Differential Protection of a Generator

• Mainly employed for the protection of stator

windings of generator against earth faults and
phase-to-phase faults.
• Stator winding faults are very dangerous, and it
causes considerable damage to the generator.
• For the protection of stator winding of the
generator, the differential protection system is
used for clearing the fault in the shortest possible
time for minimizing the extent of a damage.
 Connection for Differential Protection System

The protection system requires two identical

transformers which are mounted on both
sides of the protection zone.
The secondary terminals of the current
transformers are connected in stars, and their
end terminals are connected through the pilot
wire.
The relay coils are connected in delta.
Connection for Differential Protection
System
 Connection for Differential Protection
System
• For proper working of the differential
protection system, it is essential to locate the
relay coils adjacent to the current transformer
near the main circuit.
• This can be done by inserting the balancing
resistance in series with the pilot wires to
make equipotential points located near the
main circuit breaker.
Connection for Differential Protection
System
 Problem Associated with Differential Protection System

• A neutral resistance wire is used in the

differential protection system for avoiding the
adverse effect of earth fault currents.
• When an earth fault occurs near the neutral, it
will cause a small, short circuit current to flow
through the neutral point because of small
emf.
 Problem Associated with Differential Protection System

• This current is further reduced by the

resistance of the neutral grounding. Thus, the
small current will flow through the relay. This
small current will not operate the relay coil,
and hence the generator gets damage.
 Modified Scheme of Differential Protection System

• In this scheme two elements are arranged,

one for the protection of the phase fault and
other for the earth fault protection.
• The phase elements are connected in stars
along with the resistor. The earth fault relay is
kept between the star and neutral.
 Modified Scheme of Differential Protection System

• The star-connected circuit is symmetrical, and

any balanced overflow current from the
current circulating point will not flow through
the earth fault relay.
• So in this system, the sensitive earth fault
relay will operate at a high degree of stability.
Modified Scheme of Differential Protection
System
 Restricted Earth Fault Protection of Generator or Alternator

• A restricted earth fault is a normal earth fault

that is restricted to a particular zone.

Hence, the restricted earth fault protection

takes care of the faults that occurred only
within that particular zone neglecting the
faults outside the restricted zone.
 Protection Scheme for Restricted Earth Fault of Generator

• If the neutral point of an alternator is not

accessible for connecting CT in order to
provide percentage differential protection and
it is grounded through some resistance then a
protection scheme known as restricted earth-
fault protection is provided.
Protection Scheme for Restricted Earth Fault
of Generator
• If the neutral point of an alternator is not
accessible for connecting CT in order to
provide percentage differential protection and
it is grounded through some resistance then a
protection scheme known as restricted earth-
fault protection is provided.
Protection Scheme for Restricted Earth Fault
of Generator

The relay operating coil is connected across the secondaries of

the CT. The neutral grounding is achieved by grounding
resistance.
 Working
• Suppose if the fault appears at F2 i.e., outside the
protected zone, all the line side CTs, and neutral side
CT will be energized in such a way that the current is
balanced. Hence, the relay will not operate.
• For an internal line to ground fault i.e., fault at F 1
which is in the protected zone, the neutral side CT is
more energized and hence the relay operates if the
residual current is greater than the relay pickup
value.
 Working
• For an internal line to line faults, no CT is
energized and hence the relay does not
operate.
• However, in most cases, the internal line-to-
line faults develop into earth faults. Under
these circumstances, the relay will operate as
the neutral side CT will be more energized.
 Issues
• As this protection scheme provides protection
only against internal ground faults and does not
respond to internal line faults and through faults,
it is named restricted earth-fault protection.
• Moreover, due to the presence of grounding
resistance at the neutral side, this protection
scheme does not provide protection to the stator
winding completely against ground faults.
 Working
• It is a general practice, to earth the neutral
point of the alternator through a resistance.
This grounding resistance will limit the earth-
fault current.
• The earth-fault current will be more for faults
away from the neutral point and it will be less
for faults nearer to the neutral point.
 Working
• Thus, for less severe faults (i.e., faults near the
neutral point) the fault current may be
restricted so that, the secondary current of
the CT falls below the pick-up current of the
relay.
• Hence, a certain percentage of the winding
nearer the neutral point remains unprotected
by the restricted earth-fault protection
 Working
• Usually, the emf induced in the stator winding
up to 10 to 15% of total winding from the
neutral point will not be sufficient enough to
produce heavy electrostatic stress which
results in insulation failure.
• Hence, the probability of insulation failure in
this part of the winding is almost negligible.
Thus, there is no need of providing protection
for this part of winding against ground faults.
 Working
• But, for the major part of winding which is
away from the neutral point, there exist the
chances of insulation failure.
• Thus, it is necessary to provide protection for
this part of winding against ground faults.
Hence, the restricted earth-fault protection
provided to alternators does not provide
protection against earth-fault to the complete
winding.
 Bus Bar Arrangements
• https://www.slideshare.net/SaiSampath16/va
rious-busbar-arrangements
• https://www.slideshare.net/jayranvir/electrica
l-bus-bar-and-its-types
Single Bus-Bar Arrangement:
Single Bus-Bar Arrangement with Bus Sectionalization
Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement
 Main and Transfer Bus Arrangement

This arrangement has been quite frequently

adopted where the loads and continuity of
supply justify additional costs.
This arrangement provides additional flexibility,
continuity of supply and allows periodic
maintenance without total shutdown.
Such an arrangement is suitable for highly
interconnected power network in which
flexibility is very important.
 Working

• Such an arrangement consists of two bus-bars,

known as main bus-bar and transfer bus-bar used
as an auxiliary bus-bar.
• Each generator and feeder may be con­nected to
either bus-bar with the help of bus coupler which
con­sists of a circuit breaker and isolating switches.
• In this arrange­ment a bus coupler is usually used
so that change-over from one bus-bar to the
other can be carried out under load condi­tions.
 Steps
• Close the bus-coupler (circuit breaker) so as to
make the two buses at the same potential.
• Close isolators on the reserve bus.
• Open isolators on the main bus.
 One-and-a-Half Breaker Arrangement
• This is an improvement over double bus double
breaker arrangement and it affects saving in the
number of circuit breakers. This arrangement
needs three circuit breakers for two circuits. The
number of circuit breakers per circuit comes out
to be 1½ hence the name.
• This arrangement is preferred in important large
stations where power handled per circuit is large
One-and-a-Half Breaker Arrangement

The above arrangement has been used in important 400 kV and 750 kV
substations
Ring Main Arrangement
Mesh Arrangement
Principle of Circulating Current
Linear Coupler
 High Impedance Relay
• A high resistance is connected in series with
relay operating coil to make it more sensitive
for internal and external faults.
• Resistance is called stabilizing resitance
High Impedance Relay
 Overcurrent Relay
• The operating time of all Overcurrent Relay
Characteristics tends to become asymptotic to
a definite minimum value with increase in the
value of current.
• This is inherent in electromagnetic relays due
to saturation of the magnetic circuit. So by
varying the point of saturation different
Overcurrent Relay Characteristics are obtained.
Definite time.
Inverse definite minimum time (IDMT).
Very inverse.
Extremely inverse.
Overcurrent relays
• The relay has two electromagnets. The upper
electromagnet has two windings, one of these
is primary and is connected to the secondary
of a CT in the line to be protected and is
tapped at intervals.
• The plug bridge is usually arranged to give
seven sections of tappings to give overcurrent
range from 50% to 200% in steps of 25%.
• If the relay is re­quired to response for earth
fault the steps are arranged to give a range
from 10 % to 70 % or 20 to 80% in steps of
10%.
 Selection of Pick up value
• Thus pick-up current equals the rated secondary
current of CT multiplied by current setting.
• For example suppose that an overcurrent relay having
a current setting of 150% is connected to a supply
circuit through a CT of 500/5 A.
• The rated secondary current of CT is 5 A and,
therefore, the pick-up value will be 1.5 x 5 i.e., 7.5 A.
• It means that with above current setting, the relay will
actually operate for a relay current equal to or greater
than 7.5 A.
 Working
•  When the pin is withdrawn for the purpose of
changing the setting value while the relay in
service, the relay automatically adopts higher
setting, thus the CT’s secondary is not open-
circuited.
 Working
• The second winding is energized by induction
from the primary, and is connected in series
with the winding on the lower magnet.
• By this arrangement, leakage fluxes of upper
and lower electro­magnets are sufficiently
displaced in space and phase to set up a
rotational torque on the aluminum disc
suspended between the two magnets, as in
the shaded pole induction disc motor.
• The torque of these relays as shown earlier is
proportional to Φ1Φ2 sin α where Φ1 and Φ2 are
the two fluxes cutting the disc or cup and α is the
angle between them.
• Where both fluxes are produced by the same
quantity, as in current or voltage operated relays,
then below saturation the torque is proportional
to I2, the coil current, or T = KI2 
• If the core is made to saturate at a very early
stage with the result that by increasing I, K
decreases so that the time of operation
remains same over the working range.
 Working

The angle can be set to any value between 0° and

360° and thereby giving desired time setting. This
adjustment is known as time-setting multiplier. Time
multiplier setting is generally in the form of an
adjustable back-stop which decides the arc length
through which the disc travels, by reducing the
length of travel, the operating time is reduced.
 Working
• The time setting multiplier is calibrated from 0 to 1
in steps of 0.05. These figures do not represent the
actual operating times but are multipliers to be used
to convert the time known from the relay name
plate curve (time-PSM curve) into the actual
operating time. 
• Thus if time setting is 0.2 and the operating time
obtained from the time-PSM curve of the relay is 5
seconds, then actual operating time of the relay will
be equal to 0.2 x 5 i.e., 1 second.
 Overcurrent relay Settings
• The time multiplier setting for an inverse time relay is
defined as;

where
T = the required time of operation
Tm = the time obtained from the relay
characteristic curve at TMS=1.0, and using the
PSM equivalent to maximum fault current.
 Overcurrent relay Settings
• Thus, if the TMS is 0.1 and the time obtained
from the curve, for a particular current is 4.0
seconds the actual operating time will be 4.0 X
0.1=0.4 second.
• In other words, if the time from the curve is
4.0 seconds and the operating time required is
0.4 second the TMS should be 0.4/4.0=0.1.
Increasing the TMS has the effect of moving
the curve higher on the time scale.
 Overcurrent relay Settings

where, as is usually the case, the rated current of the relay is

equal to the rated secondary current of the CT.
For example, if the maximum fault current that can flow
through the relay location is 3000 A and the relay is set to
operate at 200 primary amperes, then PSM=3000/200=15,
or if the primary current is 3000 A and the relay current
setting is 50% and the CT ratio is 400/5, then
 Overcurrent Protection of Feeders:

• Overcurrent relays offer the cheapest and the

simplest protection for lines.
• The maximum load currents must be known to
determine whether the ratio of the minimum fault
current to maximum load current is high enough to
enable simple overcurrent operated relays to be
used successfully.
• This criterion is chosen in order to prevent the
possibility of misoperation under normal operating
conditions.
Overcurrent Protection of Feeders
• This form of protection can be applied only to
simple systems. The relays need readjustment or
even replacement whenever a change in the
system is made. The operating times are
generally large.
• Overcurrent Protection of Feeders may be
divided into two categories:
• Nondirectional time and current grading; and
• Directional time and current grading.
 Nondirectional Time and Current Grading

Time-Graded Systems
• To ensure selectivity of operation under all
circumstances in a radial feeder, the operating time
of the protection is increased from the far end of
protected circuit towards the generating source.
• This is very conveniently achieved with the help
of definite-time­delay relays, which usually consists
of an instantaneous overcurrent relay followed by a
timing relay the contacts of which trip the breaker
 Time-Graded Systems

• As the number of relays in series increase, the

operating time increases towards the source.
Thus the heavier faults near the generating
source are cleared after a longer interval of
time, which is a drawback.
Time-Graded Systems
 Time-Graded Systems

• The time setting of the successive relays differ

by an interval known as time delay step, which
is a factor of (i) fault clearance time of circuit
breaker, (ii) finite contact gap to ensure
nonoperation, (iii) overtravel of relays, and (iv)
relay and CT tolerances.
• Normally the time delay step lies between 0.3s
and 0.5s. A time delay step of 0.5s is a safe
value which is taken in this illustration.
 Current-Graded Systems
• It is based on the fact that the short-circuit
current along the length of the protected
circuit decreases as the distance from the
source to the fault location increases.
• If the relays are set to pickup at a progressively
higher current towards the source then the
disadvantage of the long time delays that
occur with time grading can be partially
overcome.
 Current-Graded Systems
• This is known as current grading. Each relay
would be set to pickup at a progressively
higher current towards the source. Such relays
are known as high-set-overcurrent relays.
 Current-Graded Systems
• It would consist of high-set-overcurrent relays
at A, B and C with settings such that the relay
at A would operate for faults between A and
B, the relay at B. for faults between B and C,
the relay at C for faults beyond C. In practice
the following difficulties are experienced:
Current-Graded Systems
Difficulties of Current-Graded Systems
• The magnitude of the fault current cannot be
accurately determined, since all the circuit
parameters may not be known.
• The accuracy of relays under transient
conditions is likely to be different.
• The relay cannot differentiate between faults
which are very close to, but are on each side of
B, since the difference in the current would be
extremely small.
 Current-Graded Systems
• Hence for discrimination the relays are set to
protect only part of the feeder, usually, 80%.
For this reason current grading alone cannot
be used, but it may, with advantage, be added
to a time-graded or IDMT relay system.
 Current-Graded Systems
• Fig shows the characteristics of the combined
high-set overcurrent (instantaneous) and
IDMT Overcurrent Protection of Feeders.
• For correct discrimination the instantaneous
elements must be set so that they do not
operate for faults beyond the Overcurrent
Protection of Feeders.
•
Current-Graded Systems
 Current-Graded Systems
• As a general rule a margin of 50% is
recommended, e.g. the primary operating
current of the instantaneous relay at A is not
less than 150 % of the maximum fault current
at B. The margin allows for errors and for the
overreach of the instantaneous relay on offset
transients.
 Current Graded Systems
• Transient overreach occurs when the current wave
contains a d.c. component and is therefore offset from
the zero axis; it is defined as follows:

where
A = relay pickup current in steady state rms
amperes.
B = the steady state rms current which when fully
offset will just pick up the relay.
 Current Graded Systems
• The IDMT relay at A must discriminate with the
instantaneous element at B for a fault at B, and
with the IDMT relay at B for a fault at F (the
limit of reach of the instantaneous element at
B). If there were not an instantaneous relay at
B the IDMT relay at A would require the slower
characteristic curve (i).
• .
 Current Graded Systems
• Schemes where speed of fault clearance is
proportional to the current are usually
preferred, i.e. the higher the current the faster
the relay operates. The schemes that follow
have this characteristic
 Current/Time-Graded Systems
• Current/time grading is possible with inverse-time
Overcurrent Protection of Feeders.
• The most widely used is the IDMT characteristic
where grading is possible over a wide range of
currents and the relay can be set, within the design
limits, to any value of definite minimum time
required.
• Other inverse characteristics, viz. very inverse and
extremely inverse characteristics are also sometimes
employed for the same purpose.
 Current/Time-Graded Systems
• If the fault current reduces substantially as the
fault position moves away from the source
some advantage can be gained by using very
inverse relays instead of IDMT relays.
• The long operating time at low values of
overloads of IDMT relays make extremely
inverse relays eminently suitable. Where
grading with fuses is required it is the ideal
choice.
 Coordination of Inverse-Time Overcurrent
Relays
• Selection of current setting:
• It is necessary to calculate the maximum fault
current which can occur at each relay position.
A three phase fault under maximum
generation gives the maximum fault current
and phase to phase fault under minimum
generation gives the minimum fault current.
 Coordination of Inverse-Time Overcurrent
Relays
• These are the two extreme values of fault
current and the relay has to respond between
these conditions.
• On a radial system the lowest setting must be
at the farthest end; the settings being increased
for the subsequent relays towards the source.
• As per Indian Standards the operating value
should not exceed 130% of the setting, hence
 Selection of time setting
• For selective operation when there are a
number of relays connected in series, the relay
farthest from the source should be sot to
operate in the minimum possible time.
• For succeeding relays towards the source a
time delay step is given. For inverse-time
Overcurrent Protection of Feeders the time
setting should be done at the maximum fault
current.
 Selection of time setting
• If the relay has proper selectivity at maximum
fault current, it will automatically have a
higher selectivity at the minimum fault
current, as the curve is more inverse on lower
current region.
 Directional Relays

• Selective protection cannot be achieved with

time graded overcurrent protection systems in
ring or loop systems as well as in radial circuits
with two end power supply.
• A directional feature is incorporated in the
Directional Relays.
Directional Relays
 Directional Relays

• Lower winding from a separate voltage source.

• When the voltage of this source is equal and
opposite to the output of the upper magnet
secondary winding there is no current in the
lower coil, and therefore no torque is produced.
• If it opposes and is less than the secondary
output, or if it assists the secondary output,
there is an operating torque.
 Induction Type Directional Overcurrent Relay

• he directional power relay is unsuitable for use as a

directional protective relay under short-circuit
conditions.
• When a short-circuit occurs, the system voltage falls
to a low value and there may not be insufficient
torque developed in the relay to cause its operation.
• This difficulty is overcome in the Induction Type
Directional Overcurrent Relay which is designed to
be almost independent of system voltage and power
factor
Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay
 Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay
• The potential coil of this element is connected
through a potential transformer (P.T.) to the system
voltage.
• The current coil of the element is energised through
a C.T. by the circuit current. This winding is carried
over the upper magnet of the non-directional
element.
• The trip contacts (1 and 2) of the directional element
are connected in series with the secondary circuit of
the overcurrent element
 Induction Type Directional Overcurrent
Relay
• . Therefore, the latter element cannot start to
operate until its secondary circuit is
completed.
• In other words, the directional element must
operate first (i.e. contacts I and 2 should close)
in order to operate the overcurrent element.
 Directional Time and Current Grading

• In the plain radial feeders the discrimination is

obtained by means of the. relay time and
current setting adjustments only.
• To obtain discrimination where feeders other
than radial feeders are employed, it is usually
necessary to incorporate a directional feature
in the protection.
Directional Time and Current Grading
 Directional Time and Current Grading
• If a fault anywhere on the feeder point F the
supply will be disrupted completely for both the
feeders irrespective of the relay settings
chosen.
• To ensure discrimination it is usual to have
relays A2 and B2 as direction sensitive such that
they operate for faults occurring in the feeder in
the direction indicated by the arrows (away
from the bus) as shown in Fig.
 Directional Time and Current Grading
• Furthermore directional relays A2 and B2 should operate
before nondirectional relays A1 and B1.
• For this reason they are given lower time and current
settings than A1 and B1.
• Usually a directional relay is required at one end of each
feeder with a nondirectional relay at the other end.
• Directional overcurrent relays are graded in the same
way as the nondirectional overcurrent relays already
explained
Directional Time and Current Grading
 Directional Time and Current Grading
• Fig shows the case of a tee’d parallel feeder, where
again for discriminative reasons the relays on the
source end bus must be nondirectional while the
relays on the load end buses must be directional
relays with their direction for operation
corresponding to fault current flowing into the
feeder.
• Furthermore, directional relays are set for lower
time and current settings than the nondirectional
ones, so that the former operate before the latter
Ring Main Protection
• Relay settings are determined by considering the grading
first in one direction and then in the other, working
backwards to the power source. For instance,
considering the counterclockwise circuit D1—A2 in Fig.
(5.7) the relay settings at A2 are calculated first;
• The relay must receive atleast twice its setting current
for a fault at A1 end of the A2A1 feeder with the A1 circuit
breaker open and the fault current fed around the ring
from D1 with the minimum generating conditions at the
source.
• The minimum setting of the TMS can be used
at A2, but the current setting must, be
sufficient for the relay to withstand thermally
the full load of all the substations, i.e. (1) to
(6).