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Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
and
where c and k are damping and stiffness terms as functions of
longitudinal speed. U , and path frequency, WmTH (refer to
Appendix A for details). His adoption of the second-order lag
is based on experimental results that show the second-order where s is the longitudinal slip, B is a characteristic length,
characteristics of side force response to slip angle inputs [9- R is the rolling radius, and O is the rotational speed of the
131. The two tire parameters (path frequency and damping wheel. Tire models using Bernard's modified slip formulation
ratio) in his second-orcler lag equation depend upon vehicle yield traditional solutions at high speeds and come to a stop in
speed and cyclic steer frequency. He reports that his second- a reasonable way without numerical problems. However,
order tire dynamics model yields improved result. However, Bernard had to introduce an additional artificial damping to the
the selection of term~sin the equation are ambiguous. system to attenuate high frequency vibration of tire forces at
Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
low speed range. Both !Shapley and Bernard treated c:omprises the mechanical assembly of the shaft, hub, wlheel,
longitudinal or lateral slip as state variables rather than as and an undeformed part of the tire. Therefore, the proposeti tire
kinematic functions in order to bypass the numerical problem flexibility model represents a wheelltire subsystem as a
at low or zero speed. This implies that their methods are in c:ombination of two rSig,idbodies: the ring body andl the
fact an adjustment to the actual slip values at low speed ranges cylinder body. The model has three relative degrees of
to evade numerical problems. fieedom: the cylinder body has a rotational degree of freedom
The tire lateral flexibility models discussed above with respect to a knuckJe or wheel carrier: the ring body has a
basically provide a slight modification to the input or output 1,ateral degree of freedolm under a lateral tire force, and a
parameters of any existing tire model. They mimic the time- rotational degree of fkedorn under a longitudinal tire force.
lag effect of tire lateral force 'by using a fust- or second-order
time-lag equation or function. This implies that these models
provide only one rotational degree of freedom. However, an
actual tire has two additional clegrees of freedom at the contact
patch area: longitudinal and lateral deformation. Van Zanten
[18] has shown through experimental measurements that a tire
exhibits dynamic response to changes in longitudinal slip.
Therefore, it is desirable for a tire or a wheevtire subsystem
model to have at least a total of three degrees of freedom cylindIicd
(rotational, longitudinal, and lateral). Another advantage of cornering pint (axial)
having additional degrees of heedom is that the aforementioned
numerical problem at low or zero speed is automatically
resolved. (a) A d d w h a e W (b) Multibady representation
The next section of this paper will present a new tire
longitudinal/lateral flexibility model using a multibody Figure 1. Concepr.of the ring body, representing tire
approach. The new tire fle:xibility model is a multibody longitudinalflateral flexibility
representation of a wheelhire subsystem with three degrees of
freedom. Therefore the proposed method provides a better the
representation of an actual wkl/tire system. In addition to the relative degrees of freedom, tire
longitudinal and lateral elasticity or stiffness should be
TIRE FLEXIBILITY MODEL USING A RING incorporated along with the two relative degrees of freedom of
BODY the ring body. This can be realized by attaching spring-darnper
elements between the ring body and the cylinder body. As
In light of the problerns mentioned in the previous shown in Figure 2, a mlnslational spring-damper element is
section, this paper presents a multibody model of tire attached between the two rigid bodies with its orientation
longitudinaWateral flexibility that represents a wheelhire parallel to the wheel axis, representing the lateral stiffness;of a
subsystem as two rigid bodies: one cylindrical rigid body tire. Similarly, a rotariolnal spring-damper element, attached
(wheel body) representing an assembly of the hub, the wheel, between the two rigid bodies, represents tire longitutiinal
and an undeformed part of the tire; and another ring-shaped stiffness.
rigid body (ring body) corresponding to a longitudinally or
laterally deformed part of the tire. The two rigid bodies are
kinematically connected by ia cylindrical joint such that the vehif le body Hlint? .
Y
M
ring body can rotate around i ~ d ( o rtranslate along the wheel
axis. In addition, a translational spring-damper element is
attached between the two rigid bodies with its orientation
parallel to the wheel axis, representing the lateral stiffness of a
tire. Similarly, a rotational springdamper element is also
attached between the two rigid bodies which represents tire
longitudinal stiffness.
As mentioned in the previous section, the existing tire
lateral flexibility models are neither realistic nor effective. In (a) Fmnt view (b) Side view
light of this, a simple yet effective method for modeling lateral
and longitudinal flexibility of a tire has been developed. The Figure 2. Proposed tire 1ongitudinaVlateralflexibility mtxiel
heart of the proposed method is the concept of "ring body" as
shown in Figure 1. The ring body is defined as a ring-shaped
rigid body, which forms the circumference of a wheelhire The stiffness of the: rotational spring should be selected
model, and which corresponds to the laterally or longitudinally such that the circumfenmtial deflection of the ring body in
deformed part (tread and side wall) of a tire. The ring body is compliance with a longitudinal tire force matches; the
kinematically connected to the remaining w heeVtire body longitudinal flexibility of an actual tire. Given an
(cylinder body) by a cylindrical joint such that the ring body experimentally measuredl longitudinal stiffness ( K,)of a tire,
can translate along or rotate around the wheel axis. Since the
ring body corresponds to the deformed part of a tire, the mass an equivalent rotational stiffness ( K O can
) be computed as
and the moment of inertia of (he ring body should be chosen to follows. Figure 3 presents a force-torque balance for the tire
match those of the laterally deformed part of a tire during flexibility model. Tire: longitudinal force ( F,) gives rise to a
cornering. The cylinder body is defined as a wheevtire body
excluding the deformed part of a tire. The cylinder body torque ( T , ) around the wheel center, which is balanced with
Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
the rotational elastic torque due to a rotational deformation ( 0 ) where C is the longitudinal or lateral damping, and f and g
of the ring body: are polynomial functions. This kind of nonlinear
characteristics can be easily implemented in a user-supplied
subroutines of a general-purpose mu ltibody dynamic analysis
program.
where Ra is an average rolling radius of a tire. For an actual In the propcbsed tire flexibility model, tire longitudinal
and lateral flexibili~tyis not a part of the tire model but is
tire. the tire longitudinal force ( F x ) is balanced with a incorporated in the wheel/tire subsystems of a multibody
longitudinal elastic farce due to a longitudinal deformation ( 6 ) vehicle model. Therefore, ring bodies should be assigned as
of the contact patch: tire bodies. In other words, a tire model should be defined on a
ring body. Then, the relative motion of a ring body with
respect to the ground, such as tire radial deformation,
longitudinal slip, and lateral slip angle, will be inputs to the
tire model. Resilltant tire forces and moment will then be
From geometry. the longi~tudinaldeformation ( 6) is related to transmitted througl~the cylinder body, knuckle ('or wheel
the rotational deformatiorl( 0 ) as carrier), suspension members, and then finally to the car body.
Note that tire vertiutl flexibility is considered in the tire model
itself as a function (of tire penetration ( p), penetration speed
( p ), tire radial stiffness ( K,), and radial damping coefficient
Substituting Equations (9) and (10) into Equation (8) yields an ( cr):
expression for the equivalent rotational stiffness (K,)as a
function of the longitudinal stiffness ( K x ) and the average
rolling ladius ( Ra ):
Figure 3. Force and torque balance of tire flexibility model 1 Longitudinal Slip,
Lateral Slip, etc.
I I I I
Table 2. suspension^ data without and with tire lateral
SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION flexibility at 60 km/h
Computer simulations using a sophisticated three- 1 Items [ Front 1 Front I Rear I R t q
I
dimensional vehicle model are presented for a steady state Left h t Left h t
circular maneuver and a pulse steering maneuver. The purpose Wheel load (kN) 2836.5 4912.2 2021.6 3795.9
of the steady state circular maneuver is to obtain some 2739.4 507 1.4 1926.1 3907.7
information about the influence of tire flexibility on the steady Cornering force (N) 1377.3 1860.4 897.0 1378.6
state handling characteristics of a vehicle. The pulse steering
maneuver reveals how the flexibility of a tire affects the
motion of a vehicle in a transient state. Simulation results for
the pulse steering maneuver are analyzed in both time- and
frequency-domains. Due to the lack of experimental data, fixed
values of the tire lateral stiffness (55 kN/m) and damping (5.5
kN-seclm) and the tire longitudinal stiffness (75 kN/m) and Items Without Lat. With Lateral
damping (7.5 W-sec/m) are used for all simulations. Flexibility Flexibility
3D VEHICLE MODEL - For the verification of the
proposed tire longitudinal/la~teralflexibility model through
computer simulations, a sophisticated three-dimensional
vehicle model that accurately represents a mid-size sedan is Lateral accel. lmls"211 11 5.620 1 5.339
constructed as presented in Appendix B. In brief, the vehicle
model is a rigid-multibody system composed of thirty-one
nondeforrnable bodies and thiny-six kinematic joints or
constraints. The vehicle model includes all rubber-flexibility
effects such as rack housing bushing, suspension bushings, Table 4. Susmnsion data without/with tire lateral flexib'ility
and tire lateral flexibility. at 80 kmh
1 Front I Front I Rear I R~YI
I
I Items
STEADY STATE CIRCULAR TEST - In the steady-
state circular test, an open-lcop steering command (input) is
provided as a fixed rack-bar shift of 6.6 mm to the right with
respect to the rack housing, which corresponds to about 1.4
-1 Left Right Left Right
2397.7 5330.4 1669.4 4168.8'
I I I
-0.1 - I
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
T i e (seconds)
1 1
................................-.......
:..+................ :............... W~.*e.fiexiM@.---.
;2
*.. h. tire flexibhiry
with,.....................
....---......,:...-- . --........... ----
,.-..----.
.........
. .7
- 1
0.6 I I I I 1 I 1
................... .................. ~o.ti_~!!!!!~exitri"~-.~-
w$h bre rex~&ify -
...............-.. .-
. .- -0.02 I
-5 J
-
1 1 1 I -0.02 1- I I I
I I I 1 I I 1
-0.05 A -0.2 1 1,
I
- ...
$ -20 ------j---- . --
-22 ---." .
.
..
.
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FreCluency (Hz)
I I I I I I I
.
I
., - . 1 I 1 I
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frewency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
10
-20
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)
.r) ..............
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency (Hz) FreWency (Hz)
-
0.6 A
APPENDIX A: FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER TIRE Equating the equations (A.3) and (A.4) yields the tire lateral
LATERAL DYNAMICS MODELS dynamics model in a form of a first+rder differential equation:
where FyLis lagged tire liaral force, and D is the differential The constraine:d equations of motion for the vehicle
model are automatically constructed and solved by a three-
operator (dldt ) . dimensional dynamic analysis program based on the joint
coordinate formulaticm 122-241. The numerical integration of
SECOND-ORDER 'TIME-LAGMODEL - This model the equations of motion is carried out by an integrator based on
has been suggested by H:eydinger and his co-workers [5-61. a variable-step/o&r predictor-conrector algorithm.
The equation they used to model the second-order lag of tire
lateral slip angle is
APPENDIX C: (JOMPLEX CORNERING POWER
GR
Then, the equivalent cornering power can be &fined as
6(s) = GR .st(s) = -
l + 7s
(C. 11)
The above discussion which is based on steady-state time- Then, the pseudo slip imgles of tire can be calculated by
domain can be expanded to the transient frequencydomain by
applying Laplace transformation. In the frequencydornain, ale(s) = P(S)+ a . W(S)/U- S ( S )
each variable should be a complex number, and we can use the
term 'complex' implying arr expansion from steady-state time- = /?(s) + a . W(S)/U- GR/(l + 7s) (C. 14)
Qmain to transient frequency-domain. a,' (s) = /?( S)I- b W(S)/U
+
(C. lo)