Definition of Biophysics

Relationship between biophysics & medicine

• Biophysics is the comparison between physics & biology

• Explain biologic things with physics

• Physical methods helps in diagnosing (CT, ECG, MRT, ultrasound……)

Quantum field theory, quantum properties of particles.

Quantum processes absorption & emission

• Quantum Field theory describes how events on atomic scale behave

• Describe macroscopic properties of matter

• Small particles (atom)

• Corpus Lucas system—> proton, neutron, electron

• Absorption & emission based on light or radiation

• Absorption—molecules which penetrate into internal structures of material

• Emission—molecules which are getting released

Pauli exclusion principle

Wave-particle theory

Properties of atomic nucleus

• Two electrons can not have the same quantum state—> Pauli exclusion principle

• Inability to describe the behavior of atoms in quantum-scale object—Particles which form a wave

• Nucleus consist of neutrons & protons

• Around the nucleus are electrons


General properties of atom. Electromagnetic spectrum. Chemical bonding in terms of

quantum theory

• Positive charged nucleus with protons & neutrons, orbitals with electrons

• Chemical bonding is covering the orbitals

• Ionic bonds—transfer of electrons

• Covalent bonds—sharing of valence electrons

• Metallic bonds—sea of valence electrons

• Hydrogen bonds—interaction atoms

• Van der Waals—called as dipole-dipole

• Range of frequencies of electromagnetic radiation & their respective wavelengths

Quantum numbers: Principal, orbital, magnetic & spin-quantum number

• Describe the states of electrons

• Principal quantum number=n—Describes possibles states of electrons around the nucleus

• Orbital quantum number=λ—s,p,d,f,g on which orbital the electron is

• Magnetic quantum number=m—possible orientation of beta in space

• Spin quantum number=s—Electron spinning around its axis

Radioactivity & the radioactive decay law. The half-life —Physical, biological & effective

• Stabile & unstable nucleus—> unstable can spontaneously transform themself

• =radionuclides, radioactive atoms, radioactive isotopes

• Decay law states the probability per unit time

• Half-life is not influenced by usual chemical & physical effects

• Physical half-life—> time period that it takes for half of the substance to decay

• Biological half-life—> not in metabolic pathways or stored permanently in organism till it reaches
equilibrium

• Effective half-life—> Combines physical & biological half-life

Artificial & natural radioactivity. Classification of quarks

• Artificial radioactive isotopes—result of an initiated interaction of stable atomic nuclei by particles of high
energy—> induced

• Natural radiation arises from the decay of naturally occurring radionuclides

• Quarks exhibit fractional electric charge compared to electron, significant amount of mass, color change,
spin, undergo fundamental interactions

• Building blocks for matter

• Never found as isolated particles

Radioactive series. Alpha (α)-decay. Gamma (y)-decay

• Any of four independents sets of unstable heavy atomic nuclei that decay through a sequence of alpha &
beta decays

• Alpha decay—> atomic nucleus emits an alpha particle & decays

• Mass number is reduced by 4 & atomic number is reduced by 2

• Gamma decay—> unstable atomic nuclei dissipate excess energy by a spontaneous electromagnetic
process

Beta (ß)-decay & shell electron capacity

• Beta decay occurs in a nucleus with to many protons or neutrons—> one of them is transformed in the
other

• Beta minus decay—> neutron decays into proton, electron & antineutrino

• Beta plus decay—> proton decays into neutron, positron & neutrino

Biophysics of ionizing radiation. Processes ionization & excitation

• Radiation of tissue, differs in energy, electric charge & mass—> y-ray

• Ionization—> Removing electrons from atoms

• Excitation—> Adding electrons to atoms

 Application of radioactivity in medicine. Radioactive isotopes & radio tracers in

radiotherapy

Critical organ

• Ortopantomograph, Densitometry, Mammography, Megavoltage therapy, Teletherapy, Brachytherapy &

contact therapy

• All minerals & raw materials are radioactive

• Long-living primary isotopes

• All series end with a stable isotope

• Tracers: Thorium, Uranium, Actinum

Biological effect of radiation & dose equivalent. Teletherapy & brachytherapy

• Can cause cancer, the higher the dose, the more dangerous

• Alpha radiation less harmful, gamma radiation most harmful

• Teletherpy—> treating of deep tumors, intensive radiation from different directions

• Brachytherapy—> treating of surface tumors, minimum radiation

Interacting of ionizing radiation with matter. Photoelectric effect, Compton scattering

• Energy get transferred to the material, ionization/excitation of atoms in absorbing material

• Photoelectric effect—> Emission of electrons when light hits material

• Compton scattering—> Scattered photons, registered at the detectors contribute significantly to ransom
coincidences

Principle of medical x-ray imaging. Physical characterization of x-ray. Production &

controlling of X-ray

• Work on the absorption of level radiation by parts of the body

• X-rays are pure energy with no mass—> transfer in form of photons energy from one place to another

• Generated by an x-ray tube, that uses high voltage to accelerate the electrons rebased by a hot cathode
to a high velocity—> electrons collide with metal target (anode)

• Controlling with light

Braking & characteristics x-ray. Duan-Hunt Law, Requirements for the formation of x-ray

• Braking produce continuos x-rays

• Characteristic x-rays get produced by inner shell

Interaction of x-ray with matter. Intensity of attenuated x-ray.

• Linear attenuation coefficient of the matter (body)

• Intensity depends of depth of penetration & thickness

• Gets increased by each interaction by the material

Conventional x-ray imagining-sciascopy, skiagraphy, digital subtraction, angiography.

Bone densitometry

• Sciascopy—> determining errors oarefraction by illuminating there retina & observing the rays of light
emerging from the eye

• Skiagraphy—> producing of x-rays

• Digital subtraction—> fluoroscopy technique used in radiology for blood vessels in bone or dense soft
tissue observation

• Angiography—> for observation of blood vessels in the body & organs

• Bone densitometry—> dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry (DXA)

• Measure bone loss

Principles of computed tomography. CT number. Definition of the voxel unit

• Data acquisition, Image reconstruction, Image display

• CT number is linear attenuation coefficient of a tissue, water & is the constant with numerical value of
1000

• Voxel unit reprensents a value on a regular grid in 3D

• Pixels

 Thermodynamics. Energy. The law of conservation of energy. Kinetic & potential energy.
Internal energy. Work

• Thermodynamic laws define physical quantities, describe how these quantities behave under various
circumstances

• Law of conservation of energy (1. Thermodynamic law)

• No work without energy

• Internal energy changes on

• Kinetic energy is possessed by a object in motion, potential energy is because of the podsotion relative
to some other object

State of a system. State functions. Thermal equilibrium. Enthalpy. Thermal efficiency of a

heat engine

• State of a system is defined by a set of measurable properties sufficient to determine all other propertied

• State functions defined fir a system relating several state variables

• Thermal equilibrium has 2 systems—> system is in it, if the temperature within the system is spatially
uniform & temporally constant

• Enthalpy is a thermodynamic quantity equivalent to the total heat content of the system—> equal r the
internal energy of the system+product of pressure & volume

• Thermal efficiency of a heat engine—> heat engines turn heat into work

Principles of energetics in living systems. The first law of thermodynamics. Gibbs free
energy

• Equilibrium can’t be reached in an isolated system

• Gibbs free energy can be used to calculate the maximum of reversible work that may be performed by
the system

Second law of thermodynamics. Entropy.

• Total energy of an isolated system can never decrease over time

• Entropy representing the unavailability of a systems thermal energy for a conversion into mechanical
work

Statistical interpretation of entropy. The third law of thermodynamics

• Entropy increases whenever a closed system becomes more disorder on a microscopic state

• Entropy of a system approaches a constant value as its temperature approaches absolute zero

Prigogins theorem & Prigoings criterion for system analysis

• Prigogine Theorem of the thermodynamics of on equilibrium processes according to which the minimum
level of production entropy in a system

 Le Chatelier principle for entropy of stationary state

• When any system at equilibrium for a long period of time is subjected zo change in concentration,
temperature, volume or pressure the system changes to a new equilibrium & this change partly
counteracts the applied change

Definition of temperature, temperature scaled, clinical temperature measurements:

surface & body core temperature. Thermography

• Celsius & Kelvin & Fahrenheit

• Body Core temperature is higher than surface temperature

• Thermography=thermal imaging

Heat. Transfer of heat by conduction, convection & radiation. Stefan Boltzmann law,
Wiens law

• Conduction on objects, must have contact

• Convection in liquids or gas, most effective , continuous circulation

• Radiation no contact, through empty space by thermal radiation

• Stefan Boltzmann Law describes the power radiated from a black body in terms of its temperature

• Wiens law describe the spectrum of thermal radiation

• Fails to accurately fit the experimental data for long wavelengths

Thermoregulation: methods of heat production & heat los from the body. Heat balance
equitation

• Hot: Sweat, hairs, vasodilation

• Cold: decreased sweat production, piloerection, vasoconstriction, shivering, thermogenesis

• Balance between heat production & loss

Physical properties of dispersion systems & their classification according dispersion

medium & phase

• Controlled by the size of the frequency of a wave

• Molecular dispersion—> true solution of a solute phase in a solvent

• Colloids—> microheterogenous dispersed systems

• Coarse dispersion (suspension)—> heterogenous dispersed systems

Basic properties of water & its function in organism

• Attraction to polar molecules, high-specific heat, high heat of vaporization, lower density of ice, high
polarity

• Temperature, transport, Cell life, Chemical reactions, Waste excretion

Colloidal dispersions & their physical properties. Lyophilic & lyophobic colloid solutions

• Heterogenous system made up of dispersed phase & dispersion medium

• Dispersed phase—> in a two-phase system that consist of finely divided particles

• Dispersion medium—> Liquid, gaseous or solid phase in two-phase system

• Liophilic=hydrophilic; Liophobic=hydrophobic

Hydrodynamic & electric properties of liquid colloidal dispersions. Methods of analyzing

colloids.

• Liquid solutions of colloidal dispersion with long shame feature high viscosity (non-Newtonian fluid)

• Electric property depends on the nature of disperse phase & media which can electric double-layer on
the surface of the particle

 Molecular biophysics definition of bond—strong & weak interactions between atoms

• Strong bonds: Covalent (Nonpolar & polar)

• Weak bonds: Non-Covalent, Hydrogen, Van der Waals forces, Hydrophobic, Dipole interaction, induced
interaction, dispersion unteraction, cohesive forces & liquid viscosity

Cohesive & adhesive forces & liquid viscosity. Einsteins equation & Newtons law of
viscous flow. Surface tension.

• Cohesive—> like molecules stick to each other

• Adhesive—> different molecules/surface cling to each other

• Einsteins equation—> Energy=mass*light2

• Newtons law of viscous flow—>Shears stress in liquids is proportional to the velocity gradient of the
flowing liquid

• Viscosity depends on composition & temperature

• Surface tension happens through cohesion

Concentrations of solutions & its units. Physical methods of solution concentration

measurement

• Molarity—> moles/Liter

• Molarity=number of moles of solute divided by the volume in liters

Physical principle of absorption spectrophotometry

• Decreasing of light is proportional to the intensity of light entering

Physical principle of pulse oximetry. Scheme of pulse

oximetry.

• Measures the incident light intensity & the intensity of light which pass

• Light absorbing by hemoglobin

• Oxyhaemoglobin releases light at 660nm

• Deoxyhaemoglobin releases light at 940nm

Advantages & limitations of pulse oximetry. Formula for fractional & functional saturation.

• Advantages: No calibration required, Oxygen saturation do not depend on patients hemoglobin level,
indispensable

• Limitations: Failure, Low body temperature, Methylene blue (decrease), darker colors (increases)

• Fractional: Product of transmission through each of the individual filters

• Functional saturation: Difference in absorption between oxygenated & deoxygenated hemoglobin

Osmosis. Vant Hoff´s law of osmotic pressure.

• Diffusion explained by thermodynamics

• Different concentrations—> change

• Vant Hoff´s law: π=c*R*T

 Oncoitic pressure & its significance in living organism. Isotonic, hypertonic & hypotonic
solutions & their effect on the cell. Processes—endosmosis, hemolysis, plasmoptysis,
plasmorhysis.

• Oncoitic pressure—> Osmotic pressure induced by proteins in a blood vessels plasma that displaces
water molecules

• Isotonic—> Balanced, Hypertonic (shrinks)—> to much, hypotonic (bursts)—> to less

• Endosmosis—> Osmosis toward the inside of a cell/vessel

• Hemolysis—> rupturing of RBC & releasing of their content

• Plasmoptysis—> bursting forth of protoplasm from a cell through rupture of the cell wall

• Plasmorhysis—> cause cell swelling (even rupture)

Diffusion. First & second ficks law of diffusion through the membrane

• Transport process to reach equilibrium, passive from higher to lower

• Second Ficks law—> a change over time in the concentration of a substance at a given proportion is
proportional to the spatial change of the concentration gradient

Facilitated diffusion

• Passive transport of specific molecules down the concentration gradient

• Via specific carrier proteins

Laminar & turbulent streaming of a fluid & their criteria. Hagen-Poiseuille´s law of the
volume of flow rate. Reynolds number

• Laminar flow—> flow of a fluid when each particle of the fluid follows a smooth path, oaths never
interfere with one another

• Velocity is constant

• Turbulent flow—> irregular

• Hagen-Poiseuille´s law—> flow rate is proportional to the radius to the fourth power

• Reynolds number—> dimensionless number used in fluid mechanics to indicate whether fluid flow past a
body or in a duct is steady or turbulent

The Nernst equitation for resting membrane potential. Donnan´s equilibrium

• Nernst equitation—> Value of the equilibrium potential for any ion depends upon the concentration
gradient for that ion across the membrane

• Donnan´s equilibrium—> different charged substance is unable to pass the membrane—creates an

electric charge

The Goldman equation of resting membrane voltage for sodium, potassium & chloride
ions

• Expresses the membrane potential as a weighted average of the reversal potentials for the individual ion
types, weighted by permeability

Origin of action potential. Chronaxie & rheobase

• Nerve impulse—> depolarization of presynaptic membrane—> releases of transmitter into the gap—>
ligands binding—> opening of specific ion channels—> depolarization of postsynaptic membrane—>
action potential

• Chronaxie—> minimum time required for an electric current double the strength of the rheobase to
stimulate

• Rheobase—> minimal current amplitude of infinite duration that results in depolarization threshold

Physiological effects of electric current with frequencies: below 0,1 Hz, low-frequencies
(0,1 Hz-100kHz) & higher frequencies (>100kHz). Medical application of electric current.
Dielectric potential

• Below 0,1 Hz—> electrolysis

• Low frequencies (0,1 Hz-100kHz)—> Neutral stimulation

• Higher frequencies (> 100kHz)—> Heating

• Medical application—> Electrosurgery, Diathermy, Defibrillation

• Dielectric potential—> polarized by an applied electric field, electric charge doesn’t flow flow normally
through the material, only slightly shift from their average equilibrium

 Electrical shock: Macroshock & Microshock hazard. Leakage current. Recommendations

for general electrical safety in hospital. Diathermy, surgical diathermy. Electrosurgery

• Macroshock—> human body is an conductor, electric current passing by means other than directly
through the heart

• Microshock hazard—> direct contact with heart

• Leakage current—> Possible cause of hazardous current

• Diathermy—> Intermal heating—therapeutical purposes to deliver moderate heat directly to pathological

tissues of the body

• Surgical diathermy/electrosurgery—> Passage of current through the body via electrolytic solutions in the
tissues & bloodstream

Complex permittivity, frequency dependence of the orientation polarization-Debye

relaxation, frequency dependence of the dielectric parameters of biological tissue

• Complex permittivity—> measures the amount of polarization in prince of any electric field

• Debye relaxation—> Relaxation response of a dielectric medium to an alternating external electric field

Biomechanics of cardiovascular system. Heart as a pump. Cardiac work

• Vasodilation/Vasoconstriction

• Sum of external work & potential energy, pressure volume area/force length area —> cardiac oxygen
consumption—> cardiac work

Characterization of blood & blood flow. The cardiac power output

• Water, Plasma, RBC—> obtained in THz frequency region

• Cardiac output—> mean arterial pressure*cardiac output

Electrocardiography. Einthoven triangle, Wilson clamp, Goldberg leads

Electrocardiogram & vector analysis of ventricular electrocardiogram

• <30°—> left axis deviation, >90°—> right axis deviation

Systolic & diastolic pressure, methods of blood pressure measurement

• Systolic pressure—> when heart beats

• Diastolic pressure—> when heart rests

• Indirect & direct blood measurement

Mechanical properties of blood vessels & elastic effect. Equation of blood vessels
resistance

• Vasoconstriction/Vasodilatation

• Elastic & muscular arteries

• Arterial elasticity give rise to the Windkessel effect

• Vessel resistance is directly proportional to the length of the vessels & the viscosity of the
blood & inversely proportional to the radius to the fourth power

Mechanics of breathing—Inspiration, expiration, pneumothorax

Characterization of respiratory system

• Inspiration—> Boyles law, increase in the volume of air results in a decrease in the
pressure of air within the lungs

 • Expiration—> Elastic recoil of lungs causes them to recoil back to their original volume;
Boyles law

• Pneumothorax—> One or both of the wings can’t expand right

Mechanism of gas exchange—O2, CO2 between external & internal environment

• External—> through alveoli in lung, CO2 gets out, O2 gets in

• Internal—> through diffusion between RBC & cell

Variation in alveolar & pleural pressure of respiratory system. Transpulmonary pressure

• Transpulmonary pressure—> difference between alveolar & intrapleural pressure in the

pleural cavity, always positive

• Alveolar pressure—> moves from slightly negative to slightly positive

• Intrapleural pressure—> always negative

Pulmonary compliance of respiratory system. Elastic forces of the lung

• Measure of lungs ability to stretch & expand

• Static & dynamic compliance

• Elastic recoil means the rebound of the lungs after having been stretched by inhalation

• Related to lung compliance

Breathing resistance & work of breathing. Compliance & resistance work

Distribution of ventilation. Respiratory volumes & capacity.

• Increased ventilation in lower parts of lung

• Base—greatest, apex—smallest

A sensory system: fundamental sequence of events in a sensory system

• System that consist of sensory cells

• Stimulus, sensory organ/receptor, Sensory cell, sensory membrane, receptor potential,

action potential

Classification of receptors. Receptor & action potential

• Classification by complexity—> free nerve endings, Multicellular structures, sense organs

• Classification by origin of stimulus—> Exteroreceptors, Visceroreceptors/Interoreceptors,

Proprioreceptors

• Classification by stimulus type—> Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors, Nocireceptors,

Photoreceptors, Chemoreceptors

Webers law, Fechner´s law & Stevens power law

• Webers law—> proportional to the intensity of stimulus

• Fechners law—>Relating sensory intensity to physical intensity

• Stevens power law—> relationship between magnitude of physical stimulus & the intensity
strength that people feel

The structure of eyeball & its optical properties. Accommodation of the eye, near point &
remote point. Presbya

The shorter the distance between eye & object, the greater the accommodation
• Refractory power of the eye

• Near point—> nearest; far point—> widest (6m)

• Presbya—> low refractive power & accommodation (short

arm syndrome)

Photoreceptors in the retina, function, multiplicity & at

which light levels they work. Color vision

Rods—> most numerous & sensitive, Vision at low light level light sensitivity receptors
• Cones —> in macula, less sensitive to light, color vision

Spherical & aspherical vision defects. Causes & corrections

Spherical—> Myopia (short) & Hyperopia (long), optical power is to small/large

• Aspherical—> inability to focus an clear point, irregular curvature of Cornea & lens

Visual acuity, equation for the refractory power of the eye, function of the Snellen
optotype & its construction & function

Best visual acuity is on Macula

• S=1/f

• Snells Law—> refraction occurs, when the sound waves meet a tissue boundary other than 90
degrees

Physical characteristics of sound. Sound intensity level. Sound pressure level.

• Temporal lobe including auditory cortex, sound wave, pitch & soundness

• Sound intensity level—>Li=10*log*I/I0

• Sound pressure level—> Lp=10log*p2rms/p20=20log*prms/p20

Basic parts of auditor organ. The role of basilar membrane in sound reception. The organ
of corti & hair cells. Theory of hearing. Potentials generated upon cochlear stimulation.

Outer ear, middle ear (air filled chamber), inner ear (temporal bone)
• Basilar membrane pass on the sound through vibration

• Organ of corti—> primary auditory receptor structure, responsible for transduction of

mechanical energy into a change in membrane polarization

• Hair cells—> two types: inner (more protective) & outer (more sensory)

• Place & Frequency Theory

• Cochlear potential changes to positive or negative, depends on stimulus

Auditory perception: pitch, timbre, loudness. Absolute threshold. Differential sensitivity.

Sound localization.

• Auditory perception—>Ability to receive & interpret auditory information

• Absolute threshold—> minimum of hearing

Physical characteristics of ultrasound imaging. Propagation of ultrasound in matter.

Characterization of longitudinal & shear waves

• Propagates through a compressible medium via the action of elastic stresses

• Longitudinal waves—> particles in the medium move back 6 force in the same direction the
wave is traveling

• Shear wave—> particles move at right angels to the direction of the wave (not used in sono)

Characterization of the transducer beam profile, axial & lateral resolution of the
ultrasound. Description & function of ultrasound
transducer, piezoelectric effect

• Transducer—> used as transmitter & receiver

• Piezoelectric effect—> converts electrical voltage to

mechanical vibration

Ultrasounds interaction with the tissue—reflection, attenuation, refraction. Acoustic

impedance

• Reflection—> echo

• Attenuation—> Energy loss through interactions between ultrasound waves & soft tissue which
occurs through absorption & scattering events

• Refraction—> snells law

• Acoustic impedance—> effects reflection of the sound wave in tissue

Intensity based effect of ultrasound. Energy transfer. Ultrasound safety & risks, thermal
index & mechanical index

• The deeper, the more intensive

• Energy of sound waves increase with the square of the frequency

• Thermal phenomena, Cavity phenomena

• Thermal index—> Provides an onscreen indication of the relative potential for a tissue
temperature rise

• Mechanical index —> Provides an onscreen indication of the relative potential for ultrasound to
induce an a adverse bio effect by a non thermal mechanism such as cavitation

Ultrasonography A, M, B imaging modes. Principles of doppler ultrasound

• A-Mode—> dynamic display, oldest, ophthalmology, infarct

• M-Mode—> localization of brain midline, liver, heart

• B-Mode—>differenr columns corresponding to different lateral position (x)

• Doubler imaging—> detect tissue, blood flow in vessels & organ movement

• Continuous or pulsed wave

Physical characterization of Nuclear Magnetic resonance imaging. MRI signal creation &
processing

• Mechanical analog to magnetic nature of the nucleus that it is spinning mass with a small net
positive charge, Absorption & emission

• Contains number of protons in a very small volume of human body proportional to thew
amplitude of signal

Lamor frequency & resonance phenomena in MRI. Proton density & relaxation time

• Lamor frequency—> nuclei carry out precession movement (Frequency of movement=LF)

• Resonance phenomena—> frequency of radio waves must be equal to lamor frequency

• Nucleus will jump in a higher energy level

• Proton density—> increase: blood, edema; decrease: calcification

• Relaxation process—> returning there protons to lower energy equilibrium state

Possible hazards of NMR

• Projectiles, Implants, Pacemaker, Pregnancy (first 3 month), Changes in enzymatic kinetics,

orientation changes of macromolecules & sub cellular components of the cell, nerve
conductivity, cardiac changes, blood pressure increasing

Imaging principles in MRI—Magnetic field gradient, Frequency encoding. Slice selection

• Only three small distinct regions go hydrogen spins—> different general magnetic field strength

• Magnetic field gradient—> variation in the magnetic field with respect to position

• Frequency encoding—> Amplitude of signal is proportional to number of spins in a plane

perpendicular to the gradient

• Slice selection—>Selection of spins in a plane through the object , resonance equation

selecting proper

Functional MRI, Image contrast & artifacts

• Distinguishing magnetic properties, oxyhemoglobin is diamagnetic, deoxyhaemoglobin is

paramagnetic

Physical characterization of Laser—absorption, spontaneous emission, stimulated

emission. Characterization of laser light.

• Absorption—> dopend on the type of tissue & the wavelength

• Spontaneous emission—> after relaxation time can get activated by the minimum base energy

• Stimulated emission—> stimulating photon

• Coherent (photons are in the same phase), Monochromat, Collimation (direction)

General laser construction. Laser pumps. Energy of the individual quanta of light.
Constructions of ruby laser, He-Ne laser, Co2 laser

• Laser construction—> gain medium, laser pumping energy, High reflector, Output coupler,
Laser beam

• Laser pumps—> electromagnetic, electric, chemical, thermic

• Color of laser determines the energy of the individual quanta of light

• Ruby laser—> eye, photocoagulation & photodynamic therapy

• He-Ne laser—> blood analysis, particle counting

• Co2 laser—> most powerful, used auxiliary gases

Classes of lasers & laser products. Laser safety.

• Class I—> safe, light

• Class II—> safe, blink reflex protect

• Class IIIa—> small risks of eye damage

• Class IIIb—> can cause immediate eye damage upon exposure

• Class IV—> Can cause skin or eye damage

• Radiation, retinal, skin, chemical, laser reflection hazard; plumber management

Laser-tissue interaction. Photothermal, photo acoustic & photochemical effect

• Photothermal—> Light energy transformed & dissipated as heat-most lasers

• Photoacoustic—> Shockwave is created-Q switched

• Photochemical—> Low intensity, photodynamic therapy, photo induced synthesis

Laser thermal effect on tissue-coagulation, carbonization, vaporization & ablation.

Selective photothermolysis & photodynamic therapy

• Coagulation—> structural tissue change

• Carbonization—> partial oxidation of tissue hydrogen compounds

• Vaporization—> resection of tissue by converting it to gas with laser energy

• Ablation—> heats so quickly & throughout that tissue is ablated

• Selective photothermolysis—> Target has to be destroyed fast before it has the change to cool.
Different chromophores in skin absorb different wavelengths of light

• Photodynamic therapy—> identify tumor tissue-can be destroyed by laser irradiation initiating

photodynamic interaction

Physical principle of positron emission tomography imaging. Positron interactions with

matter. Energy of emitted positron

• Drug is labeled with radionuclide, producing pairs of y-photons

• Energy can be transferred to the natter

• Positron undergoes strong electrostatic attraction with atomic electrons , result in photon with
energy of 0.511 MeV

Physical principles of annihilation process in PET. Radiotracers in PET imaging

• Annihilation occurs, when a subatomic particle collides with its respective antiparticle

• Radiotracers—> chemical compound in which some atoms are replaced by radionuclide

Coincidence detection in PET. Line of response. Types of confidence events.

• True coincidence—> lie on line of response

• Accident coincidence—> Two positrons, just one LOR

• Scattered coincidence—> Wrong LOR

Detection system in PET—scintillation detectors. Pulse creation & processing.

• Scintillation detectors—> interaction between y-photonn & scintillating crystals

• Pulse creation—> production of multiple secondary photons in optical range

Clinical application of PET imaging. Limitations & advantages of PET

• Tumor, necrosis, Heart, alzheimer, epilepsy

• Early detection of disease, differentiate between cancerous & non-cancerous tumors

• Radioactive, expensive