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should be sought.
This book forms a part of the series “Your Personal Coach”. Like other books in this series, this book has been written
on two core principles:
(i) a text book must have continuity and flow in what it discusses.
(ii) nothing contributes more in understanding Physics than a good example.
I have tried to unfold the concepts gradually, one-by-one; illustrating each of them with examples. The main aim is to
make the students learn the basic principles of Physics independently.
In this book we will explore the close linkage between electricity and magnetism which will help us understand the
nature of light (electromagnetic wave). The story that will evolve at the end will truly fascinate you.
I shall be grateful to everyone who would provide feedback or help me with useful suggestions.
S.B. Tiwari
To make full use of this book one must go through the topics sequentially while working through the examples and in-
chapter problems given under heading “Your Turn”. By doing this you will have a fair amount of grasp over all the
essentials in a chapter.
Miscellaneous examples given at the end of each chapter have problems which involve multiple concepts or have some
mathematical complexity or are tricky. If you are studying the subject for the first time or are hard pressed for time, you
may skip the section on miscellaneous examples.
Almost every solved example starts with explanation of physical situation and basic principles involved. This feature
comes under heading “Concepts” at the beginning of each example.
I have highlighted the important points of learning under the heading “In short”. Here, I have also taken important
learning points from the examples. While going through the chapter it is essential to go through these points.
Physics cannot be mastered without practice. Keeping this in view I have given three Worksheets (exercises) after every
chapter. Worksheet 1 has multiple choice objective type questions with single correct answer. Worksheet 2 has multiple
choice questions having one or more than one correct answers. Worksheet 3 has subjective problems. A good number of
problems has been given in the Worksheets to give you a good practice on concepts learnt.
After few chapters, at regular intervals, you will find separate assignments on miscellaneous type problems. These are
problems based on latest trend of competitive examinations and contain Match the Column type questions and problems
based on a given paragraph. Attempt these questions only after you gain enough confidence in the related chapters.
I have kept these problems in separate chapters so that you have no bias or hint about the equation/s to use.
In the last chapter, you will find a collection of questions asked in competitive examinations since 2005. This is an
ideal collection of problems for revision.
In the end of the book, solutions to all questions has been given. Solutions are quite descriptive and easy to
understand.
Those who desire to practice at even higher level, I recommend my book – “Problems in Physics for JEE
Advanced”.
I hope you will enjoy this book.
S.B. Tiwari
S.B. Tiwari
Magnetic Field
‘‘What magnetism is, no one knows. We can only think of it as a peculiar condition created in space by the motion of electricity.’’
–Sydney Evershed (1925)
1. INTRODUCTION pole of the magnet. When the north pole of one magnet is
brought near the north pole of another magnet, they repel.
More than 2000 years ago, certain stones (called lodestones) The same is true for a south pole placed near another south
were found in the coastal district of Magnesia, in ancient pole. However, opposite poles attract one another.
Greece. These stones had the unusual property of attracting Physicists have speculated for a long time about the
iron pieces. The term ‘magnet’ originated from the name existence of discrete magnetic charges (we can call them
‘Magnesia’. Magnets were first crafted into compasses and magnetic monopoles), just like positive and negative electric
used for navigation by the Chinese in the twelfth century. charges. But all our attempts to find tiny particles which
The subjects of electricity and magnetism developed will carry either a single north or a single south pole, has
almost independently till 1820, when a Danish physicist proved to be futile. If we go on cutting a magnet into many
Oersted discovered that an electric current exerts force on a small pieces, each small piece has its own north pole and
magnetic compass. Thereafter, a series of experiments and south pole. Even when one piece is one atom thick, there
discoveries established that electricity and magnetism are very are two poles. This suggests that the atoms, in a magnet,
closely related and it is not wise to study them separately. themselves are magnets.
Ampere proposed that electric currents are the source of Though we have never found an isolated magnetic pole
all magnetic phenomena. In 1867, Maxwell expressed that (i.e., a magnetic charge), we often think of a bar magnet as
both the phenomena—electricity and magnetism—go hand having two magnetic charges separated by a distance. The
in hand and one can produce another. The subject matter is north pole is assumed to carry a positive magnetic charge
now appropriately known as ‘electromagnetism’. (+m) and the south pole is assumed to have a negative
In this book we will explore the close linkage between magnetic charge (–m). The unit of magnetic charge (or, pole
the electricity and magnetism. In this chapter we will study strength) is A–m. The distance between the two poles of a bar
about the magnetic force on a moving charge and a current magnet is 0.84 times the geometrical length of the magnet.
carrying wire. But before we do so, we will introduce A bar magnet is essentially a magnetic dipole.
ourselves to magnetic field produced by a bar magnet.
2. BAR MAGNET
A magnet exerts force on another magnet, even without lg
touching it. We can say that a magnet creates a magnetic l = magnetic length, lg = geometrical length, l = 0.84 lg
field in its surrounding and this field exerts force on other
magnets. The dipole moment of a bar magnet is defined to be a
Simplest form of a magnet is a bar magnet. It has two vector quantity directed from the south pole to the north pole
ends of opposite nature. When it is suspended freely by tying of the magnet. Its magnitude is
a string at its centre, it acts like a compass. One end which M = ml (1)
points northward is called the north pole of the magnet. The where m is pole strength and l is the magnetic length.
other end, which points southward, is known as the south A magnet with large magnetic dipole moment (M) produces
P is a point at a distance x from the centre of the magnet, Field at P is vector sum of BN and BS. It is easy to see
on its axis. Distance of P from the positive magnetic charge that components of the two fields along y direction will
(i.e., the north pole) is (x – d) and its distance from the cancel out. Their components in x direction add.
negative charge is (x + d).
Field at P is directed opposite to the dipole moment vector
Field at P due to the north pole is ( M ) of the dipole and its magnitude is
µ m 2µ 0 m
BN = 0 directed towards right. B = BN sin q + BS sin q = sin q
4π ( x – d ) 2 4π r 2
µ 2md
Field at P due to the south pole is = 0
4π r 3
µ m
BS = 0 directed towards left. µ 2md
4π ( x + d ) 2 or, B = 0
4π (d + x 2 )3/ 2
2
4π
For x >> d,
µ m(4 xd )
\ B= 0 µ M
4π ( x 2 – d 2 ) 2 B 0 3 (7)
4π x
µ0 2 Mx
or, B = [∵ M = m(2d)](4) Again, compare this result with that for an electric dipole.
4π ( x 2 – d 2 ) 2
When x d, the above result can be approximated as Field at a general point
µ 2M Consider a point P at a distance r from the centre (O) of a
B 0 (5)
4π x 3 magnetic dipole (i.e., a bar magnet). The line OP makes an
angle q with the axis of the dipole. Let r >> d, where 2d is
Compare this result with the expression of electric field
distance between the poles.
due to an electric dipole at a point on its axis.
B
µ0 M B
or, B = 1 + 3cos 2 θ (10)
4π r 3
The angle made by B with the line OP is given by ext
B 1
tan a = θ = tan q
Br 2
1
⇒ a = tan–1 tan θ (11) U90° = 0
2
For slowly rotating the dipole text = tB.
2.5 Torque on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic
field Magnetic torque on it is tB = MB sin q
Consider a bar magnet of magnetic length 2d and pole We wish to rotate the dipole slowly, we must apply an
strength m placed in a uniform magnetic field B. Angle equal torque in opposite direction.
between the direction of the field and the magnetic axis is q. text = tB = MB sin q
Work done by the external agent in rotating the dipole
further by dq is
d Wext = text · dq = MB sin q dq
Total work done by the agent in rotating the dipole from
initial angle q = 90° to final angle q is
sin
θ θ
Wext = ∫
90°
dWext = MB ∫ sin θ d θ
90°
Force acting on the north pole is mB in the direction of or, Wext = – MB (cos q – cos 90º) = – MB cos q
the external field and the force on the south pole is mB in
This work done is change in potential energy of the
a direction opposite to the field. These two forces form a
dipole.
couple and their torque is
Uq – U90º= – MB cos q
t = mBd sin q + mBd sin q
∵ U90º = 0
or, t = 2mdB sin q
or, t = MB sin q
\ Uq = – MB cos q
M = m(2d) = Magnetic dipole moment.
= – M ⋅ B (13)
The torque tries to rotate the dipole so as to align it parallel
to the direction of the field. In vector notation, we can write
Recall that the potential
energy of an electric dipole in
the expression of the torque as
an electric field is – P ⋅ E .
τ = M × B (12)
You must compare this to the expression of torque on an NOTES
electric dipole placed in a uniform electric field ( τ = P × E ) . 1. The above description of a magnet with two opposite magnetic
charges is a useful model in understanding its magnetic
behaviour. In practice, nobody has ever found an isolated
magnetic charge.
D1
Solution Solution
Concepts Concepts
(i) The magnetic field obeys the principle of (i) In practice, the magnetic poles are not exactly at
superposition. the geometric ends of a magnet. But the question
(ii) Field due to the dipole D1 is along x direction at asks us to assume so.
point O. (ii) Field at P due to the south pole is horizontal along
(iii) Field due to the dipole D2 is along y direction PS . Field at P due to the north pole is along NP . We
(antiparallel to the dipole moment vector of D2). will find its horizontal component and then add it
vectorially to the horizontal field produced by the
Field at O due to dipole D1 is south pole.
µ 0 2M (iii) We will assume the pole strength to be m and write
B1 = (along x) m (2d) = M
4π x 3
YOUR TURN
Q.1 In what way are magnetic poles very different from Q.5 A bar magnet of length 10 cm has a magnetic dipole
electric charges? moment of 1.0 J/T. Find the magnetic field produced by
Q.2 In what way are magnetic field lines different from the magnet at a point on its axis which is at a distance of
electrostatic field lines? 10 cm from its centre.
Q.3 A bar magnet has a geometric length of 10 cm and its Q.6 In the last question, find the field on the perpendicular
pole strength is 12A–m. Find the magnetic dipole moment bisector of the magnet at a distance of 10 cm from its centre.
of the magnet. [Take (1.25)3/2 = 1.4]
Q.4 Which property of a magnet has a unit of J/T? Q.7 In which position the potential energy of a magnetic
dipole is maximum when it is placed in a uniform magnetic
field?
of force must be perpendicular to v as
(ii) The direction
well as B . If you keep your note book horizontal,
the magnetic field is directed perpendicularly into
it. Force vector will be in the horizontal plane
of
your note book so that it is perpendicular to B . The
force vector is also perpendicular to the velocity
vector.
Stretch your right hand palm along the direction of The × in the figure indicates the direction of magnetic
velocity so that the direction of field ( B ) is outward to field vector. This symbol × represents a direction into the
your palm. You must be able to curl your fingers from plane of the figure.
the direction of v to the direction of B . The stretched
thumb gives the direction of the force.
The
direction of force on a positive charge is along
v × B . The diagram given here
will help you recall how
to get the direction of v × B using the right hand rule.
Remember that force on a negative charge will be directed
opposite to the direction of v × B
Because the magnetic force on a moving charge is always
perpendicular to the velocity of the charge, the force can
only deflect the direction of motion of the charge and will
never change its speed. Magnetic force on a moving charge Force ( F ) must be in the plane of the figure so that it
never performs work. is perpendicular to B . The force must also be perpendicular
to v . This means it will be along the line AC. Now, use
Example 4 A positively charged particle is moving
right hand rule. stretch your right hand palm along v so
horizontally in north-east direction with a velocity of that you can curl your fingers downwards, towards B. The
2 × 105 m/s. It enters into a region where exists a uniform, thumb points towards A. Therefore, the force is in north-
vertically downward, magnetic field of strength 0.02T. west direction.
Charge on the particle is q = 3.2×10–19 C. Find the direction
Magnitude of the force is
and magnitude of the magnetic force that acts on the particle.
F = qvB sin90º = 3.2 × 10–19 × 2 × 105 × 0.02
Solution = 1.28 × 10–15 N
Concepts
(i) Velocity of the particle is horizontal and the NOTE
magnetic field is vertically downward. Angle If the particle has a negative charge, it will experience force in
between the two is 90°. Magnitude of the magnetic south-west direction.
force on the particle will be F = qvB sin90º = qvB.
YOUR TURN
Q.8. A particle having charge q is projected towards north Q.10. A charged particle is projected vertically up in
in a region where there is a magnetic field in the south a region where a horizontal magnetic field exists in north
direction. Field strength is B. Find the force on the particle. direction. In which direction will the charge deflect (east or
Q.9. A charged particle having mass M = 1 mg and west) if it is (a) positive, (b) Negative?
charge q = 1µC is projected in a magnetic field B = 1mT. Q.11. A negative charge – q enters a region with velocity
Find the maximum possible acceleration of the charge if its
v vo iˆ + v0 ˆj . A magnetic field B = B0 kˆ exists in the region.
=
speed is 1 ×106 ms–1 Find the magnetic force on the particle.
Q.12. Write the dimensional formula of magnetic field (B).
4.1
Circular motion of a charged particle in a The time period of revolution can be written as
magnetic field 2π 2πm
T = = (18)
Imagine that there is a uniform magnetic field (B) directed ω qB
into the plane of this page. A charged particle, having mass
The frequency of circular motion is
m and charge q, is projected from point A. The particle is
given a velocity v in the plane of this page (see figure). In 1 qB
f = = (19)
whichever direction you project the particle in the plane of T 2 πm
this page, its velocity will be perpendicular to the direction
Note that the time period (or the frequency) of circular
of the magnetic field.
motion is independent of the speed of the particle. Whatever be
the speed, the particle takes same amount of time to complete
C the circle. Actually, if you double the speed of the particle, the
radius of circular path doubles (See equation 15). This means
B that doubling the speed doubles the circumference. Obviously,
time period will not change.
YOUR TURN
Q.13 Alpha particles are projected with a speed of Q.18 A particle having mass m and charge +q is projected
10 kms–1 in a direction perpendicular to a uniform magnetic with a velocity v = v0 iˆ , from the origin of the co-ordinate
field of magnitude 1.0 T. Find the radius of the circular path system, into a region of uniform magnetic field B = − B0 kˆ .
and frequency of revolution of the particle. Find the time after which its acceleration will be in negative
Q.14 A particle having charge q and mass m is accelerated y direction for the first time.
through a potential difference of V and then made to enter
a uniform magnetic field B. Find the radius of the circular
trajectory of the particle if the particle moves perpendicular
to the field.
Q.15 A proton enters perpendicularly into a uniform
magnetic field with a velocity of 4 ×106 ms–1. The magnetic
field exists in a region that is just less than 10 cm wide in the
direction of initial velocity of the proton. Find the angular
deviation in the path of the proton caused by the field. Take
the charge on the proton to be e = 1.6 × 10–19 C and its Q.19 A beam of charged particles enter perpendicularly
mass to be m = 1.6 × 10–27 kg. Magnitude of the magnetic into a magnetic field. The beam
field is B = 0.4T. contains neutrons, electrons,
Q.16 Redo the question in example 7 considering that the protons and alpha particles. The
charge on the particle is negative. particles follow the tracks A, B,
Q.17 A charged particle, when projected in uniform C and D as shown in figure.
electric field, moves on a curved path. The same particle Which track corresponds to
when projected perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic which particle?
field, again moves in a curved path. What is the nature of
the two paths?
4.2 Helical path of a charged particle in a magnetic Due to the velocity component v⊥ the particle will
field experience a force in the magnetic field and will describe a
circle in yz plane (or a plane parallel to the yz plane). The
Consider a region having a uniform magnetic field of radius of this circle and the time period of circular motion
strength B directed along positive x direction. A particle is given by
having charge q and mass m is projected with a velocity mv⊥ mv sin θ
R = qB = (20)
v making an angle q with the direction of the field. To qB
understand the motion of the particle, let’s divide its velocity 2πm
into two components. T= (21)
qB
The particle has another velocity component v|| which
remains constant. Due to this velocity component the particle
continuously moves in x direction.
By superimposing the motions due to v⊥ and v||, one
can easily see that the particle will describe a helical path.
v|| = component of velocity in the direction of field = The radius of the helix is given by equation 20. The time
vcosq needed for the particle to rotate by 360º in yz plane is the
v⊥ = component of velocity in a direction perpendicular time period of the motion and it is given by equation 21.
to the direction of the field = v sinq Carefully understand the figure on the next page with the
comments written under it.
The figure below shows the path for one rotation. The
second diagram shows how the path will look like, to an
observer location on the z-axis. The first diagram shows that the
particle rises from O to A along the z direction as it completes
one rotation.
z
y
z
(a) Find the time after which the proton will touch the
z axis for the first time after entering into the field
region.
(b) At what distance from the origin will the proton
touch the z-axis for the first time?
It is given that charge on a proton is q = This figure shows the path in xy plane as seen by an eye
1.6 × 10–19 C and its mass is m = 1.6 × 10–27 kg. located on the z-axis. The particle is coming out of
the paper as it rotates.
Solution
Concepts (a) Time of motion from O to A = time period of the
(i) Field is in z direction. The velocity component in helical path
z direction is v|| = 2 × 104 m/s. The velocity 2πm 2 × 3.14 × 1.6 × 10 –27
or, T = =
component perpendicular to the field is qB 1.6 × 10 –19 × 0.3
v⊥ = vx 2 + v y 2 = ( 2 + 2 ) × 104 = 2 × 104 m/s. = 2.1 ×10–7 s
(b) Distance OA = Pitch
(ii) The particle will move in a helical path and will
= T · v|| = 2.1 × 10–7 × 2 × 104
touch the z-axis after completing one full rotation
= 4.2 ×10–3 m = 4.2 mm
YOUR TURN
Q.20 An electron with a kinetic energy of 90 eV and initial velocity of the electron is 53º. Find the radius
moves into a region of uniform magnetic field of strength
and pitch of the helical path of the electron.
B = 3.14 × 10–4 T. The angle between the direction of B [Mass of electron = 9.0 × 10–31 kg; 1eV = 1.6 ×10–19 J]
5. MOTION OF A CHARGED PARTICLE IN the electric field is directed downwards. A positive charge
moving along the straight line SX experiences an upward
ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELD magnetic force equal to
When a charge enters a region having both an electric field FB = qvB
( E ) and a magnetic field ( B ) it experiences an electric The electric force on the particle is independent of it
force as well as a magnetic force. The electromagnetic force speed. It is directed downward. Its magnitude is
on the particle is sometimes knows as Lorentz force. It can Fe = qE
be expressed as A particle will continue along the straight line path if net
F = q E + q ( v × B )(23) force on it is zero. Let this happen for a particle having speed v0.
qv0B = qE
By suitable choice of the electric and magnetic field we
can make a charged particle move on various kind of paths. E
or, v0 = (24)
We can also make interesting devices using the two fields. B
Below, we present the basic principle of a velocity selector,
This means that all the particles moving with velocity
a mass spectrometer and a cyclotron E
v0 = will experience no force and move in a straight
5.1 Velocity selector B
line to come out of the slit C. All other particles having
This device can be used to obtain a parallel beam of charged
velocity greater than or less than v0 will get deflected and
particles with all the particles moving at same velocity. In the
hit the screen C. A particle having v > v0 will experience a
figure shown, S is a source throwing out charged particles
magnetic force higher than the electric force and will follow
having different speeds. The parallel slits A and B act as a
a path like 2 shown in the figure. A particle having v < v0
collimator. All the particles which are able to cross through
will experience a magnetic force smaller than the electric
the two slits are moving along a straight line. However, they
force and will get deflected along a path like 3. Therefore,
may have different speeds. Our intention is to have a beam
we have a beam of particles, all moving with velocity
in which all the particles are moving with same velocity.
E
v0 = , to the right of slit C. We can choose the velocity
B E
FB that we want by adjusting the ratio .
B
v0
Fe 5.2 Mass spectrometer
This device can separate particle based on their masses and
can be used to identify different isotopes of an element.
Consider a source S which gives out singly ionised atoms of
Velocity Selector: Only particles having a particular speed are
an element. These ions are passed through a velocity selector
able to travel in a straight line and emerge out of slit C.
to obtain a beam of charged particles in which each particle
After crossing the slit B, the particles enter into a has same speed v0. If needed we can accelerate the particles
region where we have uniform magnetic and electric fields by applying a suitable potential difference. The beam of ions
perpendicular to each other. In the diagram shown, the is now made to enter into another region having a uniform
magnetic field is directed into the plane of the figure and magnetic field (B).
5.3 Cyclotron
Many applications, particularly experiments in nuclear
physics, require charged particles moving at high speeds. A
cyclotron is a device which can be used to accelerate charged
particles to impart them a kinetic energy of the order of few
MeV. E.O. Lawrence built the first cyclotron in 1931 and it
delivered protons with kinetic energy of 1.25 MeV.
A charged particle can be accelerated by applying a ‘Dees‘ of a cyclotron Magnetic field is directed
potential difference. But the method is not practical when outward in this diagram.
we need to accelerate them to very high kinetic energies. If
The key thing to understand is that the time period of the
you wish to accelerate a proton to a kinetic energy of 10 circular motion of a charge in a magnetic field is independent
MeV, you need a potential difference of 107 V. of its speed or the radius of the path. It is given by
A cyclotron uses a moderate potential difference to 2πm
accelerate a charged particle. The charge is made to follow a T=
qB
circular (rather spiral) path using a magnetic field and the same
YOUR TURN
Q.21 A proton moves at a constant velocity of (100 m/s) iˆ (b) Find the speed of the deutron as it leaves the
in a region having a uniform electric and magnetic fields. cyclotron.
The magnetic field in the region is B = (4×10–3 T) ĵ . Find Q.23 In a mass spectrometer, the detector detects two
the electric field. spots at a distance of 1.2 cm and 1.4 cm measured from the
Q.22 A cyclotron accelerates deutrons. The radius of the slit through which the singly ionised carbon atoms enter into
dee is 0.8 m and the frequency of the cyclotron’s oscillator the magnetic field. What can you predict about the ratio of
is 1MHZ. masses of two isotopes of carbon?
(a) Find the number of times a deutron enters into the
gap between the dees in one second.
In Short
(i) Force on a charge moving in an electric as well as
a magnetic field is given by
F = qE + q (v × B)
(ii) Net force on a charge can be zero if
qE + q(v × B) = 0
A current carrying wire in a magnetic field experiences a force
⇒ E=−(v × B) that is perpendicular to its length as well as B .
or, E = B × v
A current carrying conductor has electrons moving inside it.
(iii) In a cyclotron, a charge is made to move on a spiral
These moving electrons experience force in a magnetic field.
kind of path. Its energy is increased after every half
This force acts sideways on the electrons and get transmitted
circle by pushing it using an electric force. The
to the wire as the electrons collide with atoms.
particle gains speed but time period of its circular
motion does not change. Consider a straight wire carrying current I placed
perpendicularly into a uniform magnetic field. Let us
(iv) In a cyclotron, the time period of the oscillator is consider a length L of the wire and assume that the drift
same as the time period of circular motion of the speed of the electrons is vd. The wire is made of a material
2πm
charge and is given by T = . having n number of free electrons in its unit volume.
qB
Magnetic force on an electron is
(v) If R0 is the radius of the dees of a cyclotron, the
maximum speed that it can impart to a charge is F = −e ( vd × B )
given by In the diagram shown, this force is
qB
vmax = R0w = R0 . towards left and has magnitude
m
F = evdB
Total number of free electrons in L vd
6. MAGNETIC FORCE ON A CURRENT length of the wire is = n(AL), where A is
area of cross section.
CARRYING WIRE
Sum of forces acting on all free electrons
When a current carrying wire is placed between the poles is the resultant force on the wire. Therefore, the force on the
of a magnet, it experiences a lateral force. Experiments show wire is to the left and has magnitude.
that the force is in a direction given by the right hand rule FB = (evdB) (nAL) = (nevd A) BL
with the thumb pointing in the direction of the force when
or, FB = ILB(26)
the fingers are curled
from the direction of the current to
the direction of B .
YOUR TURN
Q.24 A wire of length L carries a current I along as shown in figure. A current I enters the pentagon at A
the positive x direction. A uniform magnetic field and leaves it at B. Find the magnetic force on the pentagon.
B = B0 (2 ĵ + k̂ ) exists in space. Find the force on the wire.
Q.25 A wire carries current in vertically upward direction.
It is kept in a horizontal magnetic field that is directed in
north west direction. Find the direction of magnetic force
on the wire.
Q.26. A pentagon shaped wire frame (APQRB) is located
in a uniform magnetic field B which is perpendicular to its
plane. The wire is uniform and various arms have lengths
Q.27 A square frame of side downward magnetic field B = 0.5T exists in the space. The
length L carries a current I as ends of the rails are connected to a 10V cell through a
shown in the figure. A uniform variable resistance R. When the variable resistance is made
magnetic field B exists in the space to decrease, the wire PQ begins to slide once R goes below
parallel to the square frame. Find 20W. Neglect resistance of all other parts of the circuit and
find the coefficient of friction between the wire and the rails.
(a) Force on arm AB
(b) Force on arm BC
(c) Force on the square loop
Q.28 A metal wire PQ of mass 20 g lies at rest,
perpendicularly on two parallel horizontal conducting rails.
The rails are separated by a distance d = 10 cm. A vertically
7. CURRENT LOOP AS A MAGNETIC So, far we have said that a current carrying coil and
a magnet are magnetic dipoles. You will learn later that
DIPOLE subatomic particles, including the electron, the proton and
A current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole though there the neutron, have magnetic dipole moments. Yes, they
are no visible poles in it. In this chapter, as well as in the are tiny magnets! In magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
next one, we will come across many similarities in behaviour a patient is subjected to a strong external magnetic field
of a current loop and a magnet. which interacts with the protons in each hydrogen atom in
a tissue. This interaction is possible only because a proton
Magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is defined
has a magnetic dipole moment.
as a vector directed perpendicular to the plane of the loop.
This direction is taken in the direction of outstretched right Example 16 Gyromagnetic ratio
hand thumb when the fingers are curled in the sense of the
An electron (charge -e, mass m) is revolving in a hydrogen
current. Magnitude of the magnetic dipole moment of a
atom. Find the ratio of magnetic dipole moment (M)
current loop is
associated with this motion of an electron to its angular
M = NIA(28) momentum (L) about the centre of the circular path. This
where N is number of ratio is known as gyromagnetic ratio.
turns in the loop, I is the
current and A is the area Solution
of the loop Concepts
A current loop having (i) If an electron moves at frequency f in a circular
dipole moment M is path, the current associated with its motion is
equivalent to a bar magnet I = ef. The current is directed opposite to the
having dipole moment M. Magnetic dipole moment vector direction of motion of the electron as it has negative
As said earlier, we will of a current loop. charge.
encounter several similarities to support this statement. In We can write the magnetic dipole moment
the next chapter we will learn that a current coil can produce corresponding to this current.
magnetic field like a permanent magnet.
(ii) Angular momentum is L = Iw
Magnetic dipole moment corresponding to this current is This result is same as that obtained for a particle in the
M = I · p r2 (r = radius of the circular path) last example.
eω 2 1 (b) Figure shows a charged
or, M = pr = ewr2
2π 2 spinning disc. Charge
per unit area on the disc
In the figure shown, the direction of M vector is
is
downward. Angular momentum of the electron about the Q
centre is s=
πR 2
L = mr2w
Consider a ring of radius
Direction of L is upward, in the figure shown.
x and thickness dx on the
Ratio of magnitudes of M and L is
disc. Charge on the ring is
M e dQ = s (2pxdx)
= (29)
L 2m Magnetic dipole moment
e
In vector notation M = – L. for this ring is given by equation (i).
2m
1
For a positive charge, both M and L will be in the dM = (dQ)wx2 = pswx3dx
2
same direction.
Dipole moment for all such rings are in same direction
Example 17 Non conducting charged ring and disc and add. Therefore, dipole moment of the disc is
(a) A non conducting ring of mass M and radius R has R
π
charge Q on it. It is spinning about its central axis ∫ dM = psw ∫ x dx
3
M= = σωR 4
(normal to its plane) with an angular speed w. Find o 4
the magnetic dipole moment of the ring. Also find π Q 1
the ratio of its magnetic dipole moment to its angular = . 2 wR4 = QR2w
4 πR 4
momentum about the rotation axis. 1
(b) Repeat the above exercise for a uniform non The angular momentum for the disc is L = mR2w.
2
conducting disc having mass M and charge Q. M Q
\ =
Solution L 2m
Concepts
(i) A charged ring, that is spinning is just like a current NOTE
loop. You may try to prove that the ratio M is Q for a uniformly
(ii) A disc can be divided into a large number of thin L 2m
rings, magnetic dipole moment of each ring is in charged spherical shell or a solid sphere.
same direction and adds.
(a) When the ring makes one rotation, a charge Q passes Example 18 Current loop that is not in a plane
through any point on its A current loop has
circumference. If it makes f the shape shown in
z
rotations in a second, the total the figure. It has
charge that passes through a two semicircular
point in a second is Qf. This is parts of radii R and
the associated current. 2R which lie in two D
R
perpendicular planes. C
ω
I = Qf = Q Two straight sections A O
2π B 2R
(AB, CD), each of
Magnetic dipole moment is length R, join these x
1
M = I · pR2 = QwR2(i) semicircular parts.
2 Current in the loop is
The angular momentum of the ring about its rotation y
axis is I. Find the magnetic
dipole moment of the current loop.
L = mR2w
M Q
\ =
L 2m
2R
x
I
YOUR TURN
Q. 29 A non conducting rod of length 2l has two particles Q. 31 A circular current loop is folded along one of its
attached to its ends. Each particle has charge q and mass m. diameter such that the two semicircular halves lie in xy and
The rod has negligible mass. The system rotates with an yz planes. The radius of the circle is R and it carries a current
angular speed w about an axis I. Write the magnetic dipole moment of the loop.
passing through the centre of the
rod and perpendicular to its length.
q q
z
Find the ratio of magnetic dipole l l
moment to the angular momentum
of the system. I y
R
Q. 30 Find the magnetic dipole moment of the current
loop shown in the figure. O
I
1 Solution
Moment of inertia of the cylinder I0 = MR2
2 Concepts
τ 4NILB
\ a= B = (i) If a and b represent two adjacent sides of a
I0 MR
parallelogram, then a × b represents its area vector.
This vector is directed perpendicular to the plane
Example 20 A method to find dipole moment of the parallelogram and its proper direction is
A conducting loop given by the right hand thumb when fingers are
ABCD carries a current curled from a to b .
I. An indicative box (ii) In the given diagram AB × AD gives the area vector
has been drawn to of the surface of the coil, pointing in the direction
make you understand of its magnetic dipole moment.
the dimensions of the Magnetic dipole moment of the loop is
loop and its orientation.
M = I ( AB × AD )
Write torque on the loop
if a magnetic field B0 is = I [(l ĵ ) × (–m iˆ + n k̂ )]= I [lm k̂ + ln iˆ ]
switched on in vertical = I l [n iˆ +m k̂ ]
direction.
\ τ = M × (Bo k̂ ) = – I l B0 ĵ
YOUR TURN
Q.32 A non-conducting disc of mass M and radius R Q.33 A circular current loop of radius R has current I
has uniformly distributed charge of surface density s. It is in it. A uniform magnetic field B is applied parallel to its
spinning about its vertical central axis. A vertical magnetic plane. Write the magnitude of magnetic torque on the loop
field B is switched on. Find the magnetic torque on the disc. and indicate the direction of torque vector.
9. MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER as torsional constant of the spring. A pointer attached to the
cylinder rotates with it on a graduated scale.
A rectangular coil of several turns is wound over a soft iron
cylindrical core. The cylinder coil system is free to rotate about
its axis on frictionless bearings. The wire of the coil is coated
with an insulating material so that the turns are insulated from
one another and also insulated from the iron cylinder. The
arrangement is surrounded by two semicylindrical pole pieces
of a magnet. A coil spring is attached to the cylinder and
its axis. When the cylinder rotates by an angle q, the spring
exerts a torque ts = Cq on it in opposite direction. C is known axis
Top view. Field lines are radial. Field at the arms AB and CD angle q. The current I is proportional to the deflection angle
are parallel to the plane of the coil. C
q. The constant k = is known as the galvanometer
NAB
constant. This constant may be measured directly by passing
a known current and measuring the deflection.
When a current is passed through the galvanometer coil,
it begins to oscillate due to the variable spring torque. For
fast damping of oscillations we have to make appropriate
modifications. we will learn later that Eddy currents helps in
damping.
Even when the coil rotates the field is parallel to the
plane of the coil at side arms AB and CD. Sensitivity
The semi cylindrical pole pieces create a radial magnetic The sensitivity of a galvanometer is the deflection produced
field. Inside the iron cylinder the field gets multiplied many when a unit current is passed through it. It can be written as
times due to the magnetisation of iron (we will learn about
θ NAB
this phenomenon in a later chapter). A torque on the coil S= = (32)
ABCD acts when a current is passed through it. The torque I C
arises due to magnetic forces on the arms AB and CD. The The inverse of sensitivity (S) is known as figure of merit
forces on the other two arms are zero or always acting along for the galvanometer.
the same line producing no torque. The key thing to realise For high sensitivity, the magnetic field (B) must be
is that whatever be the orientation of the coil, the magnetic high. Presence of iron core increases the field and hence
field always remains normal to the sides AB and CD and sensitivity.
parallel to the plane of the coil. Inside the iron cylinder, the Voltage sensitivity of a galvanometer can be defined as
field lines get distorted and are not perfectly radial (Field the deflection produced when a unit potential difference is
lines cannot intersect. Exactly radial lines will mean that applied across it.
they intersect). But that shall not bother us when we wish θ NAB
θ
to find torque on the coil. The forces on the arms DA and Sv = = = (33)
V IRg CRg
BC do not contribute to the torque.
If B is strength of the radial field at the periphery of the Here Rg is resistance of the coil.
cylindrical core (that is where arms AB and CD are located),
then torque on the coil at any orientation is Example 21 Will increasing the number of turns in a
galvanometer coil, increase its voltage sensitivity?
tB = MB sin 90º = NIAB
where N is number of turns in the coil, A is its area and Solution No. the voltage sensitivity is directly proportional
I is current flowing in it. to the number of turns N but inversely proportional to the
When a current is passed, the magnetic torque causes the coil resistance (Rg). Value of Rg is directly proportional to
coil to rotate. The spring gets twisted and exerts a counter the length of the wire, i.e. N. Hence, Sv will not depend on N.
YOUR TURN
Q. 34 A moving coil galvanometer has 100 turns and area of 0.05 radian when 10mA current is passed through it. Find
of each turn is 2.0 cm2. The magnetic field at the location the torsional constant of the spring used in the device.
of the iron cylinder is 0.01 T. The coil suffers a deflection
In Short
(i) A current carrying wire experiences force in a (viii) When placed in a uniform magnetic field, a current
magnetic field. This force arises due to the magnetic loop experiences torque.
forces acting on the moving electrons inside the wire. τB = M × B
(ii) Force on a straight
current carrying wire in a uniform This torque is always about an axis in the place of
magnetic field B is the loop and tries to align M parallel to B .
F = IL×B (ix) A particle having mass m and charge q, revolving
Here, L is the length vector in the direction of the in a circular orbit, has a constant ratio of magnetic
current. dipole moment and angular momentum, irrespective
(iii) If a straight wire has its length along B , no magnetic of its rotation speed. The ratio is
force will act on it. M q
=
(iv) Magnetic force on a curved wire placed in a uniform L 2m
The ratio is known as gyromagnetic ratio.
magnetic field can be obtained by replacing the wire
with a straight one joining its ends. This is true, in (x) In a moving coil galvanometer, current (i) through the
general, for a uniform field only. coil is proportional to the deflection (q) of the coil.
(v) Magnetic force on a closed current loop in a uniform i ∝ q ⇒ i = kq
magnetic field is zero. The constant k is known as galvanometer constant
(vi) A current loop behaves like a magnetic dipole. and its value is
C
(vii) Magnetic dipole moment of a current loop is a k =
vector perpendicular to its plane having magnitude NAB
M = NIA. Here, N is number of turns in the loop, Where C is torsional constant of the spring, N is
A is its area and I is the current in the loop. The number of turns in the coil, A is area of the coil and
proper direction of dipole moment vector ( M ) is B is the magnetic field at the position of the coil.
along the right hand thumb when fingers are curled θ 1
(xi) = is known as current sensitivity of the
in the sense of current. i k
galvanometer.
Miscellaneous Examples
First, let’s write the force due to lower magnet on the north
Example 22 Two identical magnets, with pole of the upper magnet. Force due to south pole of the
length l and mass M each are arranged lower magnet can be neglected compared to the force applied
vertically inside a glass tube as shown in the by the north pole (∵ l >> x)
figure. The upper magnet remains suspended
µ0 m ⋅ m
in air above the lower one so that the distance \ FN = (↑)
between the nearest poles of the magnets is 4π x 2
x (<< l). Find the pole strength (m) of the Force on the south pole of the upper magnet due to the
magnets. Assume that the magnetic length, lower magnet can be written as
for each magnet, is same as the geometric µ m⋅m µ m⋅m
length. FS = 0 – 0
4π l 2 4π (2l ) 2
Solution 3 µ0 m ⋅ m
= (↓)
4 4π l 2
Concepts
(i) The force applied by the lower magnet on the upper For equilibrium
magnet balances the weight of the upper magnet. FN = FS + Mg
(ii) Equation 4 can be used to write the field due to µ0 m2 3 µ0 m2
or, = + Mg
lower magnet at the position of the two poles of 4π x 2
4 4π l 2
the upper magnet. µ0 1 3 1
or, m2 2 – = Mg
4π x 4 l 2
Again, x << l, permits us to neglect the second term inside This is the standard equation for SHM. The magnet
the bracket. In effect, we are saying that FS << FN. performs SHM.
2
µ0 m MB
⇒ 2 = Mg
w =
4π x IZ
4πMg IZ
⇒ m = x. ⇒ T = 2p
µ0 MB
m(l 2 + a 2 )
Example 23 Oscillating magnet or, T = 2p
12 MB
A bar magnet has the shape shown in the figure. Its mass is
m. It is kept in a uniform magnetic field B that is parallel (b) Moment of inertia about the y axis is
to its axis (along x direction). The magnet is given a small m 2
Iy= (l + b2)
angular displacement and released find time period of its 12
oscillations if it was displaced about (a) z axis (b) y axis.
d 2θ
Its magnetic dipole moment is M. Neglect all other forces \ Iy = – MBq
apart from the magnetic force. dt 2
d 2θ MB
⇒ =– q
Iy
2
dt
MB
\ w =
Iy
Iy m(l 2 + b 2 )
or, T = 2p = 2p
MB 12 MB
Of late Egypt has begun to raise vegetables for Europe. The fast
boats from Alexandria to Italy carry green stuff, especially onions, of
which the Nile valley is now exporting several million dollars’ worth
per annum. Some of these are sent to England, and others to Austria
and Germany.
As for tobacco, Egypt is both an exporter and importer. “Egyptian”
cigarettes are sold all over the world, but Egypt does not raise the
tobacco of which they are made. Its cultivation has been forbidden
for many years, and all that is used is imported from Turkey, Greece,
and Bosnia. About four fifths of it comes from Turkey.
Everyone in Egypt who can afford it smokes. The men have pipes
of various kinds, and of late many cigarettes have been coming into
use. A favourite smoke is with a water pipe, the vapour from the
burning tobacco being drawn by means of a long tube through a
bowl of water upon which the pipe sits, so that it comes cool into the
mouth.
The chicken industry of Egypt is worth investigation by our
Department of Agriculture. Since the youth of the Pyramids, these
people have been famous egg merchants and the helpful hen is still
an important part of their stock. She brings in hundreds of thousands
of dollars a year, for her eggs form one of the items of national
export. During the last twelve months enough Egyptian eggs have
been shipped across the Mediterranean to England and other parts
of Europe to have given one to every man, woman, and child in the
United States. Most of them went to Great Britain.
The Egyptians, moreover, had incubators long before artificial egg
hatching was known to the rest of the world. There is a hatchery
near the Pyramids where the farmers trade fresh eggs for young
chicks at two eggs per chick, and there is another, farther down the
Nile valley, which produces a half million little chickens every
season. It is estimated that the oven crop of chickens amounts to
thirty or forty millions a year, that number of little fowls being sold by
the incubator owners when the baby chicks are about able to walk.
Most of our incubators are of metal and many are kept warm by oil
lamps. Those used here are one-story buildings made of sun-dried
bricks. They contain ovens which are fired during the hatching
seasons. The eggs are laid upon cut straw in racks near the oven,
and the firing is so carefully done that the temperature is kept just
right from week to week. The heat is not gauged by the thermometer,
but by the judgment and experience of the man who runs the
establishment. A fire is started eight or ten days before the eggs are
put in, and from that time on it is not allowed to go out until the
hatching season is over. The eggs are turned four times a day while
hatching. Such establishments are cheaply built, and so arranged
that it costs almost nothing to run them. One that will hatch two
hundred thousand chickens a year can be built for less than fifty
dollars, while for about a dollar and a half per day an experienced
man can be hired to tend the fires, turn the eggs, and sell the
chickens.
CHAPTER VI
THE PROPHET’S BIRTHDAY
Stand with me on the Hill of the Citadel and take a look over Cairo.
We are away up over the river Nile, and far above the minarets of
the mosques that rise out of the vast plain of houses below. We are
at a height as great as the tops of the Pyramids, which stand out
upon the yellow desert off to the left. The sun is blazing and there is
a smoky haze over the Nile valley, but it is not dense enough to hide
Cairo. The city lying beneath us is the largest on the African
continent and one of the mightiest of the world. It now contains about
eight hundred thousand inhabitants; and in size is rapidly
approximating Heliopolis and Memphis in the height of their ancient
glory.
Of all the Mohammedan cities of the globe, Cairo is growing the
fastest. It is more than three times as big as Damascus and twenty
times the size of Medina, where the Prophet Mohammed died. The
town covers an area equal to fifty quarter-section farms; and its
buildings are so close together that they form an almost continuous
structure. The only trees to be seen are those in the French quarter,
which lies on the outskirts.
The larger part of the city is of Arabian architecture. It is made up
of flat-roofed, yellowish-white buildings so crowded along narrow
streets that they can hardly be seen at this distance. Here and there,
out of the field of white, rise tall, round stone towers with galleries
about them. They dominate the whole city, and under each is a
mosque, or Mohammedan church. There are hundreds of them in
Cairo. Every one has its worshippers, and from every tower, five
times a day, a shrill-voiced priest calls the people to prayers. There
is a man now calling from the Mosque of Sultan Hasan, just under
us. The mosque itself covers more than two acres, and the minaret
is about half as high as the Washington Monument. So delighted
was Hasan with the loveliness of this structure that when it was
finished he cut off the right hand of the architect so that it would be
impossible for him to design another and perhaps more beautiful
building. Next it is another mosque, and all about us we can see
evidences that Mohammedanism is by no means dead, and that
these people worship God with their pockets as well as with their
tongues.
In the Alabaster Mosque, which stands at my back, fifty men are
now praying, while in the courtyard a score of others are washing
themselves before they go in to make their vows of repentance to
God and the Prophet. Not far below me I can see the Mosque El-
Azhar, which has been a Moslem university for more than a
thousand years, and where something like ten thousand students
are now learning the Koran and Koranic law.
Here at Cairo I have seen the people preparing to take their
pilgrimage to Mecca, rich and poor starting out on that long journey
into the Arabian desert. Many go part of the way by water. The ships
leaving Alexandria and Suez are crowded with pilgrims and there is
a regular exodus from Port Sudan and other places on this side of
the Red Sea. They go across to Jidda and there lay off their costly
clothing before they make their way inland, each clad only in an
apron with a piece of cloth over the left shoulder. Rich and poor
dress alike. Many of the former carry gifts and other offerings for the
sacred city. Such presents cost the Egyptian government alone a
quarter of a million dollars a year; for not only the Khedive but the
Mohammedan rulers of the Sudan send donations. The railroad
running from far up the Nile to the Red Sea makes special rates to
pilgrimage parties.
Yet I wonder whether this Mohammedanism is not a religion of the
lips rather than of the heart. These people are so accustomed to
uttering prayers that they forget the sense. The word God is heard
everywhere in the bazaars. The water carrier, who goes about with a
pigskin upon his back, jingling his brass cups to announce his
business, cries out: “May God recompense me!” and his customer
replies, as he drinks, by giving him a copper in the name of the Lord.
The lemonade peddler, who carries a glass bottle as big as a four-
gallon crock, does the same, and I venture to say that the name of
the Deity is uttered here more frequently than in any other part of the
world. It is through this custom of empty religious formulas that I am
able to free myself of the beggars of the city. I have learned two Arab
words: “Allah yatik,” which mean: “May God give thee enough and to
spare.” When a beggar pesters me I say these words gently. He
looks upon me in astonishment, then touches his forehead in a polite
Mohammedan salute and goes away.
On my second visit to Egypt I was fortunate in being in Cairo on
the birthday of the Prophet. It was a feast day among the
Mohammedans, and at night there was a grand religious celebration
at the Alabaster Mosque which Mehemet Ali, that Napoleon of Egypt,
built on the Citadel above Cairo. Its minarets, overlooking the Nile
valley, the great deserts and the vast city of Cairo, blazed with light,
and from them the cry of the muezzins sounded shrill on the dusky
air: “Allah is great! There is no God but Allah, and Mohammed is the
Prophet of Allah! Come to worship! Allah is great! There is no God
but Allah!”
As this call reverberated through the city, Mohammedans of all
classes started for the Citadel. Some came in magnificent turnouts,
bare-legged, gaudily dressed syces with wands in their hands
running in front of them to clear the way. Some came upon donkeys.
Some moved along in groups of three or four on foot. The Khedive
came with the rest, soldiers with drawn swords going in front of his
carriage and a retinue of cavalry following behind.
The Alabaster Mosque covers many acres. It has a paved marble
court, as big as a good-sized field, around which are cloisters. This is
roofed with the sky, and in the midst of it is a great marble fountain
where the worshippers bathe their feet and hands before they go in
to pray. The mosque is at the back of this court, facing Mecca. Its
many domes rise to a great height and its minarets seem to pierce
the sky. It is built of alabaster, but its exterior has become worn and
pitted by the sands of the desert, which have been blown against its
walls until it has nothing of the grandeur which it must have shown
when its founder worshipped within it.
The interior, however, was wonderfully beautiful that night, when
its gorgeous decorations were shown off by the thousands of lights
of this great service. Under the gaslight and lamplight the tinsel
which during the day shocks the taste was softened and beautified.
The alabaster of the walls became as pure as Mexican onyx, and the
rare Persian rugs that lay upon the floor took on a more velvety tint.
See it all again with me. In the eye of your mind cover an acre field
with the richest of oriental rugs; erect about it walls of pure white
alabaster with veins as delicate as those of the moss agate; let these
walls run up for hundreds of feet; build galleries around them and
roof the whole with great domes in which are windows of stained
glass; hang lamps by the thousands from the ceiling, place here and
there an alabaster column. Now you have some idea of this mosque
as it looked on the night of Mohammed’s birthday.
You must, however, add the worshippers to the picture. Thousands
of oriental costumes; turbans of white, black, and green; rich gowns
and sober, long-bearded, dark faces, shine out under the lights in
every part of the building. Add likewise the mass of Egyptian soldiers
in gold lace and modern uniforms, with red fezzes on their heads,
and the hundreds of noble Egyptians in European clothes. There are
no shoes in the assemblage, and the crowd moves about on the
rugs in bare feet or stockings.
What a babel of sounds goes up from the different parts of the
building, and how strange are the sights! Here a dozen old men
squat on their haunches, facing each other, and rock back and forth
as they recite passages of the Koran. Here is a man worshipping all
alone; there is a crowd of long-haired, wild-eyed ascetics with faces
of all shades of black, yellow, and white. They are so dirty and
emaciated they make one think of the hermits of fiction. They stand
in a ring and go through the queerest of antics to the weird music of
three great tambourines and two drums played by worshippers quite
as wild looking as themselves. It is a religious gymnastic show, the
horrible nature of which cannot be described upon paper.
When I first entered the mosque, these Howling Dervishes were
squatted on the floor, moving their bodies up and down in unison,
and grunting and gasping as though the whole band had been
attacked with the colic. A moment later they arose and began to bob
their heads from one side to the other until I thought their necks
would be dislocated by the jerks they gave them. They swung their
ears nearly down to their shoulders. The leader stood in the centre,
setting the time to the music. Now he bent over so that his head was
almost level with his knees, then snapped his body back to an erect
position. The whole band did likewise, keeping up this back-breaking
motion for fifteen minutes. All the time they howled out “Allah, Allah!”
Their motions increased in wildness. With every stoop the music
grew louder and faster. They threw off their turbans, and their long
hair, half matted, now brushed the floor as they bent down in front,
now cut the air like whips as they threw themselves back. Their eyes
began to protrude, one man frothed at the mouth. At last they
reached such a state of fanatical ecstasy that not for several minutes
after the leader ordered them to stop, were they able to do so. The
Howling Dervishes used to cut themselves in their rites and often
they fall down in fits in their frenzy. They believe that such actions
are passports to heaven.
A great occasion in Cairo is the sending of a new gold-embroidered carpet to the
sanctuary in Mecca, there to absorb holiness at the shrine of the Prophet. The old
carpet is brought back each year, and its shreds are distributed among the
Faithful.
The mosque of the Citadel in Cairo was built of alabaster by Mehemet Ali, the
“Napoleon of Egypt.” When Mohammed’s birthday is celebrated, its halls and
courts are choked with thousands of Moslem worshippers and are the scene of
fanatical religious exercises.
Cairo is the biggest city in Africa. It is larger than St. Louis and one
of the most cosmopolitan cities in the Orient. The Christians and the
Mohammedans here come together, and the civilizations of the East
and the West touch each other. The modern part of Cairo has put on
the airs of European capitals. It has as wide streets as Paris, and a
park, full of beautiful flowers and all varieties of shrubs and trees, lies
in its very centre. Here every night the military bands play European
and American airs, and veiled Mohammedan women walk about with
white-faced French or Italian babies, of which they are the nurses.
People from every part of the world listen to the music. The
American jostles the Englishman while the German and the
Frenchman scowl at each other; the Greek and the Italian move
along side by side, as they did in the days when this country was
ruled by Rome, and now and then you see an old Turk in his turban
and gown, or a Bedouin Arab, or a white-robed, fair-faced heathen
from Tunis.
The European section of Cairo now has magnificent hotels. It is
many a year since the foreign traveller in Egypt has had to eat with
his fingers, or has seen a whole sheep served up to him by his
Egyptian host as used to be the case. To-day the food is the same
as that you get in Paris, and is served in the same way. One can buy
anything he wants in European Cairo, from a gas-range to a glove-
buttoner, and from a set of diamond earrings to a pair of shoestrings.
Yesterday I had a suit of clothes made by an English tailor, and I
drive about every day in an American motor car. There are, perhaps,
fifty thousand Europeans living in the city, and many American
visitors have learned the way to this great winter resort. The bulk of
the Europeans are French and Italian, and the Mouski, one of the
main business streets, is lined for a mile with French and Italian
shops. There are thousands of Greeks, and hundreds of Jews from
Palestine, the states of southern Europe, and Asia Minor. One sees
every type of Caucasian moving about under dark red fezzes and
dressed in black clothes with coats buttoned to the chin.
The foreign part of Cairo is one of great wealth. There are
mansions and palaces here that would be called handsome in the
suburbs of New York, and property has greatly risen in value. Many
of the finest houses are owned by Greeks, whose shrewd brains are
working now as in the classic days. The Greeks look not unlike us
and most of them talk both English and French. They constitute the
money aristocracy of Alexandria, and many of the rich Greek
merchants of that city have palatial winter homes here. As I have
said, they are famed as bankers and are the note-shavers of Egypt.
They lend money at high rates of interest, and I am told that perhaps
one fifth of the lands of the country belong to them. They have
bought them in under mortgages to save their notes. The lower
classes of the Greeks are the most turbulent of Egypt’s population.
FROM CAIRO TO KISUMU
Embraces the right shoulder of Africa which for centuries withstood the attempts
of rulers and traders to establish their dominion over the continent
The tourist who passes through Cairo and stays at one of the big
hotels is apt to think that the city is rapidly becoming a Christian one.
As he drives over asphalt streets lined with the fine buildings of the
European quarter, it seems altogether English and French. If he is
acquainted with many foreigners he finds them living in beautiful
villas, or in apartment houses like those of our own cities. He does
his shopping in modern stores and comes to the conclusion that the
Arab element is passing away.
This is not so. Cairo is a city of the Egyptians. Not one tenth of its
inhabitants are Christians and it is the hundreds of thousands of
natives who make up the life blood of this metropolis. They are
people of a different world from ours, as we can see if we go down
for a stroll through their quarters. They do business in different ways
and trade much as they have been trading for generations. Their
stores are crowded along narrow streets that wind this way and that
until one may lose himself in them. Nearly every store is a factory,
and most of the goods offered are made in the shop where they are
sold.
Although the foreigner and his innovations are in evidence, native
Cairo is much the same now in characters, customs, and dress as it
was in the days of Haroun Al Raschid. Here the visionary Alnaschar
squats in his narrow, cell-like store, with his basket of glass before
him. He holds the tube of a long water pipe in his mouth and is
musing on the profits he will make from peddling his glass, growing
richer and richer, until his sovereign will be glad to offer him his
daughter in marriage and he will spurn her as she kneels before him.
We almost expect to see the glass turned over as it is in the story,
and his castles in the air shattered with his kick. Next to him is a
turbaned Mohammedan who reminds us of Sinbad the Sailor, and a
little farther on is a Barmecide washing his hands with invisible soap
in invisible water, and apparently inviting his friends to come and
have a great feast with him. Here two long-gowned, gray-bearded
men are sitting on a bench drinking coffee together; and there a
straight, tall maiden, robed in a gown which falls from her head to
her feet, with a long black veil covering all of her face but her eyes,
looks over the wares of a handsome young Syrian, reminding us of
how the houris shopped in the days of the “Thousand and One
Nights.”
Oriental Cairo is a city of donkeys and camels. In the French
quarter you may have a ride on an electric street car for a few cents,
or you may hire an automobile to carry you over the asphalt. The
streets of the native city are too narrow for such things, and again
and again we are crowded to the wall for fear that the spongy feet of
the great camels may tread upon us. We are grazed by loaded
donkeys, carrying grain, bricks, or bags on their backs, and the
donkey boy trotting behind an animal ridden by some rich Egyptian
or his wife calls upon us to get out of the way.
The donkeys of Egypt are small, rugged animals. One sees them
everywhere with all sorts of odd figures mounted on them. Here is an
Egyptian woman sitting astride of one, her legs bent up like a spring
and her black feet sticking out in the stirrups. She is dressed in
black, in a gown which makes her look like a balloon. There is a long
veil over her face with a slit at the eyes, where a brass spool
separates it from the head-dress and you see nothing but strips of
bare skin an inch wide above and below. Here is a sheik with a great
turban and a long gown; his legs, ending in big yellow slippers, reach
almost to the ground on each side of his donkey. He has no bridle,
but guides the beast with a stick. A donkey-boy in bare feet, whose
sole clothing consists of a blue cotton nightgown and a brown
skullcap, runs behind poking up the donkey with a stick. Now he
gives it a cut, and the donkey jerks its hinder part from one side to
the other as it scallops the road in attempting to get out of the way of
the rod. Here is a drove of donkeys laden with bags for the market.
They are not harnessed, and the bags are balanced upon their
backs without ropes or saddles.
The ordinary donkey of Egypt is very cheap indeed, but the
country has some of the finest asses and mules I have ever seen,
and there are royal white jackasses ridden by wealthy
Mohammedans which are worth from five hundred to a thousand
dollars per beast. The best of these come from Mecca. They are
pacers, fourteen hands high, and very swift. The pedigrees of some
of them are nearly as long as those of Arabian horses. It is said that
the Arabs who raise them will never sell a female of this breed.
But to return to the characters of the bazaar. They are of the
oddest, and one must have an educated eye to know who they are.
Take that man in a green turban, who is looked up to by his fellows.
The dragoman tells us that he has a sure passport to Heaven, and
that the green turban is a sign that he has made the pilgrimage to
Mecca and thus earned the right to the colours of the Prophet.
Behind him comes a fine-featured, yellow-faced man in a blue gown
wearing a turban of blue. We ask our guide who he may be and are
told, with a sneer, that he is a Copt. He is one of the Christians of
modern Egypt, descended from the fanatical band described by
Charles Kingsley in his novel “Hypatia.” Like all his class he is
intelligent, and like most of them well dressed. The Copts are among
the shrewdest of the business Egyptians, and with prosperity they
have grown in wealth. They are money lenders and land speculators.
Many of them have offices under the government, and not a few
have amassed fortunes. Some of them are very religious and some
can recite the Bible by heart. They differ from their neighbours in that
they believe in having only one wife.
The crowd in these streets is by no means all men, however.
There are women scattered through it, and such women! We look at
them, and as their large soulful eyes, fringed with dark lashes, smile
back at us, we wish that the veils would drop from their faces. The
complexions which can be seen in the slit in the veils are of all
colours from black to brunette, and from brown to the creamy white
of the fairest Circassian. We are not particularly pleased with their
costume, but our dragoman tells us that they dress better at home.
The better classes wear black bombazine garments made so full that
they hide every outline of the figure. Some of them have their cloaks
tied in at the waist so that they look like black bed ticks on legs.
Here, as one raises her skirt, we see that she wears bloomers falling
to her ankles, which make us think of the fourteen-yard breeches
worn by the girls of Algiers. The poorer women wear gowns of blue
cotton, a single garment and the veil making up a whole costume.
Astride their shoulders or their hips some of them carry babies, many
of whom are as naked as when they were born.