Lecture 22 – Overcurrent

Protection I
Switchgear and Protection
(UEE603)
 Contents - Syllabus
• Course objective:
– To introduce the concept of protection system attributes (completed)
– types of fuses, (completed)
– circuit breakers, (completed)
– earthing, relays, and (completed)
– various protection schemes (completed)
• Protection Schemes:
– Overcurrent and Overvoltage protection of transmission lines,
– differential protection,
– transformer protection,
– Bus bar protection,
– distance protection of transmission line,
– carrier aided protection of transmission lines,
– generator protection,
– induction motor protection.
 Summary - GROUNDING OR EARTHING
• System Earthing and Equipment Earthing
• Ungrounded system
• Solidly grounded system
• Coefficient of grounding
• Low resistance grounding
• High resistance grounding
• Reactance Grounding
• Resonant Grounding
– Peterson coil
– Connection of Arc Suppression Coil
• Some numerical
• Generator station practice
• Step and touch potential
• Need and Types of earthing systems
• Soil resistivity and earth potential
 Contents – Basics of Overcurrent
Protection
• Abnormality and Faults
• Protection and Condition Monitoring
• Fault Characteristics
• Sources of fault current
• Fault Currents in general
• Load Modelling
• System Representation
• Use of fuse for protection and fuse coordination
• Limitations of fuse
• Overcurrent Protection Relaying
• Directional overcurrent relays
 Abnormality and Faults
• When an equipment (e.g. transmission line, transformer, generator,
motor) is operating within the rated specifications (speed, voltage,
current etc.), we say that it is in the normal state.
• Therefore, abnormal state pertains to deviation from the rated operating
point. It may refer to overcurrent, under voltage, over or under
frequency.
• If the apparatus continues to operate in this state for long enough time,
it can lead to damage or reduction in life of the equipment. On the other
hand, it may be also unsafe to operate in this region.
• A fault refers to a serious abnormality which typically requires
immediate de-energization of the equipment.
• Usually, faults are considered dangerous because of overcurrent that
they create. This can damage the apparatus and it endangers the human
safety.
 Abnormality and Faults
• Three phase faults, Line to Line faults (LL), Single Line to
Ground fault (SLG), Line to Line Ground faults (LLG) are
some standard faults.
• Three phase faults and Line to Line faults are also known
as phase faults while Single Line to Ground and Double Line
to Ground faults are also known as ground faults.
• However, not all faults create large over-currents.
• For example, earth faults which may result due to partial
insulation failure may not create large currents.
• However, it makes operation of the equipment unsafe from
human safety perspective and further, if the fault is left
unattended it can aggravate.
 Protection and Condition Monitoring
• In the normal state, all system variables are within the normal range.
• Abnormal state reflects an increase in possibility of a disturbance.
• Severe disturbance results in a faulty state. If the fault is temporary then the
system returns to normal state. Permanent fault requires isolating the
equipment.
• Post-fault maintenance (restorative state), of the equipment can be
recommenced.
• Typically, power system protection, refers to fault detection and de-
energization of the equipment.
• In contrast, condition monitoring refers to monitoring the equipment to
detect possibility of equipment failure.
• Condition monitoring and good maintenance can reduce a number of
potential faults.
 Fault Characteristics
• Majority of faults are single line to ground.
• D.C offset is maximum if q - j = 90o
• System angle, j is around 700 – 850
• Fault should occur around zero on the voltage waveform.
• Most of the faults due to insulation failure are around the
voltage peak.
• D.C. offset Probability is low for line to ground faults.
• This is different for three phase faults - at least one of the
phases will have significant offset.
 Sources of Fault Current
• Meshed system or a system with multiple sources require directional relays.
• The first step in the overcurrent protection is estimation of the fault
current.
• If the system is radial and fed from a single or equivalent source, this job is
simplified. For conservative calculation, utility source impedance should be
considered as zero (unlimited MVA supplying capacity).
• The reason for this assumption is that, changes in utility system, addition of
generators, strengthening of transmission network etc. can reduce the
source impedance.
• Consequently, the maximum fault current is limited by the impedance of
the distribution transformer.
• In a single source radial system, typically fault current reduces as we move
away from the source (an exception being a system with large motor loads
at the remote ends).
 Sources of Fault Current
• The transformer short circuit current can be calculated from this
formula,
• Isc = [( Transformer Full Load current ) x 100 / (% z)]
• Any motor e.g. induction, synchronous condenser or motor etc.
must be considered as a source for calculating fault current in the
first few cycles.
• For the sake of simplicity and because of its large usage, we
consider only induction motor load.
• Further, when calculating short circuit current it is a common
practice to lump all motors that are grouped together. Assuming a
group motor sub-transient reactance (X") of 25%, the typical
contribution is 4 times full load current.
• We must know Maximum load current and minimum fault current
seen by relay.
 Sources of Fault Current
In a radial system with single source, the magnitude
of fault current depends upon the following:
• Source contribution (Source voltage and
impedance)
• Transformer impedance
• Motor contribution (Back EMF and impedance of
induction and synchronous motors)
• Distance of fault from the source
pu conversion
Fault Currents in general
 Which is most severe type of fault at the
generator system?
• Here is the formula for fault current 3 phase and LG fault:
• I = Vf / (Z1) and I = 3Vf / (Z0+Z1+Z2+3 Zg + 3 Zf)
• By analyzing the formula, one can come to conclusion that LG fault is
more severe (assuming Z0 < Z1 = Z2, which is the usual case). But are
we forgetting the fact that in 3 phase fault, there is a major role played
by sub-transient reactance (Z”) which is much smaller that Z1.
• So the formula gets modified to I = Vf /(Zst) for LLL fault (applicable
for first 2-3 cycles).
• Single phase to ground fault is the most sever fault at the terminals of a
generator. However, if the generator is grounded through a resistor
(impedance), the fault current would be limited. In this case, it is
important to analyse and compare 3 phase and single phase fault.
• Three phase fault is most dangerous from stability point of view
because it divides the line in two sections.
Load Modelling
System Representation
Fault Calculations
Standards
Use of Fuses for protection
Fuse co-ordination
 Limitations of a Fuse
• Advantage of fuse based protection is its
simplicity and cheapness.
• However, with fuses it is difficult to control the
time to trip.
• This creates difficulty in primary-backup
coordination activity.
• Also, once a fuse melts, unless it is replaced, the
equipment cannot be energized again.
• Thus, it is not possible to have remote operation.
This motivates development of an overcurrent
relay.
 Overcurrent Protection Relaying
• This scheme is based on the intuition that, faults typically
short circuits, lead to currents much above the load current.
We can call them as over-currents. If fault current is always
greater than the load current on the line, we could use this
scheme.
• Over-current relaying and fuse protection uses the principle
that when the current exceeds a predetermined value, it
indicates presence of a fault (short circuit).
• This protection scheme finds usage in radial distribution
systems with a single source. It is quite simple to implement.
 Overcurrent Protection Relaying
Overcurrent relaying for distribution circuits besides being simple and
cheap provides the following advantages:

• Very often the relays need not be directional and hence no a.c. voltage
source is required.

• We can use either three phase overcurrent relays and one ground
overcurrent relay (costly) OR Two-phase and one earth fault relays
for the complete protection of three-phase circuits (economical).

Where distance protection is costly, overcurrent protection is used for

phase and ground faults on station service, electric utilities (distribution
circuits) and on some sub-transmission lines. Overcurrent protection is
normally used as back up protection where the primary protection is
provided with distance schemes.
Overcurrent Protection Relaying
A radial distribution system
with a single source

• To relay R1, both downstream faults F1 and F2 are visible

i.e. IF1 as well as IF2 pass through CT of R1.
• To relay R2, fault F1, an upstream fault is not seen, only F2
is seen. This is because no component of IF1 passes through
CT of R2. Thus, selectivity is achieved naturally.
• Relaying decision is based solely on the magnitude of fault
current. Such a protection scheme is said to be non-
directional.
 Directional Overcurrent Protection
• In contrast, there can be situations where for the purpose of
selectivity; phase angle information (always relative to a reference
phasor) may be required.
• Such a case for a radial system with source at both ends.
• Consequently, fault is fed from both the ends of the feeder. To
interrupt the fault current, relays at both ends of the feeder are
required.
 Directional Overcurrent Protection
• In this case, from the magnitude of the current seen by
the relay R2, it is not possible to distinguish whether
the fault is in the section AB or BC.
• Since faults in section AB are not in its jurisdiction, it
should not trip.
• To obtain selectivity, a directional overcurrent relay is
required. It uses both magnitude of current and phase
angle information for decision making.
• It is commonly used in sub-transmission networks
where ring mains are used.
 Points worth considering
• The phase overcurrent protection can be stand-alone
for small systems, and is always provided as a backup
protection for large systems too, which have unit
protection.
• Primary and secondary distribution buses, main utility
interconnection transformers, generators, and large
substation transformers and large motors are,
generally, covered in differential zones, yet the
distribution system downstream like medium- and low-
voltage motor control centers, panels, lighting circuits,
and smaller distribution systems has time–current
coordinated overcurrent protections.
 Points worth considering
• Extending the differential protection to low-voltage
switchgear buses is a new trend.
• The objectives of the coordination in a radial system are to
achieve selectivity without unduly sacrificing sensitivity and
fast clearance times.
• An ideal time–current coordination is, however, rarely
achieved. Though the setting ranges and characteristics of
the protective devices may be as flexible as practical,
compromises may be required.
• In case these compromises are not acceptable, additional
protective devices, change in the type, and characteristics
of the protective devices, and sometimes reorientation of
the system being protected are required.
 GATE Question

• Answer: 15300 to 15500 A

GATE Question
Solution
GATE Question
 Summary – Basics of Overcurrent
Protection
• Abnormality and Faults
• Protection and Condition Monitoring
• Fault Characteristics
• Sources of fault current
• Fault Currents in general
• Load Modelling
• System Representation
• Use of fuse for protection and fuse coordination
• Limitations of fuse
• Overcurrent Protection Relaying
• Directional overcurrent relays