Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Jack R. Fraenkel
San Francisco State University
Norman E. Wallen
San Francisco State University
Helen H. Hyun
San Francisco State University
HOW TO DESIGN AND EVALUATE RESEARCH IN EDUCATION
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ISBN 978-1-265-18481-0
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ABOUT THE AUTHORS
iii
To Marianne, Ava, and Jeff for all their support
iv
CONTENTS IN BRIEF
Preface xxiii
14 Single-Subject Research 294
PART 1 15 Correlational Research 324
16 Causal-Comparative Research 343
Introduction to Research 1
17 Survey Research 357
1 The Nature of Research 2
PART 5
PART 2
Glossary G-1
Index I-1
CONTENTS
Preface xxiii
vii
viii CONTENTS
Observation 400
xv
xvi LIST OF FEATURES
Table 12.5 Gender and Political Preference Table 20.4 Type of Sample 440
(Percentages) 250 Table 20.5 Threats to Internal Validity 442
Table 12.6 Gender and Political Preference Table 24.1 Basic Assumptions Underlying Action
(Numbers) 250 Research 530
Table 12.7 Teacher Gender and Grade Level Table 24.2 Similarities and Differences Between
Taught: Case 1 250 Action Research and Formal Quantitative
Table 12.8 Teacher Gender and Grade Level and Qualitative Research 536
Taught: Case 2 250 Table 25.1 References APA Style 556
Table 12.9 Crossbreak Table Showing Teacher
Gender and Grade Level with Expected
Frequencies Added (Data from Table 12.7) 251
Table 12.10 Summary of Commonly Used
FIGURES
Statistical Techniques 252 Figure 1.1 Ways of Knowing 10
Table 13.1 Effectiveness of Experimental Designs Figure 1.2 Example of Results of Experimental
in Controlling Threats to Internal Validity 274 Research: Effect of Method of Instruction on
Table 15.1 Three Sets of Data Showing Different History Test Scores 11
Directions and Degrees of Correlation 326 Figure 1.3 Is the Teacher’s Assumption
Table 15.2 Teacher Expectation of Failure and Correct? 18
Amount of Disruptive Behavior for a Sample of Figure 1.4 The Research Process 20
12 Classes 328
Figure 2.1 Some Times When Operational
Table 15.3 Correlation Matrix for Variables Definitions Would Be Helpful 32
in Student Alienation Study 331
Figure 2.2 Relationship Between Voter Gender and
Table 15.4 Example of Data Obtained in a Party Affiliation 34
Correlational Design 333
Figure 3.1 Excerpt from ERIC Journal Article 42
Table 16.1 Grade Level and Gender of Teachers
Figure 3.2 Excerpt from ERIC Document 43
(Hypothetical Data) 353
Figure 3.3 Excerpt from ProQuest Dissertations
Table 17.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of
and Theses 44
Survey Data Collection Methods 361
Figure 3.4 Excerpt from Education Full Text 45
Table 17.2 Advantages and Disadvantages
of Closed-Ended Versus Open-Ended Figure 3.5 Venn Diagrams Showing the Boolean
Questions 366 Operators AND and OR 46
Table 18.1 Quantitative Versus Qualitative Figure 3.6 Summary of Search Results 47
Research 382 Figure 3.7 Prompts for Evaluating Research
Table 18.2 Differing Philosophical Assumptions of Studies 51
Quantitative and Qualitative Researchers 384 Figure 3.8 Example of an Annotated Table 52
Table 19.1 Interviewing Strategies Used in Figure 4.1 Example of a Consent Form 64
Educational Research 407 Figure 4.2 Examples of Unethical Research
Table 19.2 Qualitative Research Questions, Practices 66
Strategies, and Data Collection Techniques 414 Figure 4.3 Example of a Consent Form for a Minor
Table 20.1 Coding Categories for Women in Social to Participate in a Research Study 68
Studies Textbooks 437 Figure 5.1 Quantitative Variables Compared with
Table 20.2 Sample Tally Sheet (Newspaper Categorical Variables 78
Editorials) 440 Figure 5.2 Relationship Between Instructional
Table 20.3 Clarity of Studies 440 Approach (Independent Variable) and
xviii LIST OF FEATURES
Figure 10.3 Example of a Negatively Skewed Figure 11.4 Distribution of Sample Means 218
Polygon 187 Figure 11.5 The 95 Percent Confidence
Figure 10.4 Two Frequency Polygons Interval 219
Compared 187 Figure 11.6 The 99 Percent Confidence
Figure 10.5 Histogram of Data in Table 10.3 188 Interval 219
Figure 10.6 The Normal Curve 189 Figure 11.7 We Can Be 99 Percent Confident 220
Figure 10.7 Averages Can Be Misleading! 191 Figure 11.8 Does a Sample Difference Reflect a
Figure 10.8 Different Distributions Compared with Population Difference? 220
Respect to Averages and Spreads 192 Figure 11.9 Distribution of the Difference Between
Figure 10.9 Boxplots 192 Sample Means 221
Figure 10.10 Standard Deviations for Boys’ and Figure 11.10 Confidence Intervals 221
Men’s Basketball Teams 194 Figure 11.11 Null and Research Hypotheses 223
Figure 10.11 Fifty Percent of All Scores in Figure 11.12 Illustration of When a Researcher
a Normal Curve Fall on Each Side of the Would Reject the Null Hypothesis 224
Mean 194 Figure 11.13 How Much Is Enough? 225
Figure 10.12 Percentages Under the Normal Figure 11.14 Significance Area for a One-Tailed
Curve 194 Test 225
Figure 10.13 z Scores Associated with the Normal Figure 11.15 One-Tailed Test Using a Distribution
Curve 195 of Differences Between Sample Means 226
Figure 10.14 Probabilities Under the Normal Figure 11.16 Two-Tailed Test Using a Distribution
Curve 197 of Differences Between Sample Means 226
Figure 10.15 Table Showing Probability Areas Figure 11.17 A Hypothetical Example of Type I and
Between the Mean and Different z Scores 197 Type II Errors 227
Figure 10.16 Examples of Standard Scores 198 Figure 11.18 Rejecting the Null Hypothesis 233
Figure 10.17 Scatterplot of Data from Figure 11.19 Power Under an Assumed Population
Table 10.8 200 Value 233
Figure 10.18 Relationship Between Family Figure 11.20 A Power Curve 234
Cohesiveness and School Achievement in a
Figure 12.1 Combinations of Data and Approaches
Hypothetical Group of Students 202 to Research 241
Figure 10.19 Further Examples of Figure 12.2 A Difference That Doesn’t Make a
Scatterplots 203 Difference! 244
Figure 10.20 A Perfect Negative Correlation! 204 Figure 12.3 Frequency Polygons of Gain Scores
Figure 10.21 Positive and Negative on Test of Ability to Explain: Inquiry and Lecture
Correlations 204 Groups 244
Figure 10.22 Examples of Nonlinear (Curvilinear) Figure 12.4 90 Percent Confidence Interval for a
Relationships 204 Difference of 1.2 Between Sample Means 245
Figure 10.23 Example of a Bar Graph 205 Figure 12.5 Scatterplots with a Pearson
Figure 10.24 Example of a Pie Chart 206 r of .50 247
Figure 11.1 Selection of Two Samples from Two Figure 12.6 Scatterplot Illustrating the Relationship
Distinct Populations 215 Between Initial Self-Esteem and Gain in Marital
Figure 11.2 Sampling Error 216 Satisfaction Among Counseling Clients 249
Figure 11.3 A Sampling Distribution of Figure 12.7 95 Percent Confidence Interval for
Means 217 r = .42 249
xx LIST OF FEATURES
Figure 13.1 Example of a One-Shot Case Study Figure 15.1 Scatterplot Illustrating a Correlation
Design 263 of +1.00 326
Figure 13.2 Example of a One-Group Pretest- Figure 15.2 Prediction Using a Scatterplot 327
Posttest Design 263 Figure 15.3 Multiple Correlation 329
Figure 13.3 Example of a Static-Group Figure 15.4 Discriminant Function Analysis 330
Comparison Design 264
Figure 15.5 Path Analysis Diagram 332
Figure 13.4 Example of a Randomized Posttest-
Figure 15.6 Scatterplots for Combinations
Only Control Group Design 265
of Variables 336
Figure 13.5 Example of a Randomized Pretest-
Figure 15.7 Eliminating the Effects of Age Through
Posttest Control Group Design 266
Partial Correlation 337
Figure 13.6 Example of a Randomized Solomon
Figure 15.8 Scatterplots Illustrating How a Factor
Four-Group Design 267
(C) May Not Be a Threat to Internal Validity 340
Figure 13.7 A Randomized Posttest-Only Control
Figure 15.9 Circle Diagrams Illustrating
Group Design, Using Matched Subjects 268
Relationships Among Variables 340
Figure 13.8 Results (Means) from a Study Using a
Figure 16.1 Examples of the Basic Causal-
Counterbalanced Design 270
Comparative Design 348
Figure 13.9 Possible Outcome Patterns in a Time-
Figure 16.2 A Subject Characteristics Threat 349
Series Design 271
Figure 16.3 Does a Threat to Internal Validity
Figure 13.10 Using a Factorial Design to
Exist? 352
Study Effects of Method and Class Size on
Achievement 272 Figure 17.1 Example of an Ideal Versus an Actual
Telephone Sample for a Specific Question 362
Figure 13.11 Illustration of Interaction and No
Interaction in a 2 by 2 Factorial Design 272 Figure 17.2 Example of an Internet Survey Created
on SurveyMonkey 363
Figure 13.12 Example of a 4 by 2 Factorial
Design 273 Figure 17.3 Example of SurveyMonkey Data
Results 364
Figure 13.13 Guidelines for Handling Internal
Validity in Comparison Group Studies 276 Figure 17.4 Example of Several Contingency
Questions in an Interview Schedule 369
Figure 14.1 Single-Subject Graph 296
Figure 17.5 Sample Cover Letter for a Mail
Figure 14.2 A-B Design 297
Survey 370
Figure 14.3 A-B-A Design 298
Figure 17.6 Demographic Data and
Figure 14.4 A-B-A-B Design 299 Representativeness 372
Figure 14.5 B-A-B Design 300 Figure 18.1 How Qualitative and Quantitative
Figure 14.6 A-B-C-B Design 301 Researchers See the World 386
Figure 14.7 Multiple-Baseline Design 301 Figure 19.1 Variations in Approaches to
Figure 14.8 Multiple-Baseline Design 302 Observation 402
Figure 14.9 Multiple-Baseline Design Applied to Figure 19.2 The Importance of a Second Observer
Different Settings 303 as a Check on One’s Conclusions 404
Figure 14.10 Variations in Baseline Stability 304 Figure 19.3 The Amidon/Flanders Scheme
for Coding Categories of Interaction in the
Figure 14.11 Differences in Degree and Speed
Classroom 405
of Change 305
Figure 19.4 An Interview of Dubious Validity 410
Figure 14.12 Differences in Return to Baseline
Conditions 306 Figure 19.5 Don’t Ask More Than One Question at
a Time 411
LIST OF FEATURES xxi
Figure 20.1 TV Violence and Public Viewing Figure 23.2 Explanatory Design 507
Patterns 433 Figure 23.3 Triangulation Design 507
Figure 20.2 What Categories Should I Use? 437 Figure 24.1 Stakeholders 531
Figure 20.3 An Example of Coding an Figure 24.2 The Role of the “Expert” in Action
Interview 438 Research 532
Figure 20.4 Categories Used to Evaluate Social Figure 24.3 Levels of Participation in Action
Studies Research 441 Research 533
Figure 21.1 Triangulation and Politics 459 Figure 24.4 Participation in Action Research 535
Figure 22.1 What Really Happened? 487 Figure 24.5 Experimental Design for the
Figure 22.2 Historical Research Is Not as Easy as DeMaria Study 542
You May Think! 489 Figure 25.1 Organization of a Research
Figure 23.1 Exploratory Design 506 Report 557
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PREFACE
How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education is di- in a nine-part book plan. Part 1 (Chapter 1) introduces
rected to students taking their first course in educational students to the nature of educational research, briefly
research. Because this field continues to grow so rapidly overviews each of the seven methodologies discussed
with regard to both the knowledge it contains and the later in the text, and presents an overview of the research
methodologies it employs, the authors of any introduc- process as well as criticisms of it.
tory text are forced to carefully define their goals as a Part 2 (Chapters 2 through 9) discusses the basic
first step in deciding what to include in their book. In concepts and procedures that must be understood be-
our case, we continually kept three main goals in mind. fore one can engage in research intelligently or critique
We wanted to produce a text that would: it meaningfully. These chapters explain variables, defini-
1. Provide students with the basic information needed to tions, ethics, sampling, instrumentation, validity, reliabil-
understand the research process, from idea formulation ity, and internal validity. These and other concepts are
through data analysis and interpretation. covered thoroughly, clearly, and relatively simply. Our
2. Enable students to use this knowledge to design their emphasis throughout is to show students, by means of
own research study on a topic of personal interest. clear and appropriate examples, how to set up a research
3. Allow students to read and understand educational study in an educational setting on a question of interest
research literature. and importance.
Part 3 (Chapters 10 through 12) describes in some
The first two goals are intended to satisfy the needs of detail the processes involved in collecting and analyzing
those students who must plan and carry out a research data.
project as part of their course requirements. The third Part 4 (Chapters 13 through 17) describes and illus-
goal is aimed at students whose course requirements in- trates the methodologies most commonly used in quanti-
clude learning how to read and understand the research tative educational research. Many key concepts presented
of others. Many instructors, ourselves included, build in Part 2 are considered again in these chapters in order
all three goals into their courses, since each one seems to illustrate their application to each methodology. Fi-
to reinforce the others. It is hard to read and fully com- nally, most of the methodology chapters conclude with a
prehend the research of others if you have not yourself carefully chosen study from the published research liter-
gone through the process of designing and evaluating a ature. Each study is analyzed by the authors with regard
research project. Similarly, the more you read and evalu- to both its strengths and weaknesses. Students are shown
ate the research of others, the better equipped you will how to read and critically analyze a study they might find
be to design your own meaningful and creative research. in the literature.
In order to achieve the above goals, we have developed a Part 5 (Chapters 18 through 20) and Part 6 (Chapters
book with the following characteristics. 21 through 22) discuss qualitative research. Part 5 begins
the coverage by describing qualitative research, its phi-
CONTENT COVERAGE losophy, and essential features. It has been expanded to
Goal one, to provide students with the basic information include various types of qualitative research. This is fol-
needed to understand the research process, has resulted lowed by an expanded treatment of both data collection
xxiii
xxiv PREFACE
and analysis methods. Part 6 presents the qualitative research proposals and reports, we include a student
methodologies of ethnography and historical research. research proposal that we have critiqued with marginal
As with the quantitative methodology chapters, most of comments. This annotated proposal has proved an effec-
them are followed by a carefully chosen research report tive means of helping students understand both sound
from the published research literature, along with our and questionable research practices.
analysis and critique.
Part 7 (Chapter 23) discusses Mixed-Methods Stud- STYLE OF PRESENTATION
ies, which combine quantitative and qualitative methods.
Because students are typically anxious about the content
Again, as in other chapters, the discussion is followed by
of research courses, we have taken extraordinary care
our analysis and critique of a research report we have
not to overwhelm them with dry, abstract discussions,
chosen from the published research literature.
and we have adopted an informal writing style. More
Part 8 (Chapter 24) describes the assumptions, char-
than in any text to date, our presentations are laced with
acteristics, and steps of action research. We include
clarifying examples and with summarizing charts, tables,
classroom examples of action research questions to
and diagrams. Our experience teaching research courses
bring the subject to life.
for more than 40 years has convinced us there is no such
Part 9 (Chapter 25) shows how to prepare a research
thing as having “too many” examples in a basic text.
proposal or report (involving a methodology of choice)
In addition to the many examples and illustrations
that builds on the concepts and examples developed and
that are embedded in the text, we have built the follow-
illustrated in previous chapters.
ing pedagogical features into the book: (a) a graphic
organizer for each chapter; (b) chapter objectives;
RESEARCH EXERCISES (c) chapter-opening examples; (d) end-of-chapter sum-
maries; (e) key terms with page references; (f) discussion
To achieve our second goal of helping students learn to
questions; and (g) an extensive end-of-book glossary.
apply their knowledge of basic processes and methodolo-
gies, we organized the first 12 chapters in the same order
that students normally follow in developing a research CHANGES IN THE ELEVENTH EDITION
proposal or conducting a research project. Then we con- A number of key additions, new illustrations, and improved
cluded each of these chapters with a research exercise that or refined examples, terminology, and definitions have
includes a fill-in problem sheet. These exercises allow stu- been incorporated in this edition to further meet the goals
dents to apply their understanding of the major concepts of the text. The References have been updated throughout
of each chapter. When completed, these accumulated to include the latest research and have been reformatted to
problem sheets will have led students through the step- reflect use of APA style, Research Exercises and Problem
by-step processes involved in designing their own research Sheets have been revised with more effective questions.
projects. Although this step-by-step development requires The Research Reports all have newly added margin
some revision of their work as they learn more about the comments intended to help students apply the text’s
research process, the gain in understanding that results as concepts and also practice evaluating published studies
they slowly see their proposal develop “before their eyes” on diverse topics.
justifies the extra time and effort involved. ●● How manipulatives affect the mathematics achieve-
Problem Sheet templates are available electronically ment of students in Nigerian schools.
at McGraw Hill Connect®. ●● ‘Belonging means you can go in’: Children’s per-
spectives and experiences of membership in
kindergarten.
ACTUAL RESEARCH STUDIES ●● Students’ perceptions of factors influencing their de-
Our third goal, to enable students to read and under- sire to major or not major in science.
stand the literature of educational research, has led us
to conclude several of the methodology chapters with SPECIAL FEATURES
an annotated study that illustrates a particular research
method. At the end of each study we analyze its strengths Support for Student Learning
and weaknesses and offer suggestions on how it might be How to Design and Evaluate Research in Education
improved. Similarly, at the end of our chapter on writing helps students become critical consumers of research
PREFACE xxv
and prepares them to conduct and report their own ●● Resources on the Online Learning Center Web site
research. (see listing below) provide students with a place to
start when gathering research tools.
Chapter-opening Features: Each chapter begins with
an illustration that visually introduces a topic or issues
related to the chapter. This is followed by an outline of SUPPLEMENTS THAT
chapter content, chapter learning objectives, the Interac- SUPPORT INSTRUCTORS
tive and Applied Learning feature that lists related supple-
mentary material, and a related vignette. The 11th edition of How to Design and Evaluate Research
in Education is now available online with Connect®,
More About Research, Research Tips, and Controversies McGraw Hill’s integrated assignment and assessment
in Research: These informative sections help students to platform. Connect also offers SmartBook for the new
think critically about research while illustrating impor- edition, which is the first adaptive reading experience
tant techniques in educational research. proven to improve grades and help students study more
effectively. All of the title’s website and ancillary content
End-of-Chapter Learning Supports: The chapters con- is also available through Connect, including:
clude with a reminder of the supplementary resources
available, a detailed Main Points section, a listing of Key ●● A full Test Bank of multiple-choice questions that
Terms, and Questions for Discussion. test students on central concepts and ideas in each
Chapters 1–12 include a Research Exercise and a chapter.
Problem Sheet to aid students in the construction of a ●● An Instructor’s Manual for each chapter with full
research project. chapter outlines, sample test questions, and discus-
Chapters 13–14, 19, and 21–23 include an actual Re- sion topics.
search Report that has been annotated to highlight con- ●● Lecture Slides for instructor use in class.
cepts discussed in the chapter.
Top: Jenner Images/Getty Images, Left: Hero Images/Getty Images, Right: Hero Images/Getty Images
A Guided Tour of
How to Design and Evaluate
Research in Education
Opening Illustration
Welcome to How to Design Each chapter opens with an illustrative depiction of a key
and Evaluate Research in concept that will be covered in the chapter.
Education.
Chapter Outline
This comprehensive introduc-
Next, a chapter outline lists the topics to follow.
tion to research methods was
designed to present the basics Interactive and Applied
of educational research in as Learning Tools
interesting and understandable a
way as possible. To accomplish This special feature lists the practice activities and
resources related to the chapter that are available in
this, we’ve created the following the student supplements.
features for each chapter.
INTERACTIVE AND APPLIED LEARNING After, or while, reading this chapter:
Go to McGraw Hill Connect® to: Go to your online Student Mastery
Activities book to do the following
3
activities:
●●
Activity 3.1: Library Worksheet
Activity 3.2: Where Would You Look?
the Literature
●● Activity 3.3: Do a Computer Search of the Literature
Objectives
●● Describe briefly why a literature review is term “descriptor,” and how both terms
of value. are used in literature searches. Thus,● researchers● often● weigh● information● from● a● litera- ports,●and●other●documents—that●deal●directly●with●
●● Name the steps a researcher goes ●● Conduct both a manual and electronic ture● review● in● light● of● their● own● interests● and● situation.● the● research● question.● General● reference● tools● are●
through in conducting a review of the search of the literature on a topic of There●are●two●important●points●here:●Researchers●need●to● usually● either● indexes,● which● list● the● author,● title,●
literature. interest to you after a small amount of be●able● not● only●to●locate●other●work● dealing● with● their● and● place● of● publication● of● articles● and● other● ma-
●● Describe briefly the kinds of information “hands-on” computer time and a little terials,●or●abstracts,●which●give●a●brief●summary●or●
contained in a general reference and give help from a librarian.
intended● area● of● study● but● also● to● evaluate● this● work● in●
terms●of●its●relevance●to●the●research●question●of●interest. annotation●of●various●publications,●as●well●as●their●
Chapter objectives prepare the student for the
an example of such a source. ●● Write a summary of your literature review.
●● Explain the difference between a primary ●● Explain what a meta-analysis is.
and a secondary source and give an 38
chapter ahead.
example of each type.
●● Explain what is meant by the phrase
“search term” and how it differs from the
xxviii
MORE ABOUT
RESEARCH
4.● Research●involving●the●collection●or●study●of●existing●data,●
documents,●records,●pathological●specimens,●or●diagnostic●
specimens,●if●these●sources●are●publicly●available●or●if●the●
Department of Health and Human information●is●recorded●by●the●investigator●in●such●a●man-
ner●that●subjects●cannot●be●identified,●directly●or●through●
Services Revised Regulations for identifiers●linked●to●the●subjects.
Research with Human Subjects 5.● Research●and●demonstration●projects●which●are●conducted●
by● or● subject● to● the● approval● of● department● or● agency●
cheating●and●plagiarism●through●easy●access●to●electronic● colleges●and●universities●have●academic●dishonesty●poli-
papers●and●resources.●Prior●to●the●Internet,●plagiarism— cies●in●place●and●severe●consequences●for●students●who●
the●act●of●misrepresenting●someone●else’s●work●as●one’s●
own—was● more● difficult● to● commit● and● get● away● with.●
get●caught,●for●example,●a●failing●course●grade●or●even●
academic● dismissal.● In● our● experience● teaching● under-
RESEARCH TIPS
Today,●online●plagiarism-checking●tools●like●Turnitin●are● graduate●and●graduate●students,●we●believe●a●good●num- ●● Terms● that● individuals● outside● the● field● of● study● may● not●
available●for●faculty●and●students●to●identify●possible●in- ber●of●students●engage●in●plagiarism●unintentionally.●We● understand
stances●of●plagiarism.●The●tool●compares●a●student’s●as- think● many● students● are● unaware● of● attribution● rules● ●● Terms●that●have●multiple●meanings
Research Tips
signment●against●an●electronic●database●of●publications● related●to●the●proper●use●and●citation●of●published●and●
for● possible● plagiarism● as● well● as● improper● citation● of● unpublished●sources.●As●such,●please●refer●to●page●51●for● Key Terms to Define ●● Terms● that● are● essential● to● understanding● what● the● study●
is●about
text-based●sources.●As●we●discussed●in●Chapter●3,●most● tips●on●avoiding●unintentional●plagiarism.
in a Research Study ●● Terms●to●provide●precision●in●specifications●for●instruments●
71 to●be●developed●or●located
●● Terms● necessary● to● ensure● that● the● research● question● is●
Controversies in Research
control●group●that●was●denied●service●for●three●years—a●total● served;● and● (2)● the● alleged● harm● to● those● rejected● is● unknown,●
to● measure● or● identify● the● term● must● be● specified.● by●the●term.●For●these●reasons●we●believe●that●an●op-
of● 6,000● applicants.● If● applicants● refused● to● sign● a● waiver● since●they●were●free●to●seek●other●employment●or●training.
What●do●you●think?● Which● of● the● following● possible● definitions● of● the● erational●definition●should●always●be●accompanied●by●
agreeing●to●participate●in●the●study,●they●were●told●to●reapply●
two●years●later.●The●class●action●lawsuit●alleged●psychologi-
term●motivated to learn mathematics●do●you●think●are● a●constitutive●one.
cal,●emotional,●and●economic●harm●to●the●control●subjects.● operational? The●importance●of●researchers●being●clear●about●the●
*Price,●J.●(1999,●January/February).●Job●Corps●lottery.●Mother Jones,●
The●basis●for●the●judge’s●decision●was●a●failure●to●follow●the● 21–22. terms●in●their●research●questions●cannot●be●overstated.●
federal● law● that● required● the● methodology● to● be● subject● to● †Backtalk.●(1999,●April).●Mother Jones, 13.
These boxes highlight a controversy in research
● 1.● As●shown●by●enthusiasm●in●class
● 2.● As●judged●by●the●student’s●math●teacher●using●a●rat-
Researchers●will●have●difficulty●proceeding●with●plans●
for● the● collection● and● analysis● of● data● if● they● do● not●
ing●scale●she●developed
to provide you with a greater understanding of know●exactly●what●kind●of●data●to●look●for.●And●they●
†This●is●not●to●say●that●this●list●would●not●be●improved●by●making●the●
the issue. See a full listing of these boxes on
a●study.●In●qualitative●studies,●however,●the●relationship● 7.● Tell● the● truth● when● findings● are● written● up● and● re-
between●research●and●participant●evolves●over●time.●As● ported.● Mail● in● a● separate● card● indicating● that● they● guidelines●even●more●specific.●These●characteristics,●however,●do●meet● *The●operational●definitions●are●2,●3,●6,●8,●and●10.●The●nonopera-
Bogdan● and● Biklen● suggest,● doing● qualitative● research● completed●the●questionnaire. the●criterion●for●an●operational●definition—they●specify●the●actions●re- tional●definitions●are●1,●4,●5,●7,●and●9,●because●the●activities●or●opera-
with● informants● can● be● “more● like● having● a● friendship●
than●a●contract.●The●people●who●are●studied●have●a●say●
One● further● legal● matter● should● be● mentioned.●●
page xvi.
searchers●need●to●take●to●measure●or●identify●the●variable●being●defined. tions●necessary●for●identifying●the●behavior●have●not●been●specified.
C R B
A G
A B O
U H F A B C D E
T J X I
M N S F G H I J
F C E R
G H K L M N O
P K L S D
Q V Q P Q R S T
L E T
W X M N P U V W X Y
D U
I Y K Y V Z
Z O Z W
J
SAMPLES
Research Reports
Published research reports are included at
the conclusion of methodology chapters. The
reports have been annotated to illustrate
important points.
RESEARCH REPORT
teachers in new approaches to teaching which encompassed a new philosophy of learning
From: (2000, Summer). The Journal of Psychohistory 28(1), 62–71. and moral discipline.6
He accepted the Republican view, moreover, that popular education was neces-
sary for the intellectual and monetary enhancement of citizens which would contribute
Lydia Ann Stow: Self-Actualization to the general well-being of the Republic. His beliefs emphasized that the new Republic
required a high standard of morality in order to eliminate, as he put it, “the long catalogue
in a Period of Transition of human ills.”7
Vivian C. Fox Central to achieving educational reform and progress was the provision of professional
Worcester State College training for school teachers. Prior to this time, little or no training was required and persons with
a minimal amount of education could take charge of classrooms.
This paper is concerned with a crucial period of self-actualization in the life of Lydia Ann Many of the ideas of Mann and his colleagues were obtained from Europe, especially
Reference needed
Stow (1823–1904), an early nineteenth century Massachusetts woman who illustrates the in- from Prussia. Unlike its European counterparts, however, professional teacher training in what
teractions between adolescent development and the dynamics of reforms in education and were called the Normal Schools (a title derived from the French École Normale) was open to
feminism. The term “self-actualization” is adopted from Frederic L. Bender, who defines this females. In 1838 Massachusetts adopted a law authorizing the establishment of three Normal
Marxian concept as “the development of one’s talents and abilities and, the pursuit of one’s Schools. The first appeared in Lexington in 1839, and in accordance with the statute it was
Definitions life interests in and through one’s work.”1 Although self-actualization appears to be a highly open only to females. The other two, in Barre and Bridgewater in 1840, were co-educational.
individualized process, it always occurs in a larger social context. It is crucial to emphasize Lydia was a member of the first class to enroll in Lexington.
Purpose? this in Lydia Stow’s case since the most relevant context for her self-actualization was highly Speaking for many reformers, Horace Mann emphasized the importance of employing
transitional in two important respects, namely, the development of educational theory and female teachers.
practice, and the evolution in the status of women.
Primary source The major source for describing Stow’s self-actualization is the set of four Journals Education . . . is woman’s work. . . . Let woman, then be educated to the highest prac-
which she kept during the period of her training in Massachusetts as a professional ticable point; not only because it is her right, but because it is essential to the world’s Primary source
teacher at the Lexington Normal School, and for about two years thereafter (July 8, 1839– progress. Let her voice be a familiar voice in the schools and the academies, and in
February 23, 1843).2 halls of learning and science.8
In this paper I undertake a brief description of the contextual events before proceeding
Mann was not, of course, the first to recognize appropriate roles for women in the educa-
to an analysis of the Journals. I would like to start with school reform.
tional enterprise. By the last part of the eighteenth century, for example, New England clergy-
men, struck by the greater church attendance of women, intoned that females were purer and
SCHOOL REFORM more delicate than men, and advocated greater exposure to education for them as caretakers
Independent The process of school reform that played such an important role in Lydia’s life was itself a of the very young.9 From the latter part of the eighteenth century, then, sons as well as daugh-
variable reflection of a panoply of post-Revolution concerns. To some, the advent of technology was ters came to be under the pedagogy of their mothers, unlike in the prior period when fathers
altering New England’s predominantly rural work patterns through the construction of fac- became responsible for the education of boys when they reached the age of seven. The as-
tories and railroads. Cities were growing larger, more varied, and increasingly sinister with sumption that women had special moral strengths—that they were “angels in the house”—gave
vast numbers of immigrant-strangers, prostitutes and salesmen of magical drug products. The them important credentials for both domestic and professional teaching roles.10
new arrivals were, moreover, largely untrained, uneducated and non-Anglo-Saxon men who The call for women’s education grew stronger as post-Revolutionary ideology expressed
appeared quickly to acquire political power at the ballot box. In view of these cascading the sentiment that in a Republic, school education must become available to all citizens, both
changes, many wondered whether the glorious achievements of the Revolution could be male and female. Boston, for example, allowed girls to be educated in its grammar school in
maintained.3 1789; and Dedham, Lydia’s hometown, had already anticipated this as early as the 1750s. In a
To some, the appropriate response to these issues was in the direction of ensuring highly unusual development, one Mary Green was so successful a teacher that she was added
an educated citizenry. Leaders in this movement emerged in the Northeast, particularly to the permanent Dedham teaching staff.11
in Massachusetts. Such Massachusetts men as Horace Mann, James G. Carter, Edward Clearly, when Lydia enrolled at Lexington she was riding the crest of unique educa- We agree
Everett, Edmund Dwight, Cyrus Peirce, and Henry Barnard who was from New York, sup- tional opportunities. As detailed in the next section, this enhanced status of women as educa-
Background ported the idea that a key to confronting post-Revolutionary challenges was in the field of tors of the young was also strongly strengthened by demographic and economic conditions
educational reform.4 of the time.
James G. Carter, for example, while Chairman of the Committee on Education of the Now I want to discuss the matter of gender reform.
Massachusetts House of Representatives, successfully established himself as the architect of
an educational renaissance that included creation of a state-wide Board of Education. Horace GENDER REFORM
Mann was appointed in 1837 as the first Secretary of the Board.5
At the same time that Mann and the other reformers were reconstructing the field of edu-
Mann immediately launched a crusade, which continued during his twelve years of in-
cation so as to create new opportunities for women, their legal, social and economic
cumbency, from which his ideas spread throughout the nation. His accomplishments included
circumstances generally were, paradoxically, much against the enhancement of their
a proliferation of the common schools, an expansion of their curriculum, and the training of
490
xxx
CHAPTER 22 Historical Research 497
other●words,●a●purposive●sample.●In●this●study,●a●popula-
Analysis of the Study tion● of● persons● could● have● been● specified,● though● it’s●
not● clear● what● its● characteristics● would● be—perhaps●
PURPOSE/JUSTIFICATION “●nineteenth-century● women● who● made● a● significant●
We● do● not● find● a● clear● statement● of● purpose.● In● part● impact●on●education.”●A●sample●of●such●women●would●
because●of●the●publication●in●which●the●study●appears,● greatly● increase● the● generalizability● of● findings● but●
The Journal of Psychohistory, we●think●the●purpose●could● would,●presumably,●involve●major●problems●in●locating●
have●been●stated●as,●for●example,●“to●enhance●our●under- suitable●source●material.
standing● of● the● ways● in● which● societal● conditions● and●
personal● characteristics● interact● in● producing● valued● INSTRUMENTATION
qualities● such● as● ‘self-actualization.’”● The● justification●
implied●in●the●introduction●is●that●the●life●of●Lydia●Stow● There●is●no●instrumentation●in●the●sense●that●we●discuss●
Each research report is critiqued by the authors,
is●important●to●understand;●this●is●elaborated●later●under● it● in● this● text.● The● “instrument”● in● this● case● is● the● re-
“Gender●Reform.” searcher’s●talent●for●locating,●evaluating,●and●analyzing● with both its strengths and weaknesses discussed.
There● are● no● problems● of● risk,● deception,● or● pertinent●sources.●The●concept●of●reliability●usually●has●
confidentiality. little● relevance● to● historical● data,● because● each● item● is●
not● meaningfully● considered● to● be● a● sample● across● ei-
ther●content●or●time.●In●this●study,●however,●comparison●
DEFINITIONS of●journal●statements●pertaining●to●the●same●topic●(e.g.,●
self-confidence)●could●be●made●across●the●early●two●jour-
A●clear●definition●of●self-actualization is●given●in●the●in-
nals●and,●again,●across●the●later●two.●These●comparisons●
troduction.● This● is● particularly● important● because● not●
would● give● an● indication● of● the● consistency● of● these●
all●definitions●of●this●term●include●“pursuit●of●one’s●life●
statements.
interests●in●and●through●one’s●work.”●Other●terms●such●
Validity,● on● the● other● hand,● is● paramount.● It● is● ad-
as●self-improvement and●concerned and active citizen are●
dressed●by●evaluating●sources●and●by●comparing●differ-
probably●clear●enough●in●context.
ent●sources●regarding●the●same●specifics.●In●this●study,●
data● are● from● two● types● of● source.● Secondary● sources●
PRIOR RESEARCH are●used●extensively●in●the●sections●on●school●reform●and●
gender●reform.●The●source●of●information●about●Stow●is●
There●is●no●presentation●of●previous●research,●presum- a●primary●one,●her●four●journals.●Some●of●the●secondary●
ably●because●there●is●none●that●is●directly●relevant.●If●our● sources●could,●it●seems,●have●been●used●as●cross-checks●
interpretation●of●the●author’s●purpose●is●correct,●it●may● for● validity,● but● this● apparently● was● not● done.● The● va-
be●that●other●biographies●would●be●pertinent.●There●is●no● lidity● of● the● author’s● summaries● of● this● information● is●
mention●of●other●biographies●of●Stow.●If●they●exist,●they● supported,● in● some● instances,● by● quotations● from● the●
might●have●provided●additional●evidence. journals●and●from●other●primary●sources.
External●criticism●does●not●appear●to●be●an●issue●with●
respect●to●the●journals●or,●presumably,●other●references.●
HYPOTHESES
The●question●of●internal●criticism●is●somewhat●difficult●
None● is● stated.● The● “interaction”● hypothesis● is● clearly● to●deal●with,●because●the●journals●must●be●evaluated●in●
implied;● it● appears● likely● that● it● conceptually● preceded● terms●of●the●writer’s●feelings●and●perceptions●rather●than●
the●analysis●of●the●information. events.●Here,●we●are●highly●dependent●on●the●research-
er’s●summaries.
SAMPLE
The● sampling● issue● is● quite● different● in● historical● re- PROCEDURES/INTERNAL VALIDITY
search●as●compared●with●other●types●of●research.●There● There●is●little●to●be●said●about●procedures●except●that●
typically●is●no●population●of●persons●to●be●sampled.●It● some● discussion● of● the● plans● that● the● researcher● de-
could●be●argued●that●a●population●of●events●exists,●but● veloped● and● followed● for● analyzing● the● documents,●
Chapter Review
if● so,● they● are● likely● to● be● so● different● that● selection● particularly● the● journals,● would● be● useful,● especially●
among●them●makes●more●sense●if●done●purposefully,●in● so●that●readers●could●evaluate●the●presumed●selection●
Main Points
●● Ethics●refers●to●questions●of●right●and●wrong.
●● There●are●a●number●of●ethical●principles●that●all●researchers●should●be●aware●of●and●
apply●to●their●investigations.
●● The●basic●ethical●question●for●all●researchers●to●consider●is●whether●any●physical●or●
psychological●harm●could●come●to●anyone●as●a●result●of●the●research.
Bulleted main points highlight the key ●● All● subjects● in● a● research● study● should● be● assured● that● any● data● collected● from● or●
about●them●will●be●held●in●confidence.
concepts of the chapter. ●● The●term●deception, as●used●in●research,●refers●to●intentionally●misinforming●the●sub-
jects●of●a●study●as●to●some●or●all●aspects●of●the●research●topic.
●● Plagiarism●is●the●act●of●misrepresenting●someone●else’s●work●as●one’s●own.
●● Unintentional●plagiarism●can●be●avoided●through●the●proper●use●and●citation●of●pub-
lished●and●unlisted●sources.
REGULATION OF RESEARCH
●● Before●any●research●involving●human●beings●can●be●conducted●at●an●institution●that●
receives●federal●funds,●it●must●be●reviewed●by●an●institutional●review●board●(IRB)●at●
the●institution.
●● The●federal●agency●that●has●the●major●responsibility●for●establishing●the●guidelines●for●
research●studies●that●involve●human●subjects●is●the●Department●of●Health●and●Human●
Services.
Key Terms
autobiography 387
biographical study 387
instrumental case
study 390
portraiture 388
positivism 383
Key Terms
case study 389 intrinsic case study 390 postmodernist 384
coding 391
confirming sample 391
life history 387
maximal variation
proposition 386
purposive sample 385
Key terms are listed with page references.
sample 391
critical sample 391 qualitative research 382
multiple- (collective)
extreme case sample 391 replication 392
case study 390
foreshadowed snowball sample 391
narrative research 387
problem 385 theoretical framework 383
opportunistic sample 391
generalization in qualitative theoretical sample 391
research 391 oral history 387
transferability 393
For Discussion
grounded theory study 388 phenomenological
study 387 typical sample 391
homogeneous sample 391
1.● What●do●you●see●as●the●greatest●strength●of●qualitative●research?●the●biggest●weakness?
For Discussion 2.● ●Are● there● any● topics● or● questions● that● could● not● be● studied● using● a● qualitative● ap-
proach?●If●so,●give●an●example.●Is●there●any●type●of●information●that●qualitative●re-
search●cannot●provide?●If●so,●what●might●it●be?
End-of-chapter questions are designed for in-
3.● ●Qualitative●researchers●are●sometimes●accused●of●being●too●subjective.●What●do●you●
think●a●qualitative●researcher●might●say●in●response●to●such●an●accusation? class discussion.
4.● ●Qualitative● researchers● say● that● “complete”● objectivity● is● impossible.● Would● you●
agree?●Explain●your●reasoning.
5.● ●“The●essence●of●all●good●research●is●understanding,●rather●than●an●attempt●to●prove●
something.”●What●does●this●statement●mean?
6.● ●“All● researchers● are● biased● to● at● least● some● degree.● The● important● thing● is● to● be●●
aware●of●one’s●biases!”●Is●just●being●“aware”●enough?●What●else●might●one●do?
7.● ●Qualitative●researchers●often●say●that●“the●whole●is●greater●than●the●sum●of●its●parts.”●
What● does● this● statement● mean?● What● implications● does● it● have● for● educational●
research?
Problem Sheet 2
The Research Question An electronic version
of this Problem Sheet
1.● My●research●question(s)●is/are:●____________________________________________
that you can fill in and
print, save, or e-mail
is available on
McGraw Hill Connect®.
2.● The●following●are●key●terms●in●the●problem●or●question●that●are●not●clear●and●thus●
need●to●be●defined:
a.● d.●
xxxii
PREFACE xxxiii
PROCTORIO
Remote Proctoring & Browser-Locking Capabilities
D
“
r. Rodriguez? I’m Molly Levine. I called you about getting some advice about the master’s degree program in your
department.”
“Hi, Molly. Nice to meet you. Come on in. How can I help you?”
“Well, I’m thinking about enrolling in the master’s degree program in marriage and family counseling, but first I want to
know what the requirements are.”
“I see. It’s always wise to know what you’re getting into. To obtain the degree, you’ll need to take a number of courses,
and there is also an oral exam once you have completed the required coursework. You’ll also have to complete a small-
scale study.”
“What do you mean?”
“You will actually have to conduct some research.”
“Wow! What does that involve? What do you mean by research, anyway? And how does one do it? What kinds of research
are there?”
To find out the answers to Molly’s questions, as well as a few others, read this chapter.
3
4 PART 1 Introduction to Research
Well, maybe. It depends on the credentials of the ex- is guaranteed to be true. If either of the premises is false,
perts and the nature of the question about which they are the conclusion may or may not be true.*
being consulted. Experts, like all of us, can be mistaken. There is still another way of knowing to consider: the
For all their study and training, what experts know is still method of science.
based primarily on what they have learned from reading
and thinking, from listening to and observing others, and THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD
from their own experience. No expert, however, has stud-
When many people hear the word science, they think
ied or experienced all there is to know in a given field,
of things like white lab coats, laboratories, test tubes,
and thus even an expert can never be totally sure. All any
or space exploration. Scientists are people who know
expert can do is give us an opinion based on what he or
a lot, and the term science suggests a tremendous body
she knows, and no matter how much this is, it is never all
of knowledge. What we are interested in here, however,
there is to know. This assertion was never more true than
is science as a method of knowing. It is the scientific
in the 2016 U.S. presidential election in which political
method that is important to researchers.
experts predicted a Hillary Clinton landslide victory over
What is this method? Essentially it involves testing ideas
Donald Trump. President Trump’s subsequent win came
in the public arena. Almost all of us are capable of making
as a surprise to most election experts. Let us consider,
connections—of seeing relationships and associations—
then, another way of knowing: logic.
among the sensory information we experience. Most of us
then identify these connections as “facts”—items of knowl-
LOGIC edge about the world in which we live. We may speculate,
for example, that our students may be less attentive in class
We also know things logically. Our intellect—our capabil-
when we lecture than when we engage them in discussion.
ity to reason things out—allows us to use sensory data to
A physician may guess that people who sleep between six
develop a new kind of knowledge. Consider the famous
and eight hours each night will be less anxious than those
syllogism:
who sleep more or less than that amount. A counselor may
All human beings are mortal. feel that students read less than they used to because they
Sally is a human being. spend most of their free time on social media. But in each
Therefore, Sally is mortal. of these cases, we do not really know if our belief is true.
What we are dealing with are only guesses or hunches, or
To assert the first statement (called the major prem-
as scientists would say, hypotheses.
ise), we need only generalize from our experience about
What we must do now is put each of these guesses
the mortality of individuals. We have never experienced
or hunches to a rigorous test to see if it holds up under
anyone who was not mortal, so we state that all human
more controlled conditions. To investigate our specula-
beings are. The second statement (called the minor prem-
tion on attentiveness scientifically, we can observe care-
ise) is based entirely on sensory experience. We come
fully and systematically how attentive our students are
in contact with Sally and classify her as a human being.
when we lecture and when we hold a class discussion.
We don’t have to rely on our senses, then, to know that
The physician can count the number of hours individu-
the third statement (called the conclusion) must be true.
als sleep, then measure and compare their anxiety levels.
Logic tells us it is. As long as the first two statements are
The counselor can compare the reading habits of stu-
true, the third statement must be true.
dents with their daily social media use.
Take the case of the counselor in Philadelphia who is
Such investigations, however, do not constitute sci-
asked to advise a student on how to improve her study hab-
ence unless they are made public. This means that all
its. Using logic, she might present the following argument:
aspects of the investigation are described in sufficient
Students who take notes on a regular basis in class find
detail so that the study can be repeated by anyone who
that their grades improve. If you take notes on a regular
questions the results—provided, of course, that those
basis, then your grades should improve as well.
interested possess the necessary competence and re-
This is not all there is to logical reasoning, of course,
sources. Private procedures, speculations, and conclu-
but it is enough to give you an idea of another way of
sions are not scientific until they are made public.
knowing. There is a fundamental danger in logical rea-
soning, however: It is only when the major and minor *In the note-taking example, the major premise (all students who take
premises of a syllogism are both true that the conclusion notes on a regular basis in class improve their grades) is probably not true.
6 PART 1 Introduction to Research
There is nothing very mysterious, then, about how problem, but so will our teacher unless she has figured
scientists work in their quest for reliable knowledge. In out how to handle the questionnaire and/or observa-
reality, many of us proceed this way when we try to reach tional information that is obtained.
an intelligent decision about a problem that is bothering 5. Fifth, after the information has been collected and
us. These procedures can be boiled down to five distinct analyzed, it must be interpreted. While this step may
steps. seem straightforward at first, this is seldom the case.
As you will see, one of the most important parts of re-
1. First, there is a problem of some sort—some distur- search is to avoid kidding ourselves. The teacher may
bance in our lives that disrupts the normal or desir- conclude that her students are inattentive because
able state of affairs. Something is bothering us. For they dislike lectures, but she may be misinterpret-
most of us who are not scientists, it may be a tension ing the information. The scientist may conclude that
of some sort, a disruption in our normal routine. Ex- human sacrifice is or was a means of trying to control
amples would be if our students are not as attentive nature, but this also may be incorrect.
as we wish or if we have difficulty making friends. To
In many studies, there are several possible explana-
the professional scientist, it may be an unexplained
tions for a problem or phenomenon. These are called hy-
discrepancy in one’s field of knowledge, a gap to be
potheses and may occur at any stage of an investigation.
closed. Or it could be that we want to understand the
Some researchers state a hypothesis (e.g., “Students are
practice of human sacrifice in terms of its historical
less attentive during lectures than during flipped class-
significance.
rooms”) right at the beginning of a study. In other cases,
2. Second, steps are taken to define more precisely the
hypotheses emerge as a study progresses, sometimes
problem or the questions to be answered, to become
even when the information that has been collected is
clearer about exactly what the purpose of the study is.
being analyzed and interpreted. The scientist might find
For example, we must think through what we mean by
that instances of sacrifice seemed to be more common
student attentiveness and why we consider it insufficient;
after such societies made contact with other cultures,
the scientist must clarify what is meant by human sacri-
suggesting a hypothesis such as: “Sacrifice is more likely
fice (e.g., how does it differ from murder?).
when traditional practices are threatened.”
3. Third, we attempt to determine what kinds of infor-
We want to stress two crucial features of scientific
mation would solve the problem. Generally speak-
research: freedom of thought and public procedures. At
ing, there are two possibilities: study what is already
every step, it is crucial that the researcher be as open
known or carry out a piece of research. As you will
as humanly possible to alternative ways of focusing and
see, the first is a prerequisite for the second; the sec-
clarifying the problem, collecting and analyzing informa-
ond is a major focus of this text. In preparation, we
tion, and interpreting results. Further, the process must
must be familiar with a wide range of possibilities for
be as public as possible. It is not a private game to be
obtaining information, so as to get firsthand informa-
played by a group of insiders. The value of scientific re-
tion on the problem. For example, the teacher might
search is that it can be replicated (i.e., repeated) by any-
consider giving a questionnaire to students or having
one interested in doing so.*
someone observe during class. The scientist might
The general order of the scientific method, then, is
decide to examine historical accounts or spend time
as follows:
in societies where the practice of human sacrifice ex-
ists (or has until recently). Spelling out the details of Identifying a problem or question
information gathering is a major aspect of planning a Clarifying the problem
research study. Determining the information needed and how to
4. Fourth, we must decide, as far as it is possible, how obtain it
we will organize the information that we obtain. It Organizing the information
is not uncommon, in both daily life and research, to Interpreting the results
discover that we cannot make sense of all the informa-
tion we possess (sometimes referred to as information *This is not to imply that replicating a study is a simple matter. It may
require resources and training—and it may be impossible to repeat any
overload). Anyone attempting to understand another study in exactly the same way it was done originally. The important
society while living in it has probably experienced this principle, however, is that public evidence (as opposed to private ex-
phenomenon. Our scientist will surely encounter this perience) is the criterion for belief.
CHAPTER 1 The Nature of Research 7
In short, the essence of all research originates in The term research can mean any sort of “careful,
c uriosity—a desire to find out how and why things hap- systematic, patient study and investigation in some
pen, including why people do the things they do, as well field of knowledge.”1 Basic research is concerned with
as whether or not certain ways of doing things work bet- clarifying underlying processes, with the hypothesis
ter than others. usually expressed as a theory. Researchers engaged in
A common misperception of science fosters the basic research studies are not particularly interested
idea that there are fixed, once-and-for-all answers to in examining the effectiveness of specific educational
particular questions. This contributes to a common, practices. An example of basic research might be an
but unfortunate, tendency to accept, and rigidly adhere attempt to refine one or more stages of Erickson’s psy-
to, oversimplified solutions to very complex problems. chological theory of development. Applied research, on
While certainty is appealing, it is contradictory to a fun- the other hand, is interested in examining the effective-
damental premise of science: All conclusions are to be ness of particular educational practices. Researchers
viewed as tentative and subject to change, should new engaged in applied research studies may or may not
ideas and new evidence warrant revision. It is particu- want to investigate the degree to which certain theories
larly important for educational researchers to keep this are useful in practical settings. An example might be an
in mind, since the demand for final answers from par- attempt by a researcher to find out whether a particular
ents, administrators, teachers, and politicians can often theory of how children learn to read can be applied to
be intense. An example of how science changes is shown first graders who are nonreaders. Many studies com-
in the More About Research box on page 8. bine the two types of research. An example would be
For many years, there has been a strong tendency in a study that examines the effects of particular teacher
Western culture to value scientific information over all behaviors on students while also testing a theory of
other kinds. In recent years, the limitations of this view personality.
have become increasingly recognized and discussed. In Many methodologies fit within the framework of re-
education, we would argue that other ways of knowing, in search. If we learn how to use more of these methodolo-
addition to the scientific, should at least be considered. gies where they are appropriate and if we can become
As we have seen, there are many ways to collect infor- more knowledgeable in our research efforts, we can ob-
mation about the world around us. Figure 1.1 on page 10 tain more reliable information upon which to base our
illustrates some of these ways of knowing. educational decisions. Let us look, therefore, at some
of the research methodologies we might use. We shall
return to each of them in greater detail in Parts 4 and 5.
Types of Research
All of us engage in actions that have some of the charac- QUANTITATIVE, QUALITATIVE, AND
teristics of formal research, although perhaps we do not MIXED-METHODS RESEARCH
realize this at the time. We try out new methods of teach- Another distinction involves the difference between
ing, new materials, new textbooks. We compare what we quantitative and qualitative research. Although we shall
did this year with what we did last year. Teachers fre- discuss the basic differences between these two types of
quently ask students and colleagues their opinions about research more fully in Chapter 18, we will provide a brief
school and classroom activities. Counselors interview overview here. In the simplest sense, quantitative data
students, faculty, and parents about school activities. Ad- deal primarily with numbers, whereas qualitative data
ministrators hold regular meetings to gauge how faculty primarily involve words. But this is too simple and too
members feel about various issues. School boards query brief. Quantitative and qualitative methods differ in their
administrators, administrators query teachers, teachers assumptions about the purpose of research itself, meth-
query students and each other. ods utilized by researchers, kinds of studies undertaken,
We observe, we analyze, we question, we hypothesize, role of the researcher, and degree to which generaliza-
we evaluate. But rarely do we do these things systemati- tion is possible.
cally. Rarely do we observe under controlled conditions. Quantitative researchers usually base their work on
Rarely are our instruments as accurate and reliable as the belief that the world is a single reality that can be
they might be. Rarely do we use the variety of research approximated by careful study. Qualitative researchers,
techniques and methodologies at our disposal. on the other hand, are likely to assume that the world is
MORE ABOUT
RESEARCH
revolution in science during the twentieth century (the theory
of relativity and the discovery of quantum mechanics being the
first two), but also that it helps to make sense out of what we
Chaos Theory view as some implications for educational research. What are
these implications?*
T he origins of what is now known as chaos theory are usu- If chaos theory is correct, the difficulty in discovering
ally traced to the 1970s. Since then, it has come to occupy widely generalizable rules or laws in education, let alone
a prominent place in mathematics and the natural sciences the social sciences in general, may not be due to inadequate
and, to a lesser extent, in the social sciences. concepts and theories or to insufficiently precise measure-
Although the physical sciences have primarily been known ment and methodology, but may simply be an unavoidable
for their basic laws, or “first principles,” it has long been fact about the world. Another implication is that whatever
known by scientists that most of these laws hold precisely “laws” we do discover may be seriously limited in their
only under ideal conditions that are not found in the “real” applicability—across geography, across individual and/
world. Many phenomena, such as cloud formations, water- or group differences, and across time. If this is so, chaos
fall patterns, and even the weather, elude precise prediction. theory provides support for researchers to concentrate
Chaos theorists argue that the natural laws that are so useful on studying topics at the local level—classroom, school,
in science may, in themselves, be the exception rather than agency—and for repeated studies over time to see if such
the rule. laws hold up.
Although precise prediction of such phenomena as the Another implication is that educators should pay more at-
swing of a pendulum or what the weather will be at a particular tention to the intensive study of the exceptional or the unusual,
time is in most cases impossible, repeated patterns, according rather than treating such instances as trivial, incidental, or “er-
to a major principle of chaos theory, can be discovered and rors.” Yet another implication is that researchers should focus
used, even when the content of the phenomena is chaotic. De- on predictability on a larger scale—that is, looking for patterns
velopments in computer technology, for example, have made in individuals or groups over larger units of time. This would
it possible to translate an extremely long sequence of “data suggest a greater emphasis on long-term studies rather than the
points,” such as the test scores of a large group of individu- easier-to-conduct (and cheaper) short-time investigations that
als, into colored visual pictures of fascinating complexity and are currently the norm.
beauty. Surprisingly, these pictures show distinct patterns that Not surprisingly, chaos theory has its critics. In education,
are often quite similar across different content areas, such as the criticism is not of the theory itself, but more with misin-
physics, biology, economics, astronomy, and geography. Even terpretations and/or misapplications of it.† Chaos theorists
more surprising is the finding that certain patterns recur as do not say that all is chaos; quite the contrary, they say that
these pictures are enlarged. The most famous example is the we must pay more attention to chaotic phenomena and revise
“Mandlebrot Bug,” shown in Photographs 1.1 and 1.2. Note our conceptions of predictability. At the same time, the laws
that Photograph 1.2 is simply a magnification of a portion of of gravity still hold, as, with less certainty, do many generaliza-
Photograph 1.1. The tiny box in the lower left corner of Pho- tions in education.
tograph 1.1 is magnified to produce the box in the upper left-
hand corner of Photograph 1.2. The tiny box within this box
is then, in turn, magnified to produce the larger portion of
Photograph 1.2, including the reappearance of the “bug” in
the lower right corner. The conclusion is that even with highly
complex data (think of trying to predict the changes that might
occur in a cloud formation), predictability exists if patterns
can be found across time or when the scale of a phenomenon
*For more extensive implications in the field of psychology, see
is increased.
Duke, M. P. (1994). Chaos theory and psychology: Seven proposi-
tions. Genetic, Social and General Psychology Monographs, 120,
267–286.
IMPLICATIONS FOR EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH
†See Hunter, W., Benson, J., & Garth, D. (1997). Arrows in time: The
We hope that this brief introduction has not only stimulated misapplication of chaos theory to education. Journal of Curriculum
your interest in what has been called, by some, the third Studies, 29, 87–100.
8
Photographs 1.1 and 1.2 The Mandlebrot Bug
(top) The Mandlebrot Bug iserp/Shutterstock; (bottom) Mandelbrot fractal Laguna Design/Science
Photo Library/Alamy Stock Photo; (inset) Mathematical fractal structure wancl/123RF
9
10 PART 1 Introduction to Research
Sensing
Science
made up of multiple realities, socially constructed by dif- tend to be directly involved in the research process
ferent individual views of the same situation. itself.
When it comes to the purpose of research, quan- Quantitative research has established widely agreed-
titative researchers seek to establish relationships be- on general formulations of steps that guide researchers
tween variables and look for and sometimes explain in their work. Quantitative research designs tend to
the causes of such relationships. Qualitative research- be preestablished. Qualitative researchers have a much
ers, on the other hand, are more concerned with un- greater flexibility in both the strategies and techniques
derstanding situations and events from the viewpoint they use and the overall research process itself. Their de-
of the participants. Accordingly, the participants often signs tend to emerge during the course of the research.
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So teen mekaar aangedruk, soos reisigers deur ’n onweer
bedreig, smaak hulle nog die geluk van hul laaste samesyn, tot die
droewige afskeidsure aanbreek.
Jan en Paula slaap nog toe mevrou Kibert stilletjies uitgaan om by
haar God die hoogste krag te gaan soek wat sy netnou nodig sal kry.
So sit sy dan in die kerk. Sy het meer behoefte aan moed as aan
kalmte. Voor die uur van smarte slaan, soek sy krag en geduld by
Hom Wat alle menslike ellende gedra het sonder kla.
Mevrou Kibert sit ’n bietjie apart in ’n donker hoekie, verlore in
haar eie oordenkinge. In gedagte gaan sy die laaste jare van haar
lewe weer oor, en vind soveel om die Heer voor te dank. Het Hy haar
nie die seën geskenk waar sy so lank met besorgdheid om gesmeek
het nie—die geluk van haar dogter? Paula, haar eie Paulatjie—sy
het haar wel nie die liefste van al haar kinders nie, maar sy is die
sagste, en was haar steun in die beproewinge van haar oudag; hoe
dikwels het sy nie die Here Se seën op haar afgesmeek nie, want op
Paula veral het die verdriet van die famielie neergekom! En om haar
dogter nou die afgebede seën te skenk, verskeur die Heer die hart
van die moeder. Maar dewyl die Heer dit nou vir so’n prys wil doen,
hoe sou sy so laf kan wees om te murmureer teen Sy wil en
weldaad, hoe kan sy dit regkry om die eensaamheid te verwens wat
sy vanaand sal ingaan soos in ’n vroegtydige dood? En sy sê in haar
gebed:
—Nee, nee, ek sal myself nie beklaag nie; ons is tog maar te gou
om soiets te doen tot verontskuldiging van ons swakheid. My God, U
ondersteun my in my behoefte. Vanaand wil ek sterk wees. Hulle sal
my nie sien ween nie. Ek sou tog nie met hulle kan saamgaan nie. U
het my gewaarsku dat my kragte uitgeput is; en dan, my werk is
gedaan. My kinders sal dit voortsit beter as ek kan. Ek dank U dat U
my, in U goedheid, nog die geluk van my dogter laat sien het. Ek dra
haar op aan U beskerming gedurende die lang seereis, en ook haar
man, wat ook my kind geword het . . . . Ek dra ook aan U hoede op,
my God, ’n ander lewentjie wat nog in duisternis en onsekerheid
verkeer, die lewentjie van ’n klein wesentjie wat nog moet kom, wat
my oë nooit sal sien nie, wat my hande nie sal verwelkom in die
wêreld nie. Gee daaraan ook gesondheid, verstand, wilskrag, en
onderwerping aan U heilige wil. Gee hom ’n lang lewe, opdat hy U
lank en goed kan dien. Laat hom volhardend en sterk wees in wat
goed is; laat hom nie bang wees om te lag nòg om te ween nie; laat
hom werklustig wees; en laat hom word vir sy moeder wat sy vir my
gewees het . . . .
As mevrou Kibert haar hoof ophef van haar hande, waarop sy
vooroor geleun het, sien sy dat die priester klaar is om die diens te
sluit. Sy verwyt haar dat sy nie na die preek of gesang geluister het
nie. Maar sy vind dat sy in haar gebed die kalmte en vrede gevind
het wat sy kom soek het.
Die mense staan op van hul sitplekke en verlaat langsaam die
kerk. Mevrou Kibert stap ook uit op die sneeu, in die triestige
winterdag, wat haar sal sien terugkom van die stasie . . . . alleen.
As sy terugkom op Maupas, en deur die gang stap, wat vol kiste
en koffers is, vind sy haar ou meid Marie besig met die ete klaar te
maak.
Meneer het uitgegaan, sê sy, om ’n rytuig te bespreek.
—Sonder te eet? vra mevrou Kibert—sorgsaam soos altyd.
—Hy wou nie.
—En mevrou?
—Watter mevrou? Ag ja, juffrou Paula. Ek kan tog nie gewend
word om haar mevrou te noem nie . . . . is dit nie snaaks nie? . . . .
die juffrou is in haar kamer . . . . As ’n mens oud word, dan vergeet jy
ook alles, en ek is niks meer werd nie.
—Dit kan ook nie anders nie, Marie: ons is altwee oud.
Maar albei vergeet wat hulle te doen het en dink aan die vertrek
wat op hande is; die ou bediende haal haar bril af en stryk haar hand
oor haar oë.
Met haar bewende hande wil mevrou Kibert nog vir die laaste keer
haar dogter haar sjokolade klaarmaak soos sy daarvan hou. Dan
gaan sy luister aan die kamerdeur, en hoor Paula sug. Sy klop, stap
saggies binne, en vind Paula in trane.
—Ma, ag ma, moet ek regtig weggaan! Ek het geen moed meer
nie.
Mevrou Kibert sit die koppie neer, en lê haar gerimpelde hand op
die voorhoof van haar dogter:
—My liefste, ek wou jou vanmôre nog bedien, en ek het van
hierdie broodjies laat kom, wat jy so graag eet.
Sy buig vooroor, en terwyl sy Paula kus, sê sy saggies:
—Hou moed, Paula, God wil dit so! Die liefde van jou man gee my
die versekering dat jy gelukkig sal wees. En moenie oor my ongerus
wees nie.
Maar die trane hou maar aan. Jan kom binne, en sien die twee in
mekaar se arms. Hy dink dat dit Paula is wat moeite doet om haar
ma te troos.
—Ons kom weer, ma, sê hy. Ek beloof u, ons kom weer. Ander
jaar kom Etienne en sy vrou kuier, en dan kom ons die jaar daarna.
Maar as die ou vrou opkyk, merk hy met verbasing dat sy nie
ween nie, en dat dit sy is wat moet troos.
—Waar sal ek in dié twee jaar wees? dink sy. En kalm en ernstig
antwoord sy:
—Jan, jy moet jou vrou tog baie liefhê. As julle vèrweg is, dan sal
dié gedagte my krag gee. God is goed en Hy waak oor ons. Die
skeiding sal die band tussen ons hegter maak. Ons gedagtes en ons
harte bly één. As daar sekerheid van liefde is, dan beteken afstand
tog maar min.
Met dié plegtigheid, wat sy waarskynlik nie opsetlik aan haar
woorde gee nie, gaan die ou moeder aan:
—Bemin mekaar trou. Moenie jul liefde maak tot ’n vervelende en
verswakkende tederheid nie. Put daaruit, en uit jul wedersydse
vertroue, die wilskrag en die volharding vir jul lewe. Kyk vooruit. As
julle agteruitkyk na ons dode, na my, moenie dat dit julle ontmoedig
nie, maar laat dit strek tot beter begrip van jul jonkheid en van al wat
God daarvan verwag.
Jan en sy vrou het haar hande geneem en haar spraakloos
aangehoor.
—Ja, sê sy nog daarby, asof sy in die toekoms sien, kyk vooruit,
na jul planne, na jul toekomstige kroos. Gee aan jul seuns en
dogters dapper harte, en laat hulle ook voor hulle uitkyk, met oë wat
uit jul eie verlede krag sal put om te sien.
Hulle ween albei, terwyl die ou moeder doodkalm bly. En sy
besluit:
—Ek seën julle. Vir jou, Paula, om jou vrome waaksaamheid oor
my, en om jou sorg vir jou broers. En vir jou, Jan, om jou vriendskap
vir Marcel, en om al die geluk wat ek in daardie twee oë lees, al is
hulle vol trane . . . .
Mevrou Kibert gaan met hulle saam tot by die stasie. Hulle
ontmoet daar bowendien nog ’n paar vriende wat die jong
vertrekkende paar kom groet. Jan se oom is siekerig, maar hy het
die bediende gestuur met ’n ruiker blomme. Alida staan opsy—bleek
en skraal, hoewel sy ’n dik pelskleed aan het: sy wag op ’n geskikte
oomblik om Paula te groet. Paula sien haar staan, en gaan na haar
toe; ’n oomblik aarsel die twee, en dan is hulle in mekaar se arms.
Paula sien hoe haar ou skoolmaat lyk, en vra saggies:
—Nog altyd so verdrietig?
—Altyd nog. Maar jy Paula?
Terwyl hul saam na die kant van mevrou Kibert stap, vra Paula
snel aan haar:
—Alida, bewys my tog ’n vriendskap: gaan tog af en toe na ma
toe, hou ’n oog op haar, en skryf my hoe dit met haar gesondheid
gaan.
—Ek beloof jou dit.
Alida bly alleen staan, en bewoë stap Paula terug na haar ma en
Jan. Soos altyd as die oomblik van afskeid kom, is die laaste woord
van die ou vrou ’n gebed:
—Dat God julle beskerm!
Maar as die trein wat hulle wegneem, verdwyn het, raak sy haar
voorhoof aan en voel dat dit yskoud is, en sy dink:
—Dit was hoog tyd. My moed was op.
Sy is verplig om op die bank te gaan sit, in die derdeklas
wagkamer. Die reisigers wat kom en gaan, is besig met hul
reiskaartjies en hul koffers en sien nie eens die ou vrou in haar
rouklere wat daar alleen sit en huil nie.
Sy het weer geword ’n arme, swakke, lydende sterfling. Maar sy
het darem die krag besit om tot die laaste oomblik haar wanhoop
verborge te hou vir haar kinders.
In die trein druk Jan sy wenende vroutjie aan sy bors. Sy leun haar
hoof teen die hart waaraan sy haar heeltemal oorgegee het, en laat
aan haar trane ’n vrye loop. Hy begryp dat hy maar stil moet bly. Hy
streel net saggies haar wang met sy hand, en nou en dan buig hy
vooroor om ’n eerbiedige kus te druk op die oë waarvan hy die trane
nie kan stuit nie. Sy lig nou haar hoof op, en Jan verseker haar:
—Ons kom eendag terug, Paula.
Sy skud haar hoof, twyfelagtig, of wil nog nie vertroos word nie.
—Jy is my alles, Jan, fluister sy; en dan begin sy weer te ween.
Hy begin nou oor haar ma te praat:
—Paula, wat ’n voorbeeld gee sy ons van moed en selfopoffering.
Dat ons dit tog nooit vergeet nie! En as ons dit haar miskien moet
nadoen, dat ons dan steeds aan haar terugdink. O, dat dié wat uit
jou gebore word, soos sy mag wees! Dat hy ’n ferm en dapper hart
mag besit! Dat hy sy bestemming aanvaar sonder sy hande slap te
laat hang, opdat hy, deur nie bang te wees vir die lewe nie, die dood
ook nie vrees nie: dis net onvrugbare siele wat terneergeslae word
deur die gedagte aan die dood. Dat God ons kind beskerm, en ook
haar vir wie ons daar agterlaat met verskeurde hart.
—Ja, antwoord sy nou, dis ook my gebed. Dis God wat aan ma
die tevredenheid en berusting gegee het wat sy op my wou oorbring.
Haar jong lewe het menige uur van smart en rou geken. Maar sy
dink dat hierdie nog die swaarste is. Sy dink dis die dood wat sy
voel. Maar dis die lewe—die lewe in sy verhewenste roering—wat sy
voel in die diepste van haar siel. En dis dié hoogste lewe wat haar
liefde louter, en dié heilige vlam van moederlike opoffering waarvan
sy die krag meer en meer sal ondervind. Eendag sal sy verstaan dat
die edelste, innigste, volste lewe bestaan in algehele oorgawe van
eie hart, en in selfopoffering.
Die trein stoom verby die eikebos van Maupas; en Jan en Paula
kyk nog ’n keer uit oor die welbekende ou landskap. Die takke van
die bome dra sneeuvlokkies, soos klein wit blaartjies wat die
ondergaande son tempteer; en die ryp op die wingerdstokke blink in
die aandstrale soos skitterende kantwerk.
Dáar, en nêrens anders, het sy haar lewe deurgebring totnogtoe,
dáar het sy kennis gemaak met die lewe, met die dood, met die
liefde. En sy dink aan ’n jong, trotse dingetjie wat ’n hoë borsie opsit
omdat sy haar ma oppas.
—Soen my, sê sy aan haar man.
Hy omarm haar, en voldoen aan haar wens. En dié kus verwek ’n
heilige ontroering in hul wese, want hulle voel daarin nie alleen ’n
tere vereniging van hul liggame en siele nie, maar ook haar lange,
vrome toewyding aan haar moeder; hulle voel ook die geheimsinnige
vooruitsig op die betekenis van hul vereniging vir hul ras en nasie; dit
vermeerder hul lewenshoeveelheid en deel aan hul liefde iets
onsterfliks mee . . . .
X.
KALME BERUSTING.
Met moeite staan mevrou Kibert op van die bank waar sy gaan sit
het om te huil. Sy sien al die vreemde mense heen en weer
verbystap, en wil haar droefheid vir hul oë verberg. Sy dink by
haarself:
—Hier kan ek tog nie veel langer bly nie.
Sy staan eindelik op, en moet aan die muur vashou om te bly
staan. Sy vra haarself of sy wel ooit nog krag genoeg het om die
huis te bereik. Sy voel nou eers haar swakheid en ouderdom soos ’n
sware drag op haar skouers. Sy dink terug aan die dag toe sy
aangesukkel het in die eindeloos-lange laning van Chenée. Aan die
deur van die stasie, dink sy met swarigheid aan die lang ent pad
huis-toe. Gewend om nooit koste vir haarself te maak nie, dink sy
daar nie eens aan om een van die huurrytuie te neem wat daar
staan nie.
Stadigies begin sy aan te stap, leunend op haar sambreel, voetjie
vir voetjie, om nie te gly op die sneeu nie. Die moeite wat sy haar
moet gee, trek haar aandag van haar droefheid af. Maar elke keer as
sy ’n oomblik stilstaan, fluister sy die naam van Paula—Paula, wat
haar nooit meer tot steun sal wees nie. In gedagte volg sy haar twee
geliefde reisigers, wat haar geluk wegdra.
—Hulle is nou al dáar of dáar . . . .
As sy oor die bruggie gaan van die troebele, wild-tuimelende
spruitjie, bly sy ’n oomblik staan en leun teen die brugreling om
asem te kry. Daar hoor sy ’n sagte stem roep:
—Mevrou, wil u my toelaat om met u mee te gaan?
Dis Alida, wat gesien het hoe die ou vrou aarselend en sukkelend
die pad van die stasie ingeslaan het, huis-toe; sy het nie geweet of
sy die ou vrou moet help nie—volgens haar belofte aan Paula—dan
of sy haar maar ongesteurd moet laat in haar diepe smart. Maar nou
sy sien dat mevrou Kibert nie meer kan nie, kom sy nader.
Mevrou Kibert is so gedaan, dat sy somaar die arm neem van die
jongvrou. Sy stap bedruk en spraakloos aan. Alida is by-die-hand
genoeg om haar op ’n mooi manier te troos deur haar te vertel hoe
bly haar kinders sal wees as hulle mekaar daar in Asië ontmoet. Aan
die deur bedank Paula haar moeder haar hartlik vir haar moeite.
—Maar ek sal u ook nog die trap ophelp, sê mevrou Marthenay.
—Dis baie goed van jou, dankie.
En as hulle bo kom, sê mevrou Kibert:
—Bly nog ’n oomblik om uit te rus. Ek het swaar op jou arm
geleun, die hele pad.
Daar lê iets smekends in haar gedoofde oë, wat die treurige
verlatenheid van haar huis aanskou. Dit maak Alida verdrietig, en sy
antwoord dat sy ’n bietjie sal sit.
Sy volg die ou vrou in haar slaapkamer, wat oordag ook as
voorkamertjie dien—’n skerm is voor die bed geplaas.
Ou Marie, nog bedroef oor die vertrek van die juffrou, bring ’n
telegram binne:
—Hier is ’n telegram, sê sy; en stuurs kyk sy die deftige mevrou
Marthenay aan.
Met moeite, want sy beef, maak mevrou Kibert die telegram oop.
Die rooi papiertjie, wat die dood kan inhou, maak sy nooit meer oop
sonder angs nie. Maar haar gelaat helder meteens op. Solank as sy
lees, kyk Alida onwillekeurig rond na die armlike meubels—byna
kloosterlik eenvoudig. En daar val haar oog op ’n vergrote portret
van Marcel. Sy gaan nader om te kyk. Die portret was geneem na sy
terugkoms van die woestyn, as kommandant; hy het die strenge kyk
van ongenaakbaarheid in sy oë. En duidelik sien sy weer die dag
terug toe hy met haar gepraat het in die bos van Chenée.
Mevrou Kibert lig haar hoof op van die telegram en sien hoe Alida
daar voor die portret staan. Sy het nou spyt dat sy haar daar in die
kamer gebring het. Maar as sy omdraai en na die ou vrou terugkom,
bars Alida meteens in trane uit.
—Wat makeer?
—Mevrou, o mevrou!
En die jongvrou snik haar geheim uit voor die moeder van Marcel.
—Ek het hom liefgehad. As u kon weet hoe lief ek hom gehad het!
Met groot medelyde kyk mevrou Kibert die jongvrou aan, wat haar
seun moeg gemaak het vir sy lewe. Paula het haar vertel dat Marcel,
op die oomblik toe hy gesneuwel het, in die binnesak van sy baadjie
die portret gehad het van ’n blonde meisiekind. ’n Meisiekind, ja, dit
is sy, ’n swak kind, wat die uitverkorene was van die manhaftige siel!
—Arme kind, sê sy, terwyl sy met haar hand die wang streel van
Alida, wat uitgeput op ’n stoel neergesak het.
Die ellende wat die ou vrou nou te vertroos het, laat haar haar eie
smart vergeet, en oombliklik het sy haar teenwoordigheid van gees
en haar moed terug.
—Alida, my kind, bedaar!
Maar mevrou Marthenay snik aaneen. Eindelik bring sy die
woorde uit, wat al eenkeer oor haar lippe gekom het, en wat ’n
samevatting is van haar hele ongelukkige bestaan.
—Waarom is ek nie sy weduwee nie? Dan sou ek minder
ongelukkig gewees het as nou.
Mevrou Kibert sê saggies:
—Maar jy wou nie sy vrou word nie.
—O, ja, ek wou wél, want ek het hom liefgehad; maar my ouers
was teë daarop.
Sy beskuldig haar ma nie alleen nie.
Maar die ou vrou skud haar kop, en naderbykomend, sê sy nog
sagter, terwyl sy altyd nog Alida haar wang streel:
—Arme kind! Jy het nie geweet wat dit beteken om lief te hê nie.
Alida wil teëpraat, maar die ou vrou gaan aan:
—Nee, jy het nie geweet wat liefde is nie. As ’n mens jou hart
weggee, dan is dit vir altyd. En liefde skenk krag, geduld en
lydsaamheid. Jou ma het jou geluk gesoek—maar op háar manier.
Sy het gedink dat sy goed doen deur jou af te keer van my seun.
Beskuldig haar nie: beskuldig net jouself. Ongetwyfeld sou mevrou
Delourens toegegee het as jou liefde onherroeplik gebly het. Want
sy het jou liefgehad en sy sou geleer het om in te sien dat die
voorwerp van jou liefde haar goedkeuring werd was. Nee, jy wou nie
die vrou word van Marcel nie.
Arme kind, sê sy, terwyl sy met haar hand die wang streel van
Alida, wat uitgeput op ’n stoel neergesak het.
EINDE.
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