REVIEW OF FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS

ATOMIC STRUCTURE
(1) Atomic Theory of Matter is proposed by John Dalton
(2) Atom as the ultimate particle of matter
(3) Dalton’s indivisible atom is composed of sub-atomic particles carrying positive and negative
charges

THOMSON MODEL OF ATOM

(1) J. J. Thomson, proposed that an atom possesses a spherical shape in which the positive charge
is uniformly distributed.
(2) Electrons are arranged in the most stable electrostatic arrangement
(3) His model is also called plum pudding, raisin pudding or watermelon

RUTHERFORD’S NUCLEAR MODEL OF ATOM

- Rutherford and his students (Hans Geiger and Ernest Marsden) bombarded very thin gold foil with
α–particles.
- The positive charge and most of the mass of the atom was densely concentrated in extremely
small region. This very small portion of the atom was called nucleus by Rutherford.

ATOMIC NUMBER AND MASS NUMBER

- While the positive charge of the nucleus is due to protons, the mass of the nucleus, due to
protons and neutrons.

ISOTOPES
- atoms of the same element that contain an identical number of protons, but a different number
of neutrons. Despite having different numbers of neutrons, isotopes of the same element have
very similar physical properties.

QUANTUM NUMBERS
- Atomic orbitals are precisely distinguished by what are known as quantum numbers. Each orbital
is designated by three quantum numbers labelled as n, l, ml and ms.
CHEMICAL BONDING
- Chemical Bonding refers to the formation of a chemical bond between two or more atoms,
molecules, or ions to give rise to a chemical compound.

ELECTRONIC CONFUGURATION
- It is the distribution of electrons in different sublevels of orbitals.

HYBRIDIZATION
- Hybridization is defined as the concept of mixing two atomic orbitals with the same energy levels
to give a degenerated new type of orbitals. This intermixing is based on quantum mechanics.

MOLECULAR ORBITALS
- Sigma bonds (σ) are always the first bond between two atoms, resulting from overlap along the
bonding axis (of hybrid orbitals), while pi bonds (π) are second and third bonds resulting from the
overlap of p orbitals
LEWIS STRUCTURE
- It is used to show how the electrons are arranged around individual atoms in a molecule.
Electrons are shown as "dots" or for bonding electrons as a line between the two atoms.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE

Exceptions to the octet rule fall into one of three categories:
(1) an incomplete octet
(2) odd-electron molecules; and
(3) an expanded octet.

Classification of C atoms
1. Primary (1ᐤ) - attached to 1 C
2. Secondary (2ᐤ) - attached to 2 C
3. Tertiary (3ᐤ) - attached to 3 C
4. Quarternary (4ᐤ) - attached to 4 C

Classification of H atoms
1. Primary (1ᐤ) - attached to 1 C
2. Secondary (2ᐤ) - attached to 2 C
3. Tertiary (3ᐤ) - attached to 3 C

Classify the C and H atoms in the structure

Common Names
n - normal (straight chain)
iso - CH3 group is attached to the 2nd C from the free end
sec - substituent is attached to the 2nd C
tert - substituent is attached to tertiary C
neo- refers to a substituent whose second carbon from the free end is trisubstituted (has three alkyl
groups attached to it).