3

A double conversion UPS converts the incoming

alternating current (AC) to a direct current (DC), so
it can power the system’s battery, and then inverts
the DC back to AC for powering equipment –
hence the name “double conversion.” Take a look
at how a UPS’s components work together so you
can better understand your system and ensure
your mission critical load remains online.
KEY COMPONENTS OF

CONVERSION UPS
ONLINE DOUBLE

The UPS system acts as a source to the loads

connected to it and as a load to the electrical
mains.

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 RECTIFIER

Ac Input Bypass (prime or standby)

The rectifier in a three phase UPS is
Bypass Ac Output
Ac Input DC Link
Switch designed to operate under nominal input
Rectifier Inverter

Battery
voltage of 415V and frequency of 50Hz.
to Dc

Ac Input Battery
Converter

Normal mode
Taking into consideration voltage
Charger
(optional) Stored energy mode
IEC 487/99
fluctuations, the rectifier is typically
Bypass mode 62040-3D IEC:1999
Battery
designed to operate with a input specific
Figure 1 Double Conversion UPS voltage range of ±15% and frequency
As shown in the above figure, an online double Conversion UPS range of ±6%.
has 4 major components
RECTIFIER In general the best rectifier topology should
• INVERTER have high efficiency, high power factor (PF)
• BATTERY and low current distortion(THDi).This will
• STATIC SWITCH ensure good compatibility with Genset and
The rectifier acts as a load to the electrical mains. The primary also reduce the need to oversize the DG
objective of the rectifier is to set, incoming transformer and cable sizing
a) Convert the incoming power supply (AC) to DC for supporting the UPS.
b) Charge the battery
It also has a hidden objective which is to draw a sinusoidal The technology of the UPS has evolved and
current from the mains and also to ensure the current drawn is different technologies are being used in the
in phase with the voltage waveform so that the current rectifier of the UPS. A short comparison of
harmonic distortion injected on the mains is less and the power different rectifier technologies is given in
factor is better. the table below.
6 pulse 6 pulse with harmonic filter 12
SCR Rectifier Passive … ……. Active Pulse Rectifier IGBT Rectifier

Architecture

Input
current
waveform

THDi <33% <10% <5% <10% <5%

PF ~ 0.8 0.92 0.99 ~ 0.8 0.99
Efficiency 98 -99% 95 -96% 95 -96% 96-97% ~ 98%
Impact on
No Leading PF No No No
Low Load
Compatibility Requires Requires Requires
No Oversizing No Oversizing
with DG Oversizing Oversizing Oversizing
Cost Low Medium High Medium High
Operating
Good Good Good
Efficiency No impact Medium
at full load at all Load levels at all load Levels
(THDi &PF)

3-2
© Copyrights Reserved
 INVERTER

INVERTER

The primary objective of the inverter is to convert DC power to In transformer based inverter the primary
AC power and to support the loads. The DC power can be objective of using a transformer is to setup
either from the rectifier or from the battery connected to the DC the inverter output voltage as the DC bus
bus of the UPS System. voltage will be generally around 600V DC
and the inductance required as a part of
The inverter is a critical component as this acts as a source to output LC filter will be incorporated in the
the critical loads connected to it. As a source, the inverter has same.
to support the loads with sinusoidal voltage waveform under
below conditions: In a transformerless UPS, The DC bus
voltage is increased to 800V DC and a
a) Zero break power from mains to battery mode, DC-DC booster circuit will be introduced
b) Static and dynamic loading conditions, between the battery and the DC bus.
c) Overload conditions
d) Linear and Non-Linear loading conditions Refer section 5 for the details and selection
e) Faster fault clearing of right topology based on the applications.
f) Overload handling capability
Also the actual inverter bridge can have two
There are two main Inverter topologies namely with transformer level swithcing or three level switching
in the inverter output and transformer less inverter topology. which is explained is detailed in the next
section.
Transformer based and Transformer Less Inverter

Transformer Based Transformer less

Figure 2 Transformer Based & Transformerless Inverter

Figure 2 shows the configuration of Inverter with transformer

and in a transformerless or transformer free configuration.

3-3
© Copyrights Reserved
 TWO AND THREE
LEVEL INVERTER

Two-Level and Three-Level Inverter

Two-Level Inverter

The two-level inverter has been widely used for a range of

power levels. The schematic of the topology is shown in
Figure 3 and 4.The two-level inverter switches between two
voltage levels of +Vdc and –Vdc. The switching voltage will be the
full DC bus voltage which is generally 600 to 800Vdc which
demands the usage of IGBT with higher voltageing of 1200V to
reduce the impact of voltage stress.

Figure 5 Three Level Inverter Bridge

As a result of PWM switching at higher frequency, the output
voltage waveform generated contains higher distortion and
which increases the size of the choke / inductor must be
increased to smoothen it into a sinusoidal waveform.

The two-level inverter is a very simple design without any

complex circuits. The two-level inverter will have a lower
conduction loss but higher switching loss making the two-level
inverter less efficient at higher switching frequencies.

Figure 6 1Symbolic Representation of

Three Level Inverter Bridge

of choke/inductance required to
smoothen the voltage waveform
eventually reducing the losses across the
chokes.

The switching losses of a three-level

Figure 3 Two Level Inverter Bridge Figure 4 Symbolic Representation inverter is lesser but the conduction
of Two level Inverter Bridge
losses are higher compared to a two level
Three-Level Inverter
inverter.
The schematic of three-level inverter is shown in 5 and 6. A three
level inverter will have three switching states,+Vdc/2,0,-Vdc/2.
In a three-level inverter,while the number
The effective switching voltage of IGBT will be 400V and the
of switching devices are more, the overall
IGBT voltage ratings will be 600V. However in a three level
efficiency of the inverter can be better
inverter we use 4 no’s of 600V IGBT in series for each leg.
than a two level inverter. But actual
efficiency of either topology depends on
As a result of three level switching, the resultant output wave-
the IGBT used, the switching frequency
form is more sinusoidal with lesser distortion, which will reduce
as well as the losses in the output choke
the size
(Inductor).
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© Copyrights Reserved
 COMPARISON OF
TWO-LEVEL INVERTER
AND THREE-LEVEL
INVERTER
Comparison of Two-level Inverter vs Three-Level Inverter

Description Two-Level Inverter Three-Level Inverter

800V DC, 400V DC,

Higher Voltage Stress on devices Lower Voltage Stress on devices

Switching Voltage

Higher distortion, Lower distortion,

Output
required bigger Choke to smoothen Lower size of Choke to smoothen the
Waveform
the waveform waveform

120

100
Conduction
Losses Proportion (%)

Losses
80 37%

60 Conduction
Losses
63%
40 Switching
Losses
Losses of the 63%
20 Switching
Devices
Losses
21%
0
Two-level Three-level

Higher switching loss due to high Lower Switching loss due to lower
switching speed and switching frequency and
lower conduction losses higher conduction loss due to more
devices.

Control Circuit Simple & Easy Complicated control algorithm

No of Devices 6 devices of 1200V each 12 devices of 400V each

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© Copyrights Reserved
 ENERGY STORAGE

Energy Storage Energy Storage system - battery

When electrical service is disrupted (i.e., mains failure), the Battery is the most critical component in the
UPS continues to support the load connected to it through its
UPS and is also considered as heart of the
energy storage system. The UPS may provide power for
UPS System. Without, battery the UPS is
durations ranging from 10 to 20 seconds to several hours.
Shorter duration UPSs are designed to carry the load during just a power conditioner.
the start-up of back-up electrical generators, typically diesel
engine driven generators, and to enable a smooth transition to The purpose of the battery is to provide the
the generator as the power source. energy necessary to supply the load when
the mains supply in not available.
In many cases, the UPS is designed to provide power for 5 to
30 minutes. The purpose is to enable an orderly shutdown of
Cost of battery is a major component on the
operations thereby avoiding an abrupt shutdown, which would
final price of the UPS solution proposed to
otherwise cause equipment damage, product/work losses or a
security/safety hazard. The under-desk UPS for PCs is an the customer.
example. Electrical Electrical
Energy Energy

UPS with enough energy to provide power for several hours are
somewhat rare. A key reason is that, in most situations, it is less AC/DC
Chemical
DC/AC

Energy
expensive to store energy in the form of diesel fuel Batteries
(for generators) if backup power is needed for several hours.
A battery is an electrochemical device that

There are different technologies of energy storage solution stores energy at one time for use at another.
available in the market like The battery uses electrical energy to store
energy in chemical form which is converted
a) Battery to electrical energy during the discharge of
b) Flywheels the battery.
c) Ultra capacitors
The UPS battery may furnish power to the
The selection of right energy storage system depends on
inverter for a few seconds, many minutes,
• Required runtime/backup time or hours. The battery capacity is
• Power density/footprint determined by the amount and duration of
• Weight power the inverter has to deliver to the load
• Lifespan / cycle count from the battery.
• Reliability
• Cost of Ownership (Initial cost /Maintenance cost)
• Operating temperature

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© Copyrights Reserved
 TYPES OF BATTERY

Types of Battery The main active materials required to

construct a lead acid battery are
Three common varieties of battery chemistries popularly used
in UPS applications are: • Lead peroxide (PbO2).
a) Lead Acid • Sponge lead (Pb)
b) Nickel Cadmium • Dilute sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
c) Lithium Ion
The positive plate is made of lead peroxide.
Battery This is dark brown, hard and brittle
substance.The negative plate is made of
pure lead in soft sponge conditions. Dilute
sulfuric acid used for lead acid battery has
Lead Acid Nickel Cadmium Lithium Ion ratio of water to acid = 3:1.

During discharging
Flooded Iron proshpate • Both of the plates are covered with
PbSO4
• Specific gravity of sulfuric acid solution
Valve regulated falls due to formation of water during
Nickel, Cobalt,
Lead Acid battery
Magnesium reaction at PbO2 plate.
VRLA / SMF
• As a result, the rate of reaction falls which
Lead Acid Battery implies the potential difference between
the plates decreases during
The storage battery or secondary battery is such battery discharging process.
where electrical energy can be stored as chemical energy and
this chemical energy is then converted to electrical energy as During charging
and when required. The conversion of electrical energy into
chemical energy by applying external electrical source is • Lead sulfate anode gets converted into
known as charging of battery. Whereas conversion of lead peroxide.
chemical energy into electrical energy for supplying the • Lead sulfate of cathode is converted to
external load is known as discharging of secondary battery. pure lead.
During charging of battery, current is passed through it which • Terminal potential of the cell increases.
causes some chemical changes inside the battery. This • Specific gravity of sulfuric acid
chemical changes absorb energy during their formation. increases.

When the battery is connected to the load, the chemical The lead acid battery is further classified as
changes take place in reverse direction, during which the
absorbed energy is released as electrical energy and • Sealed Maintenance Free (SMF) VRLA
supplied to the load. Now we will try to understand the Battery
principle working of lead acid battery and for that we will first • Tubular/Flooded Battery
discuss about lead acid battery which is very commonly used • Tubular Gel VRLA
as storage battery or secondary battery.
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© Copyrights Reserved
 LEED ACID & Ni-Cd
BATTERY

SMF (Sealed Maintenance Free) battery is a battery which doesn't Nickel cadmium cell (Ni-Cd)
require topping up due to negligible water loss. It is designed in
such a way that it cannot be opened or refilled. These batteries
The active components of a rechargeable
are safe, maintenance free and are suitable for most UPS Ni-Cd battery in the charged state consist
applications. The SMF battery will have an additional safety of nickel hydroxide (NiOOH) in the positive
valve which release the excessive formation of hydrogen, as a electrode and cadmium (Cd) in the
result of overcharging, in to the atmosphere. negative electrode. For the electrolyte,
usually caustic potash solution (potassium
SMF battery works on a recombination technology where the hydroxide) is used. Due to their low internal
hydrogen gas evolved during the charging process, is resistance and the very good current
converted to water with the help of oxygen present inside the conducting properties, Ni-Cd cells can
battery container. supply extremely high currents and can be
recharged rapidly.
The typical cyclic performance of the battery is less and is
limited by the operating temperature and the charging These cells can operate over a large
profile.The SMF battery delivers higher power at higher temperature range, from +60°C down to
temperatures but the life of battery comes down significantly -20°C. The selection of the separator (nylon
or polypropylene) and the electrolyte (KOH,
The SMF battery needs to be installed in a controlled LiOH, NaOH) is also of great importance.
environment to maintain the temperature at 25-27 deg C and an These constituents influence the voltage
additional hydrogen sensor in the battery room is conditions in the case of a high current
recommended for installation. discharge, the service life and the
overcharging capability of the cell. In the
Advantages and Limitation case of misuse, a very high-pressure may
arise quickly.
Tubular Batteries have openings at top to add distilled water for
maintenance and safe running. These batteries are very rugged For this reason, these cells are equipped
and used in Cyclic application. These batteries last longer due with a reversible safety valve, which can act
to robust design and are suitable for harsh environment several times. NiCad cells offer a long
applications. service life (depending on the type of
application and charging unit up to 2000
The tubular battery can be installed in any environment(other cycles).
than closed air conditioner room) with proper ventilation and air
exchanges as hydrogen evolution from the battery is higher
when compared with SMF buttery.

Tubular Gel batteries require no topping of water and is a

sealed, valve regulated lead-acid deep cycle battery that uses
a gel electrolyte. These type of batteries are rugged and
suitable for cyclic applications but are maintenance free
compared to flooded tubular batteries.

3-8
© Copyrights Reserved
 ADVANTAGES AND
LIMITATIONS OF
LEAD ACID BATTERIES
& Ni-Cd
Advantages and Limitations of Lead Acid Batteries

Advantages • Inexpensive and simple to manufacture — in terms of cost per watt hours, the VRLA Battery is
the least expensive.
• Mature, reliable and well-understood technology — when used correctly, the VRLA Battery is
durable and provides dependable service.
• Low self-discharge —the self-discharge rate is among the lowest in rechargeable battery
systems.
• Low maintenance requirements — no memory; no electrolyte to fill.
• Capable of high discharge rates.

Limitations • Cannot be stored in a discharged condition.

• Low energy density — poor weight-to-energy density limits use to stationary and wheeled
applications.
• Allows only a limited number of full discharge cycles — well suited for standby applications that
require only occasional deep discharges.
• Environmentally unfriendly — the electrolyte and the lead content can cause environmental
damage.
• Transportation restrictions on flooded lead acid — there are environmental concerns regarding
spillage in case of an accident.
• Thermal runaway can occur with improper charging.

Advantages and Limitations of Ni-Cad Batteries

Advantages •Fast and simple charge — even after prolonged storage.

High number of charge/discharge cycles — if properly maintained, the Ni-Cd provides 2000 charge/discharge cycles.
• Good load performance — Ni-Cd allows recharging at low temperatures.
• Long shelf life – in any state-of-charge.
• Simple storage and transportation — most air freight companies accept the Ni-Cd without
special conditions.
• Good low temperature performance.
• Forgiving if abused — the Ni-Cd is one of the most rugged rechargeable batteries.
• Economically priced — the Ni-Cd is the lowest cost battery in terms of cost per cycle.
• Available in a wide range of sizes and performance options — most NiCd cells are cylindrical.

Limitations • Relatively low energy density — compared with newer systems.

• Memory effect — Ni-Cd must periodically be exercised to prevent memory affect.
• Environmentally unfriendly — Ni-Cd contains toxic metals. Some countries are limiting the use
of Ni-Cd battery.
• Has relatively high self-discharge — needs recharging after storage.

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© Copyrights Reserved
 COMPARING
DIFFERENT TYPES
OF BATTERY
Feature VRLA (AGM) Tubular GEL VRLA Tubular Flooded Nickel Cadmium
Gassing / fuming No gassing / fuming, can No gassing/fuming, can be High gassing / fuming, High gassing/fuming, separate
be installed anywhere installed anywhere. separate battery room with battery room. No gassing
exhaust system is essential. /fuming, in maintenance free
Ni-Cd battery can be installed
anywhere
Topping up of electrolyte No topping uprequired normally No topping-up required normally Topping up required frequently No topping-uprequired normally.
Maintenance Free Ni-Cd doesn’t
need topping up of electrolyte

Charging current level High Lower Lowest High

Space requirement Small cell size, Low space Small cell size, Low space Large cell size, Large Moderate space required.
requirement. requirement. space required.

Stacking Horizontal or vertical Horizontal or vertical (in tiers) Vertical stacking only. Vertically in Tiers

Transportation in charged Easy Easy Not possible. Transportation Easy

condition in uncharged (unfilled)
condition recommended.

Self-discharge during 50% self-discharge in 6 50% self-discharge in one Self-discharge is very high. Self-discharge is low and can be
storage, at an average months. Recovery easy. year. Recovery easy. Long duration storage not stored upto 1 year
temperature of 25°C. recommended. Recovery
difficult.

Cyclic Life (to 80% DoD). 1400 cycles at an average Better than 2100 cycles at an 2000 cycles 2000-2500 cycles
temperature of 35°C in normal average temperature of 35°C in
environmental condition normal environmental condition

Float life at 25°C Good Good Good Good

High temperature Average, but temperature Good Good Good, but temperature
performance compensation provision compensation provision required
required

High temperature Average, but temperature Good Good Good, but temperature
performance compensation provision compensationprovision
required required

Low temperture Good Good Poor Good,can operate upto -20 deg
performance C
Stratification Negligible, no boost charging Negligible, no boost charging Prominent, requires frequent Not possible
required. required. boost charging for prevention.

End cell voltage 1.75V/cell 1.75V/cell 1.85V/cell 1.1V/Cell

Capacity at very low Good Good Average
rate of discharge
Deep discharge recovery Average, after 4 to 5 charge/ Average, after 4 to 5charge/ Poor, hard sulphation Quick and Fast
discharge cycles discharge cycles prevents recovery.
Charge efficiency Excellent, 6 to 8 hours for 90% Slightly poor, 8 to 10 hours Poor, 12 to 14 hours for 90% Excellent, 6 to 8 hours for 90%
recovery. cycles for 90% recovery cycles recovery. recovery. Quick & Fast
Under-charged Average Good Poor
performance
Overcharging Poor, damages the battery Good Good Good
Performance under Good Good Poor Good
partial state of charge
Charging Requirement Constant voltage & Current Constant voltage & Current Periodical boost charging at Constant voltage & Current
charging charging 2.7V/cell essential charging
Thermal runaway Probable, yet rare Not possible Not found Not found
Risk of internal Remote High, due to active material Remote
Remote
short-circuiting shedding

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© Copyrights Reserved
 LITHIUM ION
BATTERY

Lithium Ion battery

Lithium-ion batteries offer several advantages over traditional valve-regulated, lead acid batteries commonly
used in UPSs today. A much longer life span, smaller size and weight, faster recharge times, and declining
prices have made lithium-ion batteries an appealing energy storage technology option for energy storage.

Similar to the lead- and nickel-based architecture, lithium-ion uses a cathode (positive electrode), an anode
(negative electrode) and electrolyte as conductor. The cathode is a metal oxide and the anode consists of
porous carbon. During discharge, the ions flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte and
separator; charging reverses the direction and the ions flow from the cathode to the anode.

When the cell charges and discharges, ions shuttle between cathode (positive electrode) and anode
(negative electrode). On discharge, the anode undergoes oxidation, or loss of electrons, and the cathode
sees a reduction, or a gain of electrons. Charge reverses the movement.

All materials in a battery possess a theoretical specific energy, and the key to high capacity and superior
power delivery lies primarily in the cathode. For the last 10 years or so, the cathode has characterized the
Li-ion battery.

Common cathode material include:

• Lithium Cobalt Oxide (or Lithium Cobaltate
• Lithium Manganese Oxide (also known as spinel or Lithium Manganate)
• Lithium Iron Phosphate
• Lithium Nickel Manganese Cobalt (or NMC) and
• Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide (orNCA)

Advantages and Limitations of Li-ion Batteries

Advantages • High energy density — potential for higher capacities.

• Relatively low self-discharge — self-discharge is less than half that of Ni-Cd and NiMH.
• Low Maintenance — no periodic discharge is needed; no memory.

Limitations • Requires protection circuit — protection circuit limits voltage and current. Battery is safe if not
provoked.
• Subject to aging, even if not in use — storing the battery in a cool place and at 40 percent
state-of-charge reduces the aging effect.
• Moderate discharge current.
• Subject to transportation regulations — shipment of larger quantities of Li-ion batteries may be
subject to regulatory control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on batteries.
• Expensive to manufacture — about 40 percent higher in cost than Ni-Cd. Better manufacturing
techniques and replacement of rare metals with lower cost alternatives will likely reduce the price.
• Not fully mature — changes in metal and chemical combinations affect battery test results,
especially with some quick test methods.

3-11
© Copyrights Reserved
 Technology LIthium Cobalt Oxide: Lithium Manganese Oxide: Lithium Iron Phosphate: Lithium Nickel Manganese Lithium Nickel Cobalt Aluminum Oxide:
LiCoO2 cathode (~60% Co), LiMn2O4 cathode. LiFePO4 cathode, Cobalt Oxide: LiNiMnCoO2. LiNiCoAlO2 cathode (~9% Co),
graphite anode graphite anode graphite anode cathode, graphite anode graphite anode

Voltages 3.60V nominal; typical 3.70V (3.80V) nominal; 3.20, 3.30V nominal; 3.60V, 3.70V nominal; 3.60V nominal; typical operating range
operating range typical operating range typical operating range typical operating range 3.0–4.2V/cell
3.0–4.2V/cell 3.0–4.2V/cell 2.5–3.65V/cell 3.0–4.2V/cell, or higher
BATTERY
Specific 150–200Wh/kg. Specialty 100–150Wh/kg 90–120Wh/kg 150–220Wh/kg 200-260Wh/kg; 300Wh/kg predictable
energy cells provide up to
(capacity) 240Wh/kg.
DIFFERENT

LITHIUM ION

Charge 0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V 0.7–1C typical, 3C 1C typical, charges to 0.7–1C, charges to 4.20V, 0.7C, charges to 4.20V (most cells),
(C-rate) (most cells); 3h charge maximum, charges 3.65V; 3h charge time some go to 4.30V; 3h charge 3h charge typical, fast charge possible
typical. Charge current to 4.20V (most cells) typical typical. Charge current above with some cells
above 1C shortens battery 1C shortens battery life.
life.

Discharge 1C; 2.50V cut off Discharge 1C; 10C possible with 1C, 25C on some cells; 1C; 2C possible on some cells; 1C typical; 3.00V cut-off; high discharge
(C-rate) current above 1C shortens some cells, 30C pulse (5s), 40A pulse (2s); 2.50V 2.50V cut-off rate shortens battery life
battery life. 2.50V cut-off cut-off (lower that 2V
causes damage)

3-12
TECHNOLOGIES OF

Cycle life 500–1000, related to depth 300–700 (related to depth 1000–2000 (related to 1000–2000 (related to depth 500 (related to depth of discharge, temperature)
of discharge, load, of discharge, temperature) depth of discharge, of discharge, temperature)

© Copyrights Reserved
temperature temperature)

Thermal 150°C (302°F). Full charge 250°C (482°F) typical. High 270°C (518°F) Very safe 210°C (410°F) typical. High 150°C (302°F) typical, High charge promotes
runaway promotes thermal runaway charge promotes thermal battery even if fully charge promotes thermal thermal runaway
runaway charged runaway

Applications Mobile phones, tablets, Power tools, medical Portable and stationary E-bikes, medical devices, EVs, Medical devices, industrial, electric powertrain
laptops, cameras devices, electric needing high load industrial (Tesla)
powertrains currents and endurance

Comments Very high specific energy, High power but less Very flat voltage Provides high capacity and Shares similarities with Li-cobalt. Serves as
limited specific power. capacity; safer than discharge curve but low high power. Serves as Hybrid Energy Cell.
Cobalt is expensive. Li-cobalt; commonly capacity. One of safest Cell. Favorite chemistry for
Serves as Energy Cell. mixed with NMC to Li-ions. Used for special many uses; market share is
Market share has improve performance markets. Elevated increasing.
stabilized. self-discharge.
 ENERGY STORAGE
SYSTEM – FLYWHEEL

Energy Storage System - Flywheel

Flywheel stores electrical energy in the form of kinetic energy

during charging process and during the discharging the
kinetic energy is converted into electrical energy.

A typical system consists of

Composite Rim Magnetic
Bearing
• A rotor suspended by bearings inside a vacuum chamber to
reduce friction, connected to a combination of electric Vacuum
motor/electric generator. Hub Chamber
• First generation flywheel energy storage systems use a large
Shaft
steel flywheel rotating on mechanical bearings. Newer Motor
systems use carbon-fiber composite rotors that have a higher
tensile strength than steel and are an order of magnitude
lighter.

Magnetic bearings are necessary; in conventional mechanical

bearings, friction is directly proportional to speed, and at such
speeds, too much energy would be lost to friction.

The flywheel has a vacuum chamber on which a motor is held in a magnetic bearing. During charging
process, the motor rotates at 1000rpm in clock wise direction to store the electrical energy in the form of
kinetic energy. During discharge the motor acts as a generator and will convert the kinetic energy back
to electrical energy

Advantages and Limitations of Flywheel

Advantages • High energy density — potential for higher capacities.

• Low Maintenance — no periodic discharge is needed; no memory.
• Flywheels are not affected by temperature changes unlike chemical rechargeable batteries
• Shorter time to recharge
• Long Life >20 years

Limitations • Can be used only for a short backup time, in few seconds
• High power applications with shorter backup time

3-13
© Copyrights Reserved
 ENERGY STORAGE
SYSTEM – SUPER
CAPACITORS
Energy Storage system – Super Capacitors
SuperCaps (also known as ultracapacitors or electric double-layer
capacitors) provide an alternative source of DC power to traditional
rechargeable batteries. Super capacitors are high density energy
storage devices with a capacitance (energy density) of up to 10,000
times that of conventional electrolytic capacitors.

Super capacitors or double layer capacitor store energy much in the

same way as a conventional capacitor, hence the amount of stored
energy can be described by: A double layer capacitor consists of two
electrodes, a separator, electrolyte, two current collectors and
housing.

A very high capacitance is obtained in this way. Super capacitors are

suitable for high power applications and offer very quick response
times and high efficiency. Disadvantages are comparatively low
energy density, high self-discharge and high cost. Small units exists,
larger sizes are under development. Typical power ratings are
1kW-250 kW and efficiencies in the ranges of 85-98%

Advantages and Limitations of Super Capacitors

Advantages • Short duration runtime critical applications
• Compact foot print and power density
• High working ambient temperatures
• ECO friendly low environmental impact
• High energy efficiency and low running costs
• Lower Total Cost of Ownership (TCO)

Limitations • High self-discharge

• Ride through for shorter power outages in
seconds.

3-14
© Copyrights Reserved