CHAPTER 2.

INTERNAL FORCES

2.1 Fundamentals of Mechanics of Bars

We can classify the structures into three sub-categories according to their dimensions:

Structures

Bars, rods, beams Plates, shells Others

Fig. 2.1

Bars are load carrying systems with one size larger than the other two, e.g., beams, columns, arches, etc. Plates and shells are load carrying systems with
one size smaller than other two, e.g., slabs, vaults, etc. The smaller dimension is called as thickness. Plates have straight members while shells have curved
surfaces. In third type of structures, there is no difference among their dimensions.
In the context of the Strength of material, we will examine only the bar structures. A bar is defined by
a) its neutral axis, which may be straight or curved
b) its cross-section, which is mutual to the neutral axis

Fig. 2.2

We can consider bars in two groups with respect to the change of cross-section along the neutral axis:
a) uniform bars
b) nonuniform bars (tapered or stepped) (Fig. 2.3)

Fig. 2.3
2.2 Internal Forces

When a body is enforced to deform due to external forces, internal forces occur within. Consider a body in equilibrium shown in the figure (a). Here, the
body is subjected to some applied forces (external forces, support reactions, etc.). To examine the internal forces within the body, let us first cut imaginatively
the body along a surface say t-t (b). Since our body is in equilibrium, the two pieces (I and II) must be in equilibrium. This requires the existence of some
interaction forces distributed over the cutting surface, which are called as stress. If we reduce these distributed forces into the center of gravity of the cross-
section, we have a resultant force, R, and a resultant moment, M, which are called as internal forces.
To facilitate the analysis, we divide the R and M vectors into their components in the normal and tangential directions to the cross-section. In this case, the
normal and tangential components of R vector are named to be normal force, N, and shear force, V (T), respectively. Similarly, the normal and tangential
components of M vector are named to be twisting (torsinal) moment, T (Mb), and bending moment, Mb (Me), respectively.

Fig. 2.5 Fig. 2.6

2.3 Variation of Internal Forces

R and M internal force vectors vary along the beam axis (neutral axis, length), that is they are the functions of the variable of s coordinate. These functions
must satisfy some conditions, i.e., differential equilibrium equations.

Fig. 2.7.
Consider a differential beam element shown in Fig. 2.7. The beam is subjected to the resultant external force ps and moment ms. From equilibrium of
the body

F = 0 → − R + (R + R) + ps = 0
(2.1)
M = 0 → − M + (M + M) + r  (R + R ) + r  ps + ms = 0
F = 0 → − R + (R + R) + ps = 0
M = 0 → − M + (M + M) + r  (R + R ) + r  ps + ms = 0

Ignoring small quantities in these expressions, and taking the smaller and smaller values of s with consideration of
r dr
lim = =t (2.2)
s →0 s ds
where t is unit tangential vector of the neutral axis, we have the following:
dR
+p = 0
ds (2.3)
dM
+tR +m = 0
ds
which are the differential equilibrium equations of a bar/beam element. When p(s) and m(s) are known, we can easily obtain the internal forces at any cross-
section by taking integrals of Eqs. (2.3). The constants appeared after the integration can be obtained by boundary conditions. Note that when establishing
Eqs. (2.3), it is assumed that there is no singular effect (concentrated load or moment) on the beam.
2.4 Differential Equilibrium Equations for a Straight Beam

In the Cartesian coordinate system, for a straight bar/beam, we have

x
Fig. 2.8
y

R = Vx i + Vy j + Nk
M = M xi + M y j + M zk
(2.4)
p = px i + p y j + pz k
m = mx i + m y j + mz k

Here, the neutral axis is z-axis, so t = k. Substituting (2.4) into (2.3) yields
 R = Vx i + Vy j + Nk
dR
+p = 0 M = M xi + M y j + M zk
ds
dM p = px i + p y j + pz k
+tR +m = 0
ds m = mx i + m y j + mz k

 dVx   dVy   dN 
 + px  i +  + py  j +  + pz  k = 0 
 dz   dz   dz 
dVx
+ px = 0
dz (2.5)
dVy
+ py = 0
dz
dN
+ pz = 0
dz
d
dz
( M x i + M y j + M zk ) + k  (Vxi + Vy j + Nk ) + mxi + my j + mzk = 0 
dM x
− V y + mx = 0
dz
(2.6)
dM y
+ Vx + my = 0
dz
dM z
+ mz = 0
dz

Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6) are six scalar equilibrium equations for straight bars. In other words, six diferential equations must be satisfied for equilibrium.
Note that bending moment and shearing force are dependent each other while normal force and twisting moment are independent.
2.5 Sign Convention for Internal Forces

If the directions of internal forces coincide with the coordinate axes in the cross-section where its normal is in the same direction with z-axis (right cross-
section), they are considered to be positive (+). Likewise, if the directions of internal forces are in opposite direction to the coordinate axes in the cross-
section where its normal is in the opposite direction to z-axis (left cross-section), they are again considered to be positive (+).

Fig. 2.9
2.6. Coplanar Forces py(z)

If all the forces acting on a system are on yz plane, Eqs. 2.5 & 2.6 are
become as follows. z

px = 0, my = 0, mz = 0
x
Vx = 0, M y = 0, M z = 0
y

dVy
+ py = 0
dz

dN
+ pz = 0 (2.7)
dz

dM x
− Vy + mx = 0
dz

Let’s investigete these equations one by one:

z z z
dVy
dz
= − py →  dVy =  − py dz → Vy ( z) = Vy (0) −  py dz
0 0 0

i. If py is a n-th degree polinomial, then Vy is a (n+1)th degree polinomial.

ii. The slope of Vy at any cross-section gives the negative value of the distributed load py at that cross-section.
 z z z
dN
dz
= − pz →  dN =  − pz dz → N ( z) = N (0) −  pz dz
0 0 0

i. If pz is a n-th degree polinomial, then N is a (n+1)th degree polinomial.

ii. The slope of N at any cross-section gives the negative value of the distributed load pz at that cross-section.
iii. In most of the problems, pz is given zero and normal forces are constant along the members.

z z z
dM x
dz
= Vy − mx →  dM x =  (Vy − mx )dz → Vy ( z) = Vy (0) −  (Vy − mx )dz
0 0 0

mx can only be seen some special structures, so it can be zero in the equation.

z
dM x
= Vy Vy ( z ) = Vy (0) −  Vy dz
dz 0

i. If Vy is a (n+1)th degree polinomial, then Mx is a (n+2)th degree polinomial.

ii. The slope of Mx at any cross-section gives the value of the shear force Vy at that cross-section.
iii. If Vy is zero at a cross-section, the bending moment Mx become extrumum (min or max) at that cross-section.
The positive directions of internal forces and internal moments are determined by the help of right and left cross-sections and right and left cross-sections
are determined according to the direction of view. The coordinate axes of a bar (member) is from left to right from the direction of view. Dotted line will
be used to show the direction of view in this course.

z
y
z

y
y

z
Example 1.

Determine the normal force, shear force and bending moment at C of the beam.
2.7 Internal Force Diagrams

As external forces and end conditions of a bar (member) are given, internal forces at any section can be obtained by using Eqs. (2.5) and (2.6). In practice,
variation of internal forces along the beam length (neutral axis) is shown by graphics, which are called as internal force diagrams. Drawing the variation of
internal forces from one section to another along the neutral axis is the first step of solving the design problem.
In drawing internal force diagrams, three methods are used:
• method of integration (using differential equations 2.5 and 2.6 and 2.7 in case of coplanar forces)
• method of sections
2.7.1 Methos of Sections

As the name implies, in this method, the bar is divided into two parts by imaginatively cutting an arbitrary point on the neutral axis. The unknown internal
forces on the cutting surfaces are placed according to the positive sign rule, then the equilibrium equations are written on any part to obtain unknown internal
forces. Here, you need to pay attention that if there is a concentrated force or moment, intermediate support or hinge, a sudden change in the cross-section
or in the load functions distributed over the bar, they cause discontinuity in the related internal force diagrams. Therefore, each point at which discontinuity
appears determines the boundaries of the regions to be used in drawing the internal force diagrams.

Procedure for analysis

1. Calculate support reactions
2. Determine the regions to be used in drawing the internal force diagrams by considering the discontinuities mentioned
3. For each region, divide the bar imaginatively into two parts by cutting it at an arbitrary point, replace the unknown internal forces on the cutting
surfaces in positive directions
4. Write equilibrium equations on any part of the bar to obtain internal force functions
5. Draw the diagrams of the functions obtained, i.e., N(z), V(z), Mb(z). In graphical representations, positive values of the shear force are shown above
the horizontal axis while ones of the bending moment are shown below the horizontal axis. Such representation in the bending moment diagram is
due it is similar the deformed shape of the bar.
dVy dN dM x
= − py , = 0 (if pz = 0), = Ty
dz dz dz
Some important points:
• Slope of the shear force at a point gives the external distributed load at that point with a negative sign.
• Area under the distributed load within two certain points gives the change in the shear force between these points. If, in a certain region, there is no
distributed load, then the shear force remains constant within this region.
• Slope of the bending moment at a point gives the shear force at that point. The bending moment reaches at its extremum value at the point where
the shear force is zero.
• Area under the shear force within a certain region gives the change in the bending moment at that region.
• A concentrated force causes a discontinuity (a jump) in the shear force diagram and a change in the slope in the bending moment diagram.
• A concentrated moment causes a discontiniunity (a jump) in the moment diagram.
Example 2.
Draw the normal force, shear force and bending moment diagrams for the shown figure.
Example 3.
Draw the normal force, shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the shown figure.
Example 4.
For the given problem, 4 kN/m
a) Draw the normal force, shear force and bending moment
diagrams.
b) Take out a small section around point C and show the C
equilibrium of this section. A 20 kN
B
2m

15 kNm 2m

3m 1m 1,5 m 1,5 m
Example 5.
Draw the normal force, shear force and bending moment
diagrams for the be shown figure.