample TL28 in plane-polarized light, showing type 1, H2O-CO2, three-phase (liquid water + liquid CO2 +
CO2-rich vapor; at 25°C) fluid inclusions in sphalerite in a V2 vein in komatiite from the North pit. The fluid inclusions are
elongate and define crystal growth zones. Inclusions are traced at 25°C from a microscope projection of a polished thin sec-
tion. C. Histograms showing microthermometric data for type 1 fluid inclusions in gray quartz and sphalerite.

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 TABLE 4. Summary of Microthermometric Data for Type 1 Fluid Inclusions Hosted by Gray Quartz and Sphalerite in Gold–Bearing V2 Veins at Tarmoola

Sample Vapor volume Tm(CO ) Tm(CO )(L) Tm(clathrate) Th(total)(L) Salinity (wt % Bulk density
2 2
no. Mineral Grain n fraction (°C) (°C) (°C) (°C) NaCl equiv) X(CO ) (g/cm3)
2

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TAS30 Gray quartz 1. 9 Avg ± 1σ 0.2 ± 0.2 –56.6 ± 0.3 28.6 ± 2.4 8.0 ± 0.3 300 ± 12 3.9 ± 0.5 0.10 ± 0.10 1.00 ± 0.04
max 0.6 –56.6 30.1 8.3 314 4.6 0.32 1.00
min 0.1 –56.7 22.4 7.6 277 (n = 8) 3.3 0.01 0.86

2. 9 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.1 30.0 ± 0.5 8.2 ± 0.2 285 ± 14 3.6 ± 0.4 0.18 ± 0.05 0.78 ± 0.03
max 0.6 –56.6 30.1 8.4 307 4.3 0.28 0.84
min 0.4 –56.7 29.5 7.8 269 (n = 7) 3.2 0.10 0.72

3. 9 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.0 30.8 ± 0.1 7.7 ± 0.6 309 ± 15 4.4 ± 1.0 0.20 ± 0.04 0.76 ± 0.03
max 0.6 –56.6 30.9 9.0 332 5.3 0.25 0.81
min 0.45 –56.6 30.8 7.2 289 (n = 8) 2.0 0.16 0.73

4. 8 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.0 30.7 ± 0.2 8.2 ± 0.2 – 3.6 ± 0.4 0.17 ± 0.06 0.80 ± 0.06
max 0.6 –56.6 30.9 8.6 3.7 0.29 0.88
min 0.3 –56.6 30.5 7.7 2.8 0.09 0.69

5. 10 Avg ± 1σ 0.6 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.0 30.7 ± 1.3 8.1 ± 0.2 291 ± 12 3.7 ± 0.4 0.23 ± 0.06 0.76 ± 0.04
max 0.7 –56.6 30.9 8.4 312 4.3 0.30 0.83

441
min 0.3 –56.6 30.5 7.8 276 (n = 10) 3.2 0.13 0.71

6. 7 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.7 ± 0.1 30.7 ± 0.4 7.6 ± 0.5 282 ± 14 4.5 ± 1.0 0.19 ± 0.08 0.77 ± 0.09
max 0.7 –56.6 30.9 8.4 307 5.5 0.28 0.85
min 0.4 –56.8 29.9 7.1 276 (n = 5) 3.2 0.11 0.59

TL28 Gray quartz 1. 11 Avg ± 1σ 0.7 ± 0.1 –56.7 ± 0.1 29.1 ± 0.7 7.6 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.4 0.36 ± 0.12 0.76 ± 0.04
max 0.8 –56.6 30.1 8.1 5.0 0.44 0.83
min 0.5 –56.7 28.3 7.4 3.7 0.16 0.73
TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA

2. 6 Avg ± 1σ 0.7 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.1 30.1 ± 0.5 7.6 ± 0.2 4.7 ± 0.4 0.35 ± 0.08 0.72 ± 0.06
max 0.8 –56.6 30.9 7.9 5.2 0.40 0.80
min 0.5 –56.7 29.6 7.3 4.1 0.20 0.60

3. 8 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.6 ± 0.0 30.1 ± 0.9 7.3 ± 0.1 296 ± 29 5.1 ± 0.2 0.21 ± 0.09 0.81 ± 0.04
max 0.6 –56.6 30.9 7.5 335 5.3 0.32 0.82
min 0.3 –56.6 28.6 7.2 268 (n = 8) 4.8 0.08 0.76

Sphalerite 1. 19 Avg ± 1σ 0.5 ± 0.1 –56.8 ± 0.1 26.9 ± 2.1 9.2 ± 0.2 261 ± 12 1.5 ± 0.5 0.20 ± 0.10 0.90 ± 0.10
max 0.6 –56.7 30.0 9.7 276 2.6 0.30 0.90
min 0.3 –56.9 23.1 8.7 244 (n = 6) 0.6 0.10 0.80

Notes: n = number of analyses; data were calculated using the MacFlincor program (Brown and Hagemann, 1995) and Bowers and Helgeson (1983) equation of state for the CO2-H2O-NaCl system
441
442 DUURING ET AL.

of other gases, which was confirmed by quadrupole analyses
(see below). Formation of a clathrate upon heating was ob-
served in most H2O-CO2 inclusions. Clathrate melting tem-
peratures range from 7.1° to 9.0°C (avg 7.8° ± 0.4°C). Ho-
mogenization temperatures of CO2 (to the liquid phase) are
between 22.4° and 30.9°C (avg 30.1° ± 1.2°). These homoge-
nization temperatures correspond to average CO2 densities
between 0.01 and 0.4 g/cm3. Total homogenization tempera-
tures (to the liquid phase) are between 268° and 335°C, with
an average of 295° ± 18°C.
Type 1 inclusions in sphalerite have similar CO2 melting
temperatures (–56.7° to –56.9°C), clathrate melting temper-
atures are marginally higher (8.7°–9.7°C), CO2 homogeniza-
tion temperatures (to the liquid phase) are slightly lower and
more variable (23.1°–30.0°C), total homogenization tempera-
tures are lower (244°–276°C), and CO2 densities are compa-
rable (0.1–0.3 g/cm3).
Inclusion gas analyses
Gas analyses were performed on seven undeformed gray
quartz separates from V2 veins in trondhjemite and komatiite
in the North pit, Canyon area, and South pit (Fig. 6). Pri-
mary/pseudosecondary type 1 fluid inclusions are the domi-
nant inclusion type in gray quartz; hence, the bulk analysis of
fluid inclusions is considered to be representative of the stage
II hydrothermal fluid. Compositions of the released gases are
shown in Table 5. The fluid inclusion gases comprise mainly
CO2 (45–88 mol %) and H2O (6–52 mol %), with minor
amounts of N2 (2–5 mol %), and trace amounts of CH4, C2H6,
H2, Ar, H2S, and He (<1 mol %, combined). The gas analyses
confirm phase and microthermometric observations, which
indicate that type 1 inclusions are dominantly CO2 and H2O
rich, with only minor amounts of other gases present.
Stable Isotope Results
Sulfur isotopes
Thirty-four sulfide grains were sampled from 15 V2 veins
in trondhjemite and komatiite from the North pit, Canyon
area, and South pit. Sulfide grains included up to 1-cm-wide,
euhedral stage I pyrite that is cogenetic with milky quartz,
plus stage II sphalerite, chalcopyrite, and galena grains,
which are cogenetic with gray quartz and gold. δ34S values
range from 1.0 to 4.0 per mil in pyrite, 0.7 to 3.8 per mil in
sphalerite, 0.8 to 3.5 per mil in chalcopyrite, and –2.6 to
+0.3 per mil in galena (Table 6). The D values range from
1.8 to 4.8 per mil for chalcopyrite-galena pairs, –0.8 to +0.6
per mil for sphalerite-chalcopyrite, and 1.0 to 4.0 per mil for
sphalerite-galena.
Oxygen and hydrogen isotopes
Stage I milky quartz and stage II gray quartz from V2 veins
in trondhjemite and komatiite were analyzed for δ18O (Table
7). Milky quartz δ18O values range from 11.1 to 13.0 per mil
(avg 12.0 ± 0.7‰). Gray quartz δ18O values are similar to
milky quartz and have a restricted range of 11.0 to 12.6 per
mil, with an average value of 11.8 ± 0.4 per mil, regardless of
host lithology. Whole-rock δ18O values are 9.4 and 10.5 per
mil (n = 2) for trondhjemite and 7.5 and 7.6 per mil (n = 2)
for komatiite.
Hydrogen isotope analyses were performed on fluid inclu-
sions released from three gray quartz separates and three hy-
drothermal muscovite separates from V2 veins (Table 7).
Muscovite separates extracted from V2 veins were not differ-
entiated between stages I or II due to the fine-grained, inter-
grown nature of the muscovite. Fluid inclusion δDH2O values
for gray quartz have a narrow range of –25 to –28 per mil.
Muscovite δD values have a wider range between –57 and
–83 per mil, with an average of –67 ± 14 per mil (n = 3).
Physicochemical Conditions of
the Hydrothermal Ore Fluid
Ore fluid composition and temperature
The calculated salinity of the stage II ore fluid ranges from
0.6 to 5.5 wt percent NaCl equiv, with an average of 3.7 ± 1.3
(1σ; n = 96), while the average bulk fluid composition is XH2O
= 78 ± 11 and XCO2 = 21 ± 11.
Temperatures for the ore fluid are constrained by the al-
bite-ankerite-muscovite ± chlorite assemblage in V2 veins and
proximal wall-rock hydrothermal alteration zones in trond-
hjemite and komatiite, which is stable at temperatures be-
tween 225° and 400°C (e.g., Mueller and Groves, 1991; Cas-
sidy et al., 1998; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998). The stage II
Au-Ag-Bi-Pb–bearing telluride assemblage also indicates
temperatures between 200° and 400°C (Cabri, 1965).
The average total homogenization temperature of all type
1 inclusions is 291° ± 20°C. Since cogenetic type 1 fluid

TABLE 5. Composition of Type 1 Fluid Inclusion Gases in Gray Quartz (mol %) from Gold-Bearing V2 Veins

Sample CO2 H2O N2 CH4 C2H6 H2 Ar He H2S

no. (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (mol %) (ppm)

TAS07 47.21 49.97 2.40 0.19 0.20 0.01 0.02 nd 49

TL05 78.32 16.28 4.66 0.16 0.42 0.12 0.03 0.02 9
TL10 78.54 16.52 4.31 0.12 0.39 0.08 0.02 0.02 9
TL71 87.96 6.35 4.81 0.30 0.43 0.11 0.03 0.02 7
TL38 53.24 43.65 2.28 0.02 0.25 0.03 0.02 0.01 10
TL18 45.07 52.02 2.64 0.03 0.19 0.01 0.03 0.01 10
TL31 56.65 39.82 3.02 0.17 0.27 0.05 0.02 0.01 7

Mean 63.86 32.09 3.45 0.14 0.31 0.06 0.02 0.01 15

Std. dev. 17.32 18.55 1.11 0.10 0.10 0.04 0.01 0.01 15

Notes: nd = not determined, std. dev. = standard deviation; sample locations are shown in Figure 6

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 443

inclusions have constant CO2 volumetric proportions, it is
interpreted that these inclusions formed from an ore fluid
that was homogeneous at the time of entrapment (cf. Dia-
mond, 1990; Van den Kerkhof and Hein, 2001). Hence, 291°
± 20°C is a minimum estimate rather than a true trapping
temperature for the stage II fluid (cf. Roedder, 1977; Roed-
der and Bodnar, 1997).
Hydrothermal chlorite (brunsvigite) coexists with stage II
gray quartz, albite, and ankerite in microfractures that cut
milky quartz grains in V2 veins (samples TL18 and TL61) and

TABLE 6. Sulfur Isotope Analyses of Sulfides from Gold-Bearing V2 Veins at Tarmoola

δ34S (‰) V-CDT

Sample Host rock Py Sph Cpy Gal ∆cpy-gal T (°C) ∆sph-cpy T (°C) ∆sph-gal T (°C)

TAS30 T 4.0 3.0 3.5 0.0 3.5 160 –0.5 – 3.0 245
TA18 T 1.4 –0.8 2.2 325
TL31 K 1.0
TAS00 T 2.9 2.5 0.1 2.4 300
TL05 T 1.0 0.7
TL10 T –0.6
TAS07 T 3.7 3.8 3.2 –0.2 3.4 165 0.6 220 4.0 175
TAS20 T 1.9 –0.1 2.0 360
TAS23 T 2.3 –0.1 2.4 300
TAS24 T 2.2 2.2 –2.6 4.8 100
TAS40 T 1.7 –0.2 1.9 375
TAS42 T 1.3 2.1 0.3 1.8 330 –0.8 – 1.0 –
TAC03 T –1.9
TA08 T 0.8 0.8 0.0 –
TA89 K 1.0 1.3

Mean 2.5 1.9 2.2 –0.6 3.4 189 –0.2 2.4 297
Std. dev. 1.3 1.0 1.0 0.9 1.2 99 0.6 0.9 69

Notes: Cpy = chalcopyrite, Gal = galena, K = komatiite, Py = pyrite, Sph = sphalerite, T = trondhjemite; Std. dev = standard deviation, – = not possible to
determine using the Kajiwara and Krause (1971) sulfur isotope partitioning system; sample locations are shown in Figure 6

TABLE 7. Oxygen and Hydrogen Isotope Analyses of Minerals and Fluid from Gold-Bearing V2 Veins at Tarmoola

δ18Omineral(‰) δDmineral(‰) δ18Ofluid(‰) δDfluid(‰)

Gray Milky Whole White Gray White Gray

Sample Host quartz quartz rock mica quartz mica quartz
no. rock (measured) (measured) (measured) (measured) (calc.) (calc.) (measured)

TL38 K 12.0 6.9 –27

TL31 K 11.7 6.6
TA89 K 11.8 13.0 6.7
TL18 K 12.3 7.2 –25
TA56 K 11.0 12.3 5.9
TAS07 T 12.2 11.8 –83 7.1 –35
TAS20 T 11.3 12.0 6.2
TAS24 T 12.6 11.1 7.5
TAS30 T 11.6 6.5
TL05 T 11.1 6.0
TL10 T 11.8 6.7 –28
TL71 T 11.8 –57 6.7 –9
TA05 T 11.8 6.7
TA18 T 11.9 6.0
TA36 T 11.7 6.8
TL16 T 11.8 –61 6.7 –13
TL07 T 9.4
TL65 T 10.5
TL44 K 7.5
TL61 K 7.6

Mean 11.8 12.0 8.7 –67 6.6 –19 –27

Std. dev. 0.4 0.7 1.5 14 0.4 14 2

Notes: K = komatiite, T = trondhjemite; calc. = calculated, Std. dev. = standard deviation; sample locations are shown in Figure 6; the δ18Ofluid(‰) was cal-
culated using the Matsuhisa et al. (1979) fractionation equation, δDfluid(‰) was measured directly from fluid inclusions in gray quartz and was also calculated
from white mica, using the Suzuoki and Epstein (1976) fractionation equation

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444 DUURING ET AL.

proximal wall-rock alteration zones (sample TL54) in komati-
ite. These chlorite samples are Al saturated and satisfy the re-
quirements for the Cathelineau and Nieva (1985) chlorite ge-
othermometer. Chlorite temperature estimates for the three
samples are 279° ± 7°C, 221° ± 21°C, and 283° ± 9°C (Table
8).
Using the sulfur isotope fractionations of Kajiwara and
Krause (1971), stage II chalcopyrite-galena, sphalerite-chal-
copyrite, and sphalerite-galena mineral pairs indicate that
crystallization temperatures were 100° to 330°, 220°, and
from 175° to 375°C, respectively (Table 6). Sphalerite-galena
pairs have the largest fractionation factors and therefore the
calculated temperatures for this pair are considered to be the
most reliable (avg 297° ± 69°C). They indicate temperatures
that are within the range of temperature estimates derived
from chlorite geothermometry (i.e., 200°–292°C) and fluid
inclusion microthermometry (i.e., 291° ± 20°C).
Based on these estimates, 300° ± 50°C is considered the
best approximation for gold deposition from the stage II fluid.
Fluid densities, pressure, and depth estimates
To estimate pressure conditions during stage II gold depo-
sition, isochores for type 1 fluid inclusions were calculated
using the MacFlinCor program (Brown and Hagemann,
1995) and the Bowers and Helgeson (1983) equation of state
for the CO2-H2O-NaCl system. The spread of isochores in
Figure 12 is interpreted to mostly reflect transient pressure
fluctuations that occurred during repetitive failure of V2 veins
(cf. Sibson et al., 1988; Wilkinson and Johnston, 1996; Dug-
dale and Hagemann, 2001). The intersection between the
minimum mineralization temperature estimate (i.e., 250°C)
and minimum isochore defines a minimum fluid pressure of
0.5 kbar, whereas the intersection between the maximum min-
eralization temperature (i.e., 350°C) and the maximum iso-
chore defines a maximum fluid pressure of 3 kbars (Fig. 12).
Quartz and carbonate mineral growth fibers and vugs in ex-
tensional and extensional-shear veins in trondhjemite and ko-
matiite indicate that fluid pressure exceeded lithostatic pres-
sure during gold precipitation (cf. fault-valve process
described by Sibson et al., 1988). Fluid pressures between 0.5
and 3.0 kbars correspond to depths of 2 to 10 km, assuming
lithostatic fluid pressure conditions and a pressure gradient of
3.3 km/1 kbar (Hagemann and Brown, 1996) during fluid
entrapment. These pressures and depths are consistent with
estimated pressures derived from the stage II vein mineral
assemblage of albite-ankerite-muscovite ± chlorite (<1–3

TABLE 8. Temperature Estimates Derived from Hydrothermal Chlorites in Gold-Bearing V2 Veins in Komatiite Based on Cathelineau and Nieva (1985)

Sample Alteration No. of

no. Host rock Location zone Type analyses XSi XAl XFe XMg T (°C)*

TL18 Komatiite Vein Proximal Hydrothermal 5 5.74 ± 0.07 4.64 ± 0.14 2.58 ± 0.10 6.42 ± 0.05 279 ± 7
TL61 Komatiite Vein Proximal Hydrothermal 9 6.27 ± 0.19 3.68 ± 0.16 2.58 ± 0.11 7.01 ± 0.13 221 ± 21
TL54 Komatiite Wall rock Proximal Hydrothermal 9 5.70 ± 0.09 4.75 ± 0.18 2.61 ± 0.08 6.62 ± 0.10 283 ± 9

Notes: XSi = atomic % silica; XAl = atomic % aluminum; XFe = atomic % iron2+; XMg = atomic % magnesium; * = Fe-Mg corrected

5 sphalerite-galena H2O, CO2

maximum
c.c. sulfur isotope 20-35 mol%CO2, isochore
H2O-CO2 geothermometry
2.6 eq. NaCl
4
Pressure (kbar)

3 average mean
T h Total (L) isochore
2 chlorite minimum
geothermometry isochore

1 ab-ank-mv + chl and

Au-Ag-Bi-Pb telluride
maximum stability limits
0
200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400 420 440
Temperature ( C)
FIG. 12. Pressure-temperature diagram showing isochores calculated from type 1 fluid inclusions, using MacFlinCor
(Brown and Hagemann, 1995) and the Bowers and Helgeson (1983) equation of state for the CO2-H2O-NaCl system. Also
shown are the solvus for the system H2O-CO2 (20–35 mole CO2, 2.6 wt % NaCl), after Hendel and Hollister (1981), and the
H2O-CO2 critical curve (c.c. H2O-CO2). The range of possible P-T trapping conditions is indicated by the shaded field and
is defined by the range of mineralization temperatures (i.e., 300° ± 50°C) and the minimum and maximum isochores. Also
shown are average temperature estimates from hydrothermal chlorite geothermometry (283° ± 9°C), sphalerite-galena sul-
fur isotope geothermometry (297° ± 69°C), and total homogenization temperatures for type 1 fluid inclusions (291° ± 20°C).
Albite-ankerite-muscovite ± chlorite and Au-Ag-Bi-Pb telluride mineral assemblages define an upper temperature stability
limit of about 400°C.

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 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 445

kbars and <5–10 km, respectively: Mikucki et al., 1990; Cas-
sidy et al., 1998; McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998).
Constraints on pH
The hydrothermal carbonate, muscovite, and albite equi-
librium assemblage in V2 veins and proximal wall rock in
trondhjemite and komatiite constrain the pH of the Tarmoola
ore fluid to between 5 and 6 (cf. Phillips and Groves, 1983;
Neall, 1985). Assuming conditions of about 300°C, 2 kbars,
and 4 wt percent NaCl equiv during stage II gold deposition,
the hydrothermal fluid pH is calculated to be between about
5.1 and 5.5 (Fig. 13).
Constraints on the Source of Hydrothermal Ore Fluid
Geochemical and isotopic tracers in orogenic gold deposits
typically give ambiguous results in terms of defining hy-
drothermal fluid sources (Ridley and Diamond, 2000) owing
to the complexities of interaction between the source fluid,
country rock, and potentially other fluids along the fluid path-
way prior to gold deposition. Two possibilities for the origin of
the gold-transporting fluid are a granitoid magmatic or a
metamorphic devolatization process (Ridley and Diamond,
2000).
Calculated δ18Ofluid values range from 5.9 to 7.5 per mil.
Muscovite δDfluid values (–9 to –35 ‰) overlap with, but have
a broader spread than, δDfluid values measured directly from
bulk fluid inclusion analyses of stage II gray quartz (i.e., +25
to –28‰). The difference is probably due to (1) the inherent
uncertainty in the Dmuscovite-H2O fractionation curve for tem-
peratures below 400°C (cf. Taylor, 1979; O’Neil, 1986), (2)
muscovite separates represent an average δDfluid value for
stages I and II, whereas gray quartz represents stage II only,
(3) minor contamination from secondary fluid inclusions in
gray quartz, or (4) mixing of two contrasting fluids that have
similar δ18Ofluid values but different δDfluid values, such as δD-
enriched surface water with either δD-depleted magmatic or
metamorphic waters.
The calculated δ18O and δD of the stage II hydrothermal
fluid plot within the overlapping metamorphic water and the
magmatic water fields defined by Taylor (1974; Fig. 14). Cal-
culated δ18Ofluid values from gray quartz fall within the range
of δ18Ofluid values described for mesozonal to hypozonal oro-
genic gold deposits, whereas δDfluid values overlap with those
of epizonal deposits (Fig. 15). Using a temperature of 300°C
and equilibrium sulfide mineral-H2S isotope factors for spha-
lerite, chalcopyrite, and galena (Ohmoto and Rye 1979), cal-
culated δ34SH2S values for these sulfide grains in V2 veins
range between –0.6 and 3.7 per mil (n = 28). This range falls
within the δ34SH2S field for magmatic and metamorphic wa-
ters defined by Hoefs (1987; Fig. 15). The δ18Ofluid, δDfluid,
and δ34SH2S values for the stage II hydrothermal fluid do not
show any variation with host lithology or sample location.
The range of δ18Ofluid, δDfluid, and δ34SH2S values for the
stage II hydrothermal fluid is not definitive and is compatible
with either a magmatic or metamorphic devolatization
source. Despite two muscovite data points that are enriched
in δDfluid relative to other δDfluid data, there is little evidence
to support a significant contribution of surface waters to the
stage II hydrothermal fluid prior to gold precipitation.

SMOW Epizonal Yilgarn

0 deposits
pH = 5.5
Norseman
s
ter

Albite
-20
wa

5.0
Victory
ric
log(aNa+/aH+)

teo

pH = 5.0
TARMOOLA
me

-40 Metamorphic
δDFluid (per mil)

Stage II fluid water

Stage II: T = 300 C,
P = 2 kbar -60
Paragonite pH = 5.1 to 5.5
Primary
4.0 Alkali- magmatic
feldspar Chalice
-80 water

muscovite
-100 Granny Smith
Kaolinite Muscovite fluid inclusion
waters in gray
Westonia quartz
-120
23 4 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 25
log(aK+/aH+) δ 18OFluid (per mil)
FIG. 13. Stability relationships for Na-K aluminosilicate minerals as a
function of fluid composition at 300°C and 2 kbars. The pH contours are cal- FIG. 14. δDfluid vs. δ18Ofluid plot of Tarmoola data compared with VSMOW,
culated for a 4 wt percent NaCl equiv ore fluid, assuming NaCl and KCl are magmatic, and metamorphic fluid fields (Taylor, 1974), epizonal Yilgarn gold
the dominant electrolytes in solution. The shaded area corresponds to the deposits (Hagemann et al., 1994), Granny Smith (Ojala, 1995), Westonia
field of fluid compositions for stage II (see text for discussion). Thermody- (Hagemann and Cassidy, 1999), Chalice (Bucci, 2001), and the Norseman
namic data are from Bowers et al. (1984), Shock and Helgeson (1988), and and Victory (McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998) deposits. The median and range of
Shock et al. (1989). data are shown for Granny Smith.

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446 DUURING ET AL.

δ18O and δD:

metamorphic
Taylor (1974)
fluid
δ34S: Hoefs
magmatic fluid (1987)

Archean orogenic Ridley and

gold deposits: Diamond (2000)
epizonal
Hagemann and
mesozonal Cassidy, 2000
hypozonal

Lady Bountiful calcite Cassidy (1992)

quartz, sphalerite, -
Granny Smith quartz muscovite galena, pyrite Ojala (1995)
calcite

Tarmoola gray quartz (n=16) muscovite (n=3) sphalerite (n=11) This study
gray quartz (n=3) chalcopyrite (n=6)
galena (n=11)

0 10 20 30 -90 -60 -30 0 -20 -10 0 10 20

Reference
18
δ O per mil δ D per mil 34
δ S per mil

FIG. 15. Summary of stable isotope fluid data for Tarmoola compared with data for the Granny Smith (Ojala, 1995) and
Lady Bountiful (Cassidy, 1992) deposits, other Archean orogenic gold deposits (McCuaig and Kerrich, 1998; Hagemann and
Cassidy, 2000), and metamorphic and magmatic fluids as defined by Taylor (1974) and Hoefs (1987). The shaded columns
represent the respective ranges of Tarmoola oxygen and hydrogen stable isotope data.

Integrated Structural and Hydrothermal Model for
Gold Mineralization at Tarmoola
Deformation, heterogeneous stress distribution,
and fluid-focusing mechanisms
East-west shortening prior to hydrothermal alteration and
gold deposition (i.e., during DT1a-DT1b at ca. 2700–2667 Ma)
caused the progressive ductile, north-south alignment of
metamorphic chlorite and talc in komatiite. This process of
“strain softening” (as described by White and Knipe, 1978;
Wintsch et al., 1995; Nguyen et al., 1998) would have lowered
the competency and raised the permeability of the komatiite
by creating an anisotropy subparallel to the eastern trond-
hjemite margin. The trondhjemite was more resistant to de-
formation, forming only minor east-west–trending, brittle
fractures.
With progressive east-west, subhorizontal shortening and
the introduction of the hydrothermal fluid during DT2, the
competency contrast between trondhjemite and komatiite
and the irregular shape of the trondhjemite intrusion caused
the heterogeneous distribution of stress (Duuring et al.,
2001). Hydrothermal fluids were focused toward low mean
stress sites along the eastern margin of the trondhjemite, par-
ticularly where the margin changes from east to northeast
dipping. The northeast-facing margin in the North pit is per-
pendicular to the interpreted minimum principle stress dur-
ing DT2 and underwent the greatest dilation, thereby causing
the widest zones of hydrothermal alteration and gold miner-
alization at Tarmoola (Fig. 6). Ore zones located in komatiite
above the shallowly west dipping trondhjemite margin prob-
ably resulted from reverse movement along the western
komatiite-trondhjemite contact (Fig. 7A-B; Duuring et al.,
2001).
Stage I vein mineral deposition and
associated wall-rock hydrothermal alteration
The interaction between the stage I hydrothermal fluid and
komatiite wall rock caused the progressive overprinting of the
metamorphic chlorite and talc S1 foliation by isotropic quartz,
calcite, and ankerite grains. This process of “strain hardening”
(Wintsch et al., 1995) raised the competency and lowered the
permeability of the komatiite, which hindered further fluid-
wall rock interaction and hydrothermal alteration. Exten-
sional V2 veins developed along the northeastern trond-
hjemite margin due to failure of the competent, intensely
metasomatized komatiite. These veins strike subparallel to
the direction of maximum principal stress (i.e., east-west).
The cyclic sealing of V2 veins and adjacent wall rock by hy-
drothermal minerals, followed by an increase in fluid pres-
sure and the eventual release via hydraulic fracturing and
mineral crystallization is comparable to the fault-valve
process described by Sibson (1990). At Tarmoola, this process
produced crack-seal vein textures and the incorporation of
wall-rock clasts in V2 veins in komatiite and trondhjemite.
This process provided the physical means for progressive
fluid-wall rock interaction and the maintenance of a chemical
potential gradient laterally away from V2 veins.
Komatiite wall rock was more susceptible to CO2 enrich-
ment than trondhjemite because komatiite contains a
higher proportion of ferromagnesian minerals. This causes
ankerite in komatiite to be more Mg rich than in trond-
hjemite (Table 1). Silica was released in komatiite wall rock

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 446

 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA 447

by carbonatization reactions, to be redistributed along V2 A

veins and deposited in trondhjemite proximal wall rock.
At the scale of the deposit, most mineral, textural, and sta- N
ble isotope changes in individual lithologies occur laterally 0 250 m
from V2 veins, rather than along strike. Wall-rock hydrother-
mal alteration envelopes that are narrow or incomplete are in-
terpreted to be the product of relatively low fluid/wall rock
ratios. Examples are veins near east-dipping trondhjemite
margins in the Canyon area and South pit (Fig. 6), which have
narrow proximal (inner) alteration zones in trondhjemite but 3 σ1
lack proximal alteration zones in komatiite. Wall-rock alter-
ation zones in trondhjemite and komatiite in the North pit are
broader, have a complete alteration zone sequence, and thus
represent areas of the deposit that have experienced the
greatest fluid-wall rock interaction. This is consistent with hy-
drothermal fluids having been focused along the eastern
trondhjemite margin and into low mean stress zones of the σ1
northeastern margin of the trondhjemite in the North pit
(Fig. 16A). Alteration zones are broader in trondhjemite than
in komatiite because hydrothermal fluids are likely to have
been channeled along the north-south–striking, eastern
trondhjemite contact and subparallel S1 foliation. This
anisotropy inhibits the efficient lateral flow of fluids away
from fluid conduits and into komatiite wall-rock distal zones.
In contrast, east-west–striking V2 veins and associated brittle
fracture networks in trondhjemite would facilitate the move- W E
ment of fluids laterally away from veins to cause more later-
ally extensive alteration zones in trondhjemite (Fig. 16A).
During the DT2 event, hydrothermal ore fluids most likely W E
migrated upward along the eastern trondhjemite margin and B
within reverse, west-dipping shear zones in komatiite (Fig.
16B). Fluid movement was aided by reactivation of the S1 fo-
liation in komatiite and contact-parallel faults in trondhjemite
and was directed toward low mean stress zones that devel-
oped along the eastern trondhjemite margin. Alternatively,
fluids were transported upward within the west-dipping shear
zone along the western trondhjemite contact and drained
20 m
downward into low mean stress zones along the eastern
trondhjemite margin (Fig. 16C). Both mechanisms for fluid
transport are possible and potentially operated during differ-
ent episodes of the hydrothermal event. The lack of signifi- W E
C
cant metasomatism in the hanging wall to the main west-dip-
ping shear zone suggests that either the hanging wall acted as
an aquitard to the upward migration of hydrothermal fluids
(similar to the Flanagan fault at Mount Charlotte; Ridley and
Mengler, 2000) due to hydrothermal mineral sealing or that
the metasomatized hanging-wall komatiite was subsequently
displaced. No geologic displacement markers are present, so
this cannot be determined. 20 m
Transport and deposition of stage II gold
The stage II ore fluid had a relatively high CO2 content and fluid flow path
low salinity, was reduced and slightly alkaline to neutral, and FIG. 16. A. Plan view of hydrothermal alteration zones to V2 veins in
contained Au, Ag, W, Bi, As, Mo, Te, and base metals (Cu, Pb, trondhjemite and supracrustal rocks and possible directions of hydrothermal
Zn). Base metal sulfide and sulfur enrichment (up to 100 fluid flow. B. Model 1: schematic east-west cross section, based on the south-
times background levels; Table 2) in wall rock to V2 veins sug- ern wall of the South pit, showing hydrothermal fluid movement within re-
gests that S was a constituent of the ore fluid. This, combined verse shear zones in supracrustal rock and along the steeply dipping eastern
trondhjemite contact. C. Model 2: schematic east-west cross section showing
with the high gold fineness values, suggest that gold was hydrothermal fluids that ascended within reverse shear zones and drained
transported as a gold bisulfide complex (Seward, 1973; into low mean stress zones along the steeply dipping eastern trondhjemite
Loucks and Mavrogenes, 1999). contact. Symbols and patterns are the same as for Figure 6.

0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 447

448 DUURING ET AL.
Local temperature and pressure decreases alone (i.e., with-
out phase separation) are not important mechanisms for the
deposition of gold (Seward, 1973; Mikucki, 1998). Broad, dis-
seminated, and low-grade ore zones in trondhjemite, plus the
uniform composition of type 1 fluid inclusions in gold-bearing
veins, indicate that phase separation or fluid mixing processes
were not important mechanisms for gold precipitation at Tar-
moola.
The bulk of the gold at Tarmoola is sited in stage II frac-
tures and wall-rock inclusions in V2 veins and microveins in
proximal wall-rock alteration around V2 veins in komatiite and
trondhjemite and implicates the importance of fluid-wall rock
interaction as a mechanism for gold deposition. Infiltration of
stage II fluid far enough into trondhjemite and komatiite wall
rock to react with rock-dominated mineral assemblages was
facilitated by the extensive brittle-fracture network in trond-
hjemite and to a lesser extent by the S1 foliation in komatiite.
Depending on the width of stage I wall-rock alteration zones,
this fluid-wall rock reaction front occurs at varying distances
from V2 veins throughout the deposit.
Several processes acting in unison are interpreted to be the
cause of gold deposition at Tarmoola. Fluid-wall rock reac-
tions that encouraged gold precipitation include sulfidation of
the wall rock (e.g., Neall and Phillips, 1987) and/or K and
CO2 metasomatism (e.g., Fyfe and Kerrich, 1984; Kishida and
Kerrich, 1987). Infiltration of a sulfur-bearing ore fluid re-
sulted in a reduction of aH2S and concomitant deposition of
Au (cf. Mikucki, 1998). Evidence for sulfidation includes the
intimate association of gold with Fe sulfides, increasing S
content and sulfide abundance, as well as decreasing Fe/(Fe
+ Mg) values of phyllosilicates and carbonates, toward vein
margins in komatiite and trondhjemite. The higher Fe con-
tent of komatiite relative to trondhjemite suggests that ko-
matiite was a more efficient chemical trap for gold deposition
during wall-rock sulfidation. Combined with the foliation-
controlled structural permeability, this may explain why
higher grade ore zones are more prevalent in komatiite than
in trondhjemite.
Potassium, Ca, and CO2 metasomatism of wall rock causes
the acidification of the ore fluid, which may also have con-
tributed to destabilization of gold bisulfide complexes, result-
ing in gold precipitation. This mechanism is regarded as an
effective means of gold precipitation in ultramafic rocks (e.g.,
Kishida and Kerrich, 1987) but is less efficient in other
lithologies (Mikucki, 1998). Geochemical analyses of wall
rock surrounding V2 veins suggest that CO2 metasomatism is
more pronounced in komatiite than trondhjemite (Table 2)
and gold maxima in komatiite correlate with maximum car-
bonatization indices (Fig. 10). In trondhjemite, however,
there is no correlation between carbonatization indices and
gold concentrations. Instead there is a positive correlation be-
tween the degree of sericitization and gold values (Fig. 10).
Comparison between Tarmoola and
Other Gold Deposits in the Leonora District:
Evidence for Two Distinct Orogenic Gold Events
Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia (Fig. 1)
have structural and radiometric age relationships that indicate
an early gold depositional event at ca. 2755 Ma (e.g., Witt,
2001; Witt et al., 2002). In contrast, Tarmoola (Duuring et al.,
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00 448
2001), Celtic, and Wonder North (Winzer, 2001) host later
gold mineralization that occurred during regional D3 and that
corresponds to the Yilgarn-wide gold depositional event of
2650 to 2630 Ma (Groves et al., 1998).
Detailed comparison between these early (i.e., preregional
D3) and late (synregional D3) deposits in the Leonora district
is difficult because (1) deposits are separated by discontinu-
ous outcrop, which prevents the correlation of lithologic units
and structures between deposits; (2) early gold-bearing struc-
tures are overprinted by complex, multiphase deformation
events; (3) a lack of detailed geochemical, fluid inclusion, iso-
tope, and radiometric studies on individual deposits prevents
comparison of hydrothermal ore fluid characteristics; and (4)
the deposit-scale geology is variable. Multiple deformation
events at Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia are
interpreted to be the result of regional compression and the
upward doming of the Raeside batholith, which caused alter-
nating periods of shortening and extension (Witt, 2001),
whereas structures and the orientation of ore shoots at Tar-
moola, Celtic, and Wonder North are strongly controlled by
their respective host intrusions.
Gold deposits in the Leonora district are commonly located
close to granitoid-supracrustal rock contacts (Tower Hill,
Harbour Lights, Tarmoola, Celtic) and are hosted by several
different rock types, including granitoids (Tarmoola, Celtic,
Wonder North), komatiites (Tarmoola, Tower Hill, Harbour
Lights), high Mg basalts (Sons of Gwalia), and sedimentary
units (Gambier Lass, Harriston). In the vicinity of the
Leonora townsite (Fig. 1), Tower Hill occurs along the Rae-
side batholith contact with ultramafic schists, Harbour Lights
occurs between the same ultramafic unit and mafic rocks to
the east, whereas the Sons of Gwalia deposit is mainly hosted
by the mafic unit that forms the hanging wall at Harbour
Lights (Witt, 2001). It is unclear whether the ultramafic unit
that hosts the Tower Hill and Harbour Lights deposits ex-
tends northward and is the same ultramafic unit that hosts
gold mineralization at Tarmoola (Fig. 1).
Orebodies in the Leonora district are mostly located within
brittle-ductile shear zones (Harbour Lights, Sons of Gwalia),
brittle fault zones (Celtic), or discrete quartz veins (Tar-
moola). Zones of competency contrast along lithologic con-
tacts are a major structural control on the positioning of ore-
bodies. Brittle-ductile shear zones located along the Raeside
batholith contact host the Sons of Gwalia, Tower Hill, and
Harbour Lights deposits (Witt, 2001). Although Tarmoola oc-
curs along strike of these deposits, orebodies at Tarmoola are
not hosted within a common structure but are controlled by
the regional, north-northwest–striking D2 fabric of the
Leonora district. Tower Hill, Sons of Gwalia, and Harbour
Lights formed during an early orogenic event and predate the
development of the regional D2 fabric (Witt et al., 2002),
whereas V2 veins at Tarmoola formed during the D3 reactiva-
tion of the D2 fabric. Gold-bearing quartz veins at Tower Hill,
Sons of Gwalia, and Harbour Lights have undergone signifi-
cant postmineralization deformation, including isoclinal fold-
ing, boudinage, and offset by normal and reverse ductile
movement (Skwarnecki, 1987; Kalnejais, 1990; Witt, 2001).
The plunge of isoclinal fold hinges and boudinaged gold-
bearing veins control the orientation of ore shoots in these de-
posits. Early V1 veins at Tarmoola form isoclinal folds that
 TARMOOLA Au DEPOSIT, WESTERN AUSTRALIA
have an axial plane oriented parallel to the regional D2 fabric
but do not contain gold, whereas V2 veins occur subparallel to
the regional D2 fabric and are not folded.
Despite the different timing for gold deposition in the early
and late deposits in the Leonora district, gold-bearing vein
minerals and proximal wall-rock alteration mineral assem-
blages are remarkably similar. This suggests that gold deposi-
tion occurred from compositionally similar ore fluids at com-
parable T-P conditions and crustal levels. At Tower Hill,
Harbour Lights, and Sons of Gwalia this is interpreted to have
taken place after the uplift of the Raeside batholith and high
T-P supracrustal carapace (Witt, 2001). The enrichment of
the granophile elements Au-Mo-W ± Bi ± Sb at Tarmoola,
Tower Hill, and Harbour Lights (cf. Skwarnecki, 1987; Witt,
2001) is a feature described for both intrusion-related gold
systems (Lang and Baker, 2001) and granite-hosted orogenic
gold deposits (Cassidy et al., 1998). It suggests that these ele-
ments were derived from a granitic source, either directly
from a magmatic fluid source or due to fluid interaction with
felsic country rock along the fluid pathway.
Conclusions
Tarmoola is a structurally controlled, Archean orogenic
gold deposit hosted in greenschist facies komatiite and trond-
hjemite. Gold-bearing V2 veins postdate trondhjemite em-
placement (ca. 2700 Ma), quartz diorite dikes (ca. 2667 Ma),
and regional greenschist facies metamorphism and formed in
response to east-west shortening during the regional D3
event. The V2 veins strike west-northwest in trondhjemite and
subparallel to the eastern trondhjemite margin and S1 folia-
tion in komatiite. The hydrothermal ore fluid flowed along
the eastern trondhjemite margin, aided by the high structural
permeability of komatiite, and was directed toward areas of
low mean stress, such as the northeast-dipping trondhjemite
contact in the North pit. Wall-rock alteration by the hy-
drothermal ore fluid can be divided into two main stages. The
earlier, volumetrically dominant, stage I hydrothermal fluid
precipitated milky quartz, pyrite, ankerite, calcite, albite,
muscovite, chlorite, and fuchsite in V2 veins and associated
proximal wall-rock alteration zones in trondhjemite and ko-
matiite. The stage II hydrothermal fluid precipitated gray
quartz and ankerite, with variable amounts of calcite, mus-
covite, chlorite, fuchsite, albite, epidote, chalcopyrite, spha-
lerite, galena, scheelite, gold, petzite, altaite, hessite, telluro-
bismuth, and melonite in V2 veins and wall-rock alteration
zones. Geochemical, fluid inclusion, and stable isotope stud-
ies on stage II hydrothermal minerals in V2 veins and wall-
rock alteration zones indicate that gold was deposited from a
homogeneous, neutral to slightly alkaline, reduced, low-salin-
ity fluid that was enriched in H2O, CO2, Si, Ca, K, Na, S, Au,
Ag, Cu, Pb, W, Bi, As, Mo, Zn, and Te. Gold was probably
transported as a bisulfide complex and deposited at about
300° ± 50°C and 0.5 to 3.0 kbars (2- to 10-km depth), due
to a combination of processes (sulfidation, fluid acidifica-
tion) promoted by fluid-wall rock interaction. Gold deposi-
tion at Tarmoola postdates early (i.e., preregional D3) gold
deposits (e.g., Tower Hill, Harbour Lights, Sons of Gwalia)
in the Leonora district. Tarmoola and these early deposits
display similarities in host-rock chemistry, vein and proxi-
mal wall-rock metasomatic mineral assemblages, and fluid
0361-0128/98/000/000-00 $6.00
449
temperature and pressure conditions during gold deposition,
but orebodies in the early deposits are more strongly de-
formed.
Acknowledgments
This paper is part of a doctoral study funded by an Aus-
tralian postgraduate award scholarship and PacMin Corpora-
tion Ltd. (now Sons of Gwalia Ltd.). The Society of Economic
Geologists is gratefully acknowledged for the awarding of
McKinstry research grants (1999 and 2000) to Paul Duuring.
PacMin Corporation Ltd. geologists, including Mike Grigson,
John Libby, and Bob Love, are thanked for their kind assis-
tance during fieldwork, while Sons of Gwalia Ltd. gave per-
mission to publish the information presented in this study.
Kevin Cassidy publishes with the permission of the Chief Ex-
ecutive Officer of Geoscience Australia. Ja-On Park assisted
with the preparation of mineral separates for stable isotope
studies. Members of the U.S. Geological Society (USGS), in-
cluding Carl Bern, Pam Gemery, Richard Goldfarb, Cindy
Kester, Gary Landis, Erin Marsh, and Bob Rye provided en-
thusiastic support and guidance during the use of the USGS
Denver stable isotope laboratory. Earlier versions of this man-
uscript were reviewed by Kevin Ansdell, Tim Baker, Songfa
Liu, Steve Rowins, Bob Rye, and Wally Witt. Benoit Dubé,
Mark Hannington, an anonymous reviewer, and a member of
the Economic Geology Editorial Board also offered construc-
tive criticism.
April 11, 2002; January 5, 2004
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