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*ffZ L e v i n e , Seym our, 1 9 2 5 -
An e x p e r i m e n t a l a n a l y s i s o f t h e
s e le c t iv e p r in c ip le o f a s so c ia tio n
o f d r iv e s t im u li.
70p. ta b le s , d ia g r s.
T h e s i s ( P h . D . ) - N . Y . U . , G ra d u ate
S c h o o l, 1952. C 91510
B i b l i o g r a p h y : p . 6 2 - 6 I4..
1 . B eh a v io r ism (P s y c h o lo g y ) 2 .
D i s s e r t a t i o n s , A cadem ic - N .Y .U . -
1 9 5 2 . I . T i t l e : D t ' ve s t i m u l i . I I .
T itle jA sso c ia ti o f d r iv e s tim u li
S hall I ict

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THIS DISSERTATION HAS BEEN MICROFILMED EXACTLY AS RECEIVED.

 LIBRARY OF
NEW YORK UNIVERSITY
UNIVERSITY HEIGHTS

AN EXPERIMENTAL ANALYSIS OF THE

SELECTIVE PRINCIPLE OF ASSOCIATION OF
DRIVE STIMULI

By
Seymour L e v i n e

A d i s s e r t a t i o n i n t h e D epartm ent o f P s y c h o l o g y
su b m itte d in p a r t i a l f u l f i l l m e n t o f th e r e q u ir
ment f o r t h e d e g r e e o f D o c t o r o f P h i l o s o p h y a t
New Y ork U n i v e r s i t y

Dooember? ■M&k
f* , i *1 S "7—
 A cknow ledgem ent s

I w i s h t o e x p r e s s my s i n c e r e a p p r e c i a t i o n t o

P r o f e s s o r Howard H. K e n d le r f o r h i s i n v a l u a b l e

a ssista n c e , w i t h o u t w h ic h , t h i 3 work coulc. n o t

have been c a r r ie d to a s u c c e s s f u l c o n c lu s io n .

To my w i f e , B a r b a r a M cW illiam s L e v i n e , I

w is h t o e x t e n d my t h a n k s f o r h e r p a t i e n c e and

encouragem ent th ro u g h o u t th e c o u r se o f t h i s

w ork.

I w is h a l s o t o e x p r e s s my a p p r e c i a t i o n

t o Mrs. S h i r l e y W hite f o r th e t y p i n g and a s ­

sista n c e in p r o o fr e a d in g o f t h i s m a n u scr ip t.

F in a lly , I w ould l i k e t o th a n k a l l t h e

p e o p l e , t o o num erous t o m e n t io n , w hose s u g ­

g e s t i o n s and e n c o u r a g em en t a i d e d im m en se ly

i n t h e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p l e t i o n o f t h i s w ork.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

I In tro d u ctio n 1

II S t a t e m e n t o f P r o b lem 25

III E x p e r im e n t I

A. Procedure 28

B. R e su lts 33

C. D isc u ssio n 35

D. Summary 43

IV E x p e r im e n t I I

A. In tr o o u c tio n 44
B. Procedure 47

C. R e s u l t s randL i s c u s s i o n 53

D. Summary 60

V B ib lio g r a p h y 63

A p p en u ix I — A N o te C o n c e r n in g Heron* s T ec h - 65
n iq u e o f Pumping A n im a ls

A p p en d ix I I - The E f f e c t s o f an I r r e l e v a n t 67
D r iv e Upon L e a r n i n g i n a T-maze

A p p e n d ix I I I - The e f f e c t s o f a Change o f D r iv e 69
on T-m aze P e r fo r m a n c e
 Among t h e p r o b le m s o f p s y c h o l o g i c a l t h e o r y t h a t h a v e

b een r e c e i v i n g c o n s id e r a b le a t t e n t i o n r e c e n t l y are th o s e

c o n c e r n e d w i t h t h e manner i n w h ic h m o t i v a t i o n a l and l e a r n i n g

v a r i a b l e s co m b in e t o d e t e r m in e b e h a v i o r . R ecen tly a c o n tr o ­

v e r s y h a s a r is e n c o n c e r n in g one o f t h e m o t iv a t io n a l v a r i a b l e s ,

th e d r iv e s t im u lu s . The c o n c e p t o f d r i v e s t i m u l u s ( Sp) i s a

key c o n c ep t in H u l l ' s th e o r y o f b e h a v io r . H u ll s t a t e s t h a t ,

” . . . a s s o c i a t e d w i t h e v e r y d r i v e ( D) i s a c h a r a c te r istic

d r i v e s t i m u l u s ( Sp) w hose i n t e n s i t y i s an i n c r e a s i n g mono­

to n ic fu n c tio n o f th e d r iv e in q u e s tio n ." ( 1 2 , p . 2 3 5 ) D r iv e

s t i m u l u s i s d e f i n e d a s t h e s t i m u l a t i o n a r i s i n g from a c o n d i ­

t io n o f n eed or m o t iv a t io n . T h is c o n c e p t i m p l i e s t h a t m o t i ­

v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s can a c t a s a s t i m u l u s and t h e r e f o r e c a n

become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h a r e s p o n s e . The c o n c e p t o f t h e d r i v e

s t i m u l u s s h o u ld b e c l e a r l y d i s t i n g u i s h e d from t h e c o n c e p t o f

d r i v e (D ) w h ic h a s p o s t u l a t e d b y H u l l ( 1 2 ) i s an i n t e r v e n i n g

v a r ia b le d e fin e d as a fu n c tio n o f a l l s p e c i f i c n e e d s o f th e

moment. S p e c i f i c a l l y d r i v e (D ) a c t s i n a m u l t i p l i c a t i v e

manner w i t h h a b i t (gHj^) t o d e t e r m in e b e h a v i o r ( qEr ) , w h e r e a s

th e d r iv e stim u lu s i s a com ponent o f t h e t o t a l s t i m u l u s com­

p l e x o f a p a r t i c u l a r h a b i t (gHR) , and a s su c h h a s t h e c a p a ­

c i t y to a c q u ir e h a b it lo a d in g l i k e o th e r s t i m u l i .

I n 1 9 3 3 , H u l l ( 1 1 ) r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s o f a s t u d y w h ic h

in d ic a t e d t h a t r a t s resp o n d d i f f e r e n t i a l l y t o a c o n s ta n t en­

v i r o n m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f d i f f e r e n t d r i v e s . In

t h i s e x p e r im e n t a l b i n o r a t s w ere t r a i n e d i n a r e c t a n g u l a r

m a ze. On some d a y s a g i v e n a n im a l w o u ld b e run i n t h e maze

when s a t i a t e d w i t h w a t e r , b u t d e p r i v e d o f f o o d , w h e r e a s on
 -2 -

o t h e r d a y s t h e same r a t w o u ld b e run when s a t i a t e d w i t h f o o d

b u t w ith w ater d e p r iv a tio n . On t h e f o o d p r i v a t i o n d a y s t h e

r e i n f o r c e m e n t chamber a lw a y s c o n t a i n e d f o o d and t h e l e f t e n ­

t r a n c e t o t h e chamber was b l o c k e d so t h a t a c c e s s c o u l d b e

h a d o n l y by t r a v e r s i n g t h e r i g h t s i d e o f t h e r e c t a n g l e . On

t h e w a t e r d e p r i v a t i o n d a y s t h e s i t u a t i o n was r e v e r s e d . The

r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e a n im a ls g r a d u a l l y a t t a i n e d t h e a b i l i t y

o f r e s p o n d i n g a p p r o p r i a t e l y t o t h e d r i v e d o m in a n t a t t h e t i m e .

In 193 5, L eeper (2 2 ) r e p o r te d c o r r o b o r a tiv e r e m i t s . In both

o f t h e s e s t u d i e s t h e a n im a ls w ere m o t i v a t e d d u r in g some r u n s

by t h e d e p r i v a t i o n o f w a t e r and on o t h e r s by t h e d e p r i v a t i o n

o f food . H u ll ( 1 2 ) e x p la in e d th e a n im a ls' b e h a v io r i n t h e s e

s t u d i e s by a s s u m in g t h a t t h e s t i m u l i a t t h e c h o i c e p o i n t so

i n t e r a c t e d w ith th e d r iv e s tim u lu s t h a t th e s tim u lu s p a t te r n

o f t h e c h o i c e p o i n t and t h e t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l u s became a s ­

s o c ia t e d w ith one s p a t i a l r e sp o n se ( e . g . , tu r n in g l e f t ) w h ile

t h e p a t t e r n o f t h e c h o i c e p o i n t and h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l u s b e ­

came a s s o c i a t e d w it h t h e o t h e r s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e ( r i g h t t u r n ) .

T h is f o r m u l a t i o n h a s b e e n r e f e r r e d t o a s t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e

p r in c ip le o f a s s o c ia tio n o f d r iv e s tim u li (25) because i t does

n o t d i f f e r e n t i a t e b e tw e e n c l a s s e s o f a r i v e s t i m u l i ( i . e . ,

hunger d r iv e s tim lu s , t h i r s t d r iv e s tim u lu s ) w ith r e s p e c t to

t h e ir r o le in le a r n in g . No d i s t i n c t i o n i s made a s t o v fa e th er

o r n o t t h e d r i v e w i t h w h ich t h e s t i m u l u s i s a sso c ia te d i s th e

one w h ic h i s rew arded in th e le a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n . A c c o r d in g

t o t h i s n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e a l l d r i v e s t i m u l i w h ic h a r e

p r e s e n t a t t h e t im e o f l e a r n i n g becom e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h th e

le a r n e d r esp o n se .
 -3 -

I n an a t t e m p t t o t e s t t h e a d e q u a cy o f H u l l ’ s a n a l y s i s ,

K e n d le r ( 1 8 ) , In 1946, t r a i n e d a l b i n o r a t s I n a T-maze t o

resp o n d under a m o t iv a t io n a l d o n d it io n o f sim u lta n e o u s hun­

g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s . One o f t h e a n i m a l s ’ t u r f t in g r e s p o n s e s

was a lw a y s r e w a r d e d w i t h f o o d w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r s p a t i a l r e s ­

p o n s e a lw a y s l e d t o w a t e r .

On t h e b a s i s o f th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e I t w o u ld be

e x p e c t e d t h a t a n im a ls t r a i n e d u n d er t h e a b o v e c o n d i t i o n s

w ou ld f a i l t o make t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n t o e i t h e r f o o d o r w a t e r

when m o t i v a t e d by e i t h e r h u n g e r o r t h i r s t . The r e a s o n i n g b e ­

h i n d t h i s e x p e c t a t i o n s te m s from t h e f a c t t h a t an im p o r t a n t

e le m e n t i n H u l l ' s e x p l a n a t i o n o f h i s r e s u l t s was t h a t t h e r e

w ere two p a t t e r n s o f s t i m u l i , o n e w h ic h became c o n d i t i o n e d

to th e l e f t r e s p o n s e and o ne t o t h e r e s p o n s e o f t u r n i n g r i g h t .

T h e se p a t t e r n s o f s t i m u l u s h a d i n common a l l t h e c u e s from

t h e e x t e r n a l e n v ir o n m e n t ( e . g . , th e c h o ic e p o in t) and d i f f e r

fro m e a c h o t h e r i n te r m s o f t h e i r d r i v e c o m p o n e n ts . In th e

K e n d le r ( 1 8 ) e x p e r im e n t b o t h h u n g e r and t h i r s t w ere p r e s e n t

d u rin g th e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s , h en ce t h e d r iv e s t i m u l i o f b o th

h u n g e r and t h i r s t s h o u l d becom e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h s p a t i a l

respon ses. " S i n c e t h e h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l u s was a com ponent

I n t h e s t i m u l u s compound ( c h o i c e - p o i n t , h u n g e r and t h i r s t )

w h ic h becam e c o n n e c t e d t o b o t h s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e s th r o u g h

need r ed u c tio n , i t s h o u ld b e j u s t a s s t r o n g l y c o n d i t i o n e d t o

m ak in g t h e t u r n l e a d i n g t o w a te r a s t o m ak ing t h e t u r n l e a d ­

in g to food . T h u s, when e i t h e r o n e o r t h e o t h e r d r i v e s was

p r e s e n t e d a l o n e d u r in g t h e t e s t se r ie s, t h e Ss s h o u l d r e s p o n d

t o t h e l e f t o r r i g h t a l l e y i n a random m anner, o r , in oth er

w o r d s , t h e y s h o u ld n o t e x h i b i t t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

w ith r e s p e c t to th e g o a l." ( 1 9 , p . 382)

The r e s u l t s o f K endler* s e x p e r im e n t w ere fo u n d t o b e c o n ­

t r a r y t o t h e e x p e c t a t i o n b a s e d on t h e a s s u m p tio n t h a t b o t h

t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l i became c o n d i t i o n e d t o

b oth s p a t ia l r e s p o n s e s . The Ss c u r i n g t h e t e s t t r i a l s ( t h o s e

tr ia ls d u r in g w h ich t h e an im al was m o t i v a t e d f o r e i t h e r f o o d

o r w a t e r ) r e s p o n d e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y 7 3 $ o f t h e t im e when m o t i ­

v a t e d by h u n g e r , and 9 8 $ o f t h e t im e when m o t i v a t e d by t h i r s t .

The i n c o n s i s t e n c y o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s w i t h t h e

n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e l e d K e n d le r ( 1 8 ) t o f o r m u l a t e t h e s e ­

l e c t i v e p r in c ip le o f a s s o c ia tio n o f d r iv e s t im u li. T h is p r i n ­

c ip le s t a t e s " . . . t h a t o n l y t h o s e d r i v e s t i m u l i w h ic h a r e them ­

s e l v e s r e d u c e d becom e c o n n e c t e d t o a r e w a r d e d r e s p o n s e . " The

I m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h i s a s s u m p t io n w o u ld b e t h a t when an a n im a l,

b o t h h u n g r y and t h i r s t y , tu rn ed l e f t to a t t a i n fo o d i n th e

K e n d le r -ty p e e x p e rim en ta l s i t u a t i o n , o n ly th e h u nger d r iv e

s t i m u l u s w ou ld becom e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e t u r n i n g r e s p o n s e , b e ­

c a u s e t h e t h i r s t d r i v e w ou ld f a i l t o b e r e d u c e d f o l l o w i n g th e

c h o ic e .

U L a g r a m a t i c a l l y t h e d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e s e l e c t i v e

and n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f a s s o c i a t i o n o f d r i v e s t i m u l i

w o u ld b e a s f o l l o w s :

Sj2T"r- — -R i ~\_^>Food

S— — — — ----- Rr W ater

F ig . l a S e le c tiv e P r in c ip le
 -5 -

-R-. ^ N ^ > -K o o d
S J*

W ater

F ig . lb N o n -S elec tiv e P r in c ip le

F i g u r e s l . a and l . b M a g ra m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f n on -
s e l e c t i v e and s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s : S n -h u n g er
d r iv e stim u lu s S ^ - t h i r s t d r iv e s tim u lu s .
Rq_ and Rp - r e s p o n s e s .

As i s i n d i c a t e d by t h e d ia g r a m t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e

o f a s s o c ia t io n o f d r iv e s t i m u l i w o u ld assume t h a t o n l y t h o s e

d r i v e s t i m u l i w h ic h a r e t h e m s e l v e s r e d u c e d become a s s o c i a t e d

w i t h a r e w a r d e d r e s p o n s e , -while t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e

w o u ld im p ly t h a t any d r i v e s t i m u l i p r e s e n t a t t h e tim e o f a

rew arded r e s p o n s e w o u ld become c o n n e c t e d t o t h a t r e s p o n s e .

K e n d le r r e c o g n i z e d t h a t t h e r e was a n o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n

f o r h i s r e s u l t s w i t h i n t h e fram ew ork o f t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e

p r in c ip le . T h i s e x p l a n a t i o n was one s u g g e s t e d by S p en ce ( 2 6 )

and i t i n v o k e d t h e f r a c t i o n a l a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e me­

ch a n is m w h ic h H u l l ( 8 , 9, 1 0 ) f i r s t p o s tu la te d to e x p la in

c e r t a i n phenomena o f c o m p le x maze l e a r n i n g . B riefly , t h e an­

t ic ip a to r y goal respon se ( in th e case o f a hunger d r iv e ) i s

assum ed t o work a s f o l l o w s i n K e n d l e r * s e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n :

In itia lly , o n l y t h e h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l u s and t h e f o o d w o u ld

evoke a n t ic ip a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s . H ow ever, as le a r n in g
 -6 -

progressed, t h e s e a n t i c i p a t o r y r e s p o n s e s w o u ld become c o n ­

d i t i o n e d t o c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e g o a l b o x w h ich c o n t a i n e d

f o o d and t h e n w ou ld "work backw ards" u n t i l c u e s a t t h e e n ­

t r a n c e t o t h e c o r r e c t a l l e y w ou ld be c a p a b l e o f e v o k in g some

com ponent o f t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n s e . ’With t h e a i d

o f t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e m ech an ism , t h e e x p l a n a t i o n

o f K e n d l e r 1 s r e s u l t s was a s f o l l o w s : " ...th e s t im u li i n th e

f o o d b o x and i n t h e a l l e y l e a d i n g t o t h e f o o d b o x become a s ­

s o c i a t e d w i t h a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s ( s a l i v a t i o n , m as­

t i c a t o r y m ovem ents, e tc .) an d , i n t u r n , th e p r o p r io c e p tiv e

s t i m u l u s co m p o n en ts r e s u l t i n g from t h e s e a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l

r e s p o n s e s becom e t h e m s e l v e s c o n a i t i o n e d t o e n t e r i n g and co n ­

t i n u i n g l o c o m o t i o n i n t h e a l l e y l e a d i n g t o t h e fo o d b o x . In

a s i m i l a r manner a n t i c i p a t o r y d r i n k i n g r e s p o n s e s becom e c o n ­

d i t i o n e d t o t h e a l l e y l e a d i n g t o w a t e r and p r o v i d e c u e s w h ic h

t e n d t o e l i c i t t h e r e s p o n s e o f a p p r o a c h in g and c o n t i n u i n g l o ­

c o m o t io n i n t h a t a l l e y . . . . D u r in g t h e t e s t s e r i e s when o n l y a

s in g le d r iv e i s p r e s e n t, f o r e x a m p le , h u n g e r . . . ( t h e ) r e a s o n

t h a t t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y fo o d r e s p o n s e s a r e dom in an t o v e r t h e

a n t ic ip a t o r y d r in k in g r e s p o n s e s .. . . . i s th a t in th e p r e v io u s

h i s t o r y o f t h e a n im a l t h e h u n g e r d r i v e h a s a c q u i r e d a s t r o n g

ten d en cy to e l i c i t e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s and o n l y l i t t l e , if any

te n d en cy t o evoke d r in k in g r e s p o n s e s ." (1 8 , p . 218)

I n a t t e m p t i n g t o t e s t t h i s h y p o t h e s i s K e n d le r ( 1 9 ) f e l t

t h a t a c r u c i a l e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e w o u ld be one w h ic h p r e ­

c l u d e d t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d i s t i n c t i v e a n tic ip a to r y e a tin g or

d r in k in g r e s p o n s e s . I f th e le a r n in g o f th e l o c a t i o n o f fo o d

and w a t e r i n a T-maze u n d e r t h e i n f l u e n c e o f sim u ltan eou s hvngar

 -7 -

and t h i r s t d r i v e s d e p e n d e d on d i s t i n c t i v e e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g

r e s p o n s e s t h e n i t w o u ld f o l l o w t h a t I f t h e d i s t i n c t i v e f e a ­

t u r e s o f b o t h t h e d r i n k i n g and e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s w ere e l i m i n a ­

ted , a p p r o p r ia te d is c r im in a t o r y b e h a v io r in th e above d e s c r i ­

b e d s i t u a t i o n w o u ld a l s o be e l i m i n a t e d . K e n d le r a t t e m p t e d t o

t e s t t h i s a n a l y s i s by r a i s i n g a group o f 20 a l b i n o r a t s on a

d ie t c o n s is t in g e x c lu s iv e ly o f a m ilk -ir o n -c o p p e r s o lu t io n .

A n o th e r group o f t w e l v e r a t s w ^ s r a i s e d on a norm al d i e t

( p u r i n a do g chow and w a t e r ) . I t was r e a s o n e d t h a t t h e a n im a ls

r a i s e d on a l i q u i d d i e t w ould n o t d e v e l o p d i s t i n c t i v e a n t i c i ­

p a t o r y e a t i n g and d r i n k i n g r e s p o n s e s s i n c e t h e d r i n k i n g o f a

l i q u i d a p p a r e n t l y s a t i s f i e d b o t h t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s .

I t was i n t e n d e d t h a t t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e u s e d by

K e n d le r t l 8 ) In h i s s t u d y i n v o l v i n g s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y and

t h i r s t y a n im a ls w o u la b e d u p l i c a t e d p r e c i s e l y w i t h t h e S3

r a i s e d on a l i q u i d d i e t . I n t h e e x p e r im e n t i t w i l l b e r e c a l ­

l e d f o o d was p l a c e d i n one e n d - b o x o f a T-maze w h i l e w a t e r

was p l a c e d i n t h e o t h e r . I t was d i s c o v e r e d , h o w e v e r , th at

e x a c t d u p l i c a t i o n was n o t p o s s i b l e b e c a u s e r a i s e d ona m ilk -

i r o n - c o p p e r l i q u i d d i e t r e f u s e d t o consum e w a t e r . I t was

t h e r e f o r e n e c e s s a r y t o m o d if y t h e maze s i t u a t i o n so t h a t a

m i l k - w a t e r s o l u t i o n was s u b s t i t u t e d f o r th e w ater o f th e

o r i g i n a l stu d y ( 1 8 ) .

D u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s o f K e n d l e r ' s s e c o n d s t u d y ( 1 9 )

b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l group and t h e c o n t r o l group h a d e q u a l

e x p e r ie n c e w ith th e c o n te n t o f b oth g o a l b o x e s . The t e s t

t r i a l s c o n s is t e d o f one t r i a l d a i l y f o llo w in g th e d e p r iv a t io n

o f e it h e r fo o d or th e m ilk -w a te r s o lu t io n . The p e r fo r m a n c e
o f b o t h g r o u p s w ere e s s e n t i a l l y sim ila r . The r e s u l t s i n d i ­

c a t e d t h a t d u r in g t h e f o u r t e s t t r i a l s t h e Sfc i n t h e e x p e r i ­

m e n t a l gro u p made 5 9 . 6 $ c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w h i l e t h e a n im a ls

i n t h e c o n t r o l group r e s p o n d e d a p p r o p r i a t e l y 6 2 . 5 $ o f th e

tim e. T h e se r e s u l t s c o u l d be I n t e r p r e t e d i n e i t h e r o f two

w ays. The f i r s t i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w ould be t h a t , c u e t o th e

l a c k o f n e c e s s a r y e x p e r i e n c e r e q u i r e d f o r t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f

d i s t i n c t i v e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g and a r i n k i n g r e s p o n s e s , th e

Ss w e r e u n a b l e t o l e a r n t h e a p p r o p r i a t e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e ­

h a v io r . The s e c o n d i n t e r p r e t a t i o n w o u ld b e t h a t t h e a c q u i s i ­

t i o n o f opp osed s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e s t o a m ilk -w a te r s o l u t i o n

and t o s o l i d f o o d i s e s s e n t i a l l y a d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m and

t h e r e f o r e th e 5 9 .6 $ c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s o f th e ex p e rim en ta l

group d u r in g t h e t e s t - s e r i e s m e r e l y r e f l e c t t h i s d i f f i c u l t y

r a t h e r th a n t h e l a c k o f u n iq u e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g and d r i n k ­

in g r e s p o n s e s in th e b e h a v io r r e p e t o ir e o f th e S3.

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t t e n d t o s u p p o r t t h e s e ­

co n d a l t e r n a t i v e . The f a c t t h a t t h e c o n t r o l g r o u p , w h ic h h a d

b e e n r a i s e d on a d i e t c o n d u c i v e t o t h e d e v e lo p m e n t o f d i s t i n c ­

t i v e a n t i c i p a t o r y d r i n k i n g and e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s , f a i l e d t o

p e r fo r m any more e f f i c i e n t l y th a n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l grou p w o u ld

a p p ea r t o I n v a l i d a t e t h e f i r s t a lte r n a tiv e . I t w o u ld seem

t h a t t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e tw e e n a m i l k - w a t e r s o l u t i o n and f o o d

i s b a s i c a l l y a d i f f i c u l t p r o b le m a s e v i d e n c e d b y t h e p o o r p e r ­

fo r m a n ce o f b o t h t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l a n i m a l s . Two &

h o w e v e r , i n e a c h grou p e x h i b i t e d d e f i n i t e e v i d e n c e o f h a v i n g

le a r n e d th e a p p ro p ria te h a b i t s . D u r in g t h e e i g h t t e s t t r i a l s

t h e s e a n im a ls made 1 0 0 $ c o r r e c t c h o i c e s . Inasm uch a s some

 -9 -

l e a m i n g was e v i d e n c e d on t h e p a r t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l a n im a ls

and s i n c e t h e r e was no d i f f e r e n c e b e tv /e e n t h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l and c o n t r o l g r o u p s , t h e r e s u l t s w ere I n t e r ­

p r e t e d t o b e more c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e a s

com pared t o t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e e v e n when t h e mecha­

n is m o f t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e was i n v o k e d .

In r e c e n t y e a r s a d d itio n a l e v id e n c e h a s been brought to

b e a r upon t h i s t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e . Webb ( 2 7 ) t e s t e d th e a s­

su m p tio n t h a t a group o f r a t s i n w hich an a d d i t i o n a l n o n - r e -

w arded t h i r s t d r i v e was p r e s e n t d u r i n g b o t h t r a i n i n g and e x ­

tin c tio n w o u ld d e v e l o p an a d d i t i o n a l com pon en t o f h a b i t -

s t r e n g t h th r o u g h t h e c o n d i t i o n i n g o f t h e " a d d i t i o n a l ” d r i v e

s tim u lu s to th e r e s p o n se . I f t h i s w e re a v a l i d h y p o t h e s i s ,

a n im a ls t r a i n e d u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f h u n g e r and an i r r e l e v a n t

th ir st-d r iv e ^ sh o u ld e x h i b i t g r e a t e r r e s i s t a n c e to e x t i n c t i o n

th a n a n im a ls who p o s s e s s e d t h e a d d i t i o n a l t h i r s t d r i v e o n l y

d u r in g t h e e x t i n c t i o n s e r i e s . T h i s w ould f o l l o w b e c a u s e i t

w ould be e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e i r r e l e v a n t t h i r s t d r i v e w ould b e ­

come a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e d u r i n g t r a i n i n g

and t h u s h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o e v o k e t h e r e s p o n s e d u r i n g e x t i n c ­

tio n . The r e s u l t s d i d n o t y i e l d any d i f f e r e n c b e tw e e n t h e

r a t e s o f e x t i n c t i o n f o r t h e s e two g r o u p s . K e n d le r ( 1 7 ) r e ­

p o rted s im ila r r e s u lt s . He fo u n d t h a t r a t s w hose b a r p r e s ­

s i n g h a b i t s w ere e x t i n g u i s h e d u n d e r a g e n e r a l i z e d i r r e l e v a n t

1 . R e l e v a n t d r i v e s a r e d e f i n e d a s t h o s e d r i v e s t a t e s w h ich
a r e r e d u c e d by t h e r e s p o n s e b e i n g s t u d i e d i n a g i v e n s i t u a ­
t i o n ; i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s a r e t h o s e d r i v e s t a t e s , w h ic h may
c o e x i s t w i t h t h e r e l e v a n t d r i v e , b u t w h ic h a r e n o t t h e m s e l v e s
red uced by th e r e sp o n se In q u e s tio n .
 -1 0 -

d r i v e d i d n o t e x t i n g u i s h s i g n i f i c a n t l y f a s t e r th a n r a t s t h a t

p o s s e s s e d t h e same d e g r e e o f i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e d u r in g b o t h th e

a c q u isitio n and e x t i n c t i o n t r i a l s . The i m p l i c a t i o n o f b o t h

o f t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s was t h a t t h e a d d i t i o n a l n o n -r e w a r d e d

t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l u s d i d n o t become c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e r e w a r d ­

ed f o o d r e s p o n s e and h e n c e t h e s e w ere i n t e r p r e t e d b y K e n d le r

(2 1 ) to be c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a ­

tio n o f d r iv e stim u lu s.

F u rth er e v id e n c e fa v o r in g th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e is pre­

s e n t e d i n a r e c e n t e x p e r im e n t by K e n d le r and Law ( 2 0 ) . In th e

f i r s t o f two s t u d i e s two g r o u p s o f a l b i n o r a t s w ere t r a i n e d t o

go t o t h a t s i d e o f a T-maze w h ich c o n t a i n e d f o o d . One gro u p

was b o t h h u n g r y and t h i r s t y w h i l e t h e o t h e r group was j u s t hu n­

gry. A f t e r r e a c h i n g t h e c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g t o go t o f o o d ,

b o t h g r o u p s w ere made t h i r s t y and w a t e r was p l a c e d i n th e en d

b o x w h ich h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n em pty. The t e s t was t o d e t e r ­

m ine w h ic h group w o u ld l e a r n t o go t o w a t e r more q u i c k l y . "Ac­

c o rd in g to th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c ia t io n o f d r iv e

stim u li, t h e h u n g r y and t h i r s t y group s h o u ld b e r e t a r d e d i n

l e a r n i n g t o go t o w a t e r b e c a u s e t h e t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l u s

s h o u ld h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o e v o k e t h e r e s p o n s e t o t h e f o o d s i d e .

H ow ever, a c c o r d in g to th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e , no r e t a r d a t io n

s h o u ld b e e x p e c t e d f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e t h i r s t d r i v e s t im u ­

l u s w ould n o t h a v e become c o n n e c t e d t o t h e r e s p o n s e l e a d i n g t o

f o o d . " ( 2 0 , p . 3 00 )

The r e s u l t s o f t h i s s t u d y s u p p o r t e d t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n ­

c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n o f d r iv e s t i m u l i s in c e no e v id e n c e o f r e ­

t a r d a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e ‘ h u n g r y and t h i r s t y g r o u p ’ was
 -1 1 -

o b ta in e d .

A s e c o n d s t u d y was e s s e n t i a l l y a d u p l i c a t e o f t h e f i r s t

e x c e p t t h a t a n o t h e r two g r o u p s o f S 3 w ere t r a i n e d i n i t i a l l y

t o go t o t h e s i d e o f t h e T-maze w h ich c o n t a i n e d w a t e r . One

group was b o t h h u n g r y ana t h i r s t y , w h e r e a s t h e o t h e r group

w as j u s t t h i r s t y . D u r in g t h e t e s t s e r i e s t h e a n im a ls w ere

made h u n g r y and fo o d was p l a c e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty e n d -

box. As i n t h e f i r s t s t u d y t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w ould p r e ­

d i c t t h a t t h e r e s h o u ld b e no d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e g r o u p s i n

th e r a t e o f l e a r n i n g t o go t o f o o d . The n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n ­

c i p l e w o u ld y i e l c . t h e d e d u c t i o n t h a t t h e 1 t h i r s t ana h u n g e r

g r o u p ’ w ould b e r e t a r d e d i n l e a r n i n g . The r e s u l t s a g a in t e n d ­

ed t o b e i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e l e c t i v e

p r in c ip le . In t h i s stu d y, as i n t h e f i r s t , t h e r e was no e v i ­

d e n c e o f r e t a r d a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e group t h a t h a d b e e n

b o t h h u n g r y and t h i r s t y .

The r e s u l t s o f K e n d le r and Law ( 2 0 ) are in s u b s t a n t ia l

a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h o s e o f Webb ( 2 7 ) and K e n d le r ( 1 7 ) i n t h e i r

support o f th e s e l e c t i v e p r in c ip le o f a s s o c ia t io n o f d r iv e

stim u li. It sh o u ld be n o te d how ever, th a t in a l l o f th e se

s t u d i e s o n l y t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s w ere u s e d . In t h i s

area, at le a s t, th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e seem ed more v a l i d th a n

th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e .

The c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n t h e s e l e c t i v e and n o n - s e l e c t i v e

p r in c ip le s o f a s s o c ia t io n o f d r iv e s tim u li has been k in d le d

r e c e n t l y by t h r e e e x p e r im e n ts , o ne by Axnsel ( 1 ) , a n o t h e r by

W in n ic k ( 2 9 ) and o n e by E n in g e r ( 2 ) . Amsel f e l t th a t a c r i ­

t i c a l t e s t o f K e n d le r 's assu m p tion o f s e l e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n

 -1 2 -

w o u ld I n v o l v e an e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n i n w h ic h l e a r n i n g

c o u l d r e s u l t o n l y from t h e p r e s e n c e o f d i f f e r e n t i r r e l e v a n t

d r iv e s t im u li. He a c c o m p l i s h e d t h i s by t r a i n i n g a n im a ls i n

a T -m aze, w i t h t h e rew a r d b e i n g e s c a p e from c e r t a i n maze

c u e s w h ich h ad b e e n c o n d i t i o n e d t o t h e a n x i e t y r e s p o n s e . The

a n im a l c o u ld e s c a p e t h e a n x i e t y - i n d u c i n g s i t u a t i o n by e i t h e r

a l e f t or r ig h t tu rn in g r e sp o n se . On any one t r i a l , how ever,

o n l y one o f t h e s e r e s p o n s e s l e d t o e s c a p e from t h e m aze. The

Ss w ere r e q u i r e d t o make a c h o i c e o f o n e o f two a l t e r n a t i v e

p a t h s on t h e b a s i s o f w h ic h o f t h e two i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s

(h u n g e r o r t h i r s t ) was p r e s e n t a t th e tim e. On d a y s when

t h e a n im a l was t h i r s t y o n l y a r i g h t t u r n i n t h e maze w ould

l e a d t o e s c a p e w h i l e on d a y s when t h e a n im a l was h u n g r y o n l y

a l e f t t u r n i n g r e s p o n s e l e d t o e s c a p e from t h e m aze. The

p r o b le m was t o a s c e r t a i n w h e th e r a n im a ls c o u ld l e a r n t h i s

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r r e l e v a n t t h i r s t o r h u n ­

ger d r iv e s. Amsel t r a i n e d a n o t h e r group o f r a t s u n d e r t h e

same e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s e x c e p t t h a t f o o d o r w a t e r f o l ­

lo w e d t h e s e l e c t i o n o f t h e a p p r o p r i a t e t u r n i n g r e s p o n s e . The

c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g i n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s was t e n s u c c e s s i v e

correct f ir s t t r ia ls . The a n im a ls w ere g i v e n f i v e tr ia ls

d a i l y f o r 78 d a y s and two t r i a l s d a i l y f o r 30 d a y s . The r e ­

s u l t s o f A m se l’ s e x p e r i m e n t s r e v e a l a v e r y c o n s i d e r a b l e d i f ­

f e r e n c e i n t h e r a t e o f l e a r n i n g b e tv /e e n t h e two g r o u p s . In

t h e g r o u p s o f a n im a ls who h ad t h e d r i v e o f h u n g e r and t h i r s t

rew arded, a l l a n im a ls l e a r n e d t h e s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

( r i g h t o r l e f t t u r n i n g ) by t h e f i f t y - f i r s t day o f r u n n in g ,

w h e r e a s i n t h e o t h e r gro u p o f a n i m a l s , t h o s e a n im a ls who h a d
 -1 3 -

t o l e a r n t h e s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f

t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e o n ly , two o f t h e t e n S s l e a r n e d t h e d i s ­

c r i m i n a t i o n ; one r a t by t h e 7 0 t h day and t h e o t h e r by t h e 9 9 t h

day. On th e b a s i s o f t h e s e r e s u l t s Amsel ( 1 ) sta ted " ...c o n ­

s i d e r i n g t h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f t h e Group I S3 a l o n e , o n e m i g h t ,

t h e r e f o r e b e l e d t o m o d if y K e n d l e r * s ( 1 8 ) h y p o t h e s i s t h u s :

i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i ( o f t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t t y p e ) b e ­

come c o n n e c t e d t o r e w a r d e d r e s p o n s e s w it h w » ic h t h e y a r e c o n ­

t i g u o u s o n ly a s a r e s u l t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c e . " Amsel

c o n c l u d e s t h a t i n s o f a r a s two o f t h e t e n s u b j e c t s l e a r n e d i n

th is situ a tio n , t h e s e l e c t i v e h y p o t h e s i s was n o t s u p p o r t e d .

A c r i t i c i s m w h ic h can b e l e v e l e d a g a i n s t Amsel l i e s i n

h is s t a t i s t i c a l procedure. Grant ( 5 ) p o i n t s o u t t h a t a s t h e

number o f t r i a l s i n a s e r i e s i s e x t e n d e d t h e p r o b a b i l i t y o f

a g i v e n c o m b in a t io n o c c u r r i n g i n t h e s e r i e s a p p r o a c h e s c h a n c e .

In t h i s e x p e r im e n t i n v h i c h p = . 5 i t w o u ld b e n e c e s s a r y f o r

10 s u c c e s s i v e c o r r e c t t r i a l s t o be a c c o m p l i s h e d w i t h i n 28

t r i a l s to be s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f id e n c e , and

a run o f 1 0 s u c c e s s i v e c o r r e c t c h o i c e s w i t h i n 1 1 2 t r i a l s t o

be s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e .0 5 l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .

T h ere a r e a d d i t i o n a l p o i n t s t o be c o n s i d e r e d . The f i r s t

is t h e o r d e r i n w h ic h Amsel v a r i e d t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t m o t i ­

v a tio n . A c c o r d in g t o Amsel " . . . t h e p a t t e r n o f h u n g e r and

t h i r s t d a y s i n t h e t o t a l e x p e r i m e n t a l s e q u e n c e was l a r g e l y

s in g le a lte r n a tio n ." (1 p . 7 8 7 ) I t h a s b e e n shown t h a t a n i ­

m a ls a r e c a p a b l e o f l e a r n i n g s i n g l e and e v e n d o u b le a l t e r n a ­

tio n seq uences. (13, 14) T h ere e x i s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t

t h e s e a n im a ls l e a r n e d n o t on t h e b a s i s o f th e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e
s tim u li bu t le a r n e d a s in g le a lt e r n a t io n p a t te r n .

B ut e v e n i f we a r e s u f f i c i e n t l y l e n i e n t t o o v e r l o o k t h e

a f o r e m e n t i o n e d o b j e c t i o n s a r e we s t i l l j u s t i f i e d i n a s su m in g

t h a t l e a r n i n g t o o k p l a c e s o l e l y on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r r e l e ­

vant d r iv e s tim u li? A r e c e n t e x p e r im e n t by Heron ( 7 ) y i e l d e d

r e s u l t s w h ic h s u g g e s t an a l t e r n a t i v e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e s l i g h t

d e g r e e o f l e a r n i n g e v i d e n c e d by A nsel* s a n i m a l s . Heron t r a i n e d

6 a n im a ls t o l e a r n a d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o r i g i n a l l y

r e p o r te d by H u ll (1 1 ) and L e e p e r ( 2 2 ) . A f t e r h i s a n im a ls h ad

l e a r n e d t h e h u n g e r - t h i r s t d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , Heron i n t r o d u c e d

th ree co n tro l c o n d itio n s . The f i r s t c o n t r o l was t o d e p r i v e

t h e r a t s o f b o t h f o o d and w a t e r f o r t w e n t y - f o u r h o u r s . U n d er

t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e a n im a ls w ent t o t h e f o o d s i d e 100% o f t h e

tr ia ls. The s e c o n d c o n t r o l was t o s a t i a t e th e anim als fo r

b o th com m odities. U nder t h i s c o n d i t i o n t h e a n i m a l s r a n t o

t h e w a t e r s i d e 92% o f t h e t r i a l s . T h i3 was an e n t i r e l y un­

exp ected r e s u lt . It s h o u l d be r e a s o n a b l e t o assume t h a t t h e

t h i r s t d r i v e w o u ld b e s t r o n g e r u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f d e p r i ­

v a t i o n o f b o t h c o m m o d it ie s and i f t h e m a n i f e s t a t i o n o f a h a b i t

is a f u n c tio n o f th e s tr e n g th o f d r iv e a s s o c ia t e d w ith i t ,

t h e n t h e s e a n im a ls s h o u ld h a v e shown a p r e f e r e n c e f o r t h e wa­

te r sid e . In stea d , as h a s been i n d i c a t e d , th e Ss c h o s e t h e

f o o d s i d e on a l l t r i a l s . I t w ould a l s o f o l l o w t h a t I f t h e

a n i m a l s w e re s a t i a t e d f o r f o o d and w a t e r , th en w hatever d r iv e

s t i m u l i w ere p r e s e n t d u r in g l e a r n i n g w o u ld n o t b e a c t i v e u n d e r

t h e c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p le t e s a t i a t i o n and random b e h a v i o r s h o u l d

r e su lt. T h i s n o t b e i n g t h e c a s e Heron i n t r o d u c e d a t h i r d c o n ­

t r o l c o n d itio n . U n d er t h i s c o n d i t i o n , 4 a n i m a l s w ere d e p r i v e d
o f f o o d and w a t e r f o r 48 h o u r s and t h e n w e r e pumped w i t h 5 1 c c .

o f w a ter. T h ese a n i m a l s ’ c h o i c e s w ere 1 0 0 $ t o t h e w a t e r s i d e .

T h e se r e s u l t s l e d Heron t o q u e s t i o n t h e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t t h e

a n im a ls i n h i s e x p e r im e n t and o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s o f a s i m i l a r

n a t u r e were r e s p o n d i n g on t h e b a s i s o f t h e d r i v e s t i m u l i from

h u n g e r and t h i r s t i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p a t t e r n . The g e n e r a l

proced u re u se d in t h i s typ e o f stu u y u s u a l l y in v o lv e d p r e s e n t ­

i n g t h e a n im a ls w i t h fo o d p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l r u n s on

t h e c a y s t h a t t h e a n im a ls w ere run t h i r s t y , and g i v i n g t h e a n i ­

m a ls w a t e r p r i o r t o th e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n on t h e d a y s th e

a n im a ls w ere run h u n g r y . In asm u ch a s t h e a n im a ls when s a t i a t e d

o r pumped w i t h w a t e r made a lm o s t 1 0 0 $ o f t h e i r c h o i c e s t o th e

w ater s i d e , and when t h e a n im a ls w ere a e p r i v e d o f b o t h f o o d

and w a t e r t h e i r r e s p o n s e s w e re 1 0 0 $ t o t h e f o o d s i d e , Heron

h y p o t h e s i z e d t h a t t h e a n im a ls d i d n o t i n c o r p o r a t e t h e d r i v e

s t i m u l i from h u n g e r ana t h i r s t i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i v e p a t t e r n

b u t r a t h e r u s e d t h e s t i m u l i from a f u l l v e r s u s a p a r t i a l l y

fu ll s to m a c h . The b a s i s f o r u h i s h y p o t h e s i s s te m s from t h e

a fo rem en tio n ed p roced u re u sed to produce a s t a t e o f hu nger

or t h ir s t . Thus when t h e a n im a l I s p r e s e n t e d f o o d on t h i r s t

days, t h e a n im a l i s p e r f o r m in g u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f a f u l l

sto m a c h and when t h e a n im a l i s p r e s e n t e d w a t e r on t h e h u n g e r

d a y s , t h e a n im a l i s now r u n n in g u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f a p a r ­

tia lly fu ll s to m a c h . A lth o u g h H e ro n ’ s d a t a i s f a r from d e f i ­

n itiv e , i t d o e s s u g g e s t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t a m echanism o t h e r

th a n t h a t o f t h e i n t e r n a l d r i v e s t i m u l i m igh t b e o p e r a t i v e i n
 -1 6 -

th e !H u ll-L e e p e r typ e s i t u a t i o n . ' ^

W in n ic k ( 2 9 ) p r e s e n t s a d d i t i o n a l e v i d e n c e r e l e v a n t t o

t h e c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n t h e s e l e c t i v e and n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n ­

c ip le s. I n h e r e x p e r im e n t two g r o u p s o f r a t s w ere t r a i n e d t o

a v o i d l i g h t by p u s h i n g a g a i n s t a m e t a l p a n e l . D u r in g t h e

t r a i n i n g t h e l i g h t r e m a in e d o f f a s l o n g a s t h e a n im a ls m ain ­

t a in e d th e p a n el in a r a is e d p o s i t i o n . One group o f 1 0 a n i ­

m a ls r e c e i v e d t r a i n i n g i n th e p a n e l r e s p o n s e w i t h an i r r e l e ­

v a n t h u n g e r c r i v e o f 22 h o u r s p r e s e n t , w h i l e a n o t h e r group o f

1 0 a n im a ls r e c e i v e d t h e same t r a i n i n g w h i l e s a t i a t e d . In

ord er to t e s t th e h y p o th e s is th a t th e hunger d r iv e s t im u li b e ­

came c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p a n e l p u s h i n g r e s p o n s e e a ch group was

d i v i d e d i n t o 2 s u b g r o u p s d u r i n g an e x t i n c t i o n s e r ie s c o n s ist­

i n g o f t w o - o n e h o u r p e r i o d s on s u c c e s s i v e a a y s . H a lf o f th e

gro u p t h a t p o s s e s s e d t h e i r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r a r i v e d u r in g t r a i n ­

in g underw ent e x t i n c t i o n w ith th e i r r e l e v a n t a r i v e p r e s e n t

d u rin g each e x t i n c t i o n p e r io d , w h ile th e o t h e r h a l f p o s s e s s e d

th e i r r e l e v a n t hu nger d r iv e o n ly d u rin g th e secon d e x t i n c t i o n

p e r io d . The m e a su r e u s e d t o i n d i c a t e t h e s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e ­

s p o n s e was r a t h e r u n c o n v e n t i o n a l . The s t r e n g t h o f t h e r e s p o n s e

was m ea su red i n te r m s o f t h e p e r c e n t o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l h o u r

t h e a n im a l s p e n t i n r a i s i n g t h e p a n e l .

2 . I t s h o u ld b e n o t e d t h a t i n H e r o n ’ s a n a l y s i s ( 7 ) i t i s Im-
p l i e d t h a t d r i v e s t i m u l i may n o t b e a b l e t o form t h e b a s i s
o f a d isc r im in a tio n . He f a i l e d , h o w e v e r , t o c o n s i d e r K e n d l e r ’ s
(18) r e s u lt s . In t h is l a t t e r stu d y i t w i l l be r e c a l l e d a n i­
m a ls w ere c a p a b l e o f l e a r n i n g two o p p o s e d s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e s
on t h e . b a s i s o f t h e h u n g e r ana t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l i . S in c e
t h e s e a n im a ls h ad b e e n s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y and t h i r s t y t h e
s t i m u l a t i o n from t h e a e g r e e o f f u l l n e s s o f t h e i r sto m a c h s
c o u ld n o t have p la y e d a r o l e .
 17-

D L a g r a m a t i c a l l y , t h e p r o a e d u r e was a s f o l l o w s :

M o tiv a tio n d u rin g M o t i v a t i o n d u r in g e x t i n c t i o n

a c q u isitio n
F ir s t hour Second h o u r

Hunger Hunger Hunger

H unger S a tia te d Hunger

An e x a m in a t io n o f t h e e x t i n c t i o n d a t a f o r t h e group t h a t

was t r a i n e d i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f t h e i r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r a r i v e ,

ana p o s s e s s e d t h e i r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r d r i v e , o n ly a u r in g th e

second hour o f e x t i n c t i o n sh o u la y i e l d e v i d e n c e a s t o w h e th e r

t h e i r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l i becam e c o n n e c t e d t o th e

p a n el p u sh in g r e s p o n se . The r e a s o n i n g b e h in d t h i s i s as f o l ­

lo w s: if t h e d r i v e s t i m u l i a i a become c o n n e c t e d t o t h e p a n e l

p u s h i n g r e s p o n s e i t w ould b e e x p e c t e d t h a t when t h e d r i v e s t i ­

m u li i s rem oved d u r in g t h e f i r s t h o u r o f e x t i n c t i o n t h e r e s p o n s e

r a t e f o r t h e s e a n im a ls s h o u ld be l e s s th a n t h a t o f t h e group

t h a t had th e d r iv e s t i m u l i p r e s e n t a u r in g th e f i r s t hour o f

e x tin c tio n . F u r th e r m o r e , i t w o u ld be e x p e c t e d t h a t when t h e

I r r e l e v a n t d r iv e i s r e in tr o u u c e d d u rin g th e second e x t in c t io n

p e r io d th e r e sh o u ld be a s i g n i f i c a n t in c r e a s e in th e resp o n se

ra te. The d a t a f o r t h e group t h a t was t r a i n e d u n c e r 22 h o u r s

o f hunger, and p o s s e s s e d t h e h u n g e r d r i v e d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d

e x t i n c t i o n p e r io d o n ly , te n d s to s u b s t a n t ia t e th e im p lic a t io n s

o f th e n o n - s e le c t iv e p r in c ip le . The r e s u l t s r e v e a l e d t h a t th e

r e s p o n s e r a t e f o r u h i s group d u r i n g t h e f i r s t e x t i n c t i o n h o u r

was s i g n i f i c a n t l y l o w e r th a n t h e r e s p o n s e r a t e o f t h e group

t h a t had t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e p r e s e n t d u r in g t r a i n i n g and a l s o
d u r in g t h e f i r s t e x tin c tio n p e r io d . The d a t a a l s o i n d i c a t e d

t h a t when t h e I r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r d r i v e i s r e i n t r o a u c e d d u r i n g

th e second e x t in c t io n hour th e r e I s a s i g n i f i c a n t in c r e a s e in

response str en g th . The r e s u l t s a r e sum m arized i n T a b le I :

T a b le I

P e r c e n t o f tim e s p e n t i n p a n e l p u s h i n g f o r s u c c e s s i v e
1 0 m in u te p e r i o d s f o r b o t h e x t i n c t i o n h o u r s .

F i r s t e x t i n c t i o n hour Second e x t i n c t i o n h o u r

Group __________________________________ ____________________________________

1st 2nd 3 r d 4 t h 5'th 6 t h 1 s t 2nd 3 r d 4 t h 5 t h 6 th

H(HH)3 14 8 1 4 2 1 12 8 1 2 2 0

H(SH) 7 3 3 1 1 0 16 9 7 7 3 0

Two q u e s t i o n s may be a s k e d o f t h i s d a t a : 1 ) t o w hat e x ­

t e n t c a n t h e i n c r e a s e i n r e s p o n s e s t r e n g t h d u r in g t h e s e c o n d

e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d f o r gro u p H(SH) b e a t t r i b u t e d t o s p o n t a n e o u s

r e c o v e r y and 2) t o w h at e x t e n t can t h i s i n c r e a s e b e a t t r i b u t e d

t o an i n c r e a s e i n a c t i v i t y l e v e l c a u s e d by an i n t r o d u c t i o n o f

th e hunger d r iv e ? I n an sw er t o t h e f i r s t q u e s t i o n a c o m p a r i­

s o n b e tw e e n t h e e x t i n c t i o n d a t a o f t h e g r o u p s w h ic h w e re t r a i n ­

ed i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f an i r r e l e v a n t h u n g e r d r i v e ( g r o u p s H(HH)

and group H (S H )) r e v e a l e d t h a t t h e r e i s some i n c r e a s e a t f i r s t

due t o s p o n t a n e o u s r e c o v e r y d u r i n g t h e se c o n d e x t i n c t i o n p e r ­

io d f o r th e group t h a t h ad t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e p r e s e n t d u r­

in g b o th e x t in c t io n s e r i e s (g r o u p H(HH)-), b u t t h e i n c r e a s e

3 . The symbol b e f o r e t h e p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s t h e m o t i v a t i o n
d u rin g a c q u i s i t i o n . The f i r s t sym bol i n t h e p a r e n t h e s i s i n ­
d i c a t e s th e m o t iv a t io n d u rin g th e f i r s t e x t i n c t i o n hour; th e
s e c o n d sy m b o l, t h e m o t i v a t i o n d u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h o u r .
 -1 9 -

d u r in g t h e s e c o n d e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d f o r t h e group t h a t h a d

t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e a b s e n t d u r in g t h e f i r s t e x tin c tio n per­

i o d (g r o u p H (SH )) i s s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n c o u l d b e a t ­

tr ib u te d to spontaneous r e c o v e r y a lo n e . The s e c o n d q u e s t i o n

can b e a n sw ered by an a n a l y s i s o f t h e d a t a o f o t h e r g r o u p s

u sed i n t h i s ex p erim en t.

The p r o c e a u r e u s e d f o r t h e s e g ro u p s w ere s i m i l a r t o t h a t

u se d f o r th e groups in th e f i r s t p a r t o f t h i s stu u y , t h e one

d if f e r e n c e b e in g th a t t h e s e a n im a ls w ere s a t i a t e d d u r i n g

t r a i n i n g and e i t h e r s a t i a t e d o r h u n g r y d u r in g e x t i n c t i o n . The

m o t i v a t i o n f o r t h e s e g r o u p s w ere a s f o l l o w s :

M o tiv a tio n d u rin g M o tiv a tio n d u rin g e x t i n c t i o n

a c q u isitio n
F ir s t hour Second h o u r

S a tia te d Hunger S a tia te d

S a tia te d S a tia te d Hunger

The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d f o r t h e s e g r o u p s a r e sum m arized i n T a b le I I

T a b le II

P e r c e n t o f tim e s p e n t i n p a n e l p u s h i n g f o r s u c c e s s i v e
1 0 m in u te p e r i o d s f o r b o t h e x t i n c t i o n h o u r s .

F i r s t e x t in c t io n hour Second e x t i n c t i o n h o u r

Group_________________________ _________ ___________________________________

1st 2nd 3 r d 4 t h 5 t h 6th 1st 2nd 3 rd 4 t h 5 t h 6th

S (S H )* 1 0 7 6 5 1 0 9 2 2 0 0 0

S(HS) 17 15 10 8 3 0 7 5 2 1 0 0

*see fo o tn o te 3
 I f an i n c r e a s e i n r e s p o n s e r a t e ca n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o an

i n c r e a s e i n a c t i v i t y l e v e l due t o t h e i n t r o d u c t i o n o f a h u n g e r

d r i v e i t w ould b e e x p e c t e d t h a t a u r i n g t h e s e c o n d h o u r o f e x ­

t i n c t i o n when t h e o r i v e was i n t r o u u c e d t o a group w h ic h had

p r e v io u s ly been s a t i a t e d , an i n c r e a s e i n r e s p o n s e s t r e n g t h

s h o u ld r e s u l t . T h i s group d i a n o t d e m o n s t r a t e any i n c r e a s e

i n r e s p o n s e s t r e n g t h d u r i n g t h e se c o n d e x t i n c t i o n p e r i o d ,

th erefo re, th e second q u e s tio n te n d s to y i e l d a n e g a t iv e a n s­

w e r. The r e s u l t s , th erefo re, seem t o im p ly t h a t i r r e l e v a n t

d r i v e s t i m u l i become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h an I n s t r u m e n t a l r e s p o n s e

le a d in g to rew ard.

W innick s t a t e s , h o w e v e r , t h a t "The d a t a r e p o r t e d h e r e

s h o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d a s m e r e l y s u g g e s t i n g t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t s t i m u l i a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t-he s t a t e o f h u n g e r may a c t a s

c u e s d i s t i n c t from t h e i r r o l e i n m o t i v a t i n g r e s p o n s e s and i n

b e i n g r e d u c e d by r e i n f c r c e m e n t * . , The g r o u p s b e tw e e n w h ic h

c o m p a r is o n s w ere made w ere s m a ll ( f i v e r a t s in each su b grou p ),

and d a t a w ere c o m p l i c a t e d by t h e f a c t t h a t c o r r e l a t e d w i t h th e

in tr o d u c tio n o f th e hunger s ta te i s an i n c r e a s e i n a c t i v i t y ,

e s p e c i a l l y a f f e c t i n g th e r e sp o n se o f p u sh in g a g a in s t a p a n e l

p l a c e d where t h e f o o d box was p l a c e d when t h e a n im a l was f e d . "

( 2 9 , p . 203)

A s i d e from t h e s h o r t c o m i n g s o f t h e e x p e r im e n t w h ic h Win­

n ic k r e c o g n iz e s, t h e r e a r e two a d d i t i o n a l f a c t o r s w h ich t e n d

to fu r th e r c o m p lica te t h i s d a ta . The f i r s t o f t h e s e f a c t o r s

is th e u n c o n v e n t i o n a l r e s p o n s e m e a s u r e s u s e d i n t h i s s t u d y .

I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t t h e m easu re u s e d y i e l d e d o n l y th e

mean p e r c e n t a g e o f t im e s p e n t i n p a n e l p u s h i n g .
 One o f t h e d i f f i c u l t i e s a r i s i n g from t h e u s e o f t h i s

m easure o f th e s t r e n g t h o f th e r e s p o n s e i s t h a t i t d o es n o t

a d e q u a t e l y e q u a t e t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a n im a ls d u r i n g t h e

tr a in in g p e r io d ; i . e . , two a n im a ls may h a v e e x h i b i t e d i d e n ­

t i c a l p e r c e n t a g e s d u r i n g a t e n m in u te p e r i o d , f o r e x a m p le 2 0 $ ,

b u t f o r o n e a n im a l t h i s 2 0 $ m ig h t c o n s i s t o f two r e s p o n s e s

e a c h l a s t i n g o ne m in u t e , w h e r e a s f o r a n o t h e r anim al t h i s same

2 0 $ may h a v e b e e n a r e s u l t o f e i g h t r e s p o n s e s e a c h o f a d u r a ­

t io n o f o n ly 15 sec o n d s. Thus t h e r e e x i s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y

t h a t t h e r e may be l a r g e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e a c t u a l number o f

r e s p o n s e s made e v e n th o u g h t h e p e r c e n t a g e s m ig h t be t h e same.

W ith due r e s p e c t t o W in n ick i t s h o u ld be n o t e d h e r e t h a t t h i s

e x p e r im e n t was o r i g i n a l l y d e s i g n e d t o t e s t c e r t a i n a s p e c t s o f

a v o id a n ce b e h a v io r ( 3 0 ) , and f o r t h i s work t h e r e s p o n s e mea­

s u r e s w ere a d e q u a t e , b u t a s u s e d h e r e , t h e in a d e q u a c y o f t h e

r e s p o n s e m e a su r e i n e q u a t i n g t h e e x p e r i e n c e o f t h e a n im a ls

d u rin g th e t r a i n i n g p e r io d i s app arent.

The s t a t i s t i c s t h a t w ere u s e d i n t h i s s t u a y g i v e r i s e t o

th e second c r i t i c i s m . W in n ic k u s e d an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e

t o t e s t t h e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e g r o u p s d u r -

in g th e e x t i n c t i o n p e r io d . Inasm uch a s one o f t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s

o f t h i s te c h n iq u e i s t h a t th e s c o r e s be n o r m a lly d i s t r i b u t e d ,

t h e j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r u s i n g t h i s t e c h n i q u e on e x t i n c t i o n d a t a ,

w h ic h a r e u s u a l l y sk e w e d , i s q u e stio n a b le . T h ere e x i s t s t h e

p o ssib ility t h a t i f o t h e r s t a t i s t i c a l t e c h n i q u e s ( 2 3 ) , w h ic h

make no a s s u m p t i o n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f d i s t r i b u t i o n w ere u s e d ,

t h e s e d i f f e r e n c e s may n o t h a v e b e e n s i g n i f i c a n t .

The m o s t r e c e n t e v i d e n c e t o e n t e r i n t o t h e c o n t r o v e r s y i s
 -2 2 -

p r o v i d e d by an e x p e r im e n t p e r fo r m e d b y E n in g e r ( 2 ) . In t h is

e x p e r im e n t a n im a ls w e re t r a i n e d i n a T-m aze t o a v o i d s h o c k

under th e c o n d it io n s o f a s i n g l e i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e , e i t h e r hu n­

ger or t h i r s t . A fte r a p e r io d o f t r a in in g , e x t i n c t i o n o f th e

r e s p o n s e was u n d e r t a k e n . lu r in g th e e x t i n c t i o n h a l f th e a n i­

m a ls were e x t i n g u i s h e d w i t h t h e same i r r l e v a n t d r i v e a s was

p r e se n t c u r in g le a r n in g . The o t h e r a n im a ls u n d e rw e n t e x t i n c ­

t io n in th e p r e se n c e o f a d i f f e r e n t i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e c o n d it io n

from t h a t p r e s e n t d u r i n g th e l e a r n i n g o f t h e r e s p o n s e , i . e . ,

h u n g e r d u r in g l e a r n i n g , h u n g e r d u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n ; h u n g e r d u r­

in g le a r n in g , t h i r s t c u r in g e x t i n c t i o n . I t was assum ed t h a t

if i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i do a c q u i r e a s s o c i a t i v e c o n n e c t i o n s

to th e r e sp o n se , t h e group t h a t u n d e rw e n t e x t i n c t i o n i n th e

p r e s e n c e o f an i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e t h a t was d i f f e r e n t from th e

d r i v e p r e s e n t d u r i n g l e a r n i n g s h o u ld e x t i n g u i s h more r a p i d l y

f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h i s group w ou ld h a v e l e s s a sso c ia tiv e

s t r e n g t h i n v o l v i n g t h e r e sp o n se d u rin g th e e x t i n c t i o n se r ie s.

The r e s u l t s t e n d e c t o c o n f ir m t h e a s s u m p t i o n . The a n im a ls

t h a t h ad t h e same i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e c o n d i t i o n p r e s e n t c u r i n g

th e le a r n in g o f th e resp o n se e x h ib ite d g r e a t e r resp o n se s t a ­

b ility (slo w e r e x tin c tio n ) th a n t h e c o m p a r a b le group v/hich

u n o er w e n t e x t i n c t i o n u n d e r a d i f f e r e n t i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e c o n ­

d i t i o n from t h a t p r e s e n t d u r i n g e x t i n c t i o n . I t w ould app ear

t h a t th e s e r e s u l t s are c o n t r a d ic to r y to K en d ler’ s h y p o th e s is

o f se le c tiv e a sso c ia tio n (1 8 ). T here i s , h o w e v e r , a fla g r a n t

e r r o r o f om m ision i n t h e r e p o r t o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t . At no

p o i n t i n t h e E n in g e r a r t i c l e ( 2 ) is t h e r e a m e n t io n o f t h e a -

mount o f l e a r n i n g f o r t h e g r o u p s o f a n i m a l s . As l o n g a s t h e r e
e x i s t s t h e p o s s i b i l i t y t h a t t h e r e w ere d i f f e r e n c e s i n l e a r n ­

in g , i t cannot j u s t i f i a b l y be s a id t h a t th e d i f f e r e n c e s t h a t

w ere o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e e x t i n c t i o n w ere a f u n c t i o n o f t h e

d r iv e s t im u li.

I n s u m m a r iz in g t h e e v i d e n c e p r e s e n t e d h e r e i n s u p p o r t

o f both v ie w p o in ts, s e v e r a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s p r e s e n t th em se lv e s

F irst, it s h o u ld be n o t e d t h a t i n t h e s i t u a t i o n s w h ic h h a v e

i n v o l v e d o n l y t h e u s e o f p r im a r y h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s ,

(18, 19, 2 0 , 2 7 ) t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e seem s t o h a v e b e e n

su b sta n tia te d . T here i s , how ever, o n e d i f f i c u l t y w it h a l l o f

th ese s tu d ie s . I n n o n e o f t h e c a s e s w ere t h e a n im a ls run

u n d e r c o n d i t i o n s o f what m ig h t b e c o n s i d e r e d a p e r i o d o f con

s id e r a b le p r a c tic e . In f a c t , th e t r a in i n g u sed in th e s e e x ­

p e r i m e n t s u s u a l l y i n v o l v e d a v e r y lo w c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g

or a r e la t iv e l y sh ort p e r io d o f t r a in in g . T h is f a c t o r a lo n e

c o u ld have been th e reason th a t no, or l i t t l e , a sso c ia tio n

o f t h e i r r e l e v a n t o r i v e s t i m u l u s was o b s e r v e d . H ow ever, i n

th e s t u d ie s (1 , 2 , 2 9 ) w h ic h h a v e i n v o l v e d d r i v e s , b o t h p r i ­

mary and s e c o n d a r y , o f th e a v o id a n ce t y p e , th e s e l e c t i v e

p r i n c i p l e h a s n o t been su p p o rted . I n two o f t h e s e s t u c i e s

(J., 2 ) t h e a n im a ls w ere g i v e n c o n s i d e r a b l y more t r a i n i n g

t h a n i n t h e s t u d i e s i n v o l v i n g o n l y p r im a r y d r i v e s . I n th e

t h ir d stu d y (2 9 ) i t i s d i f f i c u l t to a s c e r t a in th e p r e c is e a-

mount o f t r a i n i n g g i v e n t h e a n im a ls a u e t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e

r esp o n se m easures u se d . In v iew o f th e la r g e d is c r e p a n c i e s

b e tw e e n t h e amount o f t r a i n i n g u s e d i n t h i s s e r ie s of experi

m ents, i t i s d i f f i c u l t t o d i s c o v e r j u s t -what t h e v a r i a b l e s

are c o n c e r n in g th e a s s o c i a t i o n o f i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e s t i m u l i .
 -2 4 -

I t i s b e l i e v e d by t h i s w r i t e r t h a t t h e m a jo r v a r i a b l e i n v o l v e d

i n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i t o a rew a r d e d

r e s p o n s e i s t h a t o f t h e amount o f t r a i n i n g g i v e n t h e a n im a l.

I n v ie w o f t h e many c r i t i c i s m s o f t h e e x p e r im e n t s u s i n g s e c o n ­

d a r y d r i v e s ( t h e s e c r i t i c i s m s i n v o l v i n g su c h i t e m s as t h e u s e

o f a s in g le a lte r n a tio n procedure ( 1 ), t h e u s e o f in a d e q u a t e

r e sp o n se m easures ( 2 9 ) , th e f a i l u r e to rep o rt th e le a r n in g

d a t a o f t h e a n im a ls ( 2 ) and t h e im p ro p er u s e o f s t a t i s t i c a l

m e th o a s ( 1 , 2 9 ) ) , p e r fo r m a n c e o f o t h e r e x p e r i m e n t s i n t h i s

f i e l a w ould b e w a r r a n t e d . An e x p e r im e n t i n v o l v i n g s e c o n d a r y

d r i v e s , a d e q u a t e l y c o n t r o l l i n g t h e ab ove m e n t io n e d f a c t o r s ,

and an e x p e r im e n t i n v o l v i n g p r im a r y d r i v e , in v o lv in g a p er­

io d o f c o n sid e r a b le p r a c t ic e , would a p p ea r t o b e n e c e s s a r y

b e f o r e any c o n t r o v e r s y b e tw e e n th e s e l e c t i v e and t h e n o n - s e -

l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e s o f d r i v e s t i m u l i c a n be r e s o l v e d .
 -2 5 -

STATEMENT OP THE PROBLEM

The p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n p r o v i a e s two e x p e r i m e n t a l

s i t u a t i o n s d e sig n e d to t e s t th e s e l e c t i v e p r in c ip le o f a s­

s o c ia t io n o f d riv e s tim u li. The f i r s t s tu d y p r o v i a e s a s i ­

t u a t i o n i n \tfiic h t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n t i a t i n g s t i m u l i i n a s p a ­

t i a l d is c r im in a t io n setup are i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e s t im u li, one

r e s u l t i n g from w a t e r d e p r i v a t i o n , t h e o t h e r from f o o d d e p r i ­

v a tio n . The e x p e r i m e n t a l c o n d i t i o n s c o n s i s t e s s e n t i a l l y o f

t r a i n i n g w h i t e r a t s t o p u sh o ne o f two p a n e l s t o remove a

lig h t stim u lu s. On d a y s when t h e a n im a l i s h u n g r y a r e s p o n s e

t o t h e r i g h t p a n e l w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e im m e d ia te r em o v a l o f

th e l i g h t ; on d a y s when t h e a n im a l i s t h i r s t y p u s h in g t h e

l e f t p a n e l w i l l r e s u l t i n t h e im m e d ia te rem o v a l o f t h e l i g h t .

A f t e r a t r a i n i n g p e r i o d o f 450 t r i a l s , t h e c o n t r o l s w h ic h

w ere u s e d by Heron w i l l b e i n t r o a u c e d a s a f u r t h e r t e s t o f

th e h y p o t h e s i s under e x a m in a tio n . T h e se c o n t r o l s w i l l i n ­

v o l v e 1 <) r u n n in g t h e a n im a ls u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f c o m p le t e

s a t i a t i o n f o r b o t h f o o d and w a t e r , and 2 () r u n n in g t h e a n i ­

m a ls w h i l e d e p r i v e d o f f o o d and w a t e r f o r 24 h o u r s and 3 )

r u n n in g t h e a n im a ls a f t e r t h e y h a v e b e e n pumped w i t h 1 5 c c .

o f w ater.

I f th ere i s f a i l u r e t o l e a r n on t h e b a s i s o f th e i r r e l e ­

va n t d r iv e s t i m u l i th en th e h y p o t h e s is o f s e l e c t i v e a s s o c i a ­

t i o n c a n n o t be r e j e c t e d . I f th e r e I s e v id e n c e o f le a r n in g

on t h e b a s i s o f t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i and Heron* s h y ­

p o t h e s i s o f l e a r n i n g on t h e b a s i s o f f u l l o r p a r t i a l l y f u l l

sto m a ch i s n o t s u b s t a n t i a t e d , th en th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e
 -2 6 -

w o u ld toe s u p p o r t e d .

The s e c o n d s t u d y p r o v i d e s an e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n si­

m i l a r t o t h a t u s e d i n t h e s t u d y o f K e n a le r ana Law ( 2 0 ) . If,

a s Amsel ( 1 ) t o e l i e v e s , t h e m a jo r v a r i a b l e i n t h e a s s o c i a t i o n

o f d r iv e s tim u li i s t h a t o f ”c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c e ” , t h e n p e r ­

h a p s o n e o f t h e r e a s o n s K e n a le r ( 1 8 ) , K e n d le r and Law ( 2 0 ) and

Webb (27 ) f a i l e d t o r e v e a l e v i d e n c e o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n o f i r ­

r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i t o r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e s i s th a t th e a n i­

m a ls d i d n o t r e c e i v e s u f f i c i e n t p r a c t i c e . The p u r p o s e o f t h e

s e c o n d s t u d y i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n i s t o f u r n i s h an e x p e r i­

m e n t a l s e t u p t o con fo rm t o t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s n e c e s s a r y t o t e s t

A m s e l* s s u g g e s t i o n t h a t c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c e i s n e c e s s a r y .

I n t h i s e x p e r im e n t f o u r g r o u p s o f r a t s a r e t r a i n e d t o go t o

t h a t s i d e o f a T-maze w h ic h c o n t a i n s e i t h e r f o o d o r w a t e r .

Two g r o u p s are s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y and t h i r s t y w h i l e t h e

o th e r groups are j u s t hungry o r t h i r s t y . A fte r r e a c h in g th e

en d o f t h e t r a i n i n g p e r i o d ( i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t t r a i n i n g i s

s t o p p e d a f t e r t h e a n im a ls h a v e r e a c h e d a c r i t e r i o n o f 90 r e ­

in fo r c e d t r i a l s ) t h e g r o u p s w h ic h h a v e b e e n r e i n f o r c e d w i t h

f o o d d u r in g t r a i n i n g a r e made t h i r s t y , and t h e g r o u p s w h ic h

h a v e r e c e i v e d w a t e r d u r i n g t r a i n i n g a r e made h u n g r y . Food

o r w a t e r i s p l a c e d i n t h e e n d - b o x w h ic h h a d p r e v i o u s l y b e e n

em p ty. The t e s t i s t o d e t e r m in e w h ich group w i l l l e a r n t o go

t o t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty g o a l b o x more q u i c k l y . A c c o r d in g

to th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f d r iv e s t im u li, th e groups

■which w ere s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y and t h i r s t y d u r in g t r a i n i n g

s h o u ld b e r e t a r d e d i n l e a r n i n g t o go t o f o o d o r w a t e r d u r i n g

th e t e s t t r i a l s b e c a u se th e i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e s tim u lu s sh o u ld
 -2 7 -

have a ten d en cy to evoke th e r e s p o n s e s to th e p r e v i o u s l y r e ­

in fo r c e d s id e . The s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e , h o w e v e r , w ould p r e ­

d i c t no r e t a r d a t i o n f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e

s t i m u l u s w o u ld n o t becom e c o n n e c t e d t o t h e r e s p o n s e l e a d i n g

to r e in fo r ce m e n t.

D ia g r a m a t ic r e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e

t o be u s e d i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t i s as fo llo w s :

T ra in in g T est

M o tiv a tio n dur­ Reward fo u n d M o t i v a t i o n d u r­ Reward fo u n d

in g tr a in in g i n g o a l box in g t e s t in g o a l box

Hunger Pood T h ir st W ater

Hunger & T h i r s t Pood T h ir st W ater

T h ir st W ater Hunger Food

T h i r s t & H unger W ater Hunger Pood

I f no d i f f e r e n c e s a r e fo u n d t o e x i s t b e tw e e n t h e two

t h i r s t y g r o u p s o r b e tw e e n t h e two h u n g r y g r o u p s d u r i n g th e

test s e r i e s t h e n t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w ould be s u p p o r t e d .

I f d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d i r e c t i o n p r e d i c t e d b; th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e

p r i n c i p l e a s m o d i f i e d by Arnsel a r e fo u n d , t h e n t h e r e w ould be

ju stific a tio n f o r r e j e c t i n g th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e .
 -2 8 -

E x p e r im e n t I

E x p erim en ta l P roced ure

S u b jects: The s u b j e c t s w ere e l e v e n n a i v e m ale a l b i n o r a t s

p u r c h a s e d from t h e A lb in o Farms i n Red Bank, New J e r s e y .

The s u b j e c t s w ere b e tw e e n 8 0 and 1 0 0 d a y s o l d a t t h e s t a r t

o f th e ex p erim en t.

A p p a r a tu s : The e n t i r e a p p a r a t u s a s shown i n F i g u r e 2 con­

s i s t e d o f a b o x 9 i n c h e s i n l e n g t h and 8 3 / 1 6 i n c h e s h i g h .

The b o x was b u i l t a t an a n g l e so t h a t a t t h e a p e x o f t h e

b o x t h e w id t h was 6 l / 8 in c h e s, and a t t h e p l a c e w here t h e

p a n e l s w ere l o c a t e d t h e w id t h was 1 3 1 / 8 i n c h e s . The p u r ­

p o s e o f t h i s was t o r e d u c e t h e random m ovem ents o f t h e a n i ­

m a ls and t o d i r e c t t h e r a tfe ’ m ovem ents to w a r d th e p a n e l s .

The p a n e l s w ere 3 3 / 4 i n c h e s w id e and 7 1 / 2 i n c h e s h i g h .

The a p p a r a t u s was b u i l t o f 1 / 4 i n c h p ly w o o d .

The l i g h t s t i m u l u s was p r o v i d e d by a 1 5 0 w a t t c l e a r

b u lb s u s p e n d e d s i x i n c h e s a b ov e t h e a p p a r a t u s . The b o x

was c o v e r e d w i t h opaque l / 4 in ch p l e x i g l a s s . The o p a q u e ­

n e s s o f th e p l e x i g l a s s serv ed to d i f f u s e th e l i g h t th rou gh ­

out th e e n t i r e box g iv in g eq u al illu m in a t io n th rou ghout th e

app aratus.

The i n t e r i o r o f t h e b o x was p a i n t e d a f l a t g r e y , w i t h

t h e r i g h t p a n e l p a i n t e d a f l a t b l a c k and t h e l e f t p a n e l a

f l a t w h ite .

The a p p a r a t u s was w ir e a so t h a t when t h e c o r r e c t p a n e l

was p u s h e d , th e p a n e l made c o n t a c t w i t h a m i c r o s w i t c h l o c a ­

t e d d i r e c t l y b e h in d t h e p a n e l . T h is m ic r o sw itc h c lo s e d th e
F ig u re 2 . F lo o r p la n o f th e a p p a ra tu s. S . B . - S t a r t i n g Box
Pg and P ^ - P a n e l s j G T -G la ss Top
 —2 9 —

c i r c u i t and t h e l i g h t was t u r n e d o f f i n s t a n t a n e o u s l y . A

m i c r o s w i t c h was l o c a t e d b e h in a e a c h o f t h e two p a n e l s . The

p a n e l had to be pu sh ed a p p ro x im a te ly 1 / 2 i n c h b e f o r e th e

m ic r o sw itch c lo s e d . B o th p a n e l s r e q u i r e d t h e same amount

o f p u sh in g . A S ta n d a r d c l o c k was h o o k e d up t o t h e c i r c u i t

so t h a t when t h e l i g h t was t u r n e d on t h e c l o c k w as s t a r t e d

and when t h e c i r c u i t was b r o k e n t h e c l o c k s t o p p e d .

Through t h e u s e o f a c o n t r o l b o x t h e e x p e r im e n t o r

c o u ld s e l e c t w h ic h p a n e l w o u ld , when p u s h e d , t u r n o f f t h e

lig h t. On any s i n g l e day o n l y one p a n e l c o u l d s e r v e t o r e ­

move t h e s t i m u l u s . I f t h e i n c o r r e c t p a n e l was p u s h e d t h e

c l o c k s t o p p e d b u t t h e l i g h t r e m a in e d o n . The a n im a l c o u l d

th e n t u r n t h e l i g h t o f f by p u s h i n g t h e c o r r e c t p a n e l .

Procedure: A l l a n im a ls w ere t r a i n e d i n t h e d i s c r i m i n a t i o n

app aratus w ith ir r e l e v a n t d r iv e s t im u li as th e b a s i s fo r

d isc r im in a tio n . The Ss w ere ru n f i v e t r i a l s a day f o r 90

d a y s , y i e l d i n g a t o t a l o f 450 t r i a l s under th e c o n d it io n s

o f hunger or t h i r s t .

The p r o c e d u r e on t h e f i r s t and s u b s e q u e n t e x p e r i m e n t a l

d a y s was i d e n t i c a l e x c e p t f o r t h e c h a n g e s i n t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l

c o n d itio n s w ith in th e croups. Each £> was p l a c e d i n t h e d i s ­

c r im in a tio n a p p a r a t u s and a l l o w e d t o rem ain t h e r e f o r 5

second s w ith th e l i g h t tu rned o f f . The a p p a r a t u s was s i t u ­

a t e d i n a l i g h t p r o o f room. The o n l y o t h e r l i g h t i n t h i s

room a s i d e from t h e l i g h t s t i m u l u s w as a i r o s t e d 5 w a t t

b u lb u s e d t o l i g h t t h e c l o c k and c o n t r o l p a n e l . T h is l i g h t

was w e l l s h i e l d e d from t h e a p p a r a t u s so t h a t f o r a l l p r a c ­

t i c a l p u r p o s e s t h e room was i n c o m p le t e d a r k n e s s . A fter

 -3 0 -
t h e 5 s e c o n d s e l a p s e d t h e l i g h t was t u r n e d on by t h e e x p e r i -

m entor. S in c e a c o r r e c t i o n t e c h n i q u e was em p lo y e d e v e r y

t r i a l en d ed w i t h t h e r em o v a l o f t h e l i g h t stim u lu s. The SB

w ere a l l o w e d t o rem a in i n t h e box f o r 15 s e c o n d s f o l l o w i n g

th e s u c c e s s f u l c o m p le tio n o f each t r i a l . A f t e r t h e 1 5 se c o n d

p e r i o d t h e a n im a l was rem oved from t h e box and r e t u r n e d t o

th e c a rr y in g ca g e. A p e r i o a o f a t l e a s t 5 m in u t e s e l a p s e d

b e tw e e n t r i a l s .

On d a y s when t h e a n im a ls w ere h u n g r y p r e s s i n g t h e r i g h t

( b l a c k ) p a n e l r e s u l t e d i n r em o v a l o f t h e l i g h t . On d a y s when

t h e a n im a ls w ere t h i r s t y p r e s s i n g t h e l e f t (w h ite ) panel r e ­

s u lt e d in tu rn in g o f f th e l i g h t .

A ll th e s t im u la t in g c o n d it io n s in c lu d in g th e t o - b e - d i s ­

c r i m i n a t e d h u n g e r and t h i r s t s t i m u l i were k e p t a s i d e n t i c a l

as p o s s i b l e f o r a l l a n im a ls. The d r i v e s t i m u l i , b oth t h i r s t

4
and h u n g e r , w e re due t o 2 1 t o 24 h o u rs o f fo o d or w ater

d e p r iv a tio n . The d e t a i l s o f t h e m a in te n a n c e s c h e d u l e f o r

t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d a y s was a s f o l l o w s :

T h ir st days: I f t h e p r e v i o u s day had b e e n a h u n g e r day

41 I t was i n p o s s i b l e t o m a i n t a i n e x a c t l y t h e same d e p r i v a t i o n
s c h e d u l e t h r o u g h o u t due t o t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e x p e r i m e n t . If
f o r e x a m p le , an a n im a l ran u n d e r one a r i v e one day and u n d er
t h e same d r i v e t h e n e x t a a y t h e n t h e p e r i o d o f d e p r i v a t i o n was
a p p r o x i m a t e l y 21 h o u r s . Thus i f t h e d a y 1 s r u n s s t a r t e d a t
8 A.IvI. and en d ed a t 1 0 A.M. a t w h ic h tim e t h e a n im a l was f e d
o r w a t e r e d , t h e tim e o f d e p r i v a t i o n f o r e i t h e r f o o d o r w a t e r
was b e tw e e n a b o u t 1 1 A.M. ana t h e tim e o f t h e n e x t d a y ' s r u n s .
However i f t h e a n im a l was run u n d er o n e d r i v e one day and a
d i f f e r e n t d r i v e t h e n e x t day th e n t h e t im e o f d e p r i v a t i o n
w o u ld be a b o u t 24 h o u r s . I n t h i s s i t u a t i o n i f t h e a n im a l i s
g i v e n t h e com m odity f o r w h ic h h e i s t o s a t i a t e d on one d a y ,
b e f o r e t h a t d a y ' s r u n s i . e . a t 7 A.M. t h e n h e i s n o t g i v e n
t h a t com m odity a g a i n u n t i l a f t e r t h e n e x t d a y ' s r u n s .
th e S was g i v e n n i n e grains o f P u r i n a l a b o r a t o r y chow 1 5 m i n u t e s

a f t e r th a t day’ s t r i a l s . A fter fe e d in g , th e S was a l l o w e d t o

d r i n k f o r one h o u r . A f t e r t h e one h o u r o f a r i n k i n g t h e w a t e r

b o t t l e was rem oved and from t h i s tim e u n t i l t h e n e x t d a y ’ s run

t h e anirnal was D e p r iv e d o f w a t e r . On t h i r s t u a y s , t h e d a i l y

r a t i o n o f f o o d was g i v e n p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n .

H a l f o f t h e n i n e grams was g iv e n t h r e e h o u r s b e f o r e t h a t d a y ' s

r u n ; t h e o t h e r h a l f o f t h e r a t i o n was g iv e n an h o u r b e f o r e t h e

a n im a l was t o run u n d er t h i r s t stim u la tio n .

Hunger d a y s ; S was D e p r iv e d o f fo o d from t h e p r e v i o u s

d a y ’ s f e e d i n g u n t i l a f t e r t h e t r i a l s run on t h e h u n g e r d a y s .

To p r e v e n t any a p p r e c i a b l e t h i r s t d r i v e from o p e r a t i n g on

h u n g e r d a y s th e r a t v;as a l s o d e p r i v e d o f w a t e r b e tw e e n t h e

t h i r t e e n t h anc t h i r d h o u r s b e f o r e t h e d a y ' s r u n s , i . e . , th e

w a t e r b o t t l e s w ere rem oved from t h e home c a g e s a b o u t 1 3 h o u r s

b e f o r e t h e h u n g e r r u n s and r e i n s e r t e d 3 h o u r s b e f o r e t h e t r i a l s

on t h a t d a y . I t was b e l i e v e d t h a t t h i s p r o c e d u r e w o u ld i n ­

sure th a t th e S 3 w o u ld d r i n k more w a t e r p r e c e d i n g t h e h u n g e r

runs, so t h a t a m in im a l t h i r s t d r i v e w ould b e o p e r a t i n g .

On any g i v e n day o f t h e e c p e r im e n t a l sequ e n c e , h a l f t h e

a n im a ls w ere run u n d er t h i r s t ana t h e o t h e r h a l f u n d e r h u n g e r .

The h u n g e r and t h i r s t d a y s w ere p r e s e n t e d i n random o r a e r w i t h

t h e p r e c a u t i o n t a k e n t h a t t h e r e w o u ld be no more th a n t h r e e

s u c c e s s i v e d a y s u n d er one m o t i v a t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n .

Upon c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e 90 d a y s (45© t r i a l s ) o f tr a in in g ,

t h e c o n t r o l s s u g g e s t e d b y Heron ( 7 ) w ere i n t r o d u c e d . E ach

a n im a l was g i v e n t h r e e t r i a l s fo r th r e e a ays unaer each con­

tr o l.
 -3 2 -
The f o l l o w i n g c o n t r o l s w e re u s e d :

C o n tro l 1: The a n im a l was d e p r i v e d o f b o t h f o o d and w a te r

f o r 22 h o u r s p r i o r t o b e i n g ru n .

C on trol 2: The a n im a l was s a t i a t e d f o r f o o a and w a te r

p r i o r t o b e i n g ru n . T h i s was a c c o m p lis h e d by d e p r i v i n g th e

a n im a l f o r b o t h c o m m o d itie s f o r 18 h o u r s . Four h o u r s b e f o r e

f u n n i n g t h e a n im a ls w ere g i v e n l a r g e amounts o f f o o d , and two

h o u r s b e f o r e t h e e x p e r im e n t t h e w a t e r b o t t l e was i n s e r t e d i n ­

t o t h e home c a g e .

C on trol 3: The a n i m a l s w ere d e p r i v e d o f f o o a and w a te r

f o r 48 h o u r s and a h a l f h o u r p r i o r t o t h e a n im a l b e i n g p u t

in t o th e d i s c r i i in a t io n a p p a r a t u s a stom ach t u b e was i n s e r t e d

i n t h e r a t and 1 5 c c . o f w a t e r was pumped i n t o t h e a n i m a l ' s

sto m a ch .®

5. S ee a p p e n d ix I
 -3 3 -

Re s u i t s

The l e a r n i n g c u r v e i s shown i n F i g u r e 3 . In t h i s a n a ly ­

s i s and a l l o t h e r s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s e s o n l y t h e f i r s t t r i a l

o f e a c h day was u s e d a s t h e i n d e x o f l e a r n i n g . The c u r v e

shows t h e p e r c e n t a g e o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s o f t h e group f o r

s u c c e s s iv e b lo c k s o f s i x f i r s t t r i a l s . E ach p o i n t i s , th ere­

fo re, th e p e r ce n ta g e o f c o r r e c t r esp o n se s out o f a p o s s ib le

66 in a b lo c k .

E x a m in a t io n o f t h i s c u r v e r e v e a l s t h a t a t a b o u t t h e

t h ir t e e n t h b lo c k o f t r i a l s th e curve appears to have l e v e l e d

o f f a t a bou t 75 ^ c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . An i n t e r e s t i n g f e a t u r e

o f t h i s curve i s t h a t no s i n g l e p o i n t i s b e lo w c h a n c e . Such

d a t a would i n p l y t h a t l e a r n i n g , on t h e b a s i s i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e

s tim u li, took p la c e .

I n a d d i t i o n t o t h e group d a t a , i t i s n e c e s s a r y t o exam ine

th e data o f in d iv id u a l &3 . The 9 0 d a i l y f i r s t t r i a l s cf e a c h

a n im a l w ere a i v i a e d i n t o t h r e e s e c t i o n s o f 30 t r i a l s , The

number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s w i t h i n e a c h o f t h e 30 t r i a l b l o c k s

was com puted f o r e a c h S t o i n d i c a t e t h e treno. o f l e a r n i n g f o r

each in d iv id u a l S. The i n f o r m a t i o n i s shown i n T a b le I I I .

The d a t a w h ich was u s e d t o d e t e r m i n e t h e l e v e l o f p e r f o r ­

mance f o r e a c h a n im a l was t h e number o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s o u t

o f t h e t o t a l p o s s i b l e 90 c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . The u s e o f x^
6
f o r m u la f o r th e b in o m ia l d i s t r i b u t i o n in d ic a te d th a t a

6 The c h i s q u a r e a p p r o x im a t io n o f t h e norm al c u r v e i s com puted

from t h e f o r m u la : o / \ 2 w h e re m i s t h e number of cor-
x = (m - n ) *
m+ n
r e c t r e s o o n s e s , n i s t h e number o f i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s . Grant
i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e a p p r o x im a t io n may s a f e l y be u s e d when m p l u s
n a 50 and when p and q do n o t d e v i a t e c o n s i d e r a b l y from . 5 .
D e g r e e s o f fr e e d o m e q u a l s I .
 -3 3 a -

T a b le I I I

Number o f C o r r e c t R e s p o n s e s
D u r in g L e a r n i n g

Uiimal 1 -30 3 1-60 6 1-90 T o ta l X2 P

1 18 19 24 61 1 1 .3 7 .0 0 1

2 14 21 20 55 4 .4 4 .0 5

3 17 18 24 59# 1 0 .6 8 .0 1

4 15 17 30 62# 1 2 .8 6 .0 0 1

5 17 13 12 42 .4 0 --------

6 24 26 27 77# 4 5 .5 1 .0 0 1

7 18 19 19 57 6 .4 0 .0 2

8 20 16 19 55 4 .4 4 .0 5
9 17 18 23 58 7 .5 2 .0 1

10 18 20 26 64# 1 6 .0 4 .0 0 1

11 19 21 28 68# 2 3 .5 3 .0 0 1

* r e a c h e d c r i t e r i o n o f 1 2 ( o r m ore) su c c e ssiv e co rrect t r i a l s

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^ 3 S N0 d r l y LJlddO') LNndId
 -3 4 -

d e v i a t i o n as l a r g e as ta n from t h e e x p e c t e d ch a n ce s c o r e o f

45 c o r r e c t o u t o f 90 w o u ld be s i g n i f i c a n t a t th e f i v e p e r c e n t

l e v e l o f c o n fid en ce , t h a t a d e v i a t i o n o f 1 3 w ould b e s i g n i f i ­

c a n t a t t h e 1% l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e , and t h a t a d e v i a t i o n o f

15 ( o r m ore) w o u ld be s i g n i f i c a n t at th e ,1% l e v e l .

An e x a m in a t io n o f T a b le I I I r e v e a l s t h a t i n o n l y one

c a s e ( a n im a l 5 ) was t h e r e a n e g a t i v e d e v i a t i o n . In a l l oth er

c a s e s t h e r e was a s i g n i f i c a n t p o s i t i v e d e v i a t i o n from c h a n c e

e x p e cta tio n ; seven Ss r e s p o n d i n g b e y o n d t h e 1% l e v e l o f s i g n i ­

fic a n c e . A t e s t p r e s e n t e d by W ilk e n so n ( 2 8 ) r e v e a l s t h a t t h e

p r o b a b ilit ie s o f o b ta in in g 7 p r o b a b ilit ie s g r e a t e r th a n t h e

one p e r c e n t l e v e l i n a t o t a l o f 1 1 i s s i g n i f i c a n t w e l l b ey o n d

t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e .

A lth o u g h t h e r e was no s p e c i f i c c r i t e r i o n o f t h e number

o f c o r r e c t r u n s e s t a b l i s h e d p r i o r t o t h e e x p e r im e n t i t is in ­

t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t 5 o u t o f t h e 11 a n im a ls ran 1 8 o r more

s u c c e ssiv e co rrect c h o ic e s, and t h a t a n im a l number 4 ra n t h e

l a s t 30 t r i a l s c o r r e c tly . A c c o r d in g t o t h e t a b l e s p r e s e n t e d

by Grant ( 6 ) , a run o f 12 s u c c e s s i v e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s i n a

t o t a l o f 90 c h o i c e s w here p ana q e q u a l s . 5 i s sig n ific a n t

a t t h e one p e r c e n t l e v e l . O b ta in in g f i v e 11 s i g n i f i c a n c e s 11 a t

th e . 0 1 l e v e l out o f 1 1 s ta tistic s is in i t s e l f sig n ific a n t

w e l l b e y on d t h e . 0 1 l e v e l .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c o n t r o l s ( t h o s e s u g g e s t e d by t h e work

o f Heron ( 7 ) t h a t w e re i n t r o d u c e d a f t e r t h e t r i a l s u n d er th e

h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s y i e l d e d t h e f o l l o w i n g i n f o r m a t i o n

w h ic h i s sum m arised i n T a b le I V .
 -3 4 a -

T a b le IV

P e r c e n t R e s p o n s e s U nder C o n t r o l
C o n d i t i o n s t o E i t h e r t h e R ig h t (H u n g e r)
P anel or L e f t ( T h ir s t) P anel

C on trol C o n d itio n P e r ce n t R espon ses P ercen t R esp on ses

t o R ig h t P a n e l to L e ft Panel

S a tia te d 18$ 82$

D e p r iv e d o f b o t h f o o d 4 4$ 56$
and y/ater

Pumped 52$ 48$

 DISCU S S I ON

The s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n o f d r i v e s t i m u l i

s t a t e s i n e f f e c t t h a t i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i do n o t become

a s s o c i a t e d w i t h rew ard ed r e s p o n s e s w i t h w h ich t h e y a r e c o n t i ­

guou s. The r e s u l t s o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t a r e i n c o n s i s t e n t w i t h

t h is h y p o th e sis. I n s o f a r a s 1 0 o f t h e 11 a n im a ls i n t h i s e x ­

p e r im e n t a p p e a r t o h a v e l e a m e a t h e s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on

t h e b a s i s o f d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i v e s t i m u l i a r i s i n g from h u n g e r

and t h i r s t d e p r i v a t i o n , th e p r i n c i p l e o f s e l e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n

o f d r i v e s t i m u l i m ust be r e j e c t e d . The e v i d e n c e from t h i s e x ­

p e r im e n t t e n a s t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e p o i n t o f v ie w e x p r e s s e d by

A m sel, n a m ely t h a t " . . . i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i o f t h e h u n g e r

and t h i r s t t y p e become c o n n e c t e d t o r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e s w i t h

w h ic h t h e y a r e c o n t i g u o u s o n l y a s a r e s u l t o f c o n s i d e r a b l e

p r a c tic e ." (1 , p .795)

Amsel e x p l a i n s t h e s l o w n e s s o f l e a r n i n g by m a i n t a i n i n g

th a t i r r e l e v a n t c r i v e s t im u li a c q u ir e a s s o c i a t i v e stren g th

o n ly w ith g r e a t d i f f i c u l t y . The r e a s o n f o r t h i s i s t h a t eu ch

ir r e le v a n t d r iv e s t im u li p r e c e d e s th e e x p e r im e n ta l s i t u a t i o n

by many h o u r s . Such s t i m u l i a s a r e p r o d u c e d by h u n g e r and

t h i r s t m ust b e t h o u g h t o f a s h a v i n g a l r e a d y b e e n p r e s e n t f o r

a c o n s i d e r a b l e p e r i o d o f tim e when t h e a n im a l i s b r o u g h t i n t o

th e d is c r im in a t io n . The f o l l o w i n g s t a t e m e n t a b ou t t h i s ty p e

o f s t i m u l i h a s b e e n made by Hul'i* " . . . I t i s p ro b a b le t h a t

s ta tic , i.e ., u n c h a n g in g e l e m e n t s o r a g g r e g a t e s i n a c o n d i t i o n e d

s tim u lu s s i t u a t i o n are c o n s ia e r a b ly l e s s p o te n t in th e a c q u i­

s i t i o n o f h a b i t s t r e n g t h l o a d i n g s th a n a r e more d y n a m ic , i . e .
 -6 6 -

t h e u n c h a n g in g e l e m e n t s o r a g g r e g a t e s . " ( 1 2 , p . 2 0 7 ) S in c e

b o t h t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r iv e s t im u li have been a c t in g

o v e r l o n g p e r i o d s o f tim e i t w o u lc j u s t i f y t h e a s s u m p t io n

th a t th ese stim u li are o f a h ig h ly s t a t ic n a tu re. Suppor­

tin g H u ll’ s su g g e stio n th a t s t a t i c s t im u li a c q u ir e l i t t l e h a b it

is t h e e v i c e n c e r e p o r t e d by E n in g e r (5), anc Kapp&uf and

S c h lo sb e r g ( 1 5 ) . E n i n g e r t r a i n e d a n im a ls t o r e s p o n d d i f f e ­

r e n t i a l l y t o th e p r e se n c e or absence of a to n e at th e c h o ic e

p o i n t o f a m a ze. He fo u n d t h a t t h e l i n g e r t h e tone p e r s i s t e d

t h e g r e a t e r t h e l e a r n i n g was r e t a r d e d . Kappauf and S c h l o s b e r g

h a v e shown t h a t s t r e n g t h o f c o n d i t i o n i n g i s some i n v e r s e f u n c ­

t i o n o f t h e tim e by w h ich t h e c o n u i t i o n e d s t i m u l u s p r e c e d e s

th e u n co n u itio n e d s tim u lu s . T h e se s t u d i e s t e n d t o s u p p o r t

t h e v a l i d i t y o f H u l l ' s p r i n c i p l e o f t h e cyn a m ic s t a t e o f a

s t i m u l u s w h ich i n e f f e c t s t a t e s t h a t t h e c a p a c i t y o f a s t im u ­

l u s com ponent t o a c q u i r e h a b i t s t r e n g t h c e c r e a s e s a s t h e t im e

o f t h e a c t i o n o f t h e s t i m u l u s upon t h e r e c e p t o r m echanism i n ­

creases. I n v ie w o f t h e s e c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i t is not lik e ly

t h a t i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i o f t h e h u n g e r anc t h i r s t t y p e

a r e s t i m u l i w h ich a c q u i r e h a b i t l o a d i n g v e r y q u i c k l y .
But what o f t h e r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l u s ? Would i t n o t

b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l u s s h o u ld a c t i n

a s i m i l a r manner in a sm u ch a s t h e y a l s o p r e c e d e t h e r e s p o n s e

b y a c o n s i d e r a b l e t im e ? I n a n sw er t o t h i s q u e s tio n th e f o l ­

lo w in g h y p o th e s is^ i s p o s t u la t e d . T h is h y p o t h e s i s sta tes

b r i e f l y th a t r ele v a n t a c q u ir e a s s o c i a t i v e stren g th r e la t iv e l y

7. T h is h y p o t h e s is i s o e v e lo p e o f u l l y in th e d is c u s s io n o f
th e second ex p erim en t.
 -3 7 -

q u i c k l y due t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e s e d r i v e s t i m u l i a r e them ­

s e l v e s r e d u c e d and t h u s becom e an a c t i v e p a r t o f t h e h a b i t

( sHr)«
I t f o l l o w s from t h i s f o r m u l a t i o n t h a t f o r i r r e l e v a n t

d r i v e s t i m u l i t o be e f f e c t i v e i n l e a r n i n g , a c o n sid e ra b le

p e r i o d o f p r a c t i c e m ust b e i n v o l v e d f o r t h e s e s t i m u l i t o

h a v e assumed an a c t i v e p r o p e r t y i n t h e l e a r n i n g p r o c e s s .

T h is h y p o t h e s i s i s s u p p o r t e d by A m s e l1 s s t u d y and even more

e m p h a t i c a l l y by t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n .

F igu re 5 i s a o ia g r a m a tic r e p r e s e n t a t io n o f th e f a c t o r s

i n f l u e n c i n g l e a r n i n g in t h i s p r e s e n t e x p e rim en ta l s i t u a t i o n .

s n. ---------------------------p - R r i g h t -N » /^ ,Goal L .A .
z ^

________________________ 2 -R l e f t ^ N _ ^ G o a l L .A .

F ig u re 5

SDt - t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l u s ; - hunger d r iv e stim u lu s

SAW - s t i m u l u s from t h e a p p a r a t u s ( w h i t e p a n e l )

Sa b - s t i m u l u s from t h e a p p a r a t u s ( b l a c k p a n e l )

L .A . - l i g h t a v o id a n c e

I n t h e c a s e o f t h e a n im a ls i n t h i s s i t u a t i o n d i f f e r e n t i a l

h a b i t l o a a i n ■ comes from tw o s o u r c e s , 1 . , from t h e a r i v e s t i ­

m u lus p r e s e n t ana 2 . , from t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l s t i m u l i from t h e

ap p aratus, i . e . , b la c k p a n e l f o r th e r i g h t (h u n ger) resp o n se

and w h i t e p a n e l f o r t h e l e f t (th ir st) respon se.

 -3 8 -

It is th is second source o f d i f f e r e n t i a l s t i m u l i w h ic h

o f f e r s one p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n

t h e r e s u l t s o f A m s e l 's e x p e r im e n t and t h e r e s u l t s o f t h e

p r e s e n t stu d y . I t w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t o n l y 3 o f t h e 10

a n im a ls r e q u i r e d t o l e a r n t h e s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e

b a s i s o f th e i r r e le v a n t d r iv e s t im u li le a r n e d th e d is c r i m i­

n a tio n , w hereas in th e p r e s e n t i n v e s t i g a t i o n , 1 0 o f th e 1 1

a n im a ls le a r n e d th e s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . The m a jo r a i f -

f e r e n c e b e tv /e e n t h e two e x p e r i m e n t a l a e s i n s l i e s in th e

f a c t o r o f s t i m u l i a r i s i n g from t h e a p p a r a t u s . In A m sel's

e x p e r im e n t b o t h g o a l b o x e s w ere b l a c k , ana t h e maze s t i m u l i

w ere i d e n t i c a l f o r b o th r e s p o n s e s . T h is b e in g th e c a se th e

s t i m u l i from t h e maze w o u la h a v e become c o n d i t i o n e d t o b o t h

r i g h t and l e f t t u r n i n g r e s p o n s e s ana i n t u r n t h e s p a t i a l

d i s c r i m i n a t i o n w o u la b e made more d i f f i c u l t f o r t h e s e a n i ­

m a ls. In c o n tr a st, i n t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t t h e s t i m u l a ­

t i o n from t h e ap p aratu s p r o d u c e d d i f f e r e n t i a l c u e s , i.e .,

b la c k p an el f o r r ig h t p u sh in g r e s p o n se , w h ite p a n el f o r l e f t

p u sh in g r e sp o n se . The d i f f e r e n t i a l s t i m u l i b o t h from t h e

maze and t h e a r i v e s t i m u l i woula p r o a u c e g r e a t e r l e a r n i n g

th a n i f t h e o n l y d i f f e r e n t i a l s t i m u l i w ere t h e d r i v e s t i m u l i

a s was t h e c a s e i n A m s e l ' s e x p e r i m e n t . D ia gram m atic r e p r e ­

s e n t a t io n o f th e f a c t o r s i n f lu e n c in g th e le a r n in g o f th e

a n i m a l s i n A m s e l 's e x p e r im e n t i s shown i n F ig u r e 6 .
 -3 9 -

S j v ----------------------------------- r R r i g h t -^~^>Goal A

S j ^ - ------------------ -— ~ - - t» - r l e f t -\.^ ^ G o a l A

F ig u re 6 8

Sj^_ - t h i r s t d r i v e s t i m u l i ; Sj-^ - h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l i
- s t i m u l i from a p p a r a t u s ; A - a n x ie ty r ed u c tio n

T here e x i s t s two o t h e r p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n s f o r t h e

d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e a i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t

and t h e r e s u l t s o f Amsel ( 1 ) . The b a s i s f o r one o f t h e s e

e x p l a n a t i o n s i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e a v o id a n c e s t i m u l u s u s e d

in b o th e x p e rim en ts a s th e sou rce o f th e r e le v a n t d r i v e . It

w i l l b e r e c a l l e d t h a t Amsel u s e d sh o c k t o in d u c e a n x i e t y w h ich

was t h e r e w a r d e d r e s p o n s e , w h e r e a s i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t l i g h t

a v o id a n c e was t h e rew a r d e d r e s p o n s e . I t i s p o s s ib le th at be­

c a u s e o f t h e s e v e r i t y o f t h e s h o c k s t i m u l u s a s com pared t o

th e l i g h t stim u lu s, t h a t t h e u s e o f s h o c k may h a v e had t h e

e f f e c t o f r e ta r d in g le a r n in g . I f Amsel h ad u s e d a m i l d e r

s tim u lu s i t i s p o s s i b l e t h a t more l e a r n i n g c o u l a h a v e b e e n

o b ta in e d . A lth o u g h l i t t l e i s known a b o u t t h e p h y s i o l o g i c a l

e f f e c t s o f s h o c k , many b e h a v i o r a l phenomena h a v e b e e n known

t o r e v e a l t h e m s e l v e s a s a d i r e c t r e s u l t o f sh o c k s t i m u l a t i o n

i.e ., fr e e z in g , e x c e s s i v e - d e f e c a t i o n and u r i n a t i o n , trem ors,

etc. T h e se b e h a v i o r a l m a n i f e s t a t i o n s e x i s t e d o n l y t o a s l i g h t

d e g r e e i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t •..hen a l i g h t s t i m u l u s was u s e d .

S. T h i s d iag ra m i s id e n tic a l to t h a t p r e s e n t e d by Amsel ( 1 ) .

 -4 0 -

The b a s i s f o r t h e o t h e r p o s s i b l e e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e

d i s c r e p a n c y b e tw e e n t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s e x p e r im e n t

and t h e r e s u l t s o f Arnsel ( 1 ) l i e s in th e v a r ia b le o f d e la y

o f rein fo r ce m e n t. A c c o r d in g t o H u l l (1> ) one o f t h e v a r i a b l e s

o f w h ic h h a b i t s t r e n g t h i s a fu n c tio n , is t h e tim e o f d e l a y

o f a t t a i n m e n t o f a g o a l o b j e c t f o l l o w i n g t h e r e s p o n s e t o be

le a r n e d (d e la y o f r e in fo r c e m e n t). I t w i l l be r e c a l l e d th a t

t h e a n im a ls In t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t had t o t r a v e r s e a d i s ­

ta n ce o f 9 in c h e s b e fo r e a t t a i n i n g th e g o a l o b j e c t . The a n i ­

m a ls i n A m s e l’ s ( 1 ) s t u a y haa t o t r a v e r s e a d i s t a n c e o f 2

f e e t b e f o r e t h e ■ oal o b j e c t was a t t a i n e d . The u i f f e r e n c e i n

t h e tim e n e c e s s a r y t o t r a v e r s e a d i s t a n c e o f 9 i n c h e s a s com­

p a r e d t o 2 f e e t w ou ld c r e a t e d i f f e r e n c e s in a e la y o f r e in f o r c e ­

m e n t, th e g r e a t e r d e la y o f r ein fo r ce m e n t b e in g p r e se n t in

A m s e l’ s ( 1 ) ex p erim en t. The d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e d e l a y o f r e ­

in f o r c e m e n t c o u lo p o s s i b l y a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e

amount o f l e a r n i n g b e t w e e n A m s e l’ s e x p e r im e n t and t h i s o n e ,

and c o u lu a l s o a c c o u n t f o r t h e r e l a t i v e l y lo w l e v e l o f l e a r n ­

i n g o b t a i n e d by Amsel ( 1 ) .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s a r e n o t c o n c l u s i v e

enough t o p e r m i t a c c e p t a n c e o f t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f l e a r n i n g on

th e b a s i s o f f u l l or p a r t i a l l y f u l l s to m a c h , th e d a ta o b ta in e d

f o r t h e s e c o n t r o l s do n o t seem t o b e c o n s i s t e n t w it h t h e d a t a

o b t a i n e d by Heron ( 7 ) u n d e r t h e same c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s . In

o n l y one c a s e , t h e c a s e o f c o n t r o l 2 (w h e r e t h e a n im a ls were

s a t i a t e d f o r b o t h f o o d and w a t e r ) was t h e r e any a g r ee m e n t

w i t h t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by H eron . Under t h i s c o n d it io n 82%

o f t h e r e s p o n s e s o f t h e a n im a ls i n c h i s e x p e r im e n t were t o
th e w h ite (w a te r ) p a n e l. U n d e r t h i s c o n d i t i o n 92% o f t h e a n i ­

m a ls i n H e r o n ’ s e x p e r im e n t w ent t o t h e w a t e r s i d e . U n d er th e

two o t h e r c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s , c o n tr o l 1 (a n im a ls c e p r iv e d o f

f o o d ano w a t e r ) , c h a n c e s c o r e s w ere o b t a i n e d . For c o n t r o l 1 ,

44% o f t h e r e s p o n s e s w ere t o t h e f o o d s i d e , f o r c o n t r o l 5 , 52%

o f t h e r e s p o n s e s w ere t o t h e w a t e r 3 i d e . H e r o n ’ s a n im a ls maae

100% r e s p o n s e s t o t h e f o o d ana u n c e r c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n 1 and

100% r e s p o n s e t o t h e w a t e r s i c e u n d e r c o n t r o l c o n c i t i o n 3 .

T h e re r e m a in s t h e p r o b le m o f a c c o u n t i n g f o r t h e r e s u l t s

o b ta in e d u n cer c o n tr o l 2 ( s a t i a t e d f o r b oth co m m o c itie s)

w h ic h a r e s i n i f i c a n t ac t h e . 0 1 l e v e l . One p o s s i b l e e x p la n a ­

tio n is t h a t t h e a n im a ls d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g d e v e l o p e a an a s ­

s o c i a t i o n b e tw e e n t h e p r e s e n t a t i o n o f f o o a p r i o r t o t h e e x ­

p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n on t h e t h i r s t d a y s and t h e p u s h i n g r e s p o n s e

to th e l e f t p a n e l. T h u s , when t h e a n im a ls a r e s a t i a t e d d u r in g

t h e r u n n in g u n d er t h i s c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n , th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f

f o o d p r i o r t o t h e r u n n in g ( f o o d ana w a t e r w ere p r e s e n t e d t o

s a t i a t e t h e a n i m a l s ) w oula r e s u l t i n t h e s e a n im a ls r e s p o n d i n g

t o t h e l e f t p a n e l b e c a u s e o f t h e a s s o c i a t i o n fo r m e d b e tw e e n

t h e f o o d ana t h e r e s p o n s e d u r i n g t r a i n i n g .

The f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s can be made on t h e b a s i s o f

t h i s e x p e rim en t:
1. T h a t i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i can and do become c o n ­

n e c t e d t o a rew arded r e s p o n s e a f t e r c o n s iu e r a b le p r a c t i c e .

H u l l ’ s p r i n c i p l e o f t h e dynam ic s t a t e o f a s t i m u l u s i s in v o k e d

a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e e f f e c t s o f l o n g p e r i o d s o f p r a c t i c e .

2. T h a t t h e s t i m u l i a r i s l n . from t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l s t a t e

o f t h e o r g a n is m , i . e . , h u n g e r ano t h i r s t a r i v e s t i m u l i , p r o -
 -4 2 -

v i d e t h e d i f f e r e n t i a l c u e s and n o t t h e s t i m u l i a r i s i n g from

th e c o n d it io n s o f f u l l or p a r t i a l l y f u l l s to m a c h .

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d u n a e r t h e c o n t r o l

c o n d i t i o n s o f t h i s e x p e r i m e n t , H ero n ’ s ( 8 ) h y p o t h e s i s i s re­

jected .
 -4 3 -

SUMMAKY

The p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t a t t e m p t e d t o e v a l u a t e t h e h y p o ­

t h e s i s th a t d r iv e s t i m u l i , n o t th e m se lv e s reduced by a g o a l

o b j e c t , do n o t become c o n n e c t e d t o t h e rew a rd ed r e s p o n s e s

w i t h w h ich t h e y a r e c o n t i g u o u s .

The e x p e r i m e n t a l s i t u a t i o n i n v o l v e d t h e l e a r n i n g o f a

s p a t i a l d i s c r i m i n a t i o n on t h e b a s i s o f a D i s c r i m i n a t i o n b e ­

tw een two i r r e l e v a n t u r i v e c o n d i t i o n s , one r e s u l t i n g from

w ater d e p r iv a t i o n , and t h e o t h e r from d e p r i v a t i o n o f f o o d .

B o th r e s p o n s e s ( p u s h i n g a l e f t o r r i g h t p a n e l ) r e s u l t e d i n

t h e same rew a r d , l i g h t a v o i d a n c e . T h r ee c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s

were i n t r o d u c e d t o t e s t t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f l e a r n i n g on th e

b a s is o f f u l l or p a r t i a l l y f u l l s to m a c h . I n s o f a r a s m o st

o f th e s u b je c ts le a r n e d in t h i s s i t u a t i o n anu t h e r e s u l t s o f

t h e c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n s w ere i n c o n c l u s i v e , i t was c o n c lu d e d

th a t ir r e le v a n t d r iv e s t i m u l i p l a y an im p o r t a n t r o l e i n

s e le c t iv e le a r n in g .

The r e s u l t s a r e i n t e r p r e t e d as p r o d u c i n g e v i d e n c e t h a t

d i f f e r e n t i a l d r i v e s t i m u l i become c o n n e c t e d t o rew a r d e d r e ­

s p o n s e s i n th e manner d e s c r i b e d by H u l l i n t h e p r i n c i p l e o f

t h e dynam ic s t a t e o f s t i m u l i .
 EXPERIMENT I I

In tro d u ctio n

The r e s u l t s o f t h e f i r s t stu d y in t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n

p r o v id e e v id e n c e to su p p ort th e h y p o t h e s is t h a t i r r e l e v a n t

d r i v e s t i m u l i become c o n n e c t e d t o rew ard ed r e s p o n s e s w ith

w h ic h t h e y a r e c o n t i g u o u s a f t e r c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c e . An

im p o r t a n t f e a t u r e o f t h i s stu d y , a s w e l l a s t h a t o f A m sels

(1 ), is t h a t t h e r e l e v a n t o r i v e u s e d i n t h e s e s t u d i e s was

o f t h e n a t u r e o f an a v o i d a n c e r e s p o n s e . In A m sel's s t u d ie s

e s c a p e from a n x i e t y was t h e r e l e v a n t a r i v e , and i n t h e e x ­

p e r im e n t j u s t r e p o r t e d l i g h t a v o id a n c e was u s e d a s t h e r e ­

le v a n t respon se. I n t h e s t u d i e s w h ic h h a v e i n v o l v e d a n x i e t y

o r a v o id a n c e as t h e r e l e v a n t d r i v e , th e s e l e c t i v e p r in c ip le

o f a s s o c ia t io n o f d r iv e s t im u li h a s n o t been s u b s t a n t ia t e d .

T h is i s n o t t h e c a s e h o w e v e r i n t h e s t u d i e s w h ic h h a v e

u t i l i z e d o n l y h u n g e r and t h i r s t c i r i v e s . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e

s t u d i e s ( K e n a l e r ( 1 8 ) , K e n a le r ana Law ( 2 0 ) , Webb ( 2 7 ) ) ten d

to favor th e s e le c t iv e p r in c ip le . The g e n e r a l p r o c e d u r e

u s e d In t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s was t o t r a i n a n im a ls t o l e a r n a

r e s p o n se l e a d i n g to e i t h e r fo o d o r w a te r . For s e v e r a l

g r o u p s o f a n im a ls i n t h e s e e x p e r i m e n t s t h e a n im a ls w ere

t r a in e d w ith th e p re se n c e o f a c o e x i s t i n g ir r e le v a n t d r iv e

(tr a in e d s i m u l t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y ana t h i r s t y t o o b t a i n e i t h e r

food or w a te r ). The o t h e r g r o u p s o f a n im a ls w e re t r a i n e d

under th e e x is t e n c e o f a s i n g l e r e le v a n t d r iv e . The e x p e r i ­

m en tal t e s t o f th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e c o n s is t e d o f t r a in in g

t h e a n im a ls t o l e a r n a new r e s p o n s e l e a d i n g t o a d i f f e r e n t
 -4 5 -

com m odity ( w a t e r i f p r e v i o u s rew ard had b e e n f o o d ) u n d e r t h e

c o n d it io n o f a s i n g l e r e le v a n t d r iv e or e x t in g u is h in g th e

r e s p o n s e i n t h e p r e s e n c e o f a d d i t i o n a l d r i v e w h ich was p r e ­

s e n t o n l y d u r in g t h e e x t i n c t i o n s e r i e s . A c c o r d in g t o t h e

s e l e c t i v e p r in c ip le th e p resen ce o f a c o e x is t in g ir r e le v a n t

d r i v e c u r i n g l e a r n i n g s h o u ld h a v e no e f f e c t upon t h e u n l e a r n ­

in g o f th e resp o n se s in c e t h i s h y p o th e s is s t a t e s th a t i r r e l e ­

v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i w ould n o t becom e c o n n e c t e d t o a rew arded

r e s p o n s e w i t h w h ic h i t was c o n t i g u o u s . I n n on e o f t h e s e e x ­

p e r i m e n t s was a d i f f e r e n c e shown t o e x i s t i n t h e r e l e a r n i n g

r a t e s b e tw e e n t h e a n im a ls o r i g i n a l l y t r a i n e d w i t h t h e s i n g l e

r e l e v a n t d r i v e a s compared w i t h t h o s e t h a t h a d an i r r e l e v a n t

d r iv e . The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e e x p e r im e n t s s u p p o r t e d t h e s e l e c ­

tiv e p r in c ip le .

T h ere i s h o w e v e r , o n e Im p o r ta n t p o i n t t o b e c o n s i d e r e d .

I n n o n e o f t h e s t u d i e s m e n t io n e d was t h e r e what m ig h t b e c o n ­

s id e r e d a h ig h d egree o f p r a c t i c e . I n t h e K e n d le r and Law

( 2 0 ) i n v e s t i g a t i o n t h e c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g was n o t v e r y

h ig h (12 s u c c e s s i v e c o r r e c t c h o i c e s ) , and i n t h e o t h e r T-maze

(18, 19) s t u d i e s t h e p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g was r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t .

I n t h e s t u d y by Webb ( 2 7 ) a l t h o u g h t h e t r a i n i n g was g r e a t e r

th a n t h a t o f t h e T-maze s t u d i e s j u s t m e n t io n e d ( 3 0 r e i n f o r c e ­

m e n ts i n a S k in n e r b o x ) , th is t r a i n i n g d i e n o t ap p roa ch th e

amount o f t r a i n i n g t h a t was u s e d by Amsel ( 1 ) and i n t h e e x ­

p e r im e n t j u s t r e p o r t e d ( 4 5 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t s ) .

In a sm u ch a s t h e f i r s t e x p e r im e n t i n t h i s i n v e s t i g a t i o n

y ie ld e d r e s u lts t h a t i n o i c a t e d l e a r n i n g on t h e b a s i s o f i r ­

r e le v a n t d r iv e s tim u li a f t e r c o n sid e ra b le p r a c t ic e , th e
 -4 6 -

p u r p o s e o f t h e p r e s e n t e x p e r im e n t was t o t e s t t h e r o l e o f a

i r r e l e v a n t u r iv e in a l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n u t i l i z i n g o n ly hun­

g e r ana t h i r s t a r i v e s w it h an a t t e m p t t o m eet t h e r e q u i r e ­

m e n ts o f c o n s i d e r a b l e p r a c t i c e .

The e x p e r im e n t c o n s i s t e d o f two s t u d i e s s i m i l a r i n d e s i g n

t o t h o s e o f K e n d le r and Law ( 2 0 ) . In th e f i r s t s t u d y two

groups o f S 3 (o n e h u n g r y , t h e o t h e r h u n g r y and t h i r s t y ) w ere

t r a i n e d t o o b t a i n f o o d i n one e n d - b o x o f a T -m aze. A fter a

p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g , w h ic h c o n s i s t e d o f t r a i n i n g t h e a n im a ls

to a c r i t e r i o n o f 90 r e in f o r c e d t r i a l s t h e a n im a ls w ere made

t h i r s t y and t r a i n e d t o r e v e r s e t h e p r e v i o u s l y l e a r n e d t u r n i n g

r e s p o n s e t o o b t a i n w a t e r i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty e n a - b o x . The

t e s t o f t h e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w ould be w h e th e r o r n o t t h e

a n im a ls t r a i n e d i n th e p r e s e n c e o f an i r r e l e v a n t t h i r s t a r i v e

w ere r e t a r d e d i n l e a r n i n g t o go t o w a t e r . The s e c o n d s t u d y

was e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t t h e S 3 fo u n d

w a ter in th e b a i t e d en d -b ox d u rin g th e t r a i n i n g t r i a l s and

w ere t e s t e d u n o e r t h e c o n d i t i o n s o f h u n g e r d e p r i v a t i o n . Dur­

i n g t h e t e s t t r i a l s f o o c was p l a c e d i n t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty

end -b ox.
 -4 7 -

EXPLRIMITl'i'AL PROCEIURE

F i r s t Study-

S u b ject s: The & w ere 32 n a i v e m a le a l b i n o r a t p u r c h a s e d

from t h e A lb in o Farms, Red Bank, New J e r s e y . They r a n g e d

i n a g e from 80 t o 1 0 0 d a y s .

A p p a r a tu s : A s i n g l e c h o i c e p o i n t T -m aze, f l o o r p l a n ana d i ­

m e n s io n s o f w h ich a r e 3hown i n F i g u r e 6 , was u s e d . W a lls

and f l o o r s w ere c o n s t r u c t e d o f c l e a r p i n e b o a r d , 5 1 / 2

in c h e s by 3 /4 in c h , so t h a t t h e w id t h o f t h e maze p a t h was

4 in ch es. The maze was c o v e r e d w i t h hard w are c l o t h . The

d o o r s w ere o f s h e e t m e t a l l i n e d w i t h s c o t c h t a p e , so t h a t

when m a n i p u l a t e d i n a v e r t i c a l c i r e c t i o n by means o f s t r i n g s ,

t h e y w ere p r a c t i c a l l y n o i s e l e s s . C u r t a i n s w ere hu n g b e f o r e

ea ch g o a l b o x i n o r d e r t o make i t i m p o s s i b l e f o r t h e a n im a l

t o s e e w h at was p r e s e n t i n t h e e n d - b o x p r i o r t o i t s ’ c h o i c e .

The e n t i r e maze wa.-; p a i n t e d a f l a t b l a c k , w i t h t h e r i g h t

e n d - b o x p a i n t e d b l a c k anc t h e l e f t end-b ox p a in t e d a f l a t

grey. The p u r p o s e o f t h i s o i f f e r e n t i a l t r e a t m e n t was t o em­

p h a s i z e th e r e s p e c t i v e s t i m u l u s c u e s and t h e r e b y f a c i l i t a t e

d isc r im in a tio n .

Procedure:

T ra in in g t r i a l s : The r a t s v/ere ran d om ly c i v i d e d i n t o two

g r o u p s o f 1 6 a .ir n a ls . For a p p r o x i m a t e l y one w eek p r i o r t o

t h e e x p e r im e n t e a c h a n im a l was h a n d l e d f o r a b o u t t h r e e m i­

n u t e s a day t o r e d u c e e m o t i o n a l i t y . The p r e l i m i n a r y t r a i n ­

i n g c o n s i s t e u o f p l a c i n g 5 a n im a ls i n t h e maze a t one t im e

ana a l l o w i n g a p e r i o d o f f r e e e x p l o r a t i o n f o r one h o u r . l u r ­

i n g t h i s t im e a l l t h e d o o r s o f t h e maze w ere opened and b o t h

 J

n 'O
G ift1 ui GJ VJI Sj ™
‘ -1
I_______

D1

SB
1 i

1 FT.

F ig u re 6. F lo o r p la n o f a p p a ra tu s. J b . B . - S t a r t i n g Box:
D l , B2, D3, D4, D 5 -B o o r s j C l, C 2 - C u r t a in s ;
GBl, BB2-G oal B o x e s
e n d - b o x e s w ere em pty. On t h e f o l l o w i n g day t h e e x p e r im e n t

proper began. Group H was d e p r i v e d o f f o o d f o r 22 h o u r s

w h i l e Group H&T (h u n g r y and t h i r s t y ) was d e p r i v e d o f w a t e r

f o r t h e same p e r i o d o f t i m e . Food, i n t h e form o f 15 p e l ­

l e t s o f P u r i n a L a b o r a t o r y Chow was p r e s e n t i n t h e e n d - b o x

of t h e r i g h t arm o f t h e m a ze. The o t h e r e n o - b o x r e m a in e d

empty a l t h o u g h 15 p e l l e t s o f f o o d were p l a c e d around t h e

o u t s i d e o f t h e box t o c o n t r o l f o r o l f a c t o r y c u e s .

The a e t a i l s o f t h e f e e d i n g s c h e d u l e f o r t h e Groups

were a s f o l l o w s ; t h e a n im a ls i n Group H were g i v e n n i n e

grams (1 1 / 2 p e l l e t s o f l a b o r a t o r y chow) a t l e a s t 15 min­

u t e s a f t e r th e e x p e rim en ta l s e s s i o n . The tim e from com­

p l e t e c o n s u m p tio n o f t h i s f o o d t o t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e x t

d a y ’ s t r i a l s was a b o u t t w e n t y - t w o h o u r s . The w a t e r b o t t l e s

w ere removed from t h e home c a g e s a p p r o x i m a t e l y 8 h o u r s a f t e r

t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l s e s s i o n and r e p l a c e d two h o u r s p r i o r t o

th e d ay’ s r u n s. T h is was oo n e t o m in im iz e t h i r s t d r i v e as

much a s p o s s i b l e f o r Group H a n i m a l s . Group HhT had t h e

same r e g im e n e x c e p t t h a t t h e w a t e r b o t t l e s w ere rem oved

a f t e r f i n i s h i n g o ne p e l l e t o f f o o d . ; The r e m a in in g h a l f

p e l l e t was th e n g i v e n . T h is group (H&T) t h e r e f o r e had

a p p r o x im a t e ly 22 h o u r s o f d e p r i v a t i o n o f b o t h f o o d and

w ater.

A lth o u g h t h e m a jo r g r o u p in g s w ere made a c c o r d i n g t o

t h e m o t i v a t i o n a l s t a t e o f t h e a n im a ls u n d er e a c h o f t h e s e

g r o u p in g s t h e r e w ere two s u b g r o u p s . For 8 & i n Group H

and H8cT, e a c h S was g i v e n 5 f r e e t r i a l s d a i l y . For t h e

 -4 9 -

oth er 8 s u b je c ts in each g r o u p , t h e s u b j e c t s v;ere g i v e n

th ree co rrect t r i a l s d a ily . The p r o c e d u r e u s e d f o r t h e s e

a n im a ls was t o g i v e thorn t h r e e f r e e c h o ic e t r i a l s d a ily

and i f any e r r o r s w ere raaoe, t h e a n im a ls w ere g i v e n f o r c e d

t r i a l 3 to th e c o r r e c t s ic e so t h a t t h e t o t a l numoer o f d a i l y

r e i n f o r c e m e n t s w ould a lw a y s be t h r e e . The p u r p o s e o f t h i s

p r o c e d u r e was t o p r o v i d e e q u a l number o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t s f o r

a n im a ls i n b o t h t h e H and KhT group on any s i n g l e d a y , and

i n tu r n p r o v i d e e q u a l e x p e r i e n c e c u r i n g t h e l e a r n i n g o f th e

f i r s t p r o b le m b o t h i n number o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t s and number

o f a a y s run.

A l l a n im a ls w ere run u n t i l t h e c r i t e r i o n o f SO r e i n ­

f o r c e m e n t s was a c h i e v e d . For t h e g r o u p s t h a t w ere run 5

tr ia ls d a ily , t h i s c r i t e r i o n was r e a c h e d i n a bou t 20 d a y s .

For t h e g r o u p s run 5 r e i n f o r c e d t r i a l s d a ily , 30 d a y s w ere

n e e d e a b e f o r e th e c r i t e r i o n was a t t a i n e d . When t h e a n im a l

c h o s e t h e c o r r e c t s i a e i t was a l l o w e d t o e a t f o r 20 s e c o n d s ;

when i t c h o s e t h e wrong s i d e i t was k e p t i n t h e empty e n d -

b o x f o r 30 s e c o n d s . At l e a s t 1 5 m in u t e s e l a p s e d b e tw e e n

s u c c e s s i v e t r i a l s o± t h e same S.

T est t r i a l s : F o l l o w i n g th e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e c r i t e r i o n , th e

a n im a ls o f b o t h g r o u p s w ere mace t h i r s t y , and t r a i n e d t o go

t o t h e s i c e o p p o s i t e t o t h e one i n w h ich t h e y r e c e i v e d f o o d ,

i.e ., t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty e n o - b o x . The s c h e d u l e u s e d t o

m a i n t a i n a t h i r s t d r i v e was t o p e r m i t t h e a n im a ls a c c e s s

t o f o o d and w a t e r f o r one h a l f h o u r . At t h e end o f t h i s

p e r i o d t h e w a t e r vf&s rem oved and a l a r g e amount o f f o o d was

i n s e r t e d i n t h e home c a g e . A p p r o x im a t e ly o n e - h a l f h o u r
 b e fo r e th e d ay*s e x p e rim en ta l s e s s i o n o f th e io llo w in g day,

a d i s h o f p ow d ered l a b o r a t o r y chow was i n t r o d u c e d i n t o t h e

c a g e s t o in d u c e f u r t h e r e a t i n g . T h i s r e g im e n wa3 s t a r t e d

a bou t 15 m in u t e s a f t e r t h e l a s t c r i t e r i o n tr ia l. By th e

u s e o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e th e Ss i n b o t h g r o u p s were m o t i v a t e d

by a p p r o x i m a t e l y 22 h o u r s o f w a t e r d e p r i v a t i o n and w ere

s a t ia t e d fo r fo o d . W ater was now a v a i l a b l e i n t h e p r e v i o u s ­

l y empty e n a - b o x .

D u r in g t h e l e a r n i n g o f t h e seco n d p r o b le m a l l t h e &

w ere ru n t h r e e f r e e ch o ic e t r i a l s d a il y u n t i l a c r i t e r i o n

o f fo u r s u c c e s s iv e ca y s o f c o r r e c t t r i a l s (1 2 s u c c e s s iv e

tr ia ls) was r e a c h e d . Y/hen m ak ing t h e c o r r e c t c h o i c e , t h e

a n im a ls w ere p e r m i t t e d t o d r i n k f o r 1 0 s e c o n d s ; f o l l o w i n g

an i n c o r r e c t c h o i c e t h e y w ere k e p t i n t h e empty e n d - b o x f o r

30 s e c o n d s . I f t h e _S f a i l e d t o l e a r n t h e s e c o n d p r o b le m

c u r in g a p e r io d o f 10 days i t s 'r u n n in g * was d i s c o n t i n u e d .

Second Stu d y

S u b jects: The & i n t h i s s t u d y w ere 32 n a i v e m a le a l b i n o

r a t s p u r c h a s e d from t h e A lb in o Farms, Red Bank, New J e r s e y .

At t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e e x p e r im e n t t h e i r a g e s ranged from

80 t o 120 d a y s .

A p p a r a tu s : The a p p a r a t u s was i d e n t i c a l t o t h a t u s e d i n t h e

fir st stu a y .

Procedure:

T ra in in g t r i a l s : The e x p e r i m e n t a l p r o c e d u r e was s i m i l a r

t o t h a t u s e d i n th e f i r s t stu d y, e x c e p t f o r th e m o tiv a -
 -5 1 -

t i o n a l c o n d i t i o n s o f t h e a n im a ls and t h e rew aro u s e d . One

e n d -b o x c o n t a i n e d a g l a s s c o a s t e r f i l l e d w ith w ater w h ile th e

o t h e r e n d - b o x r e m a in e d em pty. Group T was m o t i v a t e d by 22 h o u r s

o f w a t e r d e p r i v a t i o n , w h i l e Group T&H h a d a d r i v e s t a t e b a s e d

upon 22 h o u r s o f w a t e r anu fo o d o e p r i v a t i o n . The r e g im e n was

as f o llo w s : 15 m in u t e s a f t e r t h e c o m p l e t i o n o f t h e i r d a i l y

tr ia ls th e a n im a ls w ere i v e n t h e i r r a t i o n o f l a b o r a t o r y chow.

W ater b o t t l e s w ere a l s o i n s e r t e d i n t o t h e home c a g e s a t t h i s

tim e. One h o u r l a t e r t h e w a te r b o t t l e s w ere rem oved from t h e

home c a g e s . One t h e f o l l o w i n g day one h o u r p r i o r t o t h e d a y ' s

e x p e rim en ta l s e s s i o n , a d i s h o f p ow d ered l a b o r a t o r y chow was

in s e r te u i n t o t h e home c a g e s o f t h e a n im a ls i n Group T. No

f o o d was p r e s e n t e d t o Group T&H a t t h i s t i m e . T h is sch ed u le

was r e p e a t e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s .

I n t h i s t r a i n i n ' ’ s e r i e s t h e same s u b c i v i s i o n s w ere made

w i t h i n ea ch '-roup a s were made i n t h e ir st stu d y . H a lf th e

a n im a ls i n e a c h g ro u p r a n 5 f r e e t r i a l s d a i l y , w h ile th e

o t h e r h a l f ran 5 f r e e t r i a l s d a i l y ana as many f o r c e d t r i a l s

p e r day a s was i n d i c a t e d by t h e number o f e r r o r s on t h a t

s in g le day. The a n im a ls w ere a llo w e d t o o r i n k f o r 1 0 s e c o n d s

f o l l o w i n g a c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e anu w ere r e s t r i c t e d i n t h e empty

e n a - b o x f o r 20 s e c o n d s f o l l o w i n g an i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e . A ll

a n im a ls w ere run t o a c r i t e r i o n o f 90 r e i n f o r c e d t r i a l s .

T est t r ia ls : On th e day f o l l o w i n ' .' t h e a t t a i n m e n t o f t h e c r i ­

t e r i o n t h e a n im a ls w e re m o t i v a t e d by f o o d d e p r i v a t i o n w h i l e

s a t ia t e o f o r w ater. T h i s s h i f t i n d r i v e was a c c o m p l i s h e d b y

a l l o w i n g t h e a n im a ls t o consume w a t e r and fo o d f o r one h o u r

b e g i n n i n g a p p r o x i m a t e l y 15 m in u t e s a f t e r t h e l a s t c r ite r io n
 -5 2 -

tr ia l. A f t e r t h i s p e r i o d t h e f o o d and w a t e r b o t t l e s w ere r e ­

moved. Two h o u r s p r i o r t o t h e n e x t o a y * s t r i a l s th e w ater,

b o t t l e was r e i n s e r t e d i n t h e home c a g e .

The p r o c e d u r e f o r r u n n in g t h e t e s t s e r i e s f o r Groups T

and TicH was t h e same a s t h a t u s e d i n t h e f i r s t s t u a y w it h

t h e e x c e p t i o n t h a t i f t h e a n im a l maoe a c o r r e c t c h o i c e i t was

p e r m itted to e a t f o r 20 s e c o n d s . I f an i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e

was made t h e r a t was c e t a i n e d f o r 30 3 e c o n c s i n t h e empty

end -b ox.
 -5 3 -

R e s u l t s and D i s c u s s i o n

The r e s u l t s o f t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s o f b o t h s t u d i e s su g ­

g e s t th a t th e e f f e c t o f a r e l a t i v e l y stron g ir r e le v a n t d r iv e ,

e i t h e r hu nger or t h i r s t , is t o r e t a r d t h e l e a r n i n g i n a sim ­

p l e T-maze s i t u a t i o n . The d a t a o b t a i n e d d u r i n g t h e t r a i n i n g

s e r i e s i s p r e s e n t e d i n t h e a p p e n d ix inasm u ch a s i t is not d i­

r e c t ly r e la te d t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e w i t h w h ic h we a r e c o n ­

cerned.
The d a t a d i r e c t l y r e l e v a n t t o t h e t h e o r e t i c a l i s s u e s t e s ­
t e d a r e c o n t a i n e d i n T a b l e s V and V I. I t w i l l be r e c a lle d

t h a t t h i s e x p e r im e n t u t i l i z e d s lig h tly d iffe r e n t procedures

i n t h e r u n n in g c o n a i-o io n s f o r h a l f t h e a n im a ls i n e a c h g r o u p .

H a l f t h e a n im a ls w ere run 5 f r e e t r i a l s d a il y w hereas th e o th er

h a l f w ere run 3 r e i n f o r c e d t r i a l s d a ily . An a n a l y s i s o f t h e

t r a i n i n g and t e s t d a t a i n d i c a t e d no d i f f e r e n c e s b e tw e e n t h e two

co n d itio n ^ * In a l l s u b s e q u e n t a n a l y s e s t h e s e two c o n a i t i o n s

w ere co m b in ed t o y i e l d an N o f 1 6 f o r e a c h g r o u p .
A c c o r d in g t o t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n
o f d r i v e s t i m u l i a s f o r m u l a t e d by Amsel ( 1 ) , th e groups p o s ­

s e s s i n g an i r r e l e v a n t a r i v e a u r i n g t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s s h o u ld

be r e t a r d e d i n l e a r n i n g d u r i n g t h e t e s t s e r i e s p ro v id ed a con­

s id e r a b le p e r io d o f p r a c t ic e h a s occu rred to a llo w th e s e r e ­

la tiv e ly *s t a t ic s t i m u l i ’ t o become a s s o c i a t e d . The i r r e l e ­

v a n t d r i v e o f t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s w h ic h now b e c o m e s t h e r e l e ­
vant d r iv e a u r in g th e t e s t t r i a l s s h o u ld h a v e a t e n d e n c y to
e v o k e t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e w i t h w h ic h i t becam e a s s o c i a t e d
d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g p e r i o a . I n s o f a r a s t h i s r e s p o n s e w ould
be th e i n c o r r e c t r e sp o n se d u r in g th e t e s t se r ie s, le a r n in g

d u rin g th e t e s t se r ie s s h o u ld b e r e t a r d e a . A c c o r d in g t o t h e
 -5 3 a -

T a b le V

Mean Number o f E r r o r s D u r in g T e s t
S e r i e s ( t o W ater) o f F i r s t Stu d y

Group N Mean CT z P

H 16 2 .0 6 2 .2 6 5 .3 2 .001

H&T 16 1 3 .3 1 7 .9 1
 -5 3 b -

T a b le VI

Mean Number o f E r r o r s t o C r i t e r i o n o f
L e a r n i n g l u r i n g T e s t T r i a l s ( t o P ood ) o f S econ d Stu d y

Group N Mean

T 16 2 .0 6 1 .7 0 5 .4 0 .001

T&H 16 1 6 .8 1 7 .1 1
s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e no d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e e n t h e g r o u p s w ould

b e e x p e c t e d s i n c e th e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e i s p o s t u l a t e d n o t t o

h a v e been a s s o c i a t e d w ith th e r e sp o n se le a r n e d o u r in g th e

tr a in in g s e r ie s .

The r e s u l t s te n d t o b e i n a g r ee m e n t w i t h t h e e x p e c t a ­

t i o n s o f t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e ana a t v a r i a n c e w i t h

th e im p lic a tio n s o f th e s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e . T a b le V i n d i ­

c a t e s e v i d e n c e o f r e t a r d a t i o n on t h e p a r t o f Group H&T i n

m a s t e r i n g t h e p r o b le m t o b e l e a r n e d c u r i n g t h e t e s t t r i a l s .
Q
W ith t h e u s e o f t h e U - t e s t tech n iq u e th e d i f f e r e n c e s in e r ­

r o r s b e tw e e n Groups H&T and H a r e s t a t i s t i c a l l y sig n ific a n t.

The d a t a p r e s e n t e d i n T a b le VI a l s o t e n d s t o be i n a gr ee m e n t

w ith th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e . The d i f f e r e n c e s i n mean

num bers o f e r r o r s o b t a i n e d Groups T and T&H w ere s i g n i f i c a n t

beyona th e 0 .1 $ l e v e l o f c o n fid e n c e .

T5T The U - t e s t was u s e d f o r t h e r e a s o n t h a t i t makes no a s -

s u m p tio n s a b o u t t h e n a t u r e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s from w h ic h
t h e means are c a l c u l a t e d . T h i s m ethod i n v o l v e s t h e r a n k in g
o f t h e s c o r e s o f two d i s t r i b u t i o n s ana d e t e r m i n i n g how many
tim es a score in th e lo w er d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e ce d e s th e sc o r e s
in th e h ig h e r d i s t r ib u t io n . The number o f t i m e s t h e s c o r e s
i n th e lo w e r d i s t r i b u t i o n p r e c e d e s th e s c o r e s in th e h ig h e r
d i s t r i b u t i o n y i e l d s t h e v a l u e o f U. T h is v a l u e i s th e n
t r e a t e d w i t h t h e f o l l o w i n g f o r m u la :

./- W . .
IT? 2)
N d e n o t e s t h e number o f s c o r e s i n o n e o f t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n s
and M d e n o t e s t h e number o f s c o r e s i n t h e o t h e r d i s t r i b u t i o n ,
and i n t h i s c a s e , M and N e q u a l 1 6 . The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e
i s o b t a i n e d by means o f t h e n orm a l p r o b a b i l i t y c u r v e . The U
t e s t was u s e d i n s t e a d o f an a n a l y s i s o f v a r i a n c e due t o t h e
f a c t t h a t th e r eq u ir em en ts o f n o r m a lity o f th e d i s t r i b u t i o n
and o f h o m o g e n ie t y o f v a r i a n c e c o u l d n o t b e m e t . The B a r t ­
l e t t ( 5 ) t e s t o f h o m o g e n ie t y y i e l d e d a x * 4 5 . 1 3 , w h ich i s
h ig h ly s ig n ific a n t.
 In t h i s ex p erim en t, a s was t h e c a s e i n t h e f i r s t e x p e r i ­

ment p r e s e n t e d , t h e m ajor v a r i a b l e c o n c e r n i n g t h e a s s o c i a t i v e

r o l e o f -an i r r e l e v a n t a r i v e s t i m u l u s w o u la a p p e a r t o l i e in

th e f a c t o r o f p r a c t ic e . T h e se d a t a t e n a t o s u b s t a n t i a t e t h e

fo r m u la tio n p r e se n te d in th e f i r s t s t u d y , n a m e ly t h a t i r r e l e ­

v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i o f t h e t h i r s t and h u n g e r t y p e became c o n ­

n e c t e d t o r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e s w it h w h ich t h e y a r e c o n t i g u o u s

o n ly as a r e s u l t o f c o n s id e r a b le p r a c t ic e . T h is p r in c ip le

can now be e x t e n d e d t o c o v e r n o t :nly situ a tio n s i n w h ic h

t h e rew ard ed r e s p o n s e i s o f t h e a v o id a n c e t pe, b u t a lso si­

t u a t i o n s i n w h ic h th e rew ard ed r e s p o n s e l e a d s t o t h r ed u c tio n

o f e i t h e r a h u n g e r o r t h i r s t .. r i v e . The s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s

b e tw e e n t h e g r o u p s can be e x p l a i n e d i n te r m s o f t h e a s s o c i a ­

t i o n o f t h e i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i and i n tu r n t h e e x p l a n a ­

tio n of th is a s s o c i a t i o n w ould b e e s s e n t i a l l y t h e same a s t h a t

p o s it e o in th e d is c u s s io n p r e s e n te d in th e f i r s t ex p e rim en t.

T h is e x p l a n a t i o n in v o k e d H u l l ’ s p r i n c i p l e o f t h e dynam ic s t a t e

o f s t i m u l i w h ic h w ould a c c o u n t f o r t h e l o n g p e r i o d o f tim e t h a t

i s n e c e s s a r y i n o r d e r f o r s t i m u l i o f a s t a t i c n a t u r e t o become

a s s o c i a t e d w ith rew arded r e s p o n s e s .

The q u e s t i o n now a r i s e s a s t o t h e r o l e o f t h e d r i v e s t i ­

m u li i n s e l e c t i v e l e a r n i n g , and i n w hat way i f any do i r r e l e ­

v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i a c t d i f f e r e n t l y from r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i .

I n an a t t e m p t t o answ er t h i s q u e s t i o n , a h y p o th e sis o f d i f f e ­

r e n t i a l h a b i t l o a d i n g o f t h e two t y p e s o f d r i v e s t i m u l i i s

h e r ew ith p o s tu la te d . T h is h y p o t h e s i s s t a t e s t h a t i n s o f a r a s

r e le v a n t d r iv e s t im u li are in th e m se lv e s red uced , t h e s e d r iv e

s t i m u l i a c q u i r e h a b i t l o a d i n g much more q u i c k l y th a n do
 -5 6 -

i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l i w h ic h ar.e n o t t h e m s e l v e s r e d u c e d .

At t h e e a r l y sta y s o f l e a r n i n g o n ly t h o s e d r i v e s t i u l i

w h ic h a c q u i r e h a b i t l o a d in;; q u i c k l y assume an a c t i v e r o l e i n

.selectiv e l e a m i n y . How ever, as t r a in i n g i . i n c r e a s e d th e

v r iv e s t i m u l i w h ic h a re n o t t h e m s e l v e s r e d u c e d a c q u i r e h a b i t

l o a d i n g anc be come an im p o r t a n t p a r t o f t h e s t i m u l u s p a t t e r n .

Thus i n a s i t u a t i o n •vhere t h e anim al i s t r a i n e d sim u lta n e o u sly

h u n g r y an-.' shir sty , onl; those drive s t i m u l i w h ich are them­

s e l v e s r e d u c e d a c q u i r e h a b i t l o a d i n g q u i c k l y anc t h u s become

a s s o c i a t e o t o t h e r e s p o n s e s burin;-- t h e e a r l y p a r t o f t h e t r a i n ­

in g , w hereas th e i r r e l e v a n t d r iv e s t i m u l i w ou ld n o t be r e d u c e d

and w ould a c q u i r e h a b i t l o a d i n g s l o w l y , th u s r e q u ir in g a lo n g

p e r i o d o f t r a i n i n g b e f o r e t h e s e s t i m u l i become a s s o c i a t e d t o

th e r e s p o n se . T h is h y p o t h e s i s v/oulc a c c o u n t f o r t h e d i s c r e ­

p a n cy b e tw e e n t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s e x p e r im e n t ana t h e e x p e r i ­

ment p e r fo r m e d by K e n a le r and Law ( 2 0 ) . I n t h e K e n d le r and

Lav/ e x p e r im e n t w here t h e a n im a ls v/ere t r a i n e d t o a r e l a t i v e l y

lo w c r i t e r i o n o f le a r n in g , th e ir r e le v a n t c r i v e stim u lu s ac­

q u ire d l i t t l e h a b it lo a d in g whereas th e r e le v a n t d r iv e s t i ­

m u lu s w h ic h was r e d u c e d a c q u i r e d h a b i t l o a d i n g . I f in t h i s

c a se th e ir r e l e v a n t d r iv e s tim u lu s a c q u ir e d l i t t l e h a b it

lo a d in g , t h e n , w h e th e r t h e a n im a ls w ere t r a i n e d u n a e r t h e c o n ­

d i t i o n s o f a s i n g l e d r i v e (h u n g e r o r t h i r s t ) o r t r a in e d sim u l­

t a n e o u s l y h u n g r y and t h i r s t y , no u i f f e r e n c e s i n t h e l e a r n i n g

o f a new r e s p o n s e s h o u ld o c c u r in a sm u ch as t h e a n im a ls i n c o r ­

p o r a te d in t o th e s tim u lu s p a tte r n o n ly th e a r iv e stim u lu s

w h ic h a c q u ir e d g r e a t e r h a b i t l o a d i n g ( t h e r e l e v a n t S ^ ) . In

t h e e x p e r im e n t r e p o r t e d h e r e , r e t a r d a t i o n i n l e a r n i n g t h e new
 -5 7 -

r e s p o n s e on t h e p a r t o f t h e a n im a ls t r a i n e d h u n g r y and t h i r ­

sty i s a r e s u l t o f t h e f a c t t h a t a l o n g t r a i n i n g p e r i o d w as

u se d a llo w in g th e ir r e le v a n t d r iv e s tim u lu s to a c q u ir e h a b it

l o a d i n g ana become a s s o c i a t e d t o t h e rew a rd ed r e s p o n s e . Thus

d u rin g th e t e s t s e r i e s t h e i r r e l e v a n t a r i v e s t i m u l u s w h ich

i s now t h e r e l e v a n t d r i v e s t i m u l u s w o u ld t e n d t o e v o k e t h e

p r e v i o u s l y l e a r n e d r e s p o n s e w h ich i s t h e i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e

a u r in g th e t e s t t r i a l s .

The im p o r t a n c e o f t h e u r i v e s t i m u l u s i n l e a r n i n g i s

f u r t h e r e v i d e n c e d by c e r t a i n o b s e r v a t i o n s made i n t h i s e x ­

p e r im e n t. The d a t a w h ic h i s r e l e v a n t t o t h e p r e s e n t d i s ­

c u ssio n i s th e b e h a v io r o f th e a n im a ls, tr a in e d under th e

c o n d i t i o n o f a s i n g l e d o m in an t d r i v e a u r i n g l e a r n i n g , on t h e

f i r s t t e s t t r i a l when t h e new a r i v e ana i t s c o rr e sp o n d in g

d r iv e stim u lu s i s in tr o d u c e d . S ix te e n o f th e t h ir t y - t w o a n i­

m a ls i n t h e s e g r o u p s w ent t o t h e s i d e o f t h e T-maze o p p o s i t e

t o t h e s i a e t h a t t h e y had p r e v i o u s l y b e e n r e i n f o r c e d ( 9 0 r e ­

i n f o r c e m e n t s ) on t h e f i r s t t r i a l o f t h e t e s t se r ie s. The r e ­

s u l t s are accou n ted f o r in p a r t l y th e r o le o f th e a r iv e s ti­

m u lu s i n l e a r n i n g . In a sm u ch as t h e s e a n im a ls w ere t r a i n e d

u n d e r t h e c o n d i t i o n o f o n l y a s i n g l e d r i v e p r e s e n t d u r in g

10. An e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t o f t h i 3 h y p o t h e s i s ' was s u g g e s t e d

b y K e n d le r ( p e r s o n a l c o m m u n ic a t io n ) . T h i s e x p e r im e n t w ou ld
c o n s i s t o f t r a i n i n g a n im a ls i n a s i t u a t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t
u s e d by K e n d l e r ( 1 9 ) t o a c r i t e r i o n o f a t l e a s t 9 0 r e i n ­
f o r c e m e n t s f o r e a c h com m od ity. I t w o u ld b e p r e d i c t e d on t h e
b a s i s o f t h e ab o v e h y p o t h e s i s t h a t a t t h e e a r l y s t a g e s o f
t r a i n i n g uh en o n l y t h e r e l e v a n t Sp w ou ld become c o n n e c t e d t o
t h e r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e t h a t more l e a r n i n g w ould b e e v i d e n c e d
th a n a t t h e l a t e r s t a g e s o f l e a r n i n g . T h i s w ould f o l l o w b e ­
c a u s e a s l e a r n i n g p r o g r e s s e s t h e h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e s t i ­
m u lu s w o u ld become a s s o c i a t e d w i t h b o t h s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e s .
11. See A p p e n d ix I I I .
 -5 8 -

le a r n in g , o n l y t h i s d r i v e s t i m u l u s a c q u ir e d h a b i t l o a d i n g .

When t h e d r i v e was changed a u r i n g t h e t e s t s e r ie s, th e p re­

v io u sly e x is t in g Sjj w h ic h h a d become a s s o c i a t e d t o t h e ap­

p r o p r i a t e r e s p o n s e was removed ana a s a r e s u l t t h e d r i v e s t i ­

m u lus w h ic h h a d assumed an im p o r t a n t r o l e i n t h e h a b i t s t r u c ­

t u r e was no l o n g e r p r e s e n t . The r em o v a l o f t h i s m a jo r com­

p o n e n t o f t h e h a b i t ( t h e Sj)) w ould tenc. t o c a u s e a b r e a k down

o f t h e o r i g i n a l l y l e a r n e d h a b i t a s e v i d e n c e d by t h e c h a n c e

b e h a v i o r u n d e r t h e new d r i v e c o n d i t i o n . T h i s would n o t be

t h e c a s e , h o w e v e r , w i t h t h e g r o u p s t h a t w ere t r a i n e d s i m u l t a ­

n e o u s l y h u n g r y ano t h i r s t y . Yihen t h e a r i v e was ch a n g e d t h e

d r i v e s t i m u l u s w h ic h was p r e s e n t d u r i n g t h e t e s t t r i a l s was

a l s o p r e s e n t d u r in g t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s and t h i s Sp w o u ld

h a v e a t e n d e n c y t o e v o k e t h e r e s p o n s e t o w h ic h i t had p r e ­

v i o u s l y become a s s o c i a t e d ( t h e i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e d u r in g t h e

test tr ia ls ). N in e p e r c e n t o f t h e a n im a ls i n t h e s e g r o u p s

s w i t c h e d t h e i r s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e on t h e f i r s t t e s t t r i a l .

T h ere r e m a in s t h e f i n a l p r o b le m o f i n t e g r a t i n g t h e work

o f K e n a le r ( 1 8 , 1 9 ) w i t h i n t h e fram ew ork o f t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e

p r in c ip le . W ith t h e f i r s t o f t h e s e two s t u d i e s ( 1 8 ) , th e ex­

p l a n a t i o n i n v o k i n g t h e m echanism o f t h e f r a c t i o n a l a n t i c i p a ­

to ry goal respon se (26) as s t a t e d in th e in tr o d u c tio n a t th e

s t a r t o f t h i s p a p e r w ould s e r v e a s an e x p l a n a t i o n w h ic h w ould

be c o n s i s t e n t w i t h t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n

o f d r i v e s t i m u l i s i n c e no r e v i s i o n o f H u l l ’ s la w o f a s s o c i a ­

tio n i s su ggested .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e s e c o n d s t u d y ( 1 9 ) i n w h ich an a tt e m p t

to t e s t th e e x p la n a tio n o f th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e w ith th e
 -5 9 -

a n t i c ip a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e m echanism in v o k e d a r e n o t c o n ­

c lu siv e enough t o w a r r a n t e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n a t t h i s t i m e .

Inasm uch a s o n l y two a n im a ls i n e a c h fTroup l e a r n e d t h e ap­

p r o p r i a t e h a b i t ana t h a t t h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f b o t h g r o u p s d i d

n o t reach a h ig h l e v e l , fu r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n u s in g t h i s typ e

o f a p r o c e d u r e would be w a r r a n te d b e f o r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s

e x p e r im e n t c o u l d be a d e q u a t e l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n t h e t h e o r e ­

t ic a l p o sitio n sta ted here.

A b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e ia e a s in c o r p o r a te d in t h i s

d i s c u s s i o n a r e as f o l l o w s : 1) ir r e le v a n t c r iv e s t i m u l i do

become a s s o c i a t e d t o rew a r d e d r e s p o n s e s w i t h w h ich t h e y a re

c o n tig u o u s a f t e r a p e r io d o f c o n s id e r a b le p r a c t i c e , and 2 ) an

h y p o th e s is o f d i f f e r e n t i a l h a b it lo a d in g o f d r iv e s tim u li i s

p o s t u l a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e a c t i o n o f r e l e v a n t and i r r e l e ­

vant d r iv e s tim u li in s e l e c t i v e le a r n in g . In b r i e f , th is hy­

p o t h e s i s s t a t e s o n l y r e l e v a n t a r i v e s t i m i l w h ich a r e them­

s e l v e s red uced a c q u ir e h a b it lo a d i n g r e l a t i v e l y q u ick , w here­

as i r r e l e v a n t c r i v e s t im u li n o t th em se lv e s reduced r eq u ir e

c o n s id e r a b le p r a c t i c e b e fo r e t h e s e s t i m u l i a c q u ir e h a b it

lo a d in g . T h is h y p o t h e s i s i s o f f e r e d a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e

r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n t h i s and o t h e r s t u d i e s ( 1 8 ) , and 3 ) t h a t

d r i v e s t i m u l i becom e an im p o r t a n t com ponent o f a h a b i t s t r u c ­

tu re.
 -5 9 -

a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e m echanism in v o k e d a r e n o t c o n ­

c lu siv e enough t o w a r r a n t e x t e n s i v e d i s c u s s i o n a t t h i s t i m e .

Inasm uch a s o n l y two a n im a ls i n e a c h ^roup l e a r n e d t h e ap­

p r o p r i a t e h a b i t ana t h a t t h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f b o t h g r o u p s d i d

n o t reach a h ig h l e v e l , f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n u s in g t h i s typ e

o f a p r o c e d u r e v/oulc b e w a r r a n te d b e f o r e t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s

e x p e r im e n t c o u l d be a d e q u a t e l y i n t e g r a t e d w i t h i n t h e t h e o r e ­

t ic a l p o sitio n sta ted here.

A b r i e f r e c a p i t u l a t i o n o f th e ia e a s in c o r p o r a te d in t h i s

d i s c u s s i o n a r e as f o l l o w s : 1 ) i r r e l e v a n t c r i v e s t i m u l i do

becom e a s s o c i a t e d t o r ew a r d e d r e s p o n s e s w i t h w h ich t h e y a r e

c o n tig u o u s a f t e r a p e r io c o f c o n s id e r a b le p r a c t ic e , and 2 ) an

h y p o th e s is o f d i f f e r e n t i a l h a b it lo a d in g o f d r iv e s tim u li i s

p o s t u l a t e d t o a c c o u n t f o r t h e a c t i o n o f r e l e v a n t and i r r e l e ­

vant d r iv e s t im u li in s e le c t iv e le a r n in g . In b r i e f , t h is hy­

p o t h e s i s s t a t e s o n l y r e l e v a n t a r i v e s t i m i l w h ich a r e them­

s e l v e s red u ced a c q u ir e h a b it lo a d in g r e l a t i v e l y q u ick , w here­

as i r r e l e v a n t c r i v e s t im u li n o t th em se lv e s reduced r eq u ir e

c o n s id e r a b le p r a c t ic e b e fo r e th e s e s t im u li a c q u ir e h a b it

lo a d in g . T h is h y p o t h e s i s i s o f f e r e d a s an e x p l a n a t i o n o f t h e

r e s u l t s o b ta in e d in t h i s and o t h e r s t u d i e s ( 1 8 ) , and 3 ) t h a t

d r i v e s t i m u l i becom e an im p o r t a n t com ponent o f a h a b i t s t r u c ­

tu re.
 SUMMARY

The p u r p o s e o f t h e s e s t u d i e s was t o t e s t t h e s e l e c t i v e

p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n w h ic h a s s e r t s t h a t o n l y t h o s e d r i v e

s t i m u l i w h ich are t h e m s e l v e s r e d u c e d becom e c o n n e c t e d to a

rew a r d e d r e s p o n s e .

In th e f i r s t s t u d y G-roup H and Group H&T (h u n g r y and

th ir sty ) w ere t r a i n e d i n a s i n g l e u n i t T-maze t o c h o o s e th e

s id e le a u in p to food ( t r a i n i n g s e r i e s ) . F o llo w in g th e a t ­

t a in m e n t o f a c r i t e r i o n ( 9 0 r e i n f o r c e m e n t s ) , t h e S3 i n e a c h

g ro u p w ere t r a i n e d t o r e sp o n d t o t h e o t h e r s i d e o f t h e maze

to g e t w ater ( t e s t se r ie s). D u r in g t h e t e s t s e r i e s b oth

g r o u p s w ere t h i r s t y . The s e c o n d s t u d y was a d u p l i c a t e o f

th e f i r s t s t u d y e x c e p t t h a t d u r i n g th e t r a i n i n g t r i a l s t h e

Ss w ere m o t i v a t e d e i t h e r b y t h i r s t (Group T ), o r t h i r s t and

h u n g e r (Group T&H). In th e t e s t s e r i e s th e p r e v a i l i n g m o ti­

v a t i o n was h u n g e r ana f o o d was p l a c e d In t h e p r e v i o u s l y empty

g o a l box.

S i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e s w ere o b t a i n e d b e tw e en t h e g r o u p s ,

in both s t u d ie s , i n r e a c h i n g t h e c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g d u r in g

th e t e s t se r ie s. I n b o th s t u d i e s th e groups t r a in e d under

h u n g e r and t h i r s t m o t i v a t i o n w ere r e t a r d e d i n l e a r n i n g t h e

new r e s p o n s e d u r i n g t h e t e s t s e r ie s.

I f a l l th e a r iv e s t i m u l i become c o n n e c t e d t o a rew ard ed

r e sp o n se in accordan ce w ith t h e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s ­

s o c i a t i o n o f d r iv e s t i m u l i th e n th e groups p o s s e s s i n g th e i r ­

r e l e v a n t d r i v e d u r i n g ' t r a i n i n g (G roup s H&T and T&H) s h o u ld b e

r e t a r d e d in le a r n in g c u r in g th e t e s t se r ie s. T h i s w o u ld f o l l o w
 -6 1 -

b e c a u s e t h e c u e s from t h e p r e v a i l i n g d r i v e s t a t e d u r i n g t h e

test s e r i e s ( t h i r s t in th e f i r s t s t u d y and h u n g e r i n t h e s e ­

c o n d ) w ould t e n d t o e v ok e t h e c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e o f t h e t r a i n i n g

tr ia ls, w h ic h was t h e i n c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e f o r t h e t e s t se r ie s.

S i n c e r e t a r d a t i o n was e x h i b i t e d , th e d ata i s i n t e r p r e t e d t o be

c o n s i s t e n t w ith th e n o n - s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f a s s o c i a t i o n o f

d r i v e s t i m u l i a s m o d i f i e d b y Amsel ( 1 ) .
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

A m sel, A. S e l e c t i v e a s s o c i a t i o n and t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y
g o a l r e s p o n s e m echanism a s e x p l a n a t o r y c o n c e p t s
in le a r n in g th e o r y . J. exp. P s y c h o l. , 1949,
39, 78 5 -8 0 0 .

E n i n g e r , M .U ., The r o l e o f i r r e l e v a n t a r i v e s t i m u l i
in le a r n in g th eo ry . J . exp. P sy c h o l. . 1951,
41, 44 6 -4 4 9 .

E n i n g e r , M.U. The r a t e o f l e a r n i n g a t o n e - n o - t o n e
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e to n e
d u r a t i o n a t t h e tim e o f a c h o i c e p o i n t r e s p o n s e .
J. exp. P s y c h o l. . 1951, 41, 4 4 0 -4 4 5 .

E dw ards, A .L . E x p erim en ta l d e s ig n in p s y c h o lo g ic a l
r e s e a r c h . New Y o r k , R h in eh a rd & Company7 I n c . .
1§50

G r a n t, D .A . New s t a t i s t i c a l c r i t e r i a f o r l e a r n i n g
and p r o b le m s o l u t i o n i n e x p e r i m e n t s i n v o l v i n g
rep eated t r i a l s . P s y c h o l. B u l l . . 1946, 43,
2 7 2 -2 8 1 .

G r a n t, D.A. A d d itio n a l t a b le s o f th e p r o b a b ilit y o f

" r u n s ” o f c o r r e c t r e s p o n s e s i n l e a r n i n g and
p r o b le m s o l v i n g . P s y c h o l . B u l l . , 1 9 4 7 , 4 4 ,
2 7 6 -2 7 9 .

H e ro n , W.T. I n t e r n a l s t i m u l i and l e a r n i n g . J comp.

P s y c h o l. , 19 4 9 , 42, 486-492

H u ll, C .L . Goal a t t r a c t i o n and d i r e c t i n g i d e a s c o n ­

c e i v e d a s h a b i t phenom ena. P s y c h o l . R e v . , 1 9 3 1 ,
38, 487 -5 0 6 .

H u ll, C .L . K now ledge and p u r p o s e a s h a b i t m ech a n ism s

P s y c h o l . R ev . , 1 9 3 0 , 3 7 , 5 1 1 - 5 2 5 .

H u ll, C .L . Goal g r a d i e n t h y p o t h e s i s and maze l e a r n i n

P s y c h o l. R e v ., 1932, 39, 2 5 -4 3 .

H u ll, C .L . D i f f e r e n t i a l h a b i t u a t i o n t o i n t e r n a l
s tim u li in th e a lb in o r a t . J . comp. P s y c h o l . ,
1933, 1 6 , 255-273

H u ll, C .L . P r i n c i p l e s o f b e h a v i o r . New Y o rk :
D. A p p le t o n c e n t u r y , 1 9 4 3 .

H u n te r , W. S. and H a l l , B .E . D oub le a l t e r n a t i o n
b e h a v i o r o f t h e w h it e r a t i n a s p a t i a l m aze.
J . comp. P s y c h o l . , 1 9 4 1 , 3 2 , 2 5 3 - 2 6 6 .
 -6 3 -

14. H u n te r , W. S . and N a g g e , J.W. The w h it e r a t and

t h e d o u b le a l t e r n a t i o n t e m p o r a l m aze.
J. g e n e t. P s y c h o l. . 1931, 39, 303-319.

15. K a p p au f, \Y.S. and S c h l o s b e r g , H. C o n d itio n e d

r e a p e r . g a s i n t h e vbd t e r a t : I I I . C o n d i t i o n i n g
as a fu n c tio n o f th e le n g t h o f th e p e r io d o f
d e la y . J. g en e t. P sy c h o l. . 1937, 50, 2 7 -4 5 .

16. K e n d l e r , H.H. D r iv e i n t e r a c t i o n : I . L e a r n i n g as a
f u n c t io n o f th e sim u lta n e o u s p r e se n c e o f th e
h u n g e r and t h i r s t d r i v e . J . e x p . P s y c h o l . ,
1945, 35, 96-109.

17. K e n d l e r , H.H. D r iv e i n t e r a c t i o n : I I . E x p e r im e n ta l
a n a ly s is o f th e r o le o f d r iv e in le a r n in g
th e o r y . J. exp. P s y c h o l. , 1945, 35, 1 8 8 -1 9 8 ,

18. K e n d l e r , H.H. The i n f l u e n c e o f s i m u l t a n e o u s h u n g e r

and t h i r s t o r i v e s upon th e l e a r n i n g o f two
o p p o s e d s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e s o f t h e w h it e r a t .
J . exp. P s y c h o l. , 1946, 36, 212-220.

19. K e n d l e r , H .H . An e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t o f t h e n o n -
s e l e c t i v e p r i n c i p l e o f d r i v e s t i m u l i . Amer. J .
P s y c h o l . , 1949, 62, 382-3 9 1 .

20. K e n d l e r , H.H. and Law, An e x p e r i m e n t a l t e s t o f

th e s e le c tiv e p r in c ip le of a ss o c ia tio n of
m r i v e s t i m u l i . J . e x o . P s y c h o l . , 1 9 5 0 . 4-0,
299-504.

21 . K e n d l e r , H .H . and L e v i n e , £ . S t u d i e s i n th e e f f e c t
o f c h a n g e o f d r i v e : I . From h u n g e r t o t h i r s t
i n a T -m aze. J . e x p . P s y c h o l . , 1 9 5 1 , 4 1 ,
4 2 9 -4 3 7 .

22 . L e e p e r , R. The r o l e o f m o t i v a t i o n i n l e a r n i n g : A
s tu d y o f t h e phenomenon o f d i f f e r e n t i a l
m o t iv a tio n a l c o n tr o l o f th e u t i l i z a t i o n o f
h a b it s . J. g e n e t. P sy c h o l. . 1935, 46, 3 -4 0 .

23. Maim, U.K. anu V-laitney, D. R. On a t e s t o f w h e th e r

one o f two random v a r i a b l e s i s s t o c h a s t i c a l l y
l a r g e r th a n t h e o t h e r . Ann. math S t a t i s t . ,
1947, 18, 5 0 -60.

24. M u e n z in g e r , K .F . and F l e t c h e r , F.M. M o tiv a tio n in

le a r n in g : V I. E s c a p e from e l e c t r i c sh o c k
com pared w i t h h u n g e r - f o o d t e n s i o n I n t h e v i s u a l
d i s c r i m i n a t i o n h a b i t . J . comp. P s y c h o l . , 1 9 3 6 ,
22, 7 9-91.

25. S p e n c e , K.W. and D e i s e n r o t h , C .E . An i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f

la t e n t le a r n in g . P sy c h o l. B u l l . , 1941, 30,
706 - A b s tr a c t.
S p e n c e , K.W. T h eo ries o f le a r n in g . In : C h ap ter IV
S t e v e n s , 3. S. ( e d . ) Handbook i n e x p e r i m e n t a l
p s y c h o l o g y . Y .ile y and C o ., 1 9 5 1 .

Y.'ebb, V.. E. An e x p e r i m e n t a l s tu d y o f t h e r o l e o f an
i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e i n th e b e h a v i o r o f th e w h it e
r a t . P h .D . T h e s i s , S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y o f Io w a ,
A u g u s t, 1 S 4 7 .

Y iilk e n s o n , 1 . A s t a t i s t i c a l c o n sid e r a tio n in psycho­

l o g i c a l r e s e a r c h . P sy c h o l. B u ll. 1951, 48,
1 5 6 -1 5 8 .

Y,‘i n n i c k , V.'. The d i s c r i m i n a t i v e f u n c t i o n o f d .r iv e -

s t i m u l i i n d e p e n d e n t o f th e a c t i o n o f t h e
d r i v e a s m o t i v a t i o n . Amer. J . P s y c h o l . ,
1950, 63, 1 9 6 -2 0 5 .

W in n ic k , W. A s tu d y i n i n c i p i e n t movem ents i n
a v o id a n ce . C olum bia U n i v . D i s s e r t a t i o n , 1 9 4 9 .
 APPEi'! DIX I

A N o te C o n c e r n in g H e ro n ’ s T e c h n iq u e o f Pumping W ater I n t o
an A n im a l’ s Stom ach,

I n o r d e r t o a s c e r t a i n t h e p r o p e r amount o f w a te r t o he

pumped i n t o t h e a n im a l u n d e r c o n t r o l c o n d i t i o n 3 a s e r i e s

o f o b s e r v a t i o n s w e re u n d e r t a k e n . The r e a s o n f o r p e r f o r m in g

t h e s e o b s e r v a t i o n s was t h a t w h i l e t h e - x p e r i m e n t o r was p r a c ­

t i c i n g t h e t e c h n i q u e o f pumping w a te r i n t o t h e stom ach o f

r a t s , E u s e d t h e same amount o f w a t e r u s e d by H eron ( 7 ) ,

51 c c . The r e s u l t s p r o v e a f a t a l t o t h e two r a t s t h a t were

used.

The f i r s t t e s t i n v o l v e d r e m o v in g t h e stom ach from a

ra t, c la m p in g t h e p i l o r i c s p h i n c t e r and f i l l i n g t h e stom ach

u n til i t ruptured . I n th e th r e e c a s e s o b se rv e d , t h e m a x i­

mum amount o f w a t e r t h e sto m a ch coulc. h o l d b e f o r e r u p t u r i n g

was 45 c c . The n e x t t e s t i n v o l v e d d i s s e c t i n g an a n im a l,

l e a v i n g t h e d i g e s t i v e t r a c t i n t a c t and o b s e r v i n g t h e e f f e c t s

o f t h e w a t e r b e i n g pumped i n . The o b s e r v a t i o n s show ed t h a t '

a f t e r t h e sto m a ch h a d b e e n f i l l e d w i t h 1 5 c c . o f w a t e r , t h e

p ilo r ic s p h i n c t e r o p e n e d and t h e i n t e s t i n e s became f i l l e d

w ith w a ter. A f t e r 45 c c . o f w a t e r , t h e sto m a c h r u p t u r e d a t

th e c a r d ia c end. The a v e r a g e w e ig h t o f t h e a n im a ls u s e d was

300 gr a m s.

I n a f i n a l o b s e r v a i j l o n w a t e r was pumped i n t o a r a t when

t h e body o a v i t y w as em pty. The body d a v i t y h e l d 85 c c . o f

w a ter. The t o t a l volum e o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e b od y c a v i t y

w as 50 c c . Thus i f f o l l o w s t h a t 51 c c . o f w a t e r w o u ld ,w h e n
added t o t h e volum e o f t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e body c a v i t y , e x c e e d
t h e l i m i t o f t h e amount o f m a t e r i a l t h e body c a v i t y i s c a p a b le

o f h o ld in g .

On t h e b a s i s o f t h e s e t e s t s i t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t 1 5 c c .

o f w a t e r was s u f f i c i e n t t o f u l f i l l t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s o f a f u l l

s to m a c h .
 -6 7 -

APPENDIX I I

The E f f e c t s o f an I r r e l e v a n t D r iv e Upon L e a r n in g i n a T-maze

I n 1 9 4 6 K e n d le r ( 1 6 ) r e p o r t e d r e s u l t s w h ich w ere c o n ­

tr a r y to H u l l ' s (1 2 ) p o s t u la t e c o n c er n in g th e a c tio n o f

d r i v e s and t h e manner i n w h ic h t h e y c o m b in e . H u l l assumed

t h a t t h e p r e s e n c e o f a c o e x i s t i n g d r i v e a t t h e tim e o f l e a r n ­

i n g w ould f a c i l i t a t e th e le a r n in g . K e n d ler 's (1 6 ) r e s u l t s

r e v e a le d th a t th e e f f e c t s o f a r e l a t i v e l y stron g ir r e le v a n t

d r iv e ( e it h e r hunger or t h i r s t ) i s to retard le a r n in g . T h e se

r e su lts are c o n s i s t e n t w it h r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d by M u e n z in g e r

and F l e t c h e r ( 2 5 ) and K e n d le r ( 2 0 ) . In both o f t h e s e s t u d i e s

a s t r o n g i r r e l e v a n t e r i v e c u r i n g l e a r n i n g had t h e e ffe c t o f r e ­

ta r d in g th e le a r n in g .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s o f t h e s t u o i e s i n t h e

s e c o n a e x p e r im e n t y i e l d s d a t a w h ic h i s i n a c c o r d w i t h above

m e n t io n e d e x p e r i m e n t s ( 1 6 , 20, 2 5 ). T h e s e d a t a a r e summari­

z e d i n T a b l e s V II a n a V I I I . In both s t u d ie s th e groups t h a t

w ere run w it h a s t r o n g i r r e l e v a n t d r i v e (Group H&T and Group

T&H) made s i g n i f i c a n t l y more e r r o r s c u r i n g t h e t r a i n i n g s e r i e s

t h a n d i d t h e g r o u p s t h a t w ere run w i t h a s i n g l e d r i v e (Group

H and Group T ) . The l e v e l o f s i g n i f i c a n c e i n t h e f i r s t s tu d y

was . 0 0 1 . The d a t a w ere s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e . 0 2 l e v e l i n t h e

second stu d y .

The i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t h e s e r e s u l t s f o r l e a r n i n g t h e o r y

w e re p u t f o r t h by K e n d le r ( 1 7 ) . A ll o f th e s e d a ta are con­

t r a r y t o t h e h y p o t h e s i s o f H u l l ( 1 2 ) w h ic h s t a t e s t h a t a

c o e x i s t i n g d r i v e p r e s e n t a t t h e t im e o f l e a r n i n g w o u ld f a c i l i -
 -6 7 a -

T a b le V II

Mean Number o f E r r o r s D u r in g T r a i n i n g
S e r i e s ( t o Food) o f F i r s t Study

Group N Mean <j~ Z P

H 16 7 .0 4 1 .4 6 3 .3 6 .0 0 1

H&T 16 9 .2 5 1 .7 1
 -6 7 b -

T a b le V I I I

Mean Number o f E r r o r s D u r in g T r a i n i n g
S e r i e s ( t o W ater) o f S econa Stu d y

Group N Mean (j~ Z P

T 16 9 .6 2 3 .6 0 2 .1 8 .0 2

T&H 16 1 3 .4 3 5 .0 7
 -6 8 -

t a t e th e le a r n in g . The d a t a p r e s e n t e d h e r e , added t o t h e d a t a

a l r e a d y o b t a i n e u by o t h e r e x p e r im e n t o r s , would, s t r e n g t h e n t h e

p o s i t i o n m a i n t a i n e d by K e n d le r ( 1 7 ) t h a t a r e v i s i o n o f H u l l ’ s

p o s t u l a t e c o n c e r n i n g t h e a c t i o n o f d r i v e s ana t h e manner i n

w h ic h t h e y com bin e i n l e a r n i n g i s n e c e s s a r y .
 APPENDIX I I I

The E f f e c t s o f Change o f D r iv e on T-Maze P e r fo r m a n c e

R e c e n t l y K e n d le r ano L e v i n e ( 2 2 ) r e p o r t e r e x p e r i m e n t a l

e v ia .- n c e w h ich I n d i c a t e d t h a t a c h a n g e o f d r i v e had a marked

i n f l u e n c e upon t h e p e r fo r m a n c e o f r a t s i n a T -m a ze. The

b a sic e x p e r i m e n t a l a s s i g n i n f o u r s t u d i e s r e p o r t e d was t o

tr a in a n im a ls v .h ile h u n g r y t o a c q u i r e a t u r n i n g h a b i t i n

a T -m a z e . F o llo w in g th e a tta in m e n t o f a c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n ­

in g , th<- d r i v e was c h a n g e d t o t h i r s t . For one group i n t h e s e

stu d ie s, t h e c r i t e r i o n o f l e a r n i n g was t h r e e s u c c e s s i v e c o r ­

r e c t c h o ic e s, f o r t h e o t h e r group t h e c r i t e r i o n was t w e l v e

su c c e ssiv e co rrect c h o ic e s. The d a t a r e v e a l e d t h a t f o r t h e

l o w c r i t e r i o n g r o u p , 3 0 . 1 6 ^ o f t h e a n im a ls s w i t c h e d t h e i r

s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e ( c h o s e t h e s i d e o p p o s i t e t o t h e one w h ic h

t h e a n im a ls h a d b e e n c o n s i s t e n t l y c h o o s i n g ) on t h e f i r s t t e s t

t r i a l u n d er t h i r s t m o t i v a t i o n , w h e r e a s 47.95>j o f t h e a n im a ls

i n t h e h i g h c r i t e r i o n group s w i t c h e d t h e i r s p a tia l response

on t h e f i r s t t e s t t r i a l u n d e r w a t e r u e p r i v a t i o n . The d i f ­

f e r e n c e was s i g n i f i c a n t a t t h e .0 1 l e v e l o f c o n f i d e n c e . The

e x p l a n a t i o n f o r t h e s e r e s u l t s was a s f o l l o w s :

" I t i s r e a s o n e d t h a t when Ss w ere h u n g r y and f o o d was

i n one o f t h e e n d - b o x e s , t h e c u e s e m a n a tin g from t h e f o o d -
b o x , ana t h e a l l e y l e a d i n g t o t h e f o o d , became a s s o c i a t e d
w i t h a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s ( m a s t i c a t o r y m o v em en ts,
sa liv a tio n , e t c . ) . The p r o p r i o c e p t i v e s t i m u l i r e s u l t i n g
from t h e s e a n t i c i p a t o r y g o a l r e s p o n s e s became t h e m s e l v e s ,
i n t u r n , c o n u i b i o n e d t o e n t e r i n g anc c o n t i n u i n g lo c o m o ­
t i o n in th e a l l e y le a d in g to th e fo o d -b o x . In itia lly ,
o n l y t h e h u n g e r d r i v e s t i m u l u s ana t h e f o o d w o u ld e v ok e
th e a n tic ip a to r y e a tin g r esp o n se s. As l e a r n i n g t o go t o
fo o d p r o g r e sse d , how ever, th e s e a n t ic ip a to r y r esp o n se s
becam e c o n d i t i o n e d t o c e r t a i n f e a t u r e s o f t h e g o a l b o x
c o n t a i n i n g f o o c ana t h e n "workea backward" u n t i l c u e s
 -7 0 -

a t t h e e n t r a n c e t o t h e c o r r e c t a l l e y w ere c a p a b le o f
e v o k i n g some com ponent o f t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e ­
sponse. VJhen t h e a n im a ls w ere made t h i r s t y , t h e c u e s
o f t h e maze e l i c i t e c t h e s e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n ­
ses. I t i s assum ed t h a t t h e a n t i c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e ­
s p o n s e s o f d r y f o o d a r ; , i n eome m anner, i n c o m p a t i b l e
w i t h t h e r e s u l t a n t c o n d i t i o n o f w a te r d e p r i v a t i o n ( p r o ­
bably c o n f l i c t w i t h a n t i c i p a t o r y d r i n k i n g r e s p o n s e s ) .
I t would b e e x p e c t e d t h a t t h i s ' i n c o m p a t i b i l i t y * a t
t h e c h o i c e p o i n t w ould be r e d u c e d b y t h e Ss g o i n g i n
t h e d i r e c t i o n away; from t h e e n a - b o x b a i t e d w i t h f o o d .
The c u e s i n t h e i n c o r r e c t p a t h o f t h e maze h a d n o t
been c i r e c t l y c o n d itio n e a to th e a n t ic ip a t o r y e a tin g
r e s p o n s e s , a n a, c o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e g r e a t e r t h e r e l i e f
from t h e ' c o n f l i c t s t a t e ' p o s t u l a t e d t o e x i s t . " ( 2 1 , p . 4 3 0 )

One o f t h e a e d u c t i o n s w h ic h can b e made from t h i s t h e o r y

i s t h a t any c o n a i t i o n w hich w ould t e n d t o i n c r e a s e t h e a n t i ­

c i p a t o r y e a t i n g r e s p o n s e s would r e s u l t i n g r e a t e r s w i t c h i n g .

One su c h c o n d i t i o n w ould be g r e a t e r number o f r e i n f o r c e m e n t s

d u r in g t r a i n i n g u n c e r a h u n g e r d r i v e .

The r e s u l t s o f t h e Group H i n t h e s e c o n d e x p e r im e n t t e n d

to support th e th eo ry s t a t e d above. A fte r th e c o m p le tio n o f

th e t r a in in g s e r i e s (9 0 r e in fo r c e m e n ts ), 62% o f t h e a n im a ls

i n Group H s w i t c h e d t h e i r s p a t i a l r e s p o n s e on t h e f i r s t t e s t

t r i a l under th e t h i r s t m o tiv a tio n . The mean number o f r e i n ­

f o r c e m e n t s f o r t h e h i g h c r i t e r i o n group i n t h e p r e v i o u s s t u ­

d i e s on s w i t c h i n g was a p p r o x im a t e ly 1 9 . It s h o u ld be n o t e d

th a t th e p e r ce n t o f sw itc h in g o b ta in e d in t h i s s t u c y was

g r e a t e r th a n t h a t o b t a i n e d i n any o f t h e p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s .

The o a t a o b t a i n e d i n t h e s t u d i e s on s w i t c h i n g f u r t h e r

i n d i c a t e t h e im p o r t a n c e o f t h e d r i v e s t i m u l i a s a v a r i a b l e

in le a r n in g .

LIBRARY GF
REW YfP.K I d T Y Y F ' W ’
UNIVERSITY i f h h r