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SAE TECHNICAL 2018-36-0148

PAPER SERIES E

Characterization of the brake system of a Formula SAE vehicle

PEDRO HENRIQUE MORAES DA SILVA
SERGIO JUNICHI IDEHARA
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Characterization of the brake system of a Formula SAE vehicle
Abstract
SAE Formula vehicles are required under extreme braking conditions
during the race, where four-wheel braking is required. The brake
assembly is composed of mechanical and hydraulic systems, which
depending on the assembly of the components, can be subject to losses,
causing a variation of the expected behavior. During braking
situations, it is important to consider the load transfer in order to
configure the braking distribution between the front and rear axles of
the car with the best setup desired. The main objective of this work is
to formulate a numerical model using the empirical data from the brake
system of a SAE Formula vehicle to ensure that, after force is applied
to the pedal, and the corresponding load is transferred to the front axle,
the vehicle can lock the four wheels. Experimental data was acquired
through static tests carried out on the bench and prototype vehicle,
controlling the change of pressure and force between the front and rear
axles through the balance bar mechanism. These tests were performed
using low cost instrumentation, based on the Arduino platform. These
analyses ensures that a vehicle with a brake distribution configured by
the balance bar will lock the four wheels during the brake tests.
Keywords: Brake; locking wheels, balance bar, formula, Arduino.
Introduction
A vehicle’s brake system is one of its most vital safety subsystems;
therefore, force control is an essential factor. During the braking
process, the vertical force of the rear wheels is transferred to the front
wheels, resulting in greater vertical forces on the front axle. This
characteristic justifies the need for a brake system with a greater
braking capacity on the front wheels. The resulting moment of braking
occurs based on the height of the vehicle’s gravity center in relation to
the ground [1].
The inertia force in the center of gravity developed during a braking
process that causes the pitch motion of the vehicle is influenced by the
height of the center of gravity, wheelbase and the rigidity of the
springs, as described by Breuer and Bill [2]. The dynamic weight
transfer from the rear axle to the front axle changes the maximum
braking capacity of both axles, as the braking force is a function of the
mass and deceleration of the vehicle. Because the increase in the front
axle weight and decrease in the rear axle, the required braking force in
the rear wheels would be lower, so it is possible that the rear wheels
lock, causing the vehicle to loose stability. The maximum braking
force is determined by the normal load and the coefficient of friction
between the tire and the ground [3; 4]. Also, when the braking force
exceeds the available force on the wheels, they lock.
It can be noted that only when the distribution of braking forces
between front and rear axles match – all normal loads, proportionally
Page 1 of 9
2018-36-0148
Pedro Henrique Moraes da Silva
Federal University of Santa Catarina
Sérgio Junichi Idehara
Federal University of Santa Catarina
–, a maximum braking force from front and rear tires occurs
simultaneously. Therefore, it is an optimal braking condition and it
prevents the loss of directional stability caused by the locking of the
rear wheels or the loss of directional control generated by the locking
of the front wheels [3]. To determine the different parameters of the
vehicle that influence the braking force, some studies evaluate
performance by varying variables, such as the vehicle’s load [5] and
the characteristics of the hydraulic system [6;7].
In racing vehicles with a hydraulic circuit, mechanisms are often
employed in the master cylinder to adjust the force between front and
rear axles [8; 9]. For example, a balance bar mechanism is present in
most racing cars with two master cylinders [10]. It distributes the brake
pedal force differently amongst the cylinders and may be adjusted to
vary this braking force between front and rear axles.
Also, brake systems have several additional physical effects that
require a clear understanding of their influence on the vehicle’s
dynamic behavior. Hysteresis, for instance, is an attribute of most
automotive systems from engine to tires, and it is generally
characterized by a nonlinear and often asymmetric shape. Hysteresis is
also present in the brake system and should be considered when it
comes to vehicle performance and safety studies. In vehicle dynamics,
the hysteresis is represented by a constant time delay, [11; 12], or a
linear characteristic (clearance), while in some situations it is
neglected.
In order to illustrate such effect, Shryokau et al. [13] analyzed the
effect of hysteresis on a braking mechanism and its influence on
vehicle dynamics. Such analyses have shown a nonlinear and
asymmetrical shape of the brake line hysteresis and its influence on the
variation of the main dynamic characteristics in a braking situation, for
example, stopping distance, braking time and average deceleration.
Also, Tretsiak et al. [14] verified that when the speed applied by the
driver on brake pedal increased during a service and emergency
braking, the hysteresis value increased proportionally. It was
determined that hysteresis losses in the hydraulic brake system were
around 5.5% for service braking and 7.5% for emergency braking. The
braking system has different components that influence the value of
the hysteresis, such as the brake disc mechanism, the master cylinder
and brake hydraulic lines [14].
Therefore, in this work, we present the results of the experimental
measurements of a Formula SAE vehicle brake system to determine its
capacity to lock all wheels considering the presence of the system
hysteresis. The vehicle’s maximum deceleration from the data required
the use of some numerical models, as presented in the next topics.
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Numerical modeling Tf = Ff . R ef + Iw × 𝛼𝑤 (5)

This section is divided in two parts, the (1) analysis of the vehicle’s Tr = Fr . R ef + Iw × 𝛼𝑤 (6)
dynamic characteristics and the (2) brake’s hydraulics system with
braking force distribution for each wheel. The details of each Where the mass moment of inertia is 𝐼𝑤 .
description are given below.
By Wong [3], the maximum braking force occurs before wheel locks.
Vehicle dynamic performance Then the maximum force is described by equation 7.

A dynamic model to represent the behavior of the vehicle braking
condition was implemented based on the free-body diagram from
Figure 1.
𝐹𝑚á𝑥 = µ𝑝 . 𝑊 (7)
From 𝐹𝑚𝑎𝑥 , it is possible to obtain the maximum deceleration of the
vehicle as in equation 8, where the maximum deceleration only retains
the coefficient of friction between tire and road surface.

𝑎 = µ𝑝 . 𝑔 (8)

In another formulation, the deceleration of the prototype (𝑎) is

Figure 1. Sketch of the vehicle free-body diagram.
The variables in the figure represent dimensions: 𝐵 is the wheelbase;
𝐵𝑓 is the location of CG behind the front axle; 𝐵𝑟 is the location of CG
in front of the rear axle; ℎ is the CG height, and forces, as 𝑊 is vehicle
weight, 𝑊𝑓 and 𝑊𝑟 are the ground reaction of the frontal and rear axle
weight, respectively; 𝐹𝑓 and 𝐹𝑟 are braking forces of the frontal and
rear axle, respectively; and 𝑚. 𝑎 is the inertial force caused by
deceleration.
To ensure that the vehicle locks all four wheels the forces required
were calculated based on this model. Hence, in order to obtain the force
reactions on the front and rear axle, the sum of the moments in each
axis is applied during braking condition, and as described by Heiring
and Ersoy [1], at a higher deceleration rate the weight is transferred
from the rear tires to the front tires. In equations 1 and 2, the normal
𝑎
forces in each axis are presented, where 𝐺 = is vehicle deceleration
𝑔
in 𝑔 (gravity acceleration).
determined by the Pamphlet model [16], which depends on the
variation of the force applied on the pedal as a brake factor (𝐵𝐹), brake
line pressure (𝑃𝑓 and 𝑃𝑟 ) and the parameters of the hydraulic
components, as the master cylinder and brake calipers areas (𝐴𝑝𝑓 and
𝐴𝑝𝑟 ) and master cylinder efficiency (𝜂𝑐𝑚 ). 𝑅𝑑 is the radius of the brake
disk. Therefore, equation 9 is divided in two terms, considering the
effects of front and rear axles, respectively.
𝑅𝑑
𝑎. 𝑊 = 𝑃𝑓 . 𝜂𝑐𝑚 . 𝐴𝑝𝑓 . 𝐵𝐹. ( )
𝑅𝑒𝑓
(9)
𝑅𝑑
+ 𝑃𝑟 . 𝜂𝑐𝑚 . 𝐴𝑝𝑟 . 𝐵𝐹. ( )
𝑅𝑒𝑓
Brake system hydraulic
Following the Limpert model [17], in equation 10, the pressure in
brake line (𝑃) varies according to the force applied to the pedal (𝐹𝑝 ),
pedal mechanical gain (𝐺𝑝 ), pedal efficiency (𝜂𝑝 ), master cylinder
efficiency (𝜂𝑐𝑚 ), and the area of the master cylinder (𝐴𝑐𝑚 ). Where,
according to Pamphlet [17], the master cylinder with a hydraulic
circuit has an efficiency (𝜂𝑐𝑚 ) around 96%, while the pedal has an
efficiency (𝜂𝑝 ) between 78% and 86%.

𝐵𝑟 𝐺.ℎ 𝐴𝑐𝑚 . 𝑃
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑊. + 𝑊. (1) 𝐹𝑝 = (10)
𝐵 𝐵
𝐺𝑝 . 𝑔. 𝜂𝑝. 𝜂𝑐𝑚
𝐵𝑓 𝐺.ℎ
𝑊𝑟 = 𝑊. − 𝑊. (2) Using two master cylinders the equation would be divided in two parts,
𝐵 𝐵
one for the front axle pressure and another for the rear axle pressure,
Following this model, the braking force can be modeled according to where the percentage of pressure for each cylinder would be controlled
equations 3 and 4, which relates the friction coefficient of the road (𝜇𝑝 ) by the balance bar.
and the normal force acting on each axis.
A lever is used between the point of the pedal force application (𝐹𝑝 )
Ff = µp × W𝑓 (3) and the line action of the master cylinder force. In this case, the force
on the pedal is multiplied by the ratio 𝐺𝑝 as shown in equation 11.
Fr = µp × W𝑟 (4) Figure 2 shows the pedal and the distance between the axis of rotation
and the line of action of forces.
Considering the wheels without slipping in contact with the ground,
the angular acceleration 𝛼𝑤 can be related to the effective radius 𝑅𝑒𝑓
[15]. Thus, in equations 5 and 6 the maximum braking torques
available on both front (𝑇𝑓 ) and rear (𝑇𝑟 ) axles are shown, respectively.
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Figure 2. Brake pedal with lever fulcrum variables.
𝐶 theoretical proportion of the pressure distribution to the front and rear
Gp =
𝐵
Figure 3 shows the balance bar mechanism, where for a symmetric
situation, 50% of the proportional force applied to the pedal is carried
in the front (𝐹𝑐𝑖𝑙𝐹 ) and rear (𝐹𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑅 ) cylinders, respectively.
Figure 3. Illustration of the balance bar mechanism.
The terms 𝐿𝑟 and 𝐿𝑓 relate the distance from the ball joint to the point
of force in the master cylinder, so in equation 12 the influence of the
position of this mechanism on force distribution for each cylinder can
be seen.
𝐹𝑐𝑖𝑙𝐹 × 𝐿𝑓 = 𝐹𝑐𝑖𝑙𝑅 × 𝐿𝑟
By relating the master cylinder force to its respective areas, it is
possible to obtain the pressure in the master cylinder. As mentioned by
Heiring and Hersoy [1], the brake fluid transmits the energy along the
master cylinder, the hydraulic control unit and the wheel brakes.
Initially disregarding pressure losses in the pipes and fittings, the
pressure in the master cylinder will be the same as the pressure in the
caliper.
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The resulting friction force 𝐹𝑎𝑡 generated by the slave cylinders and
specified hydraulic ratio from cylinder areas is presented in equation
13, where 𝐹𝑓𝑒𝑐 is the force in the slave cylinders and 𝜇𝑝𝑑 is the
coefficient of friction between the brake disc and pads.
𝐹𝑎𝑡 = 𝐹𝑓𝑒𝑐 × µ𝑝𝑑 (13)
The torque required to generate vehicle deceleration derives from the
brake discs. This torque is directly related to the frictional force
between the brake pads and the discs. Equation 14 shows the braking
torque on the wheel.
𝑇𝑑 = 𝐹𝑎𝑡 × 𝑅𝑑 (14)
The term 𝑅𝑑 showed in equation 14 refers to the effective radius of the
disk, i.e., it is considered the mean point of application of the caliper’s
clamping force.
For an optimal braking situation, with wheel locked, it should happen
simultaneously for both axles. Equations 15 and 16 illustrate a
(11)
axles, respectively, determined by the parameters that influence this
condition. The term 𝑓𝑟 refers to the coefficient of rolling resistance,
considered as 0.001 by Wong [3].
𝐵𝑟 + ℎ(µ𝑝 + 𝑓𝑟 )
𝐾𝑏𝑓 = ( ) (15)
𝐵
𝐵𝑓 + ℎ(µ𝑝 + 𝑓𝑟 )
𝐾𝑏𝑟 = ( ) (16)
𝐵
Experimental setup
Seeking to guarantee the locking of the four wheels in Formula SAE
competition, this work has as objective to evaluate the efficiency of the
balance bar configuration during the braking process and ensuring that
after force is applied to the pedal, the braking torque is greater than the
frictional torque available on each tire.
Then, in order to find the sensible parameters that contribute to the
characterization of the brake system of a Formula SAE vehicle, a
pressure sensor on the front and rear brake lines, a load cell on the
pedal and a linear sliding potentiometer on the balance bar were used.
Subsequently, the responses resulting from the tests were analyzed and
correlated with the theoretical brake design models.
During the tests, softer forces with an execution time that was longer
(12) than that in an emergency braking condition were applied to the brake
pedal. Three repetitions were performed, each one consisting of three
sequential force applications on the brake pedal, and an average total
time interval of 30 seconds.
Instrumentation
The numbers in the Figure 4 show an illustration where the sensors
were installed.
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Vehicle parameters

Table 1 shows the parameters used for numerical simulation based on

bench data and vehicle design.

Table 1. Parameters and data used in theoretical and experimental calculation

Variables Symbol Value Unit

Front caliper area 𝐴𝑝𝑓 1231.5 mm²

Rear caliper area 𝐴𝑝𝑟 1013.4 mm²

Figure 4. Instrumentation of the test bench: 1 – load cell; 2 – linear
potentiometer; 3,4 – pressure transducer.
Effective radius of the disc 𝑅d 100.0 mm

(1) Load cell Dynamic radius of the tire R ef 271,.6 mm

The load cell, based on strain gauge instrumentation, has a range of 0 Wheelbase 𝐵 1630.0 mm
to 100kgf and is applied on the brake pedal to measure the driver’s
force during the vehicle braking condition. ℎ
CG height 350.0 mm

(2) Linear potentiometer Weight 𝑊 3474.7 N

The measurement range of the linear potentiometer is 0 to 30mm. Percentage of front axle weight 𝐷𝑓 0.54
Based on this, it was possible to measure the displacement of the
master cylinder bar during brake pedal displacement.
Master cylinder efficiency 𝜂𝑐𝑚 0.96

(3-4) Pressure sensor Brake Factor BF 0.90

Hydraulic pressure sensors with a range of 0 to 80bar were used for Tire friction coefficient µ𝑝 1.2
the front and rear brake lines. It was possible to evaluate the
contribution of the balance bar in the distribution of the system
pressure. Pad friction coefficient µ 0.45

Data acquisition system Pedal gain Gp 4,33

The Arduino microcontroller (Mega) was used to acquire the

experimental data. The sampling rate used was 11Hz. Figure 5 shows
the test bench with the Arduino (5) and the sensors (1-4).
Experiment results
This section presents experimental measurements, as well as the
validation and comparison with the numerical model results. The tests
consist of the four cases described below:

• Case I: measurement on test bench with balance bar in

equilibrium position (50%).

• Case II: measurement in the vehicle with balance bar in

equilibrium position (50%).

• Case III: measurement on the test bench with balance bar

configuration set for 60% pressure in the rear cylinder.

• Case IV: measurement on test bench with balance bar

configuration set for 60% pressure in the front cylinder.

Figure 5. Test bench. The microcontroller Arduino is #5. Case I

In this analysis, the balance bar was positioned in equilibrium, where

the forces between the two master cylinders are equal. From the
variation of the displacement of the master cylinder (𝛥𝑐𝑚 ) and the
pedal gain (𝐺𝑝 ), it was obtained the pedal displacement. The Figure 6

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shows the pressures measured in the brake lines as a function of this
pedal displacement. From the figure, the pressure in cylinder 1 (front)
and 2 (rear) reached 38.08bar and 38.99bar, respectively, for a
maximum displacement of the 25.22mm pedal.
Figure 6. Hydraulic line pressures, rear and front axle, and pedal displacement
(case I).
Figure 7 shows the behavior of the pressure in function of the brake
pedal force from the same measurement of case 1. In this graphic, it is
possible to identify the hysteresis effect in the brake system. The
maximum load applied to the brake pedal is 40.53kgf and similar
maximum pressures are applied to cylinders 1 and 2, with values of
38.08bar and 38.79bar, respectively.
Figure 7. Hydraulic line pressures, rear and front axle, and pedal force (case I).
The hysteresis curve present in the experimental measurement is due
to the increase of tension in the flexible brake line, causing losses
during the displacement. Hysteresis generally arises from fluid
pressure and flow ratio, influenced by the properties of the fluid such
as compressibility, tube friction and fluid inertia, when it is moving
and increasing or decreasing pressure [18]. The magnitude of the
hysteresis also depends on the speed of the pedal [15] and the force
applied to the pedal.
Case II
Figure 8 shows the instrumentation in the vehicle prototype, where 1
and 2 are pressure transducers for hydraulic lines, and 3 is the load
cell on the brake pedal.
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Figure 8. Instrumentation on the vehicle prototype. 1 and 2 are pressure
transducer; 3 is a load cell and 4 is the position of the balance bar (case II).
The same instrumentation was used to measure and analyze the
influence of the pedal load on the pressure of the front and rear brake
lines. The balance bar’s pressure distribution was set at 50% for each
cylinder. The result is shown in Figure 9. For a maximum load of
38.41kgf on the pedal, the pressures of 33.29bar and 38.34bar for front
and rear lines were obtained, respectively. The difference between rear
and front pressures is within the error range for the balance bar. Figures
7 and 9 show a similar behavior of average increasing pressure in the
lines when force is applied to the pedal, nevertheless differences in the
hysteresis shape occurred due to actuation variation. Therefore, force
and pressure measurements used on the test bench are representative
of a real vehicle behavior, thereby enabling balance bar tests to be
carried out on the bench, as a more accessible and controllable
environment.
Figure 9. Hydraulic line pressures, rear and front axle, and pedal force (case II).
Case III
In order to analyze the influence of the balance bar in the different
distribution of the force applied to the pedal to the master cylinders,
the relative position of the ball joint and the pistons (the point of the
attachment with the master cylinder) was changed. Figure 10 illustrates
the new ball joint position.
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Figure 10. Ball joint position for 60% of pressure in the rear axle.
The center of the spherical ball is 56.40mm from the point of force
application on the rear master cylinder (connector on the left side of
the figure) and 37.60mm from the front cylinder (connector not
showed in the figure; thus, the total load applied to the pedal would
result in a 60% total pressure distribution in the rear axle, and 40% in
the front axle. Subsequently, Figure 11 shows the measurements taken
in order to obtain pressure distribution in the hydraulic lines according
to the previously setup.
Figure 11. Hydraulic line pressures, rear and front axle, and pedal force (case
III).
The balance bar had a significant influence on pressure distribution for
both cylinders, considering the 30.34kgf maximum load applied to the
pedal the master cylinder of the rear line reached a pressure of 34.28bar
(63.5% of total pressure), while the front cylinder obtained 19.73bar
(36.5% of total pressure).
Case IV
For case IV, the balance bar was positioned at 37.60mm from the
center of the spherical ball to the rear master cylinder, and 56.40mm
from the front master cylinder, providing a condition of 60% of the
force applied from the pedal to the front axle and 40% to the rear axle.
In this case, Figure 12, for a maximum load of 34.47kgf applied to the
pedal, the pressures in the rear and front lines were 27.93bar (43.1%)
and 36.85bar (56.9%), respectively.
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Figure 12. Hydraulic line pressures, rear and front axle, and pedal force (case
IV).
In cases III and IV, the presence of the balance bar may influence
pressure distribution amongst front and rear brake lines. This device
can be adjusted according to an optimum pressure configuration to
obtain a necessary brake torque to lock the wheels. The possible
theoretical deceleration based on test bench results are shown in the
next topic.
Numerical simulation
The model validation, based on the comparison of the analytical
models and experimental bench results to estimate the ideal balance
bar configuration, is developed in the following procedure:
• Step A: Comparison of the hydraulic line pressure values in the
experimental results on the test bench, vehicle and on the model
presented in [16];
• Step B: Obtain a maximum deceleration using vehicle parameters
with the model presented in [3], and estimate the deceleration
based on the results obtained in the experimental measurements
using the model [17];
• Step C: Estimation of the torque available on the wheels,
correlated with the estimated deceleration from Step C and
obtaining the braking torque according to the model [1];
• Step D: Ideal configuration for the balance bar in a braking
situation where wheel locking occurs.
In Step A, only the rear master cylinder measurement was considered,
since the balance bar was configured to distribute 50% pressure for
each cylinder (case I). Figure 13 shows the test bench line pressure,
vehicle prototype measurement and a theoretical curve from Limpert’s
model. In this figure, the pressure profile along the tube in the test
bench is similar to vehicle data, as a validation of bench results. Due
to the fluid hysteresis, the measured curve shows a higher pressure
during travel and lower pressure to return.
Pressure vs. force curves show that the amplitude in the theoretical
model is an intermediate pressure of test bench curve due to system
hysteresis. As in the analyses performed in [14, 15], it is possible to
perceive hysteresis presence in the measurements, but not which
component has a greater contribution. The hysteresis may be generated
inside the master cylinders, brake lines, balance bar, among other
brake components.
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In order to verify if the system would be able to lock the four wheels,
it was considered the pressures of the front and rear master cylinders
as 3.80MPa and 3.88MPa, respectively, according to Figure 7. For this
situation, the balance bar was considered in equilibrium at its central
point, where the numerical model relates the line pressure to the
braking torque. Applying a force of 40.54kgf to the pedal, the
calculated braking torque from equations 13 and 14 on each wheel is
shown in table 4.

Table 4. Estimation of the braking torque based on system pressure.

Variable Symbol Value Unit

Front brake torque 𝑇𝑓 421.17 Nm

Figure 13. Comparison between the experimental measurement in the test
bench, in the vehicle and the theoretical model. Rear brake torque 𝑇𝑟 353.88 Nm

To estimate the deceleration level – Step B – taking into consideration

vehicle measurements, equation 8 determines that 11.77m/s² is the Comparing the tables 2 and 4, the braking torque to operating line
maximum deceleration possible before wheels are locked. At the same pressure is enough to lock the rear wheels, and the braking torque of
time, when using the results obtained on the test bench and considering 353.88Nm is higher than maximum friction torque from the road,
a braking situation where the force applied to the pedal is 40,53kgf, the which is 137.26Nm. In the meantime, the front wheels would not lock,
deceleration would be 8.07m/s² – equation 9. because the brake system torque of 421.17Nm is lower than the torque
available from the road, which is 476.57Nm. In such condition, the
Table 2 shows the maximum torque available in each wheel – Step C vehicle would not meet braking regulations.
– before the tire loses ground friction and slippage occurs, as well as
the load transfer to the front axle, based on equation 5, and to the rear Therefore – Step D – considering the friction of 1.2 (𝜇𝑝 ) arising from
axle based on equation 6. the tire and the ground, in dried conditions, the ideal braking scenario
in which all wheels lock would occur with the balance bar configured
Table 2. Maximum torque available in the tire. at 80% – to front axle pressure – and 20% – to rear axle pressure –,
calculated by equation 15 and 16 for the vehicle parameters shown in
Variable Symbol Value Unit Table 1. However, when analyzing the braking torques aiming at a
four-wheel lock up – however not necessarily a simultaneous one –
Front axle torque 𝑇𝑓 476.57 Nm Case IV shows that a pressure distribution of 60% in the front axle and
40% in the rear axle is enough to generate such condition. Then,
Rear axle torque 𝑇𝑟 137.26 Nm considering a force of 40.53kgf applied to the pedal and balance bar
configuration as in Case IV, the braking torque generated in the front
Load transfer 𝛥𝑟 895.17 N
is of 511.19Nm and of 280.44Nm in the rear, and both torques are
higher than the available friction torque from the road.
Powertrain inertia 𝐼𝑓 23.84 kg.m²

Conclusions
To estimate the braking torque, the deceleration value of 8.07m/s² was
used in the analytical model in equations 5 and 6. Table 3 shows the From the test results, it can be observed that the test bench for brake
available torque on the wheels and the load transfer to the front axle. systems allows the estimation of parameters and system performance
As the deceleration of the vehicle decreases, it can be noticed that the for a braking situation in the vehicle. After the analysis of the hydraulic
load transfer to the front axle decreases, thus requiring less braking system, the losses due to system hysteresis were verified. In case I,
torque on the front wheels. measurement on test bench, where the balance bar was set up at 50%
pressure to the front and rear axles, the cylinders had practically the
Table 3. Necessary braking torque to achieve deceleration of 8.07m/s². same pressure value, showing the reliability of the system. In Case II,
measurement on the vehicle prototype, the balance bar control, also at
Variable Symbol Value Unit a 50% pressure distribution, presented less than 10% difference
between the hydraulic lines. In cases III and IV, on bench
Front axle torque 𝑇𝑓 423.20 Nm
measurement, where the position of the balance bar varied, it was
possible to notice that it causes significant influence on the pressure
distribution for both cylinders, showing a difference of approximately
Rear axle torque 𝑇𝑟 175.64 Nm
3.5% in the values between the theoretical calculation and the
experimental measurements. Therefore, this component represents an
Load transfer 𝛥𝑟 613.77 N important mechanism for the vehicle brake adjustment to provide
better performance and greater safety.
Powertrain inertia 𝐼𝑓 16.34 kg.m²
For the analysis of the deceleration, it is possible to conclude that with
a driver applying a pedal force of 40.54kgf, it is not possible to obtain
the maximum deceleration of the vehicle with the balance bar
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distributing 50% of pressure for each cylinder. In this case, a higher Definitions/Abbreviations
braking torque was achieved on the rear wheels greater than the
available torque from the road, i.e., the wheels would lock. In the case
SAE Society of Automotive
of the front wheels, the braking torque is not enough to lock the wheels.
Engineers
Based on test bench measurements, it was possible to obtain a pressure
distribution between the front and rear axle with the balance bar set to
60% in the front and 40% in the rear, for a force of 40.53kgf to the
pedal, the vehicle is capable to lock the four wheels in the braking test
of Formula SAE.

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Acknowledgments
The authors would like to thank the company Sensata Technologies for
their valuable support to the research by providing the pressure
transducers.

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