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A Multibody Approach to Modeling Tire

Longitudinal and Lateral Flexibility

Jungho Park and Parviz E. Nikravesh

University of Arizo~na

The Engineering Society International Congress & Exposition

=For Advancing Mobility
and Sea Air and Space, Detroit, Michigan
I N T E R N A T I O N A L February 24027,1997
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A Multibody Approach to Modeling Tire
Longitudinal and Lateral Flexibility
ABSTRACT
A tire longitudind and lateral flexibility model has been
developed which shows considerable advantages over the other
available models or methods. Most of the available methods
indirectly considers tire lateral flexibility effect by the
inclusion of a time-lag functiorr, whereas the developed model
is a multibody representation of a wheeVtire subsystem so that
the resultant dynamics are similar to those of an actual
physical system. Sample simulations with a realistic three-
dimensional vehicle model show the effectiveness of the
developed model.
INTRODUCTION
Today, general purpose multibody dynamic analysis
programs provide an essential tool for vehicle dynamics
simulations. They allow users to construct a computer model
for any given vehicle as a system of multiple rigid and flexible
bodies interconnected through kinematic joints or spring-
damper elements. Additionally, tire models are defined for the
wheel/tire bodies, and possibly a driver model to control a
specified driving scenario of Ithe vehicle model. Since tires
transmit external forces and nioments to the vehicle body, a
tire model is one of the key elements for realistic computer
simulations of vehicles. Existing tire models are basically
formulas that generate steadly-state values of longitudinal,
lateral (cornering) and vertical (normal) tire forces as functions
of longitudinal slip, lateral slip angle, and tire penetration
(radial deformation). These tire models take into account the
tire vertical flexibility only. However, dynamic maneuvers
such as pulse steering cause a relatively large amount of
longitudinal/lateral deformation of tires. Such longitudinal and
lateral flexibility provides an additional spring and damping
effect to the vehicle system, and a time-lag effect to the tire
forces and moment. Therefore, the longitudinal and lateral
flexibility of the tire should be considered for any realistic
simulation of the dynamic behavior of vehicles.
One previous attempt to consider tire lateral flexibility
was to implement a fmt arder tire-lateral-dynamicsequation to
the equations of motion of a vehicle [Z-31. Another attempt
was the addition of a first- or second-order time lag to the input
or output of a tire model [6-71. However, such formulations
are too coarse to represent the dynamic behavior of an actual
tire system. In addition to the lateral flexibility problem,
Jungho Park and Parviz E. Nikravesh
University of Arizona
ccmventional tire models pose numerical problems at very 'low
or zero longitudinal speed, For example, a drop simulatiorl of
a vehicle on a flat ground causing vibration of the vehicle, 431 a
full stop and then restart simulation using a conventional tire
niodel would result in an #arithmeticoverflow problem due to
division by zero in the longitudinal slip or lateral slip angle
fiunctions. Another nurrre~icdissue is an integration problem
in using a dynamic time-step integrator because a pure lateral
movement of the tire bottom point could result in a
discontinuity of tire latlerial forces when the direction of the
1iar;il movement changes. Existing methods for evading these
numerical problems are rrrerely variants of the first-order lag
equation in tire longitudinal slip or lateral slip angle.
This paper will review the literature concerning modeling
methods of tire lateral flexibility. It will then analyze the
rwoblems of previous ~models, which will lead to the
dlevelopment of a multibody approach to modeling tire
l~ongitudinal/iateralflexibility. The proposed model is not a
part of the tire model; it is a part of the vehicle model.
llerefore, the model can be used in conjunction with any
existing tire model. Sanple simulations using a sophisticated
three-dimensional vehicle model with the proposed tire
flexibility model are presented for steady-state circlular
rnaneuvers at 60 and 80 km/h, and a pulse steering maneuver
ait 180 km/h. Cornparisom of the simulation results with and
without the developed tire flexibility model shows that the tire
longitudinal~lateralflexibility is the source of time lag in tire
fixes and it increases the peak frequency of the yaw rate to
trand-wheel angle resporlse function. Time-domain res;ults
show that tire 1ongitudinaJ.llateral flexibility reduces handling
sensitivity of a vehicle. Also, the proposed model eliminates
tlie numerical problems involved in using a dynamic
integrator as demonstratedl in a drop simulation .
Since the lateral flexibility of a tire plays an important
1a1ein vehicle handling performance, many researchers have
lxen trying to develop1 mathematical models for tire lateral
dynamics. Owen and Bernard [l] modeled the effect of' tire
llateral flexibility as a fmt-order lag on lateral slip angle as:
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
where a is the lateral slip angle, a, is the lagged slip angle,
u is the longitudinal speed, and b is a characteristic length.
The characteristic length which is also called the relaxation
length should be chosen to match the lag as measured in a tire
test. Based on simplified kinematics of a tire, Ellis [2] derived
a laterally elastic tire rnodel in the forrn of a first-order
differential equation which describes the time varying lateral
displacement of the tire tread (refer to Appendix A for details).
He incorporated his tire :lateral dynamics equation in a set of
equations of motion for a simple two-dimensional vehicle and
showed its influence on the transient and steady-state
performance of the vehicle. His tire lateral dynamics model
contains a time-lag constant that is called the relaxation time
constant. The solution of the model equation is simply an
exponential time lag whe:re the cornering force builds up to a
steady state value in an exponential fashion. In other words,
his tire lateral dynamics model is in fact a first-order time-lag
equation. Therefore, his tire lateral dynamics model lacks the
effects of inertia, damping, and stiffness. Loeb [3] used Ellis's
tire lateral dynamics model to investigate the concept of the
relaxation length. Mabrouka et al. (199 1) [4] modified Ellis's
laterally flexible tire model and combined it with Segel's
steering system matherriatical model [5] to investigate the
effect of tire lateral flexibility on the dynamic behavior of the
steering system.
Heydinger et al. [6-71 adopted Ellis's tire lateral dynamics
model, but instead of combining it directly with the system
equations, they appended the transfer function forrn of the
model, which is the first-order side force lag, to the cornering
force output of an existing tire model. In other words, they
implemented Ellis's tire lateral dynamics model as the first-
order lag in tire cornering force as:
where Fy is the tire lateral force, FyL is the lagged lateral
force, 7 is the first-order time-lag constant which is called the
relaxation time constant (refer to Appendix A for details).
Since no experimental method is available for determining the
relaxation time constant, they used an approximate value
suggested by Loeb [3,8]. Heydinger showed through computer
simulations and experiments that the addition of the fust-order
side force lag to a tire model provides better agreement of the
yaw rate frequency response with experimental data. Heydinger
also presented second-order lag on slip angle causing the side
force and the self aligning moment outputs to be lagged
according to:
where c and k are damping and stiffness terms as functions of
longitudinal speed. U , and path frequency, WmTH (refer to
Appendix A for details). His adoption of the second-order lag
is based on experimental results that show the second-order
characteristics of side force response to slip angle inputs [9-
131. The two tire parameters (path frequency and damping
ratio) in his second-orcler lag equation depend upon vehicle
speed and cyclic steer frequency. He reports that his second-
order tire dynamics model yields improved result. However,
the selection of term~sin the equation are ambiguous.
Heydinger did not povide any explanation about the derivation
of the secondader lag equation. Even though he extended his
transfer function appnrach of tire lateral dynamics model from
a first-order to a smnd-orber model, his seconcluder slip angle
lag is still a mimic of the time-lag effect of tire lateral
flexibility rather than a direct representation of the inertia,
damping, and stiffness of a laterally flexible carcass. In other
words, neither of Heydinger's tire lateral flexibility models is
an actual represenlation of tire lateral dynamics but a mimic of
its time-lag effect only. Allen et al. [14] applied He:ydingerts
second order lag concept directly to tire lateral forces. which is
of the form:
With the advancement of multibod y dynamic analysis
programs, a three-dimensional multibody model of a vehicle
emerged as a better representation of a real vehicle compared to
a simple two-dimensional transfer-function model. However,
there has been rro successful attempt to incorporate tire
flexibility to a multibody vehicle model: Mallikarjuwraro et al.
[I41 modeled tire lateral flexibility using a multibody
modeling approach 'by allowing the wheel-tire-hubM y to be
translationally shiftable along the axle axis. The flexibility
effect was achieved by attaching a spring that corresponds to
the tire lateral flexibility between the wheel-tire-hub body and
the axle body. Therefore, his model can represent the static
effect of tire lateral flexibility. However, the model cannot
provide proper dynamic effect of tire lateral flexibility since
only the tire lateral stiffness is modeled in the wheel axle
instead of the tire system. In fact, his system equation
describes only the static equilibrium of the vehicle in the roll
plane.
In addition to the tire lateral flexibility problem,
conventional tire models have numerical problems in low- or
zero-speed simulations because the longitudinal speed appears
in the denominator of both longitudinal slip and lateral slip
angle. Borrowing a concept of the fust-order lag, Shapley [15]
suggested a differential equation for lateral slip angle, which is
well behaved at ze:ro longitudinal speed, and which yields
conventional value (of lateral slip angle at steady statt::
where v is the lateral speed of a wheel. Bernard and Clover
[I61 extended Shiapley'sidea to both longitudinal ;md lateral
slips:
and
where s is the longitudinal slip, B is a characteristic length,
R is the rolling radius, and O is the rotational speed of the
wheel. Tire models using Bernard's modified slip formulation
yield traditional solutions at high speeds and come to a stop in
a reasonable way without numerical problems. However,
Bernard had to introduce an additional artificial damping to the
system to attenuate high frequency vibration of tire forces at
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

low speed range. Both !Shapley and Bernard treated c:omprises the mechanical assembly of the shaft, hub, wlheel,
longitudinal or lateral slip as state variables rather than as and an undeformed part of the tire. Therefore, the proposeti tire
kinematic functions in order to bypass the numerical problem flexibility model represents a wheelltire subsystem as a
at low or zero speed. This implies that their methods are in c:ombination of two rSig,idbodies: the ring body andl the
fact an adjustment to the actual slip values at low speed ranges cylinder body. The model has three relative degrees of
to evade numerical problems. fieedom: the cylinder body has a rotational degree of freedom
The tire lateral flexibility models discussed above with respect to a knuckJe or wheel carrier: the ring body has a
basically provide a slight modification to the input or output 1,ateral degree of freedolm under a lateral tire force, and a
parameters of any existing tire model. They mimic the time- rotational degree of fkedorn under a longitudinal tire force.
lag effect of tire lateral force 'by using a fust- or second-order
time-lag equation or function. This implies that these models
provide only one rotational degree of freedom. However, an
actual tire has two additional clegrees of freedom at the contact
patch area: longitudinal and lateral deformation. Van Zanten
[18] has shown through experimental measurements that a tire
exhibits dynamic response to changes in longitudinal slip.
Therefore, it is desirable for a tire or a wheevtire subsystem
model to have at least a total of three degrees of freedom cylindIicd
(rotational, longitudinal, and lateral). Another advantage of cornering pint (axial)
having additional degrees of heedom is that the aforementioned
numerical problem at low or zero speed is automatically
resolved. (a) A d d w h a e W (b) Multibady representation
The next section of this paper will present a new tire
longitudinal/lateral flexibility model using a multibody Figure 1. Concepr.of the ring body, representing tire
approach. The new tire fle:xibility model is a multibody longitudinalflateral flexibility
representation of a wheelhire subsystem with three degrees of
freedom. Therefore the proposed method provides a better the
representation of an actual wkl/tire system. In addition to the relative degrees of freedom, tire
longitudinal and lateral elasticity or stiffness should be
TIRE FLEXIBILITY MODEL USING A RING incorporated along with the two relative degrees of freedom of
BODY the ring body. This can be realized by attaching spring-darnper
elements between the ring body and the cylinder body. As
In light of the problerns mentioned in the previous shown in Figure 2, a mlnslational spring-damper element is
section, this paper presents a multibody model of tire attached between the two rigid bodies with its orientation
longitudinaWateral flexibility that represents a wheelhire parallel to the wheel axis, representing the lateral stiffness;of a
subsystem as two rigid bodies: one cylindrical rigid body tire. Similarly, a rotariolnal spring-damper element, attached
(wheel body) representing an assembly of the hub, the wheel, between the two rigid bodies, represents tire longitutiinal
and an undeformed part of the tire; and another ring-shaped stiffness.
rigid body (ring body) corresponding to a longitudinally or
laterally deformed part of the tire. The two rigid bodies are
kinematically connected by ia cylindrical joint such that the vehif le body Hlint? .
Y
M
ring body can rotate around i ~ d ( o rtranslate along the wheel
axis. In addition, a translational spring-damper element is
attached between the two rigid bodies with its orientation
parallel to the wheel axis, representing the lateral stiffness of a
tire. Similarly, a rotational springdamper element is also
attached between the two rigid bodies which represents tire
longitudinal stiffness.
As mentioned in the previous section, the existing tire
lateral flexibility models are neither realistic nor effective. In (a) Fmnt view (b) Side view
light of this, a simple yet effective method for modeling lateral
and longitudinal flexibility of a tire has been developed. The Figure 2. Proposed tire 1ongitudinaVlateralflexibility mtxiel
heart of the proposed method is the concept of "ring body" as
shown in Figure 1. The ring body is defined as a ring-shaped
rigid body, which forms the circumference of a wheelhire The stiffness of the: rotational spring should be selected
model, and which corresponds to the laterally or longitudinally such that the circumfenmtial deflection of the ring body in
deformed part (tread and side wall) of a tire. The ring body is compliance with a longitudinal tire force matches; the
kinematically connected to the remaining w heeVtire body longitudinal flexibility of an actual tire. Given an
(cylinder body) by a cylindrical joint such that the ring body experimentally measuredl longitudinal stiffness ( K,)of a tire,
can translate along or rotate around the wheel axis. Since the
ring body corresponds to the deformed part of a tire, the mass an equivalent rotational stiffness ( K O can
) be computed as
and the moment of inertia of (he ring body should be chosen to follows. Figure 3 presents a force-torque balance for the tire
match those of the laterally deformed part of a tire during flexibility model. Tire: longitudinal force ( F,) gives rise to a
cornering. The cylinder body is defined as a wheevtire body
excluding the deformed part of a tire. The cylinder body torque ( T , ) around the wheel center, which is balanced with
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
the rotational elastic torque due to a rotational deformation ( 0 )
of the ring body:
where Ra is an average rolling radius of a tire. For an actual
tire. the tire longitudinal force ( F x ) is balanced with a
longitudinal elastic farce due to a longitudinal deformation ( 6 )
of the contact patch:
From geometry. the longi~tudinaldeformation ( 6) is related to
the rotational deformatiorl( 0 ) as
Substituting Equations (9) and (10) into Equation (8) yields an
expression for the equivalent rotational stiffness (K,)as a
function of the longitudinal stiffness ( K x ) and the average
rolling ladius ( Ra ):
- Ground
Figure 3. Force and torque balance of tire flexibility model
It is known that the centrifugal force effect increases the
tire longitudinal and lateral stiffness with increasing rolling
speed, and that the tire lateral force response becomes less
damped at higher speeds. Also, tire properties are generally a
function of wheel load. Therefore, tire longitudinal and lateral
stiffness or damping can generally be expressed as a function
of tire paxameters such as speed ( V ) and wheel load ( F, ):
where C is the longitudinal or lateral damping, and f and g
are polynomial functions. This kind of nonlinear
characteristics can be easily implemented in a user-supplied
subroutines of a general-purpose mu ltibody dynamic analysis
program.
In the propcbsed tire flexibility model, tire longitudinal
and lateral flexibili~tyis not a part of the tire model but is
incorporated in the wheel/tire subsystems of a multibody
vehicle model. Therefore, ring bodies should be assigned as
tire bodies. In other words, a tire model should be defined on a
ring body. Then, the relative motion of a ring body with
respect to the ground, such as tire radial deformation,
longitudinal slip, and lateral slip angle, will be inputs to the
tire model. Resilltant tire forces and moment will then be
transmitted througl~the cylinder body, knuckle ('or wheel
carrier), suspension members, and then finally to the car body.
Note that tire vertiutl flexibility is considered in the tire model
itself as a function (of tire penetration ( p), penetration speed
( p ), tire radial stiffness ( K,), and radial damping coefficient
( cr):
The proposed tire flexibility model is different from the
previous models mainly in its method of approach. Existing
tire lateral flexibility models are a part of the tire model as
shown in Figure 4.. whereas the proposed tire longitudinal and
lateral flexibility nnodel is a part of the vehicle model as
shown in Figure 5. The proposed tire flexibility model
reproduces the sph~ysicalmechanism of a whet:l/tire by
introducing two suib-bodies. The proposed tire flexibility
model paired with any existing tire model defined on ring
bodies constitute a wheeutire subsystem for a multibody
vehicle model.
1 Longitudinal Slip,
Lateral Slip, etc.
I 'TimeLag Eq. 1
VEHICLE
MODEL
Figure 4. Schematic of conventional tire lateral
flexibility model
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

Lol~gitudinaSlip, stiffness is expressed as given by Equation (12) c o n ~ d e ~thei~g

Lateral Slip, etc. centrifugal-force effect. This tire lateral deflection gives rise to
I-elative lateral shift of the car body, which causes the re-
distribution of wheel laads, an increase in body roll angle, a
variation of cornering forces, and finally the degradation of
W i n g characteristics. The tire lateral deflection promdm an
under-steer tendency 10the vehicle. It is noteworthy that the
tire lateral deflection indirectly causes the change of rack-
housing shift which directly affects the steering angles.

Table 1. Steering and body data at 60

I Items 1Without Lat. I -
1
I ( Hexibility 1 Flexibility

IRoll angle (deg) 11 1.377 I 1.014 1

Figure 5. Schematic of proposed tire flexibility model
[ Path Radius (m) 1 69.54 1 71.45 1

I I I I
Table 2. suspension^ data without and with tire lateral
SIMULATION RESULTS AND DISCUSSION flexibility at 60 km/h
Computer simulations using a sophisticated three- 1 Items [ Front 1 Front I Rear I R t q

I
dimensional vehicle model are presented for a steady state Left h t Left h t
circular maneuver and a pulse steering maneuver. The purpose Wheel load (kN) 2836.5 4912.2 2021.6 3795.9
of the steady state circular maneuver is to obtain some 2739.4 507 1.4 1926.1 3907.7
information about the influence of tire flexibility on the steady Cornering force (N) 1377.3 1860.4 897.0 1378.6
state handling characteristics of a vehicle. The pulse steering
maneuver reveals how the flexibility of a tire affects the
motion of a vehicle in a transient state. Simulation results for
the pulse steering maneuver are analyzed in both time- and
frequency-domains. Due to the lack of experimental data, fixed
values of the tire lateral stiffness (55 kN/m) and damping (5.5
kN-seclm) and the tire longitudinal stiffness (75 kN/m) and Items Without Lat. With Lateral
damping (7.5 W-sec/m) are used for all simulations. Flexibility Flexibility
3D VEHICLE MODEL - For the verification of the
proposed tire longitudinal/la~teralflexibility model through
computer simulations, a sophisticated three-dimensional
vehicle model that accurately represents a mid-size sedan is Lateral accel. lmls"211 11 5.620 1 5.339
constructed as presented in Appendix B. In brief, the vehicle
model is a rigid-multibody system composed of thirty-one
nondeforrnable bodies and thiny-six kinematic joints or
constraints. The vehicle model includes all rubber-flexibility
effects such as rack housing bushing, suspension bushings, Table 4. Susmnsion data without/with tire lateral flexib'ility
and tire lateral flexibility. at 80 kmh
1 Front I Front I Rear I R~YI
I

I Items
STEADY STATE CIRCULAR TEST - In the steady-
state circular test, an open-lcop steering command (input) is
provided as a fixed rack-bar shift of 6.6 mm to the right with
respect to the rack housing, which corresponds to about 1.4
-1 Left Right Left Right
2397.7 5330.4 1669.4 4168.8'

degrees left turn of the steering road-wheel. Initially, the

steering command is set to zero,and then gradually it rises up
to 6.6 mm which is held colnstant so that the motion of the
vehicle model reaches a stleady state. The simulation is
performed at 60 and 80 krn/h. Steady-state values for 60 kmh
steady-state circular test are Listed in Tables land 2, and those
for 80 km/h are listed in Tables 3 and 4. PULSE STEERING TEST - The frequency-domain
The simulation results show an average tire lateral analysis using a pulse-steering input is called "pulse steering
deflection of 28 mm at 60 knm, and 39 mm at 80 km/h. The technique" [19]. The open-loop steering inputs that have been
57.8 mm of maximum tire lateral deflection in Table 4 may be used for the frequency-domain analysis are pulse input,
higher than an actual value, blut it would decrease if the lateral sinusoidal sweep input, discrete sinusoidal input, and random
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
sweep input. Heydinger et al [20]pointed out that the pulse
steering technique is generally faster and cheaper than the
alternative test methods without sacrificing accuracy. They
also found that the frequency-response results are relatively
insensitive to the pulse shape and size, provided that the pulse
input have sufficient power to excite the vehicle system. The
open-loop pulse steering input used in this paper is a
sinusoidal pulse with the magnitude of 3 mm in relative rack-
bar shift and the duration time of 0.4 second as shown in
Figure 7- 1.
For frequency-domain analysis, fast Fourier
transformation (FFT) of !time domain data of selected cornering
parameters is performed to obtain frequency response functions
(FRF),and then complex-cornering powers are computed based
on a simplified bicycle rrrodel of the vehicle (refer to Appendix
C). Figure 6 presents the procedure of frequency-domain
analysis for computing the frequency-response functions for
yaw rate to hand-wheel angle ( W A ) , lateral acceleration to
hand-wheel angle ( L O f A ) , and roll rate to hand-wheel angle
(RR/MA): and for generating complexcornering powers for
front- and rear-wheel sets. Time-domain plots are presented in
Figures 7, and frequencydomain plots are presented in Figures
8.
of the tirne-domain data
a Compute frequency-response cornering powers
functions for Y R N A , L14/MA,
Figure 6. Schematic of ~kquenc
y -domain analysis procedure
Figures 7 and 8 show the simulation results for the case
where only the lateral flexibility of tires is considered in the
vehicle model. The timedomain results show that tire lateral
flexibility promotes transient vibration of the steering angle
(Figure 7 (b)) because the tire lateral deflection, which reaches
a transient peak of about. 20 mm (Figure 7 (d)), induces more
lateral vibration of the steering housing (Figure 7 (c)) which is
mounted to the car body via a rubber bushing. The tire lateral
flexibility also results in time-lagged and reduced magnitude of
tire lateral forces (Figure 7 (j)), which in turn gives rise to
time-lagged and reduced magnitude of lateral acceleration
(Figure 7 (g)) and yaw rate (Figure 7 (i)). However, there is
very little time-lag effect on vehicle roll rate (Figure 7 (h)).
As a whole, tire flexibility produces increased vehicle sideslip
angle (Figure 7 (e)) thus resulting in less responsive handling
characteristics of the vehicle (Figure 7 (0).
The frequency-domain results show that tire lateral
flexibility increase the peak frequencies and peak gains of yaw
rate to hand-wheel angle (YR/NA) (Figure 8 (a)) and roll rate
to hand-wheel angle (RR/MA) (Figure 8 (e)) by a factor of
about 30% and 1 dB respectively. However, it decreases the
peak frequency of front cornering power (Figure 8 (g)) by
about 20%. For most of the frequency response functions, tire
flexibility makes the phase lag evident for frequel~cyranges
above 2 Hz (Figurns 8 (b), (dl, (0,(h), and a)).
Figure 9 shows the simulation results for the case where
both the lateral arid the logitudinal flexibility of tires are
considered in the! vehicle model. The results show that this
case is vmually the same as the previous case. nris implies
that the longitudjnitl flexibility of a tire has negligible effect
on the response of pulse steering maneuver. However, tire
longitudianl flex~ibi~litycould play an important role in such
driving situations as emergency braking and hard acceleration.
OTHER TESTS - In addition to a steady state circular
test and a pulse steering test, a drop test and a full-stop-and-
restart test were performed to check for numerical problems at
very low or zero wheel speed. Simulation results show that
the proposed tire longitudinal/lateral flexibility model
eliminates such nr~nlericalproblems.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
A tire longituclinal and lateral flexibility model based on
multibody approach has been presented. The concept of the
ring body has been verified by time- and frequency-domain
response of computer simulations using a sophisticated three-
dimensional vehicle model. It has been showrr that the
developed tire fle:ribility model is superior to previous models,
not only because it is more accurate but also because it is a
closer representation of an actual wheeVtire system. Key
points of the p~roposed tire flexibility model may be
summarized as:
The proposed model effectively represents tire longitudinal
and lateral flexibility in both time and frequency domains.
The model consiidiers the inertia, spring, and damping effects
of the laterally or longitudinally deformed part of a tire.
The model car) produce transient time-lag in the
transmission of tire forces and moments from a. ring boy
(corresponds to ;a contact-patch part) to a cylirrder body
(corresponds to a wheel).
While the available models cannot handle ste:ady state
response of tire lateral dynamics. The proposed inodel can
handle it by allowing the mass center of the car body to
laterally shift relative to the tire contact patches (ring
bodies).
The model elim~iniatesthe numerical problems at a1 very low
or Z e n , speed.
The model allows the generation of the time-histoiy data for
tire longitudinal and lateral deformation.
Since the prop>sc:d tire flexibility model is not al part of a
tire model, it can 1be pamd with any tire model.
The simulation results show that the lateral flexibility of a
tire increases the peak frequencies of the yaw rat12to hand-
wheel angle FRF and the roll rate to hand-wheel angle FRF.
The simulation ~ s u l t show
s that the longitudinal flexibility
of a tire has rregligible effect on the response of pulse
steering maneuver.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

(a) Open-bop pulsesteering input (1) Vehide lateral position

-
0.5 1 1 I I I
I I I

I I I
-0.1 - I
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
T i e (seconds)

(b) Roabwheel steering angle (g) Vehide lateral acceleration

-
1.4 1 I I I
1 1.8 1-r I I a
1 -2

1 1
................................-.......
:..+................ :............... W~.*e.fiexiM@.---.
;2
*.. h. tire flexibhiry
with,.....................
....---......,:...-- . --........... ----
,.-..----.
.........

-0.4 I ' 1 L 1 I -0.2

L '
I I I

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

T i e (seconds) lime (seconds)

(c) Lateral shift 01 steering housing (h) Vehicle roll rate

. .7
- 1
0.6 I I I I 1 I 1
................... .................. ~o.ti_~!!!!!~exitri"~-.~-
w$h bre rex~&ify -
...............-.. .-

-0.01 .-..""... "'-'

. .- -0.02 I

0 0 -5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time (seconds) Time (seamds)

(tl) Tire lateral deformation (i) Vehide yaw rate

0.06 1 7 - I I I

-5 J
-
1 1 1 I -0.02 1- I I I

0 0 -5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time (seconds) T i e (seamds)

(a) Vehide sideslip angle (j) Front-right tire lateral force

1.4 -
I I I I 1 1

I I I 1 I I 1
-0.05 A -0.2 1 1,
I

0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3

Time (seconds) T i e (seconds)

Fig 7. Timedomain response:s for the pulse steering test

 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018
(a) Yaw rate lo hand-wheel angle (f) Rdl rate to hand-wheel angle
-10 - I I I

- ...
$ -20 ------j---- . --
-22 ---." .
.
..
.

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
FreCluency (Hz)

@) Yaw rate to hand-wheel angle (g) Front cornering power

I I I I I I I
.
I
., - . 1 I 1 I

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frewency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

(c) Lateral aecel. to hand-wheel angle (h) Front cornering power

10

-20
n 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

(i) Rear comering power

(dl Lateral a d . to hand-wheel angle
-I : I
I I '1

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency (Hz) Frequency (Hz)

(e) Roll rate to hand-wheel angle (i) Rear comering power

200
...... .......
100 ......

.r) ..............

................. ................. '

. -
-30 ' I I 1 I I I -250 I I

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Frequency (Hz) FreWency (Hz)

Fig 8. Frequency-domain responses for the pulse steering test

 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

4. Mabrouka, H., Chen, H. F., Maalej, A. Y., and Guenther,

D. A, "Effect of Lateral Tire Flexibility on the Steering
System Dynamic Behavior," SAE Paper 910239,1991.
(a) Tire bng. deformation 5. Segel, L., "On the Lateral Stability and Control of the
I Automobile as Influenced by the Dynamics of the
......... -.-.... Steering System," ASME Paper 65-WA/MD-2, 1965.
6. Heydinger, G. J., Garrott, W. R., Chrstos, J. P., and
Guenther, D. A., "The Dynamic Effects of Tire Lag on
Shulation Yaw Rate Predictions," ASME Win rberA nual
Meeting, AM1)- Vol. 108, Transportation Systerrrs, 1990.
7. Heydinger, G. J., Garrotr, W. R., and Chrstos, J. P., "The
Importance of Tire Lag on Simulated Transient Vehicle
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Response," SAE Paper 910235,1991.
Time (seconds)
8. Loeb, J. S., "'Th~eMeasurement of Tire Static Stiffness
(b)Front-nght tire kmg. torce and Their ReMon to Relaxation Lengths," U S c 'Ihesis,
O3 1 I I I
1 The Ohio State IJniversity, Columbus, Ohio, 1985.
9. Furuichi, T. and Sakai, H., "Dynaymic Cornering
Properties of Tires," SAE Paper 780 169, S A E
International C:o,ngress and Exposition, Detroit, hdichigan,
February, 1978.
10. Rogers, L. C., imd Brewer, H. K., "Synthesis. of Tire
Equations for Use in Shimmy and Other I>ynamic
I I I I Studies," Jourwrl of Aircraft, Vol. 8, No. 9, SeIptember,
-0.4
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 1971.
Time (seconds)
11. Weber, R. ancl l?ersch, H. G., "Frequency Response of
(c) Fmt4ght tire lateral force Tires - Slip Angle Lateral Force," SAE Paper 760030,
1.2 I 1 1 I
i ht. flex. ionly
I
- SAE Automotive Congress and Exposition, Detroit,
1 -........................................... : bng;-&4at-..jHex:---- Michigan, F e h q , 1976.
-
0.8 ................... ,.................... ;.................... ;.. i..................... i...................-
12. Lippman, S. A.. ;and Oblizajek, K. L., "Lateral Fiorces of
--------- ------. "---- ---." ---..--- L ..--- Passenger Tms and Effects on Vehicle Response During

-
0.6 A

Dynamic Steering," SAE Paper 760033, SA E

0.2 -.. .................,......-......-..
0 ............
-0.2
0 0.5
Figure 9. -Pulse steering responses for the case where
both lateral and longitildinal flexibilities are considered
ACKNOWLEDGMEN'I'
This work was supported in part by the Toyota Motor
Corp., Higashifuji Technical Center.
...-i.....................i................-.- Automotive Congress and Exposition, Detroit, Michigan,
.............................................. - February, 19761.
1
I I I 13. Collins, R. L., "]Frequency Response of Tires Ursing the
1 1.5 2 2.5 3 Point Contact Theory," Journal of Aircraft, Vo1. '9, No. 6,
Time (seconds) June, 1972.
14. Allen, R. W., Szostak, H. T., Rosenthal, T. J., et al.,
"Vehicle Dynannic Stability and Rollover," Systems
Technology, Inc, TR-1268-1, NHTSA Contract DTNH22-
88-C-07384.
15. Mallikarjunarao, C., Ervin, R. D., and Segel, I,., "Roll
Response of Articulated Motor Trucks 1)uring Steady-
Turning Maneuvcers," Computational Methods in Ground
Transportation Vehicles, AMD-Vol. 50, November 1982.

REFERENCES 16. Shapley, C. Ci., "The Influence of Tire Modeling in

Commercial Vehicle Simulation," Proceedings of a
1. Owen, R. H. and Bernard, J. E., "Directional Dynamics of Symposium on Commercial Braking and Handling, UM-
a Tractor-Loader-Bac:khoe,"Vehicle System Dynamics, HSRJ-PF-75-6, h k y 5-7, 1975.
Vol. 11, December 1982. 17. Bernard, J. E. atntl Clover C. L., "Tire Modeling fbr Low-
2. Ellis, J. R., Road Vehicle Dynamics, John R. Ellis Inc., Speed and High-!Speed Calculations," SAE Paper 950311,
Arkon, 1988. 1995.
18. Van Zanten, A,, IRuf, W. D., and Lutz, A., "Measurement
3. Loeb, J. S., Guenther, D. A., Chen, F. H., and Ellis, J.
and Simulatioll (of Transient Tire Forces," SAE Paper
R., "LateralStiffness, Cornering Stiffness, and Relaxation
Length of the Pneurniitic Ti," SAE Paper 900129, SAE
890640, SAE Congress and Exposition, Detroit,
lnternational Congress and Exposition,Detroit, Michigan, Michigan, 1989.
February, 1990.
 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

19. Vedamuthu, S., and Law, E. H., "An Investigation of the

Pulse Steer Method for Determining Automobile wheel heading^
Handling Qualities," SAE Paper 930829, 1993.
20. Heydinger, G. J, Grygier, P. A., and Lee S., "Pulse
Steering Techniques .Applied to Vehicle Handling
Dynamics," SAE paper 930828, 1993.
21. Park, J., and Nikravesh~,P. E., "A Look-Ahead Driver
Model for Autonomou:~Cruising on Highways," SAE
Paper 961686 (also available in SP-1190). Future
Transportation Technology Conference, Vancouver, Figure A-2 EEinematics of wheel/tire system
Canada, August 5-8,1996.
22. Kim, S. S., and Vanderploeg, M. J,. "A General and Then, the lateral slip angle ( a)of the tire becomes
Efficient Method for Dynamic Analysis of Mechanical
Systems Using Velocity Transformations," ASME J.
Mech., Trans., and Auto. in Design, Vol. 108, No. 2,
June, pp. 176-182, 1986.
23. Nikravesh, P. E., Computer-Aided Analysis of
Mechanical Systems, Rentice Hall, 1988. Tille lateral force (conrering force) is a cornering stifhess times
the tire lateral slip angle as
24. Nikravesh, P. E., and Gwanghun Gim, "Systematic
Construction of the Equations of Motion for Multibody
Systems Containing Closed Kinematic Loops," Paper No.
89-DAC-58, ASME Design Automation Conference,
Montreal, Canada, September 17-20, 1988.
25. Bakker, E., Nyborg, L., and Pacjeka, H. B., "Tyre
Modeling for Use in Vehicle Dynamics Studies," SAE The tire lateral force can also be expressed in terms of the tire
paper, No. 870421,1987. lateral deflection ( y ) and stiffness ( K,) as
26. Colin, C., Automotive ,Suspensions, Chapman and Hall,
London, 1981.

APPENDIX A: FIRST- AND SECOND-ORDER TIRE Equating the equations (A.3) and (A.4) yields the tire lateral
LATERAL DYNAMICS MODELS dynamics model in a form of a first+rder differential equation:

FIRST-ORDER TIME-LAG MODEL This crude model -

has been used by Ellis [2], Loeb [3],Mabrouka [4], and
Heydinger [6-71. Figure A-1 shows the contact patch of a tire
which is steered about a point P, the intersection of the
steering axis with the road surface. In the figure, 6 is the
C
where Zz- is he: relaxation time constant
steering angle. U is vehicle longitudinal velocity vector, V UKY
is vehicle lateral velocity vector, x is the negative of trail or For a simplified case of zero vehicle lateral speed and zero
caster offset, and y is a lateral deflection of tire tread. trail, the solution of the equation (AS) can be obtained as
below by assuming its solution as y = A(I - e-") where A
undeformed
contact patch is a constant.
. N wheel

Equation (A.5) can be either augmented to a set of equalions of

motion for a 2-dimensional vehicle or be appended as a first-
Figure A- 1 Tire -road contact geometry order lag to a existing Itire model as below.

From the geometric relationship between the vehicle heading

(U ), wheel heading ( u), and wheel center velocity vector
(V,)as shown in Figure A-2, the angle P is
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where FyLis lagged tire liaral force, and D is the differential The constraine:d equations of motion for the vehicle
model are automatically constructed and solved by a three-
operator (dldt ) . dimensional dynamic analysis program based on the joint
coordinate formulaticm 122-241. The numerical integration of
SECOND-ORDER 'TIME-LAGMODEL - This model the equations of motion is carried out by an integrator based on
has been suggested by H:eydinger and his co-workers [5-61. a variable-step/o&r predictor-conrector algorithm.
The equation they used to model the second-order lag of tire
lateral slip angle is
APPENDIX C: (JOMPLEX CORNERING POWER

Campbell [26)dlefmed cornering power as cornering force

divided by the slip angle required to generate the force. The
cornering power is the most important performance parameter
of tires. According to Campbell, the factors influerrcing the
cornering power m: wheel load, tire profile (aspect ratio),
where a, is the lagged lateral slip angle, is the tire lateral camber angle, tire lo~ngitudinalforce, and rim width of wheel.
damping ratio. and U p A T H is the path frequency defrned as the Normally, the cornetring power designates static cornering
power since it is computed from steady-state cornering
cyclic steer frequency, O (rad/sec), divided by vehicle parameters. A simple extension of the static cornerirlg power
longitudinal speed, U ( d s e c ) : to the transient region is called the "dynamic cornering power"
which is naturally a lunction of time. The dynamic cornering
power transformed into frequency-domain is called the
(A. 10)
"complex cornering: power".
However, Heydinger did not provide any explanation about the In order to obtain complex cornering power, let's assume
derivation of Equation (A.0). that a planar motion of a vehicle can be simplified as i5 bicycle
model as shown in Figure C- 1. In the figure, variables are
defined as below:
APPENDIX B: 3D VEIjICLE MODEL
m : sprung mass of the vehicle (kg)
The vehicle model used in this paper is an enhanced I : chassis yaw moment of inertia (kg - m 2 )
version of the model useti in [21]. This sophisticated three 1 : wheel base (m)
dimensional rigid-multibocly vehicle model closely represents a a : distance fromn chassis CG to front axle (m)
typical mid-size sedan. A. schematic of the model with body b : distance frorn chassis CG to rear axle (m)
numbers and joint types is shown in Figure B-1. The V : velocity vector of chassis CG (m/sec)
multibody modeling of this system with the joint coordinate u : forward vehxity cornponen t (m/sec)
formulation [22-241 assurnes the chassis (body 1) to be the v : lateral velocity component (rn/sec)
only floating base-body i.n the system. Other bodies form 6 : direct steering angle (xadian)
branches extending out fran the base-body. The vehicle model 5 : indirect staxing angle due to rolling, complhce,
has super-strut front silspensions and quadra-link rear chassis cleformation, etc .
suspensions, both of which are variants of a McPherson strut
: course an,gk: of the vehicle (radian)
suspension.
The front wheels are steered by a rack-and-pinion steering w : yaw rate of the vehicle (rad/sec)
mechanism, where the shift of the rack-bar relative to the rack- F : cornering f o ~ at e tire (N)
housing determines the steering angles of the front wheels C : cornering power (Nfdeg)
through the tie-rods. The lack-housing is kinematically pined
to the chassis by a tran~l~ational joint and a rubber bushing
element. A kinematic steering constraint defined between the
rack-bar and rack-housing governs the relative shift of the rack-
bar. Suspension rubber bushings are modeled by
supplementary bodies ((24-3I), joints (29T-36T), and
translational springdamperelements.
Any accurate vehicle ride simulation would require a
realistic tire model. For this study, the Magic Formula tire
model [25] is used. In thiis tire model, the interacting forces
and moments between the tire and the road surface are
determined based on empiuical formulas as a function of tire
orientation, velocity, and radial stiffness. The tire coefficients
in the formulas are for the 195/60R13 tire. The tire model is Figure (:-:I. Bicycle model of a vehicle
defined on the ring bodies 16 through 19. Springdamper
elements that represent the tire flexibility are defined between
the ring bodies and the cylinder bodies (bodies 10 through 13).
The vehicle model represents a front wheel drive car.
Therefore, torque of the: two front wheels are feedback
controlled to maintain a constant vehicle speed. Speed-
dependent rolling resistance is applied to all wheels.
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: cut joint constraint

Figure B- 1. Schematic presentation of the vehicle model

The indirect steering angle is a steering angle due to any

indirect steering effects such as roll steer, compliance steer,
steering due to chassis deforrnation, etc.. with the exception of
the direct steering angle command The influence of the
indirect steering angle can be equivalently included into the
cornering power. producing equivalent cornering power C' .
Then the tire slip angle, a. should also be changed to the,
pseudo slip angle. a'. Figure C-2 presents the equivalent
model. The relationship between the two slip angles is

a,' = a, - 6 , Figure C-2. Equivalent bicycle model of a vehicle

 Downloaded from SAE International by University of Birmingham, Sunday, August 19, 2018

Since the cornering force should be consistent in each model,

the cornering forces can be expressed as where Z is a time constant, then the steering angle cart be
presented as

GR
Then, the equivalent cornering power can be &fined as
6(s) = GR .st(s) = -
l + 7s
(C. 11)

From equation (C.311,

the lateral acceleration in frequency
domain is

la(s) = u (/3(s).s + ~ ( s ) ) (C. 12)

Once the equivalent cornering power is obtained, the indirect From this equation, he frequency-domain course angle of the
steering angle is given by vehicle can be expressxi as

p(s) == (:la(s)/u- w(s))/s (C. 13)

The above discussion which is based on steady-state time- Then, the pseudo slip imgles of tire can be calculated by
domain can be expanded to the transient frequencydomain by
applying Laplace transformation. In the frequencydornain, ale(s) = P(S)+ a . W(S)/U- S ( S )
each variable should be a complex number, and we can use the
term 'complex' implying arr expansion from steady-state time- = /?(s) + a . W(S)/U- GR/(l + 7s) (C. 14)
Qmain to transient frequency-domain. a,' (s) = /?( S)I- b W(S)/U
+

Now let's consider the equation of motion for the

equivalent model in Figure C-2.
Cornering forces are dbtained from equations (C.3) and (C.4)
as

F, (s) = (6. m la(s) + 1 - W(S)- s)/(a + b )

(C. 15)
F2(s) = ( a . n - la(s) - 1 . w(s) - s)/(a + b )

Then. the complex (dynamic) equivalent cornering power is

given from equation ((3. I) by
where s is a complex number in Laplace transformation, and
it is expressed as C,' = - F, (s)/a, ' (s)
(C. 16)
c2"=: - F 2(s)/a2 (s)

where j = . Let's suppose following time domain data are

available from mu1tibody d,ynarnicsimulation of a vehicle:

MA(t) : hand wheel (steering wheel) angle

YR(t) : yaw rate = w(t)
LA (1) : lateral accele~ationof the vehicle

Then , through FFT of these time domain data and through

some complex domain operations, transfer functions of
YR(s)/MA(s) and LA(s)/MA(s) can be obtained. Therefore,
we can use following normidized terms for yaw rate and lateral
acceleration in Laplace domain:

In addition, steering angle in Laplace domain can be expressed

using a steering gear ratio and a frequency domain steering
model. If we assume that the steering gear ratio, G R , is
constant and that the steering model can be represented as a
simple first order delay of

(C. lo)