Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and

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Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes
and By-Products
Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability Challenges
Valorization of Agri-Food
Wastes and By-Products
Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability
Challenges

Edited by

Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH),
Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union
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Contents

List of contributors xix 2.2 Isolation and extraction methods of

Foreword xxv bioactive compounds from tropical
Preface xxvii fruit by-products and wastes 31
Introduction xxix 2.2.1 Influence of conventional
extraction techniques on bioactive
compounds 33
1 Sustainability challenges in the 2.2.2 Nonconventional extraction
valorization of agri-food wastes techniques 34
and by-products 1 2.3 Fermentation to obtain bioactive
compounds from tropical fruits 38
Rajeev Bhat 2.4 Possible uses of by-products and
1.1Introduction 1 wastes in the food industry 38
1.2Wastes and by-products—global scenario 2 2.4.1 As ingredients of functional food 38
1.3Food industrial wastes and by-products 4 2.4.2 As sources of unconventional oils 39
1.4Food industry wastes and renewable 2.4.3 As additives 39
energy production 7 2.4.4 Antimicrobial agents 39
1.5 Composting of agri-food wastes 8 2.4.5 Bio-absorbent agents 40
1.6 Bioactive compounds and bioactivity 9 2.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
1.7 Wastes and by-products as food and challenges 41
livestock feed 12 References 41
1.8 Bioplastics and green composites 13
1.9 Sustainable green processing
technologies 14 3 Bioactive compounds of fruit
1.10 Regulatory issues 14
1.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future by-products as potential prebiotics 47
challenges 15 Marcela Albuquerque Cavalcanti de Albuquerque,
Acknowledgment 16 Igor Ucella Dantas de Medeiros, Bernadette Dora
References 17 Gombossy de Melo Franco, Susana Marta Isay Saad,
Further Reading 27 Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc and
Jean Guy LeBlanc
2 Valorization of industrial by-products 3.1 Introduction 47
and waste from tropical fruits for the 3.2 World crop production: focus on the fruit
recovery of bioactive compounds, scenario 48
3.3 Fruit by-products as functional compounds
recent advances, and future and their relationship with gut
perspectives 29 microbiota 48
Salma A. Enrı́quez-Valencia, J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala, 3.4 Dietary fibers and phenolics in fruit
Gustavo A. González-Aguilar and by-products as bioactive compounds 50
Leticia X. López-Martı́nez 3.5 Effect of fruit by-products on growth of
beneficial microorganisms and their folate
2.1 Introduction 29 production 50

v
vi Contents

3.6 Fruit by-products and gut microbiota: 5.4 Sustainability through preservation of
phenolic metabolites and short-chain vegetable waste and byproducts 96
fatty acids 51 5.5 Potential applications of vegetable
3.7 Potential biological effects of bioactive wastes and vegetable byproducts 97
compounds from fruit by-products: 5.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
antioxidant and antiinflammatory challenges 98
approaches 53 References 99
3.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and
future challenges 54
Acknowledgments 54 6 Fruit byproducts as alternative
References 54 ingredients for bakery products 111
Mafalda Alexandra Silva, Tânia Gonçalves
4 Valorization of fruit and vegetable Albuquerque, Rita Carneiro Alves,
waste for bioactive pigments: M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira and Helena S. Costa
extraction and utilization 61 6.1 Introduction 111
6.2 Fruit industry 112
Wee Sim Choo and Amy Yi Hsan Saik
6.2.1 Apple 112
4.1 Introduction 61 6.2.2 Banana 112
4.2 Anthocyanins 62 6.2.3 Grape 116
4.2.1 Grapes 63 6.2.4 Mango and guava 116
4.3 Betalains 67 6.2.5 Melon and watermelon 116
4.3.1 Red beet 68 6.2.6 Orange 116
4.3.2 Extraction of betalains from red beet 6.2.7 Passion fruit 117
waste 69 6.2.8 Pomegranate 117
4.4 Carotenoids 69 6.3 Functional foods 117
4.4.1 Tomatoes 70 6.4 Bakery products 118
4.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 6.4.1 Bread 118
challenges 72 6.4.2 Biscuits 125
References 73 6.4.3 Cookies 126
6.4.4 Cakes 126
5 Valuable bioactives from 6.4.5 Muffins 126
6.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
vegetable wastes 83 challenges 127
Annegowda H.V. and Pulak Majumder Acknowledgments 127
References 127
5.1 Introduction 83
5.1.1 Ranking of vegetables 83
5.1.2 Top producers of vegetables 83 7 Fruit and vegetable by-products:
5.1.3 Benefits of consuming vegetables 83 novel ingredients for a sustainable
5.1.4 Production of vegetable wastes and society 133
byproducts 84
Pulak Majumder and H.V. Annegowda
5.1.5 Measures undertaken to minimize
vegetable wastes 86 7.1 Introduction 133
5.2 Valorization of vegetable wastes and 7.2 Bioactive molecules from fruit and
byproducts 87 vegetable by-products 134
5.2.1 Vitamins 87 7.2.1 Polyphenols 134
5.2.2 Carotenoids 90 7.2.2 The terpenes 135
5.2.3 Flavonoids 90 7.2.3 Biomedical impacts of carotenoids 135
5.2.4 Phenolic acids 94 7.2.4 Dietary fiber 136
5.3 Extraction of phytobioactives 95 7.2.5 Biomedical impacts of dietary fiber 136
5.3.1 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 95 7.2.6 Polysaccharides 136
5.3.2 Supercritical fluid extraction 95 7.2.7 Biomedical impacts of phytosterols 137
5.3.3 Accelerated solvent extraction 96 7.2.8 The organosulfurs 137
5.3.4 Microwave-assisted extraction 96 7.2.9 Biomedical impact of organosulfur
5.3.5 Enzyme-assisted extraction 96 compounds 137
 Contents vii

7.2.10 Organic acids and plant amines 137 8.4.4 Production of specialty chemicals and
7.2.11 Biomedical impact of organic acids fertilizers by solid-state fermentation 166
and amines 137 8.4.5 Production of industrial adsorbents 166
7.3 Sustained valorization of fruits and 8.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
vegetable by-products 137 challenges 167
7.3.1 Apple by-products 137 8.6 Conflict of interest 168
7.3.2 Citrus fruit by-products 138 References 168
7.3.3 Grape by-products 139
7.3.4 Tropical fruits by-products 140
7.3.5 Vegetable by-products 144 9 Coffee waste: a source of valuable
7.4 Innovative drying techniques and technologies for sustainable
extraction methods for fruit and development 173
vegetable by-products 146
7.4.1 Infrared-assisted convective drying 146 Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta
7.4.2 Microwave and combined and Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as
microwave drying 147 9.1 Introduction 173
7.4.3 Green technology: by-product 9.2 Coffee beans: chemical composition
extraction techniques 147 and structure 174
7.5 Innovations and sustainable food 9.3 Coffee production and generated waste 176
ingredients 149 9.4 Strategies used to valorize coffee waste 177
7.6 Strategic road map for sustainable 9.5 Bioproducts for food and pharmaceutical
utilization of by-products 149 industry applications from coffee waste 177
7.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 9.5.1 Antioxidant compounds 177
challenges 150 9.5.2 Antimicrobials 180
Acknowledgments 151 9.5.3 Organic acids 183
References 151
9.5.4 Enzymes 183
9.5.5 Colorants 184
8 Current trends on the valorization of 9.6 Bioenergy production from coffee
waste fractions for the recovery of waste 184
9.6.1 Biodiesel 184
alkaloids and polyphenols:
9.6.2 Bioethanol 186
case study of guarana 157 9.6.3 Biogas 186
Ádina L. Santana and Gabriela A. Macedo 9.7 Materials from coffee waste 187
9.7.1 Polymers for packaging materials 187
Abbreviations 157 9.7.2 Building materials 188
8.1 Introduction 157 9.8 Agricultural applications 188
8.2 Guarana (Paullinia cupana) 158 9.8.1 Composting and fertilizers 188
8.2.1 Botanical description and traditional 9.8.2 Mushroom cultivation 189
use 158 9.9 Miscellaneous 190
8.2.2 Chemical composition 158 9.9.1 Biosorbents 190
8.2.3 Health aspects on the administration 9.10 Conclusion and future perspectives 191
of guarana 159 Acknowledgments 191
8.2.4 Processing of guarana and products: References 192
current scenario 160
8.3 Emerging processing strategies to recover
alkaloids and polyphenols 160 10 Valorization of coffee wastes for
8.3.1 Extraction 160
effective recovery of value-added
8.3.2 Encapsulation 162
8.4 Current trends and perspectives: bio-based products: an aim to
biorefinery approach applied for enhance the sustainability and
the integral use of guarana 165 productivity of the coffee industry 199
8.4.1 Production of extracts and
Arunima Nayak and Brij Bhushan
microparticles: process intensification 165
8.4.2 Application in food products 165 10.1 Introduction 199
8.4.3 Production of energy 166 10.2 Valorization of coffee wastes 200
viii Contents

10.2.1 Production of biofuels 200 12 Various conversion techniques for

10.2.2 Recovery of value-added the recovery of value-added
bioactives 207
products from tea waste 237
10.2.3 Production of biomaterials 208
10.2.4 Development of bioadsorbents 211 Nabajit Dev Choudhury, Nilutpal Bhuyan,
10.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future Rumi Narzari, Ruprekha Saikia, Dibyakanta Seth,
challenges 212 Niharendu Saha and Rupam Kataki
References 212
12.1 Introduction 237
12.2 Process integration for setting up
a waste biorefinery 241
12.2.1 Biorefinery platforms 242
11 Valorization of tea waste for 12.2.2 Technological processes 243
multifaceted applications: 12.2.3 Feedstock groups 244
a step toward green and sustainable 12.2.4 Product groups 245
development 219 12.3 Tea waste and its worldwide availability 245
12.4 Physicochemical properties of tea
Omkar S. Nille, Akshay S. Patil, waste 247
Ravindra D. Waghmare, Vaibhav M. Naik, 12.5 Biofuel and bioenergy production 249
Datta B. Gunjal, Govind B. Kolekar and
12.5.1 Products from thermochemical
Anil H. Gore
conversion 249
11.1 Introduction 219 12.5.2 Biodiesel 250
11.2 Biomass sources 220 12.5.3 Bioethanol 251
11.3 Biomass valorization 220 12.6 Solid fuel 253
11.3.1 Carbonization 221 12.7 Tea waste-based biorefinery and
11.3.2 Pyrolysis 222 production of value-added product 253
11.3.3 Hydrothermal treatment 222 12.7.1 Electrochemical 253
11.3.4 Microwave treatment 224 12.7.2 Chemical derivatives from tea
11.3.5 Chemical activation 224 waste 253
11.4 Tea waste biomass: source, properties, 12.7.3 Animal feed and composting 256
and constituents 225 12.7.4 Manufacturing of instant tea 256
11.4.1 Field to tea industry 225 12.7.5 Tobacco substitutes and foaming
11.4.2 Tea waste residue/biomass from agents 256
kitchens, cafeterias, canteens, 12.8 Rules/regulations concerning the
and tea shops 225 safety of valorization of tea wastes 257
11.4.3 Properties and constituents 225 12.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
11.5 Value-added products from tea challenges 258
waste 226 References 259
11.5.1 Adsorbents 226
11.5.2 Activated carbon 226 13 Cocoa: Beyond chocolate,
11.5.3 Magnetic adsorbents 227 a promising material for potential
11.5.4 Carbon nanodots 227 value-added products 267
11.5.5 Graphene oxide dots 228
11.6 Multifaceted applications of valorized Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as,
waste tea products 229 Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, C. Odı́n Rodrı́guez-Nava
11.6.1 Sensing and detection 229 and Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta
11.6.2 Pollutant removal, water 13.1 Introduction 267
treatment, and environmental 13.2 Chemical composition of the cocoa
remediation 230 pod 268
11.6.3 Agriculture and food industry 230 13.3 Cocoa process and its by-products and
11.6.4 Energy and catalysis 230 waste 269
11.6.5 Biomedical applications 232 13.4 Valorization of cocoa by-products and
11.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and waste 269
future challenges 233 13.4.1 Applications for the food industry, agri-
References 233 culture, and livestock 271
 Contents ix

13.4.2 Applications for the pharmaceutical 16.3 Extraction of phenolic compounds 333
and cosmetic industries 276 16.3.1 Phenolic compounds of grape
13.4.3 Environmental developments seeds 333
from cocoa waste 277 16.3.2 Methods of extraction 335
13.4.4 Composite materials 280 16.4 Extraction of oil 336
13.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 16.4.1 Chemical composition of
challenges 281 grape seed oil 336
Acknowledgments 282 16.4.2 Methods of extraction 338
References 282 16.4.3 Uses of grape seed oil 339
16.5 Use as a biosorbent 340
16.6 Application of seed extracts in foods 340
14 Nuts by-products: the Latin
16.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and
American contribution 289 future challenges 342
Elisa Dufoo-Hurtado, Ivan Luzardo-Ocampo, References 342
S.M. Ceballos-Duque, B. Dave Oomah,
Ma. Elena Maldonado-Celis and
Rocio Campos-Vega 17 Seed wastes and byproducts:
reformulation of meat products 347
14.1 Introduction 289
14.2 Impact of nut by-products 290 Carlos Pasqualin Cavalheiro, Maurı́cio Costa
14.2.1 Economic and environmental Alves da Silva, Claudia Ruiz-Capillas and
impact 290 Ana M. Herrero
14.3 Nutritional and functional nut 17.1 Introduction 347
by-products 290 17.2 Seeds and byproducts as fat replacers
14.3.1 Pistachios 290 in meat products 348
14.3.2 Hazelnuts 296 17.3 Bioactive compounds from seeds for
14.3.3 Almonds 300 use in meat products 356
14.3.4 Walnuts 302 17.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
14.3.5 Brazil nuts 304 challenges 363
14.3.6 Pecans 305 References 364
14.3.7 Cashew nuts 306
14.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and
future challenges 308
18 Recent advances and emerging
References 309 trends in the utilization of dairy
by-products/wastes 371
15 Valorization of seeds of the genera Boon Fung Leong, Wei Chean Chuah and
Cucumis, Citrullus, and Cucurbita 317 Fook Yee Chye

Patrı́cia Nunes and Rajeev Bhat 18.1 Introduction 371

18.2 Dairy industrial wastes 371
15.1 Introduction 317 18.2.1 Dairy wastewater 372
15.2 Cucurbitaceae family 318 18.2.2 Whey 373
15.3 Seed composition 319 18.3 Environmental impacts 374
15.4 Bioactive compounds 320 18.4 Advanced biotechnological approaches
15.5 Valorization of seeds 321 in utilizing dairy wastes 375
15.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and 18.4.1 Bioplastics 375
future challenges 323 18.4.2 Exopolysaccharides 377
Acknowledgment 324
18.4.3 Galacto-oligosaccharides 377
References 324
18.4.4 Biofuels 378
18.4.5 Organic acids 380
16 Valorization of grape seeds 331 18.4.6 Bioactive peptides 380
18.4.7 Single-cell protein 381
Maria Tsiviki and Athanasia M. Goula
18.4.8 Biosurfactants 381
16.1 Introduction 331 18.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
16.2 Characterization and content of grape challenges 382
seeds 332 References 383
x Contents

19 Whey: generation, recovery, and 20.4.1 Technofunctional properties of

use of a relevant by-product 391 buttermilk 419
20.4.2 Health benefits of buttermilk
Gustavo Luis de Paiva Anciens Ramos, components, including MFGM 420
Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Tatiana Colombo 20.4.3 Opportunities to produce
Pimentel, Adriano Gomes da Cruz, food-grade ingredients enriched in
Simone Lorena Quitério de Souza and
polar lipids and MFGM from
Simone Maria Ribas Vendramel
buttermilk 420
19.1 Introduction 391 20.4.4 Diversity of MFGM-enriched
19.2 Cheese manufacture 392 ingredients 421
19.3 Characteristics of whey 394 20.5 Wastewaters from processing,
19.4 Main destinations of whey 395 cleaning, and sanitary processes 422
19.4.1 Food applications 396 20.6 Conclusions and future outlook 422
19.4.2 Food supplements 398 Acknowledgments 422
19.4.3 Animal feed 399 References 422
19.4.4 Microencapsulation of
probiotics 399 21 Sustainable utilization of gelatin
19.4.5 Fertilizers 399
19.4.6 Packaging 399
from animal-based agri food
19.4.7 Flavor 401 waste for the food industry and
19.4.8 Whey bioconversion 401 pharmacology 425
19.4.9 Organic chemicals 402 Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan
19.4.10 Therapeutic agents 402
19.5 Whey recovery and purification 403 21.1 Introduction 425
19.5.1 Membrane separation 21.1.1 Categories and scale of
technology 403 agri food waste 425
19.5.2 Electrodialysis 405 21.2 Socioeconomic and environmental
19.5.3 Isoelectric precipitation 406 impact of agri food waste 427
21.3 Valorization of agri food waste 427
19.5.4 Adsorption 407
21.4 Gelatin: a value-added product from
19.5.5 Chromatographic separation 407
animal-derived waste 429
19.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
21.4.1 Gelatin derived from mammalian
challenges 408
References 409 species 429
21.4.2 An alternative to mammalian
gelatin: poultry gelatin 431
20 Valorization of dairy by-products for 21.4.3 A promising approach: fish
gelatin 432
functional and nutritional applications: 21.5 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in
recent trends toward the milk fat the food industry 433
globule membrane 415 21.5.1 Gelatin as a paramount food
Christelle Lopez additive 433
21.5.2 Gelatin as a coating and
20.1 Introduction 415 packaging material 434
20.2 Milk composition 416 21.6 Usage of animal-originated gelatin in
20.3 Main by-products of the dairy industry: pharmacology 434
whey, skimmed milk, and buttermilk 417 21.6.1 Gelatin—an inactive ingredient in
20.3.1 Production of whey and main pharmaceutical products 435
valorization 417 21.6.2 Gelatin in tissue engineering 435
20.3.2 Production of skimmed milk and 21.6.3 Other usages of gelatin in
main valorization 419 pharmacology 436
20.3.3 Production of buttermilk and 21.7 Challenges to animal-derived gelatin in
butter serum 419 the food and pharmacology industries 436
20.4 New trends toward the valorization of 21.8 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
buttermilk: specific interests in the milk challenges 437
fat globule membrane 419 References 437
 Contents xi

22 New food strategies to generate 23.2.17 Rules, regulations, and safety

sustainable beef 443 aspects 470
23.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Almudena González González and challenges 470
Maria Patricia Guerrero Garcia-Ortega References 471
Further reading 474
22.1 Introduction 443
22.1.1 Reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
cattle by changing the feed 24 Biowaste eggshells as efficient
composition 444 electrodes for energy storage 475
22.2 Influence of the feed composition on
the quality of beef 448 Manickam Minakshi, Philip A. Schneider and
22.3 Case study 450 Maximilian Fichtner
22.3.1 In vitro test 450 24.1 Introduction 475
22.3.2 In vivo test 451 24.2 Valorization of biowaste chicken
22.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future eggshells 477
challenges 453 24.2.1 Phenomenological description of
Acknowledgments 453 chicken eggshells 477
References 454
24.2.2 Eggshell and eggshell membrane 478
24.2.3 Repurposing the eggshell
product 478
23 Valorization of wastes and 24.3 Applications 478
by-products from the meat 24.3.1 Use of eggshells for
industry 457 UV-protective applications 478
24.3.2 Use of eggshells for biomedical
Anand Mohan and Jade M. Long
applications 479
23.1 Introduction 457 24.3.3 Use of eggshells for industrial
23.1.1 Animal waste and by-product wastewater applications 480
categorization 457 24.3.4 Use of eggshells for biodiesel
23.1.2 Global impact 458 production 481
23.1.3 Meat by-product utilization 459 24.3.5 Use of eggshells for construction
23.1.4 Economic value 460 and building 482
23.1.5 Commercial impact 460 24.3.6 Eggshell-derived nanomaterials 482
23.1.6 Nutritional composition of 24.4 Eggshells as efficient electrodes for
meat by-products 460 energy storage 483
23.1.7 Chemical composition 461 24.4.1 General overview of hybrid
23.2 Value-added food ingredients 462 supercapacitors 483
23.2.1 Spray-dried animal muscle 462 24.4.2 Nanostructured cathode
23.2.2 Biologically active compounds 462 materials
23.2.3 Protein content 463 for hybrid supercapacitors and
23.2.4 Fat content 463 the effects of the materials 484
23.2.5 Other uses 463 24.4.3 Anode materials for hybrid
23.2.6 Regulation and classification 464 supercapacitors 485
23.2.7 Tongue 464 24.4.4 Micro-algae-derived carbon
23.2.8 Heart 465 electrode for hybrid
23.2.9 Liver 465 supercapacitors 485
23.2.10 Kidney 466 24.4.5 Wheat-straw-derived carbon
23.2.11 Brain 466 electrode for hybrid
23.2.12 Meat quality attributes 466 supercapacitors 486
23.2.13 Protein functionality and 24.4.6 Electrochemical device: battery
water-holding capacity 468 versus capacitor 487
23.2.14 Muscle composition 468 24.4.7 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode
23.2.15 Muscle structure 468 for hybrid supercapacitors in
23.2.16 Muscle fiber types 469 nonaqueous Li electrolyte 488
xii Contents

24.4.8 Eggshell-derived carbon electrode f 26.2.3 By-products from the

or hybrid supercapacitors in fish-processing industry 517
aqueous Na electrolyte 489 26.2.4 By-products from aquaculture 518
24.4.9 Biodegradable chitosan composite 26.3 Recovery of seafood by-products 518
electrode for hybrid 26.4 Valorization of seafood by-products 520
supercapacitors 490 26.4.1 New food products 520
24.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 26.4.2 Fishmeal and fish oil 520
challenges 491 26.4.3 Fish protein recovery 526
References 492 26.4.4 Bioproducts 527
26.4.5 Marine enzymes 528
26.4.6 Natural pigments 529
25 Recovery and application of bioactive 26.4.7 Energy and agronomic uses of
proteins from poultry by-products 497 by-products 529
26.5 Improvements in the management of
Íris Braz da Silva Araújo, Fábio Anderson Pereira Da seafood by-products 530
Silva, Miriane Moreira Fernandes Santos and 26.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Rerisson do Nascimento Alves challenges 530
25.1 Introduction 497 References 531
25.2 Generation and disposal of chicken
industry waste 497
25.3 Nutritional value of poultry
27 Utilization of seafood-processing
by-products 499 by-products for the development of
25.4 Bioactive proteins from poultry value-added food products 537
by-products: potential applications 500
Samuel Chetachukwu Adegoke and
25.4.1 Skin 500
Reza Tahergorabi
25.4.2 Feet 501
25.4.3 Keel 502 27.1 Introduction 537
25.4.4 Feathers 502 27.2 Seafood-processing by-products
25.4.5 Blood 503 definition and statistics 538
25.4.6 Bones 504 27.3 Fundamental components of
25.4.7 Head: comb, wattle, earlobe, seafood-processing by-products 540
beak 504 27.3.1 Lipids 540
25.4.8 Mechanically deboned chicken 27.3.2 Proteins 541
meat 505 27.3.3 Chemical and enzymatic recovery
25.4.9 Abdominal fat 505 methods of seafood-processing
25.4.10 Offal 505 by-products 542
25.5 Techniques for obtaining bioactive 27.3.4 Isoelectric solubilization and
proteins from by-products of the precipitation 544
chicken industry: recent trends 506 27.3.5 Protein hydrolysis 545
25.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 27.3.6 Surimi manufacturing 546
challenges 509 27.3.7 Development of value-added
References 509 food products from the proteins
recovered from fish-processing
by-products 547
26 Valorization of seafood processing 27.3.8 Development of value-added
by-products 515 products from oil recovered from
seafood-processing by-products 551
Vida Šimat
27.3.9 Development of value-added
26.1 Introduction 515 products from other materials
26.1.1 Terminology issues 515 recovered from seafood-processing by-
26.2 The position of by-products in global products 551
fisheries and seafood industry 516 27.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and
26.2.1 Fish supply chain 516 future trends 553
26.2.2 Discards from fisheries 517 References 555
 Contents xiii

28 Valorization of seafood industry 30 Sustainability of agri-food supply

waste for gelatin production: chains through innovative waste
facts and gaps 561 management models 591
Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan Muneer Ahmad Magry and Sapna A. Narula
28.1 Introduction 561 30.1 Introduction 591
28.2 Amounts of seafood waste 563 30.2 Food wastage as a hurdle for
28.2.1 Wastes after fish processing 564 global security 591
28.2.2 Waste generated from other 30.3 Global food loss scenario 593
seafood 564 30.3.1 Causes of food losses 595
28.3 Valorization strategies for seafood 30.4 Food waste management through
waste 565 valorization: global efforts 595
28.4 The importance of aquatic gelatin for 30.4.1 Food waste valorization
academia and industry 566 techniques 596
28.4.1 A versatile industrial product: 30.5 The case of an emerging economy:
gelatin 566 food loss and reduction strategies in
28.4.2 Aquatic gelatin and its benefits 567 India 597
28.4.3 Fish gelatin derived from waste 568 30.5.1 Recent policy push as an enabler
28.5 Mind the gaps: fish gelatin from waste 569 for food loss reduction 599
28.5.1 Sustainability and sanitary issues 30.5.2 Constraints, actors, and enablers
for the raw material 569 for reductions in food loss 600
28.5.2 Health-related issues 570 30.6 Possible interventions and the way
28.5.3 Sensorial attributes of aquatic forward for food waste valorization 600
30.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
gelatin 570
challenges 601
28.6 Possible solutions 571
References 603
28.6.1 Well-organized process for raw
material through legislation 571
28.6.2 Solutions to health-related issues 572 31 Food waste generation and
28.6.3 Overcoming the sensorial management: household sector 607
problems of aquatic gelatin 572
Chanathip Pharino
28.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 573 31.1 Introduction 607
References 573 31.2 Food waste overview 607
31.2.1 Definition 607
31.2.2 Waste composition overview 608
29 Effective valorization of aquaculture 31.2.3 Causes and sources of food
by-products: bioactive peptides and waste 608
31.3 Food waste policy 610
their application in aquafeed 579 31.3.1 European Union 611
Mehdi Nikoo 31.3.2 Australia 611
31.3.3 United States 611
29.1 Introduction 579
31.3.4 The Netherlands 611
29.2 Fish protein hydrolysates and
peptides 579 31.3.5 Canada 611
29.3 Sources of aquaculture by-products 580 31.3.6 Singapore 612
29.4 Handling and processing of seafood 31.3.7 Thailand 612
by-products for production of protein 31.4 Food waste management 612
hydrolysates and peptides 581 31.4.1 The food waste management
29.4.1 Utilization of fish protein hierarchy 612
hydrolysates and peptides 31.4.2 Food waste management
as fish feed 584 approaches 613
29.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 31.5 Food waste management incentives 614
challenges 587 31.5.1 Cobenefits from food waste
Acknowledgment 588 reduction 614
References 588
xiv Contents

31.5.2 Lessons learned on food waste 33.2 Sources of wastewater 646

management 615 33.3 Techniques for treatment of wastewater 646
31.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 33.4 Physiochemical treatments 647
challenges 616 33.4.1 Coagulation flocculation 647
Acknowledgments 617 33.4.2 Adsorption 649
References 617 33.4.3 Membrane treatment 650
33.4.4 Biological treatment 651
32 Sustainable valorization of food- 33.4.5 Electrochemical treatment 653
processing industry by-products: 33.4.6 Advanced oxidation process treatment 654
33.5 Potential end products from wastewater
challenges and opportunities to treatments 655
obtain bioactive compounds 619 33.5.1 Development of bioenergy resources 655
S. Simões, A. Costa, A.C. Faria-Silva, A. Ascenso, 33.5.2 Production of volatile fatty acids 656
J. Marto, M. Carvalheiro, L.M. Gonçalves, 33.5.3 Development of biopolymers 656
M. Marques, A. Paiva, M. Bento, P. Simões and 33.5.4 Development of bio-agricultural
H.M. Ribeiro products 657
33.5.5 Valorized bio-active compounds 657
32.1 Introduction 619
32.2 Food processing and waste production 620 33.5.6 Miscellaneous valorized products 658
33.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
32.2.1 Socioeconomic considerations
challenges 658
and environmental concerns 620 Acknowledgment 659
32.2.2 What can be used as raw References 659
material for bioactive
compounds recovery? 620
32.3 Bioactives in food waste: chemical 34 Valorization of cotton wastes for
classes and activities 621 agricultural and industrial applications:
32.4 Challenges in extraction: searching for present status and future
green and sustainable separation
of natural products from waste 623
prospects 665
32.4.1 Conventional methods 624 K. Velmourougane, D. Blaise, S. Savitha and
32.4.2 Nonconventional methods 625 V.N. Waghmare
32.5 Are green extraction techniques
cost-effective processes? 627 34.1 Introduction 665
32.6 Opportunities for new valuable 34.2 Cotton wastes and the need for their
compounds 629 valorization 666
34.3 Composition of cotton plants 668
32.6.1 Applications of recovered
34.4 Classification of cotton wastes 668
molecules in nutraceuticals and
34.4.1 On-farm cotton wastes and their
reinvented foods 629
utilization 668
32.6.2 Garbage to glamour: incorporating
34.4.2 Off-farm cotton wastes and their
recovered bioactives in skin care
utilization 674
products 630
34.5 A conceptual model to utilize on-farm
32.7 New business and marketing concepts
cotton wastes 678
for recovered bioactives 632
34.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
32.8 Nanocellulose for packaging—
challenges 678
biomaterials production 634
References 681
32.9 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 636
References 636 35 Advanced techniques for recovery
of active compounds from food
33 Revitalization of wastewater from by-products 693
the edible oil industry 645
Irina Fierascu, Radu Claudiu Fierascu and
Muhammad Asim Shabbir, Waqar Ahmed, Elwira Sieniawska
Moazzam Rafiq Khan, Talha Ahmad and
Rana Muhammad Aadil 35.1 Introduction 693
35.2 Conventional extraction techniques
Abbreviations 645 for food waste valorization 694
33.1 Introduction 645 35.2.1 Pressurized liquid extraction 694
 Contents xv

35.2.2 Microwave-assisted extraction 698 37.4.1 Optimization of processing

35.2.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 699 parameters 733
35.3 Nonconventional extraction techniques 37.4.2 Influence of pH 734
for food waste valorization 700 37.4.3 Influence of salt addition 735
35.3.1 Ohmic technologies 700 37.4.4 Protein functionalization 736
35.3.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents for 37.4.5 Dehydrothermal treatment 736
extraction of bioactive 37.4.6 Addition of clays 737
compounds 701 37.4.7 Addition of hydrocolloids 738
35.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 37.5 Benefits of natural-based
challenges 703 superabsorbent materials 738
Acknowledgments 704 37.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
References 705 challenges 739
Acknowledgments 739
References 739
36 Application of combined extraction
and microextraction techniques for
food waste 711 38 Natural deep eutectic solvents for
sustainable extraction of pigments and
B.K.K.K. Jinadasa, Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro and
Scott W. Fowler
antioxidants from agri-processing
waste 747
36.1 Introduction 711
36.2 Microextraction techniques 712 Sonia Kumar and Marianne Su-Ling Brooks
36.2.1 Solid sorbent-based Abbreviations 747
microextraction 712 38.1 Introduction 747
36.2.2 Solid-phase microextraction 712 38.2 Natural deep eutectic solvents 749
36.2.3 Stir bar sorptive extraction 713 38.3 Natural pigments from agri-processing
36.2.4 Liquid-phase microextraction waste 751
techniques 715 38.3.1 Anthocyanins 753
36.2.5 Dispersive liquid liquid 38.3.2 Carotenoids 759
microextraction 715 38.3.3 Carthamine 759
36.2.6 Microextraction with deep eutectic 38.3.4 Curcumin 760
solvents and ionic liquids 718 38.4 Other antioxidant compounds from
36.2.7 Dispersive liquid liquid agri-processing waste 760
microextraction-solidified floating 38.4.1 Olive processing 761
organic droplets 718 38.4.2 Onion processing 767
36.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 38.4.3 Citrus processing 768
challenges 718 38.4.4 Coffee processing 768
References 719 38.4.5 Winemaking 769
38.4.6 Pomegranate processing 769
38.4.7 Miscellaneous 770
37 Superabsorbent materials from 38.5 Toxicity of NADES 771
industrial food and agricultural 38.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and
wastes and by-products 723 future challenges 772
Acknowledgments 774
Estefanı́a Álvarez-Castillo, Carlos Bengoechea, References 774
Manuel Felix and Antonio Guerrero
37.1 Introduction 723 39 Thermochemical and biochemical
37.2 Natural superabsorbent materials 724
37.2.1 Carbohydrates 724
treatment strategies for resource
37.2.2 Proteins 728 recovery from agri-food industry
37.2.3 Copolymers 729 wastes 787
37.3 Biodegradability of superabsorbent
Tharaka Rama Krishna C. Doddapaneni and
materials 732
Timo Kikas
37.4 Strategies to improve superabsorbent
properties in protein-based SAB 733 39.1 Introduction 787
xvi Contents

39.2 An overview on agri-food industry 40.4.2 Other applications 819

waste 788 40.5 Legal barriers to insects as biotools in
39.2.1 Crop residues 788 circular economy in European
39.2.2 Agricultural products processing Union 821
industry waste 788 40.6 Conclusion and future perspectives 823
39.2.3 Food waste 789 References 823
39.2.4 Composition of agri-food industry
waste 789 41 Sustainability of food industry
39.2.5 Handling of agri-food industry
wastes: a microbial approach 829
waste 789
39.3 Thermochemical conversion of Sergi Maicas and José Juan Mateo
agri-food industry waste 791
39.3.1 Combustion 791 41.1 Introduction 829
39.3.2 Pyrolysis of agri-food waste 793 41.1.1 Wineries 830
39.3.3 Gasification 795 41.1.2 Olive oil mills 830
39.4 Biochemical conversion of agri-food 41.2 Types of residual biomass generated 831
industry wastes 796 41.2.1 Winery industry 831
39.4.1 Anaerobic digestion 796 41.2.2 Olive oil industry 834
39.4.2 Fermentation of agri-food waste 798 41.3 Microbial valorization of wastes 836
39.5 Challenges and opportunities 800 41.3.1 Biorefinery 836
39.5.1 Thermochemical conversion 41.3.2 Composting 841
processes 800 41.3.3 Industrial additives and
39.5.2 Biochemical conversion ingredients 842
processes 801 41.3.4 Microbial biomass 844
39.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future 41.3.5 Other uses 845
challenges 802 41.4 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
Acknowledgments 803 challenges 845
References 803 References 846

40 Bioconversion of agri-food waste 42 Polyphenols from food processing

and by-products through insects: byproducts and their
a new valorization opportunity 809 microbiota gut brain axis-based
Giulia Leni, Augusta Caligiani and Stefano Sforza
health benefits 855
Santad Wichienchot and Saravanan Chakkaravarthi
40.1 Introduction: the “Circular Economy”
concept for agro-food waste reduction 42.1 Introduction 855
and how insects fit in it 809 42.2 Sources of byproduct polyphenols
40.2 Insect species and rearing substrates 811 from food industries 856
40.2.1 Rearing substrates for Hermetia 42.2.1 Food industries byproduct
illucens 812 polyphenols 856
40.2.2 Rearing substrates for other insect 42.2.2 Fruit byproducts 856
species 813 42.2.3 Vegetable byproducts 857
40.2.3 Lignocellulosic substrates 813 42.2.4 Cereals and pulses byproduct 858
40.2.4 Exploring the possibilities of 42.3 Structure and class of byproduct
insect rearing on unauthorized polyphenols 859
substrates 814 42.4 Extraction of polyphenols from food
40.3 Insect processing 814 processing and agricultural byproducts 859
40.3.1 Killing 814 42.4.1 Conventional solvent extraction 859
40.3.2 Drying 815 42.4.2 Microwave-assisted extraction 859
40.3.3 Grinding 815 42.4.3 Ultrasound-assisted extraction 859
40.3.4 Extraction of valuable compounds from 42.4.4 Deep eutectic solvent extraction 862
insect biomass 815 42.4.5 Supercritical fluid extraction 862
40.4 Insect applications 817 42.4.6 Pressurized fluid extraction 862
40.4.1 Feed and food 817 42.4.7 Enzyme-assisted extraction 863
 Contents xvii

42.5 Applications of byproducts’ 44.4 Entrepreneurial ecosystems in rural

polyphenols 863 areas 905
42.6 Gut fermentation of polyphenols and 44.5 A case study: promoting low-carbon
their health benefits 864 business ecosystem in a rural district 906
42.6.1 Era of gut brain axis 865 44.5.1 The current stage of circular
42.6.2 Biotransformation of dietary economy in Nivala district 906
polyphenols by gut microbiome 868 44.5.2 The future vision of carbon-free
42.6.3 Health benefits of dietary ecosystem in Nivala 908
polyphenols and its metabolites 870 44.6 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
42.7 Conclusion, opportunities, and future challenges 910
challenges 873 References 910
References 873
45 Agricultural waste valorization for
43 Agro-waste-derived silica sustainable biofuel production 913
nanoparticles (Si-NPs) as Tibor Pasinszki and Melinda Krebsz
biofertilizer 881
45.1 Introduction 913
Ng Lee Chuen, Mohd Sabri Mohd Ghazali, 45.2 Production of biofuels from
Muhamad Fairus Noor Hassim, Rajeev Bhat and lignocellulosic waste 914
Aziz Ahmad 45.2.1 Pretreatment of lignocellulosic
43.1 Introduction 881 waste 915
43.1.1 Agri-food wastes 881 45.2.2 Biological processes to produce
43.1.2 Silicon in plants 881 fuel 917
43.1.3 The current trend of silicon in 45.2.3 Thermal processes to produce
agriculture 882 fuel 920
43.2 Natural sources, extraction methods, 45.3 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
and physicochemical properties 882 challenges 923
43.3 Rice husk-derived SiO2 nanoparticles 885 References 924
43.4 Characterizations of silica
nanoparticles 885 46 Valorization of fruit processing
43.5 Advantages and applications of silica
nanoparticles in agriculture 886 by-product streams into integrated
43.6 Fertilizers 886 biorefinery concepts: extraction of
43.7 Delivery vectors 889 value-added compounds and
43.8 Soil water retention capacity 889 bioconversion to chemicals 927
43.9 Remediation of heavy metals and
hazardous chemicals 889 Maria Alexandri, Sofia Maina, Erminta Tsouko,
43.10 Weeds, pests, and pathogens Harris Papapostolou, Apostolis Koutinas and
management 889 Konstantina Kourmentza
43.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
challenges 891 46.1 Introduction 927
Acknowledgments 892 46.2 Organic acids production 928
References 892 46.2.1 Citric acid 928
46.2.2 Lactic acid 928
46.2.3 Succinic acid 931
44 Supply of biomass and agricultural 46.2.4 Acetic acid 931
waste for promoting low-carbon 46.2.5 Fumaric acid 931
business-ecosystem 899 46.2.6 Other organic acids 932
46.3 Enzymes 932
Ulla Lehtinen and Katariina Ala-Rämi
46.4 Biopolymers 935
44.1 Introduction 899 46.4.1 Polyhydroxyalkanoates production
44.2 The concept of circular economy 900 utilizing fruit waste streams 936
44.3 Sustainable supply chain and reverse 46.4.2 Bioconversion of fruit waste to
logistics 902 bacterial cellulose 937
44.3.1 Biomass as a source of energy 46.5 Recovery of antioxidants and essential
and fuel 904 oils from fruits 938
xviii Contents

46.5.1 Recovery of antioxidants 47.4.2 Biological fixation 956

compounds 938 47.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
46.5.2 Recovery of essential oils 940 challenges 959
46.6 Conclusion and future outlook 940 References 959
References 940
48 Valorization of agrifood wastes and
47 Recovery and valorization of CO2 byproducts through
from the organic wastes nanobiotechnology 963
fermentation 947 Luna Goswami, Gargi Dey and
Barbara Ruivo Valio Barretti, Marcela Kloth, Sandeep K. Panda
Alessandra Cristine Novak Sydney, Luiz Gustavo
48.1 Introduction 963
Lacerda, Julio Cesar de Carvalho, Adenise Lorenci
48.2 Agrifood wastes: international status 964
Woiciechowski, Carlos Ricardo Soccol and
48.2.1 Types of agrifood wastes and
Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney
compositions 964
47.1 Introduction 947 48.2.2 Conventional valorization
47.2 Overview of organic wastes production 948 processes 964
47.2.1 Agriculture wastes 948 48.3 Bottleneck in conventional processes
47.2.2 Animal wastes 949 of agrifood waste valorization 966
47.2.3 Food processing wastes 949 48.4 Valorization process by
47.2.4 Food wastes 950 nanobiotechnology 967
47.2.5 Paper and cellulose production 48.4.1 Carbon-based nanomaterials 967
wastes 950 48.4.2 Noncarbon-based nanomaterials 970
47.2.6 Urban sewage sludge 950 48.5 Conclusion, opportunities, and future
47.3 Organic wastes reuse technologies: challenges 973
ethanol and biogas production 951 Acknowledgment 974
47.3.1 Ethanol 952 References 974
47.3.2 Biogas and biohydrogen 953 Index 979
47.4 CO2 valorization technologies 954
47.4.1 Chemical fixation 954
Foreword
Climate protection and the efficient use of natural
resources are among the challenges of this century, partic-
ularly in the context of increasing global economic devel-
opment and a growing world population. The sustainable
development goals of the United Nations and the
European Green Deal of the European Union take up
these challenges and set a framework and goals for sus-
tainable development. Bioeconomy, which is now highly
valued in many countries, can make a significant contri-
bution to this. This includes in particular the transforma-
tion of an oil-based economy to an economy in which
fossil resources are replaced by renewable raw materials
and the recycling of organic residues and waste. It should
be emphasized that the production of nonfossil-based pro-
ducts through the recycling and valorization of organic
by-products and waste does not create competition with
food production.
This book “Valorization of Agri-food Wastes and By-
products: Recent Trends, Innovations, and Sustainability
Challenges” takes up this important topic in this context
regarding waste and by-products occurring during food
production and processing. It covers a broad spectrum of
valorization of waste and by-products in the production
and processing of fruits and vegetables, nuts and seeds, in
the beverage industry, and in the dairy, meat, poultry, and
seafood industries. It also highlights opportunities and
challenges related to waste management along the agri-
food supply chains including those of households, innova-
tive food waste treatment and recovery technologies, in
the production of novel materials, biofuel production, new
bioeconomic business systems, and climate change miti-
gation measures. It demonstrates current trends in
research and development and gives an overview of the
state-of-the art in food waste management and in the pro-
duction of innovative products from organic residues and
provides theoretical, experimental, and practical
experience.
The topics are presented meticulously by global
experts and scientists from all around the world. The pub-
lication of this book is well timed and will be an excellent
source of information for all the scientists, technologists,
and decision-makers working in the agri-food sector. In
addition, this book is expected to be an important contri-
bution for further development and understanding of the
bioeconomy concepts. It will also be an excellent refer-
ence material for teaching undergraduate and postgraduate
level students. All this makes this book a valuable source
for science and practice.
This book has been excellently edited by Prof. Dr.
Rajeev Bhat, an established expert in the field of agri-
food technology. This book is timely published by
Elsevier and I wish it a wide distribution and recognition.
Martin Kranert
Solid Waste Management and Emissions, Institute for
Sanitary Engineering, Water Quality and Solid Waste
Management, University of Stuttgart, Stuttgart, Germany
xxv
Introduction
Derek Stewart
Advanced Plant Growth Centre, The James Hutton Institute, Dundee, United Kingdom
The world is reaching a crisis point in terms of climate
change and the impacts this is having on our ability to
produce food, products, and goods, and to live an
acceptable quality of live. The FAO identifies that the
predicted population increase to 8.3 billion by 2030 will
create a 50% increase in demand for food and energy and
with this a 30% increased demand for freshwater and an
associated need for 120 Mha in developing countries to
allow much of this food to be produced. However, the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change research and
modeling has identified that if climate change is left
unaddressed it may reduce agricultural production by 2%
each decade (while demand increases 14%) and that over
the period from now until 2050 up to 40% of the world
will develop unfamiliar climates. As if this wasn’t
enough, a further 3 billion middle-class consumers will
enter the market by 2030 to give a total of 5.3 billion, and
of these China and India will comprise 66% of the global
middle-class population and 59% of middle-class
consumption. This elevated affluence group will acceler-
ate demand for products and hence resources (https://
knowledge4policy.ec.europa.eu/growing-consumerism_en;
accessed 01.03.21).
This means we have to change how we produce pro-
ducts, including food, reduce waste, and maximize the
reuse and valorization of any wastes, or more appropri-
ately, coproducts. This approach to resource use maximi-
zation has been an activity that we have all tended to do
at the small scale but the need to truly make an impact on
and reverse climate change impacts requires larger-scale
activities and the adoption of the circular economy into
our everyday life. This is happening at national levels
with many countries developing circular economy strate-
gies, policies, and, in some cases, passing these into legis-
lation (Salvatori et al., 2019).
If we are to fully utilize resources and adopt a sustain-
able approach then we need to look where and how these
resources are produced, the nature of the coproducts, and
the existing and emerging processes that can effectively
and efficiently convert these to higher value products and
feedstocks.
The very nature of sustainability and renewable
resources focuses us toward natural and biologically
generated products and their associated coproducts and
is at the heart of this book. Here we have the latest
research findings dealing with the primary and second-
ary production industries’ coproducts encompassing sec-
tors such as crops, marine, livestock, poultry, and dairy.
This span embraces a wide ranges of chemistries, pro-
cesses, and opportunities for conversion to higher value
products and feedstocks. Allied to these is a section deal-
ing with opportunities and challenges in the circular
bioeconomy sector and it is heartening to see that this
encompasses important issues such as waste manage-
ment models, extraction technologies including emerg-
ing absorbents, eutectic solvents, passage through
biological systems such as insects and microbes, and the
combination of multiple technologies to create integrated
biorefinery approaches.
The many articles highlight how vibrant the research
area is, the many demands for new sustainable feed-
stocks, and the multiple routes that can be undertaken to
get to those end points. Prof. Rajeev Bhat has assembled
an impressive selection of authors and papers that not
only identify the scale of opportunities and challenges in
the circular bioeconomy but also deliver ground-
breaking solutions to see this science adopted and
exploited.
The book is timely. We are emerging from isolation
imposed as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic, which
xxix
xxx Introduction

has allowed a period of reflection and planning, and this Reference

should facilitate the creation and development of a new
Salvatori, G., et al. (2019). Circular economy strategies and roadmaps in
future based on green recovery principles. This recovery
Europe: Identifying synergies and the potential for cooperation and
requires new approaches, modes of thought and applica-
alliance building. European Economic and Social Committee.
tion, and models of application and the science described Available from https://doi.org/10.2864/554946.
here forms a solid basis for this.
Preface
Globally, the entire agri-food system is witnessing deci-
sive challenges pertinent to food security and sustainable
food production. Of late, unwarranted pressure on our
food system and the supply chain is being shown in
countless ways. Global populations have been seriously
affected by the increased impact of climate change,
unsustainable food production, poverty and hunger issues,
changing lifestyle and diet patterns, the upsurge in non-
communicable diseases, the increase in food loss and
waste, the pandemic situation, that is, COVID-19, and
much more. These circumstances have altered the basic
socioeconomic cultural interactions, thus radically
affecting the normal day-to-day life. In this sense, a
defined understanding of various resource nexuses and
the interlinkages amongst the diversified natural resources
(food energy water) within the food delivery/supply
chains necessitate careful monitoring. Nevertheless,
modern-day technological innovations are envisaged to
undeniably penetrate all the related arenas of our food
system. However, the future lays in redesigning present-
day food systems with an accurately designed set of goals
that can open up new horizons such as the use of digitali-
zation technologies, along with new policies set for envi-
ronmental protection. In the coming years, the top focus
will rest on understanding agri-food waste (carbon) foot-
prints, life cycle assessments, adopting circular bioecon-
omy concepts, minimal waste generation, and maximal
utilization of food industrial by-products, all of which can
gain infinite deliberations.
Today, the world over, food industries are facing a
wide array of challenges, some of which include the prac-
tical application of novel innovations on a pilot scale, the
optimization and design of processing technologies, the
development of low-cost nutritious and healthy foods,
ensuring high quality and safer foods, and food processing
waste management. Among these, the valorization of food
industrial wastes and by-products has been a hot topic of
deliberation and a much acclaimed concept that has cre-
ated a renewed interest of producers, consumers, research-
ers, academicians, policy makers and environmentalists.
Globally, enormous amounts of wastes and/or by-products
are generated along the entire agri-food supply chain, a
major portion occurring mainly at the postprocessing
levels in the industries. These wastes/by-products
generated are of high concern, mainly owing to their safe
disposal issues and the unwarranted stress created on the
environment. In this regard, adopting appropriate manage-
ment strategies and the use of technological innovations
focusing on the generation of minimal wastes coupled
with maximal utilization of raw materials can guarantee
productive economical gain, besides ensuring the regional
food security. Nevertheless, valorization of agri-food
industrial wastes and by-products can be considered as
superlative to produce certain value-added compounds.
This concept of valorization revolves around reuse, recy-
cle, recovery, and resource mobilization, all applied with
a sustainable functional approach. Besides, this notion
also meets the much acclaimed concepts of the circular
economy (bioeconomy) of the EU.
Designed with an innovative approach, this book high-
lights most of the recent trends in the ongoing research
activities in this stimulating field, aiming to fill some of
the existing gaps of knowledge. A wide arena of interest-
ing topics related to valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products, innovations, and various sustainability chal-
lenges encountered in the supply chain have been covered
in this book. The book focuses its coverage on bioactives
recovery, innovative green processing technologies, the
functionality of bioactive compounds, biofuel production,
environmental issues, as well as recent technological
developments covering the state-of-the-art of agri-food
wastes/by-products management and innovations thereof.
The book also presents tools for value chain analysis and
explores future sustainability challenges that can benefit
the dependent industries. In addition, theoretical and
experimental information that is useful to investigate dif-
ferent aspects of the valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products is also covered.
The content of the book is presented in subsections
with a total of 48 chapters. The first section deals with
the introductory note that exclusively introduces the sub-
ject and is the foundation for the entire book. The second
section includes chapters covering the valorization of fruit
and vegetable wastes and by-products, while section three
has chapters that focus on beverage industries (coffee, tea,
and cocoa). The fourth section covers information on the
valorization of nuts and seeds. This is followed by section
five and six which deal with the valorization of wastes
xxvii
xxviii Preface
and the by-products of dairy, animals, poultry, and the
marine industry sectors, respectively. In the seventh and
the last section of the book, various opportunities and
challenges incurred with regard to the valorization of
wastes and by-products of the agri-food industries are dis-
cussed extensively.
All of the contributing authors in this book are highly
recognized experts in their respective fields, who have
provided their valuable inputs on the currently witnessed
ground reality issues and have proposed novel concepts to
address various sustainability challenges that can signifi-
cantly affect or have an impact on the future. Of late, no
competitor books are available in the market wherein
leading experts from different countries have positioned
their view in a single volume. This book will be a prodi-
gious reference material for agri-food scientists and tech-
nologists, agricultural engineers, environmental scientists,
policy makers, and for industrial professionals working on
sustainable food production, management of food loss,
wastes, and by-products. Besides, this book will benefit
teachers and undergraduate and postgraduate students as a
readily accessible reference material.
As the editor, I sincerely thank all of my collaborating
researchers/experts for their vital contribution to this
book. I have been working in this interesting field for a
long time, however, the concept of developing this as a
book came to my mind after I recently took the position
of ERA-Chair Professor in Food (By-) Products
Valorisation Technologies (Valortech) at the Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia.
Further, I am highly grateful to Prof. Dr.-Ing. Martin
Kranert (University of Stuttgart, Germany) and to Prof.
Dr. Derek Stewart (The James Hutton Institute, United
Kingdom) who have penned their thoughts as the book’s
foreword and introductory notes, respectively. In addition,
sincere appreciation goes to Prof. Ülle Jaakma (Vice-
Rector for Research) and Prof. Toomas Tiirats (Director
of Institute of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Sciences),
Estonian University of Life Sciences, who have been very
supportive in all of my initiatives.
I am thankful to Elsevier and to the entire team who
have played a significant role in making this book a real-
ity. Special gratitude goes to Megan Ball (Senior
Acquisitions Editor), Kelsey Connors and Samantha
Allard (Editorial Project Managers) for their involvement
and commitment to this venture.
Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to my wife
Ranjana and children (Vidhathri, Tapas and Tanvi) for their
incessant patience and coping with my workaholic nature,
which was key to making this book a reality. I dedicate this
book to both of them with much love and affection.
Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food (By-) Products Valorisation Technologies
(VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia,
European Union
List of contributors
Rana Muhammad Aadil, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Samuel Chetachukwu Adegoke, Food and Nutritional
Sciences Program, North Carolina Agricultural and
Technical State University, Greensboro, NC, United
States
Aziz Ahmad, Biological Security and Sustainability
Research Group, Faculty of Science and Marine
Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala
Nerus, Malaysia; Centre for Fundamental and
Continuing Education, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
Talha Ahmad, College of Biosystems Engineering and
Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Muneer Ahmad Magry, Faculty of Science Engineering
and Built Environment, Deakin University, Melbourne,
VIC, Australia; Universal Business School, Kushivili,
Karjat, Maharashtra
Waqar Ahmed, National Institute of Food Science and
Technology, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad,
Pakistan
Elif Tuğçe Aksun Tümerkan, Department of Food
Processing, Vocational High School, University of
Ankara Yildirim Beyazit, Ankara, Turkey
Katariina Ala-Rämi, Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University
of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Marcela Albuquerque Cavalcanti de
Albuquerque, Department of Food and Experimental
Nutrition, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; FoRC,
Food Research Center, University of São Paulo, São
Paulo, Brazil
Tânia Gonçalves Albuquerque, Department of Food
and Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo
Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal; Instituto Universitário Egas Moniz,
Almada, Portugal
Maria Alexandri, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Estefanı́a Álvarez-Castillo, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
Rita Carneiro Alves, REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de
Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
H.V. Annegowda, Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya,
India
A. Ascenso, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
J. Fernando Ayala-Zavala, Research Center for Food
and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
Blanca E. Barragán-Huerta, Department of
Environmental Systems Engineering, National School
of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Mexico City, Mexico
Barbara Ruivo Valio Barretti, Federal University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Carlos Bengoechea, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
M. Bento, Italagro SA, Lezı́ria das Cortes, Castanheira
do Ribatejo, Portugal
Rajeev Bhat, ERA-Chair for Food By-products
Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European
Union
Brij Bhushan, Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era
University, Dehradun, India
Nilutpal Bhuyan, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India; D.C.B. Girls’ College,
Jorhat, India
D. Blaise, Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central
Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India
Marianne Su-Ling Brooks, Department of Process
Engineering and Applied Science, Dalhousie
University, Halifax, Canada
Augusta Caligiani, Department of Food and Drug,
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
xix
xx List of contributors
Rocio Campos-Vega, Postgraduate Program in Food of
the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and
Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
M. Carvalheiro, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Carlos Pasqualin Cavalheiro, Laboratory of Meat and
Meat Products Inspection and Technology (LabCarne),
Federal University of Bahia (UFBA), Salvador, Brazil
S.M. Ceballos-Duque, Instituto de Biologı́a, Facultad de
Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de
Antioquia, Medellı́n, Colombia
Saravanan Chakkaravarthi, Department of Basic and
Applied Sciences, National Institute of Food Technology
Entrepreneurship and Management, Sonipat, India
Wee Sim Choo, School of Science, Monash University
Malaysia, Bandar Sunway, Selangor, Malaysia
Nabajit Dev Choudhury, Department of Energy
Engineering, Assam Science and Technology
University, Guwahati, India
Wei Chean Chuah, Faculty of Food Science and
Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia
Ng Lee Chuen, Faculty of Fisheries and Food Science,
Universiti Malaysia Terengganu, Kuala Nerus,
Malaysia
Fook Yee Chye, Faculty of Food Science and Nutrition,
Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu, Sabah,
Malaysia
A. Costa, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Helena S. Costa, Department of Food and Nutrition,
National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo Jorge, I.P.,
Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/Faculdade de
Farmácia da Universidade do Porto, Porto, Portugal
Adriano Gomes da Cruz, Federal Institute of Education,
Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro (IFRJ),
Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Maurı́cio Costa Alves da Silva, Laboratory of Meat and
Meat Products Inspection and Technology
(LabCarne), Federal University of Bahia (UFBA),
Salvador, Brazil
Íris Braz da Silva Araújo, Management and
Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal
University of Paraı́ba, Bananeiras, Brazil
Julio Cesar de Carvalho, Federal University of Paraná,
Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Igor Ucella Dantas de Medeiros, Department of
Biochemical and Pharmaceutical Technology, School
of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo,
São Paulo, Brazil
Alejandra de Moreno de LeBlanc, CERELA-
CONICET, Centro de Referência para Lactobacilos,
San Miguel de Tucumán, Argentina
Simone Lorena Quitério de Souza, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de
Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil
Gargi Dey, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga Institute
of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Rerisson do Nascimento Alves, Agri-food Technology
Postgraduate Program, Federal University of Paraiba,
Bananeiras, Brazil
Elisa Dufoo-Hurtado, Postgraduate Program in Food of
the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research and
Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
Salma A. Enrı́quez-Valencia, Research Center for Food
and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
A.C. Faria-Silva, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Manuel Felix, Department of Chemical Engineering,
University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica Superior,
Seville, Spain
Maximilian Fichtner, Helmholtz Institute Ulm for
Electrochemical Energy Storage (HIU), Ulm, Germany
Irina Fierascu, National Institute for Research &
Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—
ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania; University
of Agronomic Science and Veterinary Medicine,
Bucharest, Romania
Radu Claudiu Fierascu, National Institute for Research
& Development in Chemistry and Petrochemistry—
ICECHIM Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania;
Department of Science and Engineering of Oxide
Materials and Nanomaterials, Faculty of Applied
Chemistry and Materials Science, University
Politehnica of Bucharest, Bucharest, Romania
Scott W. Fowler, School of Marine and Atmospheric
Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY,
United States; Institute Bobby, 8 Allée des Orangers,
Cap d’Ail, France
Bernadette Dora Gombossy de Melo
Franco, Department of Food and Experimental Nutrition,
School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São
Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil; FoRC, Food Research
Center, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Maria Patricia Guerrero Garcia-Ortega, CTAEX,
Badajoz, Spain

Mohd Sabri Mohd Ghazali, Faculty of Science and
Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia Terengganu,
Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
L.M. Gonçalves, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Almudena González González, Metanogenia S.L.
Edificio Guadiana, Biodiversidad, Badajoz, Spain
Gustavo A. González-Aguilar, Research Center for
Food and Development A.C., Hermosillo, Sonora,
Mexico
Anil H. Gore, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India; Tarsadia
Institute of Chemical Science, Uka Tarsadia
University, Bardoli, Gujarat, India
Luna Goswami, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga
Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Athanasia M. Goula, Department of Food Science and
Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Environment, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Antonio Guerrero, Department of Chemical
Engineering, University of Seville, Escuela Politécnica
Superior, Seville, Spain
Jonas Toledo Guimarães, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro
(IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Datta B. Gunjal, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Paulina Gutiérrez-Macı́as, Department of
Environmental Systems Engineering, National School
of Biological Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional,
Mexico City, Mexico
Muhamad Fairus Noor Hassim, Biological Security
and Sustainability Research Group, Faculty of Science
and Marine Environment, Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu, Kuala Nerus, Malaysia
Ana M. Herrero, Department of Products, ICTAN -
CSIC, Madrid, Spain
B.K.K.K. Jinadasa, Analytical Chemistry Laboratory
(ACL), National Aquatic Resources Research &
Development Agency (NARA), Colombo, Sri Lanka;
Department of Food Science & Technology, Faculty
of Livestock, Fisheries & Nutrition, Wayamba
University of Sri Lanka, Makandura, Gonawila
(NWP), Sri Lanka
Rupam Kataki, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
List of contributors xxi
Moazzam Rafiq Khan, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Timo Kikas, Chair of Biosystems Engineering, Institute
of Technology, Estonian University of Life Sciences,
Tartu, Estonia
Marcela Kloth, Federal Technological University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Govind B. Kolekar, Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Konstantina Kourmentza, Department of Chemical &
Environmental Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering, University of Nottingham, University
Park, Nottingham, United Kingdom; Green
Chemicals Beacon of Excellence, University of
Nottingham, University Park, Nottingham, United
Kingdom
Apostolis Koutinas, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Melinda Krebsz, School of Chemistry, Monash
University, Victoria, Australia
Tharaka Rama Krishna C. Doddapaneni, Chair of
Biosystems Engineering, Institute of Technology,
Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu,
Estonia
Sonia Kumar, Department of Process Engineering and
Applied Science, Dalhousie University, Halifax,
Canada
Luiz Gustavo Lacerda, State University of Ponta
Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Jean Guy LeBlanc, CERELA-CONICET, Centro de
Referência para Lactobacilos, San Miguel de
Tucumán, Argentina
Ulla Lehtinen, Kerttu Saalasti Institute, University of
Oulu, Oulu, Finland; Oulu Business School, University
of Oulu, Oulu, Finland
Giulia Leni, Department of Food and Drug, University
of Parma, Parma, Italy
Boon Fung Leong, Faculty of Food Science and
Nutrition, Universiti Malaysia Sabah, Kota Kinabalu,
Sabah, Malaysia
Jade M. Long, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA,
United States
Christelle Lopez, INRAE, BIA, Nantes, France
Leticia X. López-Martı́nez, CONACYT-Research
Center for Food and Development A.C.,
Hermosillo, Sonora, Mexico
xxii List of contributors
Ivan Luzardo-Ocampo, Postgraduate Program in Food
of the Center of the Republic (PROPAC), Research
and Graduate Studies in Food Science, School of
Chemistry, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro,
Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico
Gabriela A. Macedo, Bioprocesses Laboratory, School
of Food Engineering, University of Campinas,
Campinas, SP, Brazil
Sergi Maicas, Department of Microbiology and Ecology,
University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Sofia Maina, Department of Food Science and Human
Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens, Athens,
Greece
Pulak Majumder, Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University, Mandya,
India; Department of Pharmacognosy and
Phytochemistry, Sri Adichunchanagiri College of
Pharmacy, Adichunchanagiri University B. G Nagara,
Mandya, India
Ma. Elena Maldonado-Celis, Escuela de Nutrición y
Dietética, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellı́n,
Colombia
M. Marques, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry
Department, FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa,
Caparica, Portugal
J. Marto, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
José Juan Mateo, Department of Microbiology and
Ecology, University of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Manickam Minakshi, Engineering and Energy,
Murdoch University, Perth, WA, Australia
Vicente A. Mirón-Mérida, School of Food Science &
Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, United
Kingdom; School of Food Science and Nutrition,
University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
Anand Mohan, Department of Food Science and
Technology, University of Georgia, Athens, GA,
United States
Antonio Moreda-Piñeiro, Trace Element, Spectroscopy
and Speciation Group (GETEE), Strategic Grouping in
Materials (AEMAT), Department of Analytical
Chemistry, Nutrition and Bromatology, Faculty of
Chemistry, University of Santiago de Compostela,
Santiago de Compostela, Spain
Miriane Moreira Fernandes Santos, Food Science and
Technology Postgraduate Program, Federal University
of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Vaibhav M. Naik, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Sapna A. Narula, School of Management Studies,
Nalanda University, Bihar, India
Rumi Narzari, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
Arunima Nayak, Department of Chemistry, Graphic Era
University, Dehradun, India
Mehdi Nikoo, Department of Pathobiology and Quality
Control, Artemia and Aquaculture Research Institute,
Urmia University, Urmia, Iran
Omkar S. Nille, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Patrı́cia Nunes, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
M. Beatriz P.P. Oliveira, REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal
B. Dave Oomah, Summerland Research and
Development Centre, Agriculture and Agri-Food
Canada, Summerland Canada
A. Paiva, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department,
FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica,
Portugal
Sandeep K. Panda, School of Biotechnology, Kalinga
Institute of Industrial Technology (KIIT University),
Bhubaneswar, India
Harris Papapostolou, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
Tibor Pasinszki, Department of Chemistry, School of
Pure Sciences, College of Engineering, Science &
Technology, Fiji National University, Suva, Fiji
Akshay S. Patil, Fluorescence Spectroscopy Research
Laboratory, Department of Chemistry, Shivaji
University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
Fábio Anderson Pereira Da Silva, Management and
Agroindustrial Technology Department, Federal
University of Paraı́ba, Bananeiras, Brazil; Food
Science and Technology Postgraduate Program,
Federal University of Paraiba, João Pessoa, Brazil
Chanathip Pharino, Department of Environmental
Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Chulalongkorn
University, Bangkok, Thailand
Tatiana Colombo Pimentel, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Paraná (IFPR),
Campus Paranavaı́, Brazil

Gustavo Luis de Paiva Anciens Ramos, Federal
Institute of Education, Science and Technology of Rio
de Janeiro (IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de
Janeiro, Brazil; Fluminense Federal University (UFF),
Rio de Janeiro-Brasil, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine,
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
H.M. Ribeiro, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
C. Odı́n Rodrı́guez-Nava, Department of Environmental
Systems Engineering, National School of Biological
Sciences-Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City,
Mexico
Claudia Ruiz-Capillas, Department of Products, ICTAN
- CSIC, Madrid, Spain
Susana Marta Isay Saad, FoRC, Food Research Center,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil;
Department of Biochemical and Pharmaceutical
Technology, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences,
University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Niharendu Saha, Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Assam Engineering College, Guwahati, India
Amy Yi Hsan Saik, Department of Pre-clinical Sciences,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti
Tunku Abdul Rahman, Kajang, Malaysia
Ruprekha Saikia, Department of Energy, Tezpur
University, Tezpur, India
Ádina L. Santana, Food Science Institute, Kansas State
University, Manhattan, KS, United States;
Bioprocesses Laboratory, School of Food Engineering,
University of Campinas, Campinas, SP, Brazil
S. Savitha, Division of Crop Production, ICAR (Central
Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur, India
Philip A. Schneider, Engineering and Energy, Murdoch
University, Perth, WA, Australia
Dibyakanta Seth, Department of Food Process
Engineering, National Institute of Technology
Rourkela, Rourkela, India
Stefano Sforza, Department of Food and Drug,
University of Parma, Parma, Italy
Muhammad Asim Shabbir, National Institute of Food
Science and Technology, University of Agriculture,
Faisalabad, Pakistan
Elwira Sieniawska, Department of Pharmacognosy,
Medical University of Lublin, Lublin, Poland
Mafalda Alexandra Silva, Department of Food and
Nutrition, National Institute of Health Dr Ricardo
Jorge, I.P., Lisbon, Portugal; REQUIMTE-LAQV/
Faculdade de Farmácia da Universidade do Porto,
Porto, Portugal
List of contributors xxiii
Vida Šimat, University Department of Marine Studies,
University of Split, Split, Croatia
P. Simões, LAQV-REQUIMTE, Chemistry Department,
FCT/Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Caparica, Portugal
S. Simões, iMed.ULisboa, Faculty of Pharmacy,
Universidade de Lisboa, Lisboa, Portugal
Carlos Ricardo Soccol, Federal University of Paraná,
Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Alessandra Cristine Novak Sydney, Federal
Technological University of Paraná, Department of
Bioprocess Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta
Grossa, Brazil
Eduardo Bittencourt Sydney, Federal Technological
University of Paraná, Department of Bioprocess
Engineering and Biotechnology, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Reza Tahergorabi, Food and Nutritional Sciences
Program, North Carolina Agricultural and Technical
State University, Greensboro, NC, United States
Maria Tsiviki, Department of Food Science and
Technology, School of Agriculture, Forestry and
Natural Environment, Aristotle University,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Erminta Tsouko, Department of Food Science and
Human Nutrition, Agricultural University of Athens,
Athens, Greece
K. Velmourougane, Division of Crop Production,
ICAR (Central Institute for Cotton Research),
Nagpur, India
Simone Maria Ribas Vendramel, Federal Institute of
Education, Science and Technology of Rio de Janeiro
(IFRJ), Department of Food, Rio de Janeiro,
Brazil
Ravindra D. Waghmare, Fluorescence Spectroscopy
Research Laboratory, Department of Chemistry,
Shivaji University, Kolhapur, Kolhapur, India
V.N. Waghmare, Division of Crop Production, ICAR
(Central Institute for Cotton Research), Nagpur,
India
Santad Wichienchot, Center of Excellence in
Functional Foods and Gastronomy, Faculty of Agro-
Industry, Prince of Songkla University, Hat Yai,
Songkhla, Thailand
Adenise Lorenci Woiciechowski, Federal University of
Paraná, Department of Bioprocess Engineering and
Biotechnology, Centro Politécnico, Curitiba, Brazil
Chapter 1
Sustainability challenges in the
valorization of agri-food wastes and
by-products
Rajeev Bhat
ERA-Chair for Food By-products Valorisation Technologies (VALORTECH), Estonian University of Life Sciences, Tartu, Estonia, European Union
1.1 Introduction
A major contribution to the global economy emanates
from the agri-food industrial sector, which provides wide
market opportunities, supports the local economy, and
provides employment. Overcoming some of the regional
food security and sustainability challenges such as rapid
population growth, overcoming poverty and hunger
issues, and production of healthy foods for consumers
remains one of the major issues that needs to be resolved,
especially in the middle- and low-income countries.
Nevertheless, sustainability challenges faced by devel-
oped countries are distinctive in another way. On a global
scale, a wide range of sustainability challenges are persis-
tent throughout the agri-food supply chain. In general,
changing climate, unsustainable exploitation of natural
resources, inconsistencies in annual food production, and
increases in food wastes and/or food loss (at the “on and
off” farm levels) are some of the key challenges that need
to be addressed immediately. Meeting the demands of
various interrelated components of the agri-food industry,
addressing the societal needs, and understanding new
business models and paradigms remains a high priority to
all of those involved (e.g., researchers, academicians, pol-
icy makers, economists, government, NGOs, and others).
In this regard, a sustained action framework is recom-
mended by experts which needs to be adopted for positive
transformation of the entire agri-food system keeping in
mind a region’s socioeconomic situation.
Globalization and free trade policies have had their
own impacts and influences on the agri-food sector. The
global food supply chain has tremendously expanded, with
novel and practical innovations being introduced regularly.
Today, a wide range of novel and healthy (unhealthy?)
Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-824044-1.00022-2
© 2021 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
food products are entering the international market due to
globalization. Globally, various stages of agri-food supply
chain (including processing) generate enormous amounts
of wastes and/or by-products. Ineffective and unsustainable
management of these wastes and/or by-products can be
seen as a representative reflection of the socioeconomic,
geo-political, and environmental scenario of a region.
Effective valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products can
contribute significantly to regional food security and ensure
sustainability along the entire food production and supply
chain. In the current global circumstances (e.g. food inse-
curity, economic instability, recession, pandemics such as
COVID-19, etc.), it is highly imperative that food industrial
wastes are minimized and that by-products are efficiently
used for producing value-added products. In this sense, an
ecologically conscious system revolving around “zero
waste generation” and “circular economy” concepts for
effective valorization of food industrial wastes/by-products
is envisaged to contribute toward improved economies as
well as minimizing the negative impacts on the environ-
ment. “waste to wealth” and “taste the waste” have been
popular phrases which signify the importance of waste and
by-product valorization. Several innovative approaches and
practical modeling have been proposed to minimize wastes
and to enable maximum utilization of by-products along
the entire agri-food production and supply chain.
The recently introduced circular economy concept is a
promising framework aimed towards improving the
resource efficiency. Reducing waste generation, coupled
with ensuring their maximal utilization can be of benefit
to the economy, and can also open up new business
opportunities. The circular economy concept primarily
aims to accomplish sustainable production and consump-
tion (of food) with minimal greenhouse gas emission
1
2 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
and with sustainable food waste management. In addition,
the action plan of a circular economy aims to lower food
waste generation with a novel methodical approach. Apart
from enhancing the resource efficiency, this plan mainly
relies on reduce, reuse, recover, and recycle of materials
in order to support the regional economy.
A zero-waste economy coupled with a sustainable bio-
based circular society is urgently needed to address the
current global situation. However, keeping in mind cost
effectiveness, it is imperative that an environmental-
friendly sustainable technology is adopted for competent
valorization of industrial wastes and/or by-products. In
this chapter, some of the imperative sustainability chal-
lenges that are expected to have an impact on the valori-
zation of agri-food wastes and by-products are identified
and discussed. In addition, various opportunities and
scope for future research are discussed.
1.2 Wastes and by-products—global
scenario
A wealth of literature has been engendered with substan-
tial views from experts to develop novel processes and
strategies for effective valorization of agri-food industrial
wastes and/or by-products. In Fig. 1.1, an overview of the
valorization of wastes and by-products is provided.
Food loss and food wastes are two separate entities
that need to be clearly understood. As per the Food and
FIGURE 1.1 An overview of the valorization of agri-food industrial wastes and by-products.
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO
Food & Agriculture Organization of the United Nations,
2013), a decrease in mass (dry matter) and nutritional
value of a food which was originally intended for human
consumption is referred to as food loss. Poor infrastruc-
ture, postharvest handling practices, transportation facili-
ties, incompetent supply chains, lack of appropriate
technologies, and lack of appropriate storage facilities are
some of the factors that can contribute to food losses. In
contrast, food wastes signify those foods which need to
be discarded and are not fit for human consumption
(spoiled food due to deterioration). This can occur
because of consumer shopping and eating habits, oversup-
ply of a product in the market, and much more. In addi-
tion, when only agricultural wastes are considered, this
usually encompasses crop residues/biomass (nonedible
portions), which are generated in the farm after harvest.
These include the leftover leaves, stems, stalks, straw,
stovers, etc.
On another note, there are experts who have defined
food loss and wastes in a different approach. According
to Hartikainen, Mogensen, Svanes, and Franke (2018),
food wastes include only the edible portions or animals
that die before reaching the maturity or at any maturity
stage (inedible portions are excluded). According to
Baron, Patterson, Maull, and Warnaby (2018), food
wastes are defined as those foods which are lost through-
out food production and consumption stages, and those
still remaining edible. Närvänen, Mesiranta, Mattila, and

Heikkinen, (2019) recorded their view and opined that
food wastes were a “wicked problem.” When minimizing
wastes and by-products, the application of innovative val-
orization strategies is of paramount interest to enable suc-
cessful sustainable development. Also, it is very
important that the waste hierarchy remains well under-
stood along the entire supply chain (farm to fork, and
beyond). Innovations in the agricultural sector have
achieved much success in meeting global food demands,
however the efficient management of the enormous
volumes of food chain supply wastes is a necessity
(Matharu, de Melo, & Houghton, 2016). The first
“International day on awareness of food loss and waste”
was observed on September 29, 2020 (UN Food &
Agriculture Organization, 2020). As an outcome, it was
opined that new innovations, novel technologies, and con-
sumers behavior are all crucial factors that can help to
reduce food losses and food waste.
Furthermore, waste prevention and waste management
needs to be distinguished. The former deals mainly with
the activities undertaken in contrast to waste generation,
while management deals with those practical strategies
and approaches dealing with wastes which have already
been produced in the supply chain. As per Directive
2008/98/EC, any material produced as an outcome of a
production process, the objective of which was not to pro-
duce that material, can be considered as a by-product and
not as a waste, as long as they comply with the environ-
ment and human health laws. On another note, surplus
“on table” wastes need to be considered as a completely
separate entity, and so they are rather not discussed in
detail in this chapter.
The economic research service department of the
USDA provides regular updates on information on the
“Loss-Adjusted Food Availability” (LAFA Data Series),
which are derived based on plate wastes, food spoilage,
and other food losses (ERS-USDA, 2020). According to
FAO (2014), nearly 3.49 billion tons of greenhouse gases
(carbon dioxide equivalent) are generated via food wastes
and/or food losses. Stone, Garcia-Garcia, and Rahimifard
(2019) reviewed various methodologies to identify practi-
cally applicable techniques, which can be considered as a
base for understanding a sustainable waste valorization
identifier framework. In addition, the same researchers
evaluated potential barriers and various complications in
the supply chain relevant to changes to strategies that are
required to be adopted for food waste valorization (Stone,
Garcia-Garcia, & Rahimifard, 2020). The amount of
wastes and/or by-products generated by a particular agri-
food based industry depends on the types and origins of
the raw materials (plant or animal based), economic situa-
tion of the region (low-, medium-, or high-income coun-
tries) and to an extent the political management scenario.
According to FAO (2013), the environmental footprint of
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 3
food wastage can be assessed mainly by employing four
model components, which include: water footprint, carbon
footprint, land degradation impacts, and biodiversity
impacts. As per this report, in industrialized regions of
Europe and Asia, a considerably higher carbon footprint
is created by vegetable wastes, while fruit wastes
occurred as a significant blue water hotspot. Nevertheless,
the carbon footprint created by cattle/livestock farming is
generally thought to outweigh that from plant-based farm-
ing. Globally, it was estimated that food loss and wastes
exceeded 1 trillion United States dollars (FAO Food &
Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2015).
According to the International Panel of Experts on
Sustainable Food Systems, annually B20% of food pro-
duced in the European Union (EU) is wasted, costing
about 143 billion Euros (IPES, 2019). In one of the prime
EU directives (Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC),
no differentiation was identified between food wastes and
organic wastes (European Parliament, 2008). With nearly
45% of food produce being lost/wasted along the entire
supply chain, it is vital that they can be effectively valo-
rized (Cecilia, Garcı́a-Sancho, Maireles-Torres, & Luque,
2019). According to FAO (2015), the annual contribution
to food loss and wastes by cereals amounts to B30%,
B40% 50% by fruits, vegetables, and root crops, B20%
by oilseeds, meat, and dairy products, and B35% by the
fish industry. Nevertheless, to gain success on the pro-
jected “Sustainable Development Goals” of the United
Nations, it is imperative that food wastes are minimized
(FAO Food & Agriculture Organization of the United
Nations, 2015). Nevertheless, the sustainable development
goals of the UN (2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development of the United Nations) have provided a
blueprint for a better future for mankind and the environ-
ment (https://sdgs.un.org/goals, accessed on 23 September
2020). In relevance to the EU context, a study was under-
taken using a bottom-up approach (with nearly 134 LCA),
on some of the representative products such as apple,
bread, beef, chicken, milk, potato, pork, tomato, and
white fish (Scherhaufer, Moates, Hartikainen, Waldron, &
Obersteiner, 2018). These researchers calculated the influ-
ence of potential global warming, acidification, and eutro-
phication effects, and reported the values to be 186 Mt
CO2-eq, 1.7 Mt SO2-eq, and 0.7 Mt PO4-eq, respectively,
which was equivalent to 15% 16% of the total impact of
the entire food supply chain system.
On a global scale, irrespective of the region, a major
portion of food industrial wastes and by-products either
goes as landfill, livestock feed, a natural composting
material, or for the production of value-added chemicals/
as a feedstock for fuel/biorefineries usage (Cristóbal,
Caldeira, Corrado, & Sala, 2018; Maity, 2015; Ubando,
Felix, & Chen, 2020). On the negative side, it has been
stated that solid wastes can be a supportive material and
4 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
breeding site for vectors, causing infectious diseases, and
thus sustainable management of solid waste is crucial
(Krystosik et al., 2020). A sustainable mitigation strategy
to minimize food loss/food wastes and their contributions
to greenhouse gas emissions needs to be carefully moni-
tored trough the application of various practical models
and LCA (Chen & Lin, 2008; Hoornweg, Bhada-Tata, &
Kennedy, 2013; Lambin & Meyfroidt, 2011; Rashid,
Voroney, & Khalid, 2010).
Likewise, categorizing of wastes and by-products as edi-
ble or nonedible portions needs to be carefully evaluated.
Wastes (residues) generated in the agri-food supply chain can
be a major source of bio-based products (Koutinas et al.,
2014). In this regard, an integrated sustainable approach plan
can include adoption of bioconversion technologies (physical,
chemical, or thermochemical conversion), microbial-mediated
technologies, and/or biotechnology-based technologies, which
are all aimed at producing marketable value-added products.
The characterization of food wastes in relation to the
“food energy water” nexus has led towards identifying var-
ious types of reliable food waste management opportunities
and pathways, such as those of landfilling, composting, incin-
eration, and waste prevention measures (Kibler, Reinhart,
Hawkins, Motlagh, & Wright, 2018). However, to overcome
the management issues in a better way, many novel, sustain-
able valorization techniques have been put forward for the
reuse and recycling of wastes and by-products. The applica-
tions of anaerobic digestion, combustion, fermentation, gasifi-
cation, liquefaction, pyrolysis, and torrefaction are some of
the commonly adopted technologies for efficient valorization.
In Fig. 1.2 an overview of the categories of food (surplus
food, food waste, and food loss), waste hierarchy options
(best environmental options), and closing the loop in the
FIGURE 1.2 An overview of the categories of food (surplus food, food waste, and food loss), waste hierarchy options (best environmental options),
and closing the loop in the supply chain. Reproduced with permission from Teigiserova, D.A., Hamelin, L., & Thomsen, M. (2020). Towards transpar-
ent valorization of food surplus, waste and loss: Clarifying definitions, food waste hierarchy, and role in the circular economy. Science of the Total
Environment, 706, 136033. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.1360330048-9697; Elsevier: Elsevier License number: 4937041141746; License
date: Oct 27, 2020.
supply chain is presented (Teigiserova, Hamelin, & Thomsen,
2020).
Wastes management has been opined to be realized by
reduction through the application of competent production
technologies, recycling, improving the waste quality by
substitution of hazardous substances, and reuse in other
applications (Riemer & Kristoffersen, 1999). Under the
EU bio-economy framework of development, a sustain-
able approach to valorize agricultural wastes and by-
products via conventional or application of novel proces-
sing technologies remains imperative (European
Commission, 2012, 2018). On one side, a practical sus-
tainable model-based approach needs to be adopted which
is aimed towards reducing preventable food loss/wastes,
which entirely depends on consumer behavior.
Meanwhile, alternatively, adopting effective valorization
technologies is vital for those where the main focus is
entirely at the industrial level.
Hence, transforming global agri-food systems to
achieve food security and solve recurring environmental
issues is of high importance. Innovations in the agri-food
scenario to support, transform, and achieve a sustainable
food system will support the bio-economy of a region.
1.3 Food industrial wastes and
by-products
The occurrence of wastes can be from agricultural
fields (postharvest feedstock or biomass), food proces-
sing industries (wastes/by-products such as pomace,
waste water), distribution arena (mainly during trans-
portation), and at consumption levels (at the household

level). During food processing stages, the raw material
used, method of operation, and processing type
employed can lead to development of the desired prod-
uct as well as product-specific wastes. A major portion
of wastes and by-products generated by the food indus-
try (post-processing) includes mainly those of fruit and
vegetables, grain/cereals processing, meat, poultry,
dairy, alcoholic and nonalcoholic beverages, seafood,
and baking industry (e.g., bread, cookies, and cake
wastes). Generally, food industrial wastes from plant
resources (fruits and vegetables) occur as highly perish-
able residues (pomace) consisting mainly of skin, peel,
seeds, stems, trimmings, nonnutritive fiber, and dis-
carded pulp portions. A wealth of literature is available
on the valorization of these wastes/by-products to
obtain value-added products such as bioactive peptides,
antioxidant-rich polyphenolic compounds, biopolymers,
natural pigments, enzymes, dietary fiber, essential
minerals, vitamins, and functional food supplements
(Cheok et al., 2018; Hussain, Jõudu, & Bhat, 2020;
Kowalska, Czajkowska, Cichowska, & Lenart, 2017).
Regarding cereals and grains, post-processing gener-
ates wastes/by-products in the form of cob, stem, straw,
leaves, husk, hull, bran, and steep liquor, each of which
merits its own applications and bioactivities. There are
several interesting case studies undertaken on cereal
wastes and by-products. For example, the use of cereal
(wheat) bran up to 5% as a filler material during produc-
tion of paper products (Modzelewska & Adamska, 2006)
and isolation of lignan from wheat bran, a functional
compound with potential antioxidant and anticancer activ-
ities (Qu, Madl, Takemoto, Baybutt, & Wang, 2005).
Hydroxycinnamic acid derivative from corn bran exhibit-
ing antiinflammatory activities in lipopolysaccharide-
stimulated macrophages has been reported (Kim et al.,
2012).
By-products of rice milling industries are in the form
of hull, bran, and germ and are highly nutritious and con-
tain health-protective bioactive compounds such as die-
tary fiber, oil, proteins, phytosterols, tocols, tocopherols,
gamma-oryzanol, vanillic acid, and polyphenolic com-
pounds (Al-Doury, Hettiarachchy, & Horax, 2018; Perez-
Ternero, de Sotomayor, & Herrera, 2017; Wanyo, Meeso,
& Siriamornpun, 2014). By using rice husk, nanoparticles
with antimicrobial activity have been developed (Cui,
Yang, Hu, & Li, 2015; Tolba et al., 2015). As another
example, effective valorization (recycling to produce
feedstock, proteins, ethanol, etc.) of spoilt or surplus
bread is reported to solve environmental and economic
problems (Meuser & Martens, 2009).
With regard to the nonalcoholic beverage sector, a
range of wastes/by-products are produced. In the cocoa
production sector, huge amounts of residual biomass are
generated at the “on-farm” and “post-processing” levels
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 5
(mainly after roasting), mainly occurring as cocoa pod
husks, bean shells, cocoa sweating, and solid wastes. In
the majority of instances, these are converted into natural
biofertilizers after compositing. Reports are available
wherein cocoa wastes/by-products can be efficiently valo-
rized to obtain value-added compounds or they can be
used to develop value-added products (Gabbay Alves
et al., 2019; Grillo et al., 2019; Vásquez et al., 2019).
Further, other popular beverage industry which generates
the highest foreign exchequer is the coffee industry. In
the coffee industry alone, nearly 2 billion tons of wastes/
by-products generation has been estimated (occurring as
dry spent grounds, husk, silver skin, molasses, spent
liquor, and steep liquor). These are either discarded as
landfills or are processed into composting (Jiménez-
Zamora, Pastoriza, & Rufián-Henares, 2015; Stylianou
et al., 2018). Effective utilization and valorization of
spent coffee grounds with a biorefinery approach has
been proposed (Mata, Martins, & Caetano, 2018). Spent
coffee grounds have been considered to be a reliable
source of nutrients as well as bioactive compounds such
as phenols, flavonoids, carotenoids, lipids, chlorogenic
acid, melanoidins, and terpenes. Further, the use of spent
coffee grounds as a heavy metal absorbent, soil property
improver, and feedstock to produce biodiesel, bioethanol,
bio-oil, bio-char, and biogas remains well established
(Karmee, 2018; Obruca, Benesova, Kucera, Petrik, &
Marova, 2015; Stylianou et al., 2018). Reports available
have indicated the recovery of bioactive compounds from
waste water obtained after harvesting or processing of
coffee beans at the farm level (wet and semi-wet proces-
sing) (Ijanu, Kamaruddin, & Norashiddin, 2020; Torres-
Valenzuela, Ballesteros-Gomez, Serna, Arango, & Rubio,
2020). Another popular beverage is tea, and the tea indus-
try also tends to generate large amount of wastes. Spent
tea wastes/residues which were originally subjected to
landfilling or compositing are now being effectively valo-
rized by application of various eco-friendly green proces-
sing technologies to obtain value-added bioactive
compounds, feedstuff for ruminants, and much more (Lee
et al., 2012; Ozbayram, 2020; Rajapaksha & Shimizu,
2020; Xu, Cai, Moriya, & Ogawa, 2007; H. Wang & Xu,
2013).
In the oil industry sector, pressed solids, oil cake,
shells of oil seed, okra, and rancid oil are some of the
major wastes/by-products. Some interesting areas includes
valorization of waste biomass from the palm oil industry
as a suitable substrate for feeding insects intended to be
farmed as animal feed (Dickinson et al., 2019). Further,
valorization of olive oil industry by-products (pomace)
has been much studied (De Bruno et al., 2018; Mateos,
Sarria, & Bravo, 2019).
In the dairy sector, major by-products obtained include
those of whey, colostrum, and processed waste water,
6 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
which have been explored as sustainable ingredients to
develop novel healthy dairy-based food products
(Banaszewska, Cruijssen, Claassen, & Van der Vorst,
2014; Iriondo-DeHond, Miguel, & Del Castillo, 2018).
Nevertheless, biogas production from cheese whey waste-
water has been also reported (Stamatelatou et al., 2014).
Biogas production from a mixture of cow dung, urine,
and waste water is a common scenario in many of the
middle- and low-income countries (Adekunle et al., 2019;
Diagi, Akinyemi, Emetere, Ogunrinola, & Ndubuisi,
2019; Jafari-Sejahrood et al., 2019).
In the meat industries, some of the wastes and by-
products obtained include blood (hemoglobin and plasma
obtained from slaughtered animals), meat trimmings, gastro-
intestinal tract and internal organs, horn, skin, and bones.
According to Henchion, McCarthy, and O’Callaghan
(2016), the utilization of animal based co-products for the
development of new ingredients and products has high
potential to minimize their environmental impacts. In addi-
tion, efforts are being made to obtain value-added products
from animal wastes and by-products (Alao, Falowo,
Chulayo, & Muchenje, 2017; Amna, 2018; Lafarga,
Álvarez, & Hayes, 2017). In the poultry industry, the wastes
are generally those of feet, giblets, feathers, gut, offal, vis-
cera, skin, claws, bones, and egg shell. Many reports are
available on the effective valorization of these wastes/by-
products into value-added products, such as to obtain bioac-
tive peptides, proteins, and for production of manure and
biogas (Brandelli, Sala, & Kalil, 2015; Billen, Costa, Van
der Aa, Van Caneghem, & Vandecasteele, 2015; Tesfaye,
Sithole, & Ramjugernath, 2017).
Meanwhile, in the marine industry, the wastes and by-
products include shells, skin, bones, and cartilage of fish,
sharks, and other sea animals. Many reports are available
on the effective valorization of marine industrial wastes
(Cudennec, Caradec, Catiau, & Ravallec, 2012;
Maschmeyer, Luque, & Selva, 2020). On another note,
seaweed is a potential plentiful resource, which tends to
be treated as a waste. Though some value-added products
are obtained (e.g. pigments, align, alginates, enzymes,
composting material, etc.), their maximal potential still
needs to be tapped into. Possible uses of macroalgal
wastes (seaweed biomass) in food, cosmetics, and phar-
maceutical applications have been reviewed meticulously
(Barbot, Al-Ghaili, & Benz, 2016). Tapping into the
potentiality of marine algal carbohydrate fractions to
obtain industrially valued chemicals and chemical inter-
mediates such as organic acids (e.g., citric, succinic, and
lactic acids, alcohols like butanol) and biomaterials like
Polyhydroxyalkanoates (PHA) has been documented
(Cesário, da Fonseca, Marques, & de Almeida, 2018;
Girotto, Alibardi, & Cossu, 2015).
Above all, the waste water obtained after processing in
the food industries can remain as a potential source of
value-added ingredients. Modern biotechnological approaches
and nanotechnology concepts can allow for effective bio-
remediation of the liquid wastes generated by the food indus-
try to obtain/recover value-added compounds.
The amount/volume of wastes and by-products gener-
ated in all of the above-mentioned sectors can consider-
ably vary among different regions of the world. Also, as
indicated earlier, effective valorization strategies adopted
can depend on the socioeconomic situation of a region/
country. Further, with regard to individual countries, the
amount/volumes of wastes and/or by-products generated
can vary depending on the processing features adopted,
storage conditions embraced, and other vital critical
points in the supply chain. Hence, identifying waste gen-
eration hot spots for selected, reusable materials is vital
for sustainable management. Owing to stringent environ-
mental laws and regulations, food industry personnel
(researchers) are continuously exploring for opportunities
to exploit these wastes and by-products and convert them
into value-added products. It has been duly opined that
positive amendments with regard to environmental perfor-
mances and overcoming challenges of wastes minimiza-
tion can lead to high business profitability in the food and
beverage industry (Hyde, Smith, Smith, & Henningsson,
2001). Of late, some of the sustainable waste management
strategies coupled with recent technological advancements
have led to major scientific breakthroughs which are
aimed toward effective valorization of agri-food industrial
wastes and/or by-products. Globally, the 3Rs concept
(reduce, reuse, and recycle) has been adopted by majority
of the industries. Many types of treatments and green
extraction techniques have been suggested to manage
industrial wastes and by-products, which are based on
physico-chemical, biological, thermal, and biotechnologi-
cal modes (Chatterjee, DeLorenzo, Carr, & Moon, 2020;
Darlington, Staikos, & Rahimifard, 2009; Rocha et al.,
2018; Sharma, Gaur, Kim, & Pandey, 2020). Minimizing
wastes and by-product generation can have a positive
impact on the economy; for example, reduction in raw
material usage, reduced water consumption, and energy
efficiencies. Nevertheless, to manage food wastes, it is a
necessity that novel sustainable models are endorsed. In
contrast, in low- and middle-income regions, urbanization
along with transition dietary patterns can significantly
contribute towards increased food wastes within the sup-
ply chain (Parfitt, Barthel, & Macnaughton, 2010).
Recently, majority of food-processing industries around
the world have adopted the ISO standard of life cycle
assessment (LCA) to assess the environmental impacts of
particular products. This LCA method helps to identify a
specific production chain which can pose a threat to the
environment and help to identify/design a particular waste
management strategy. Environmentally sustainable assess-
ment options have been suggested for food wastes

(residues, biomass) and by-products management such as
the carbon footprint, energy balance, material flow, and
LCA methods (Eriksson & Spångberg, 2017; Eriksson,
Strid, & Hansson, 2015; Vandermeersch, Alvarenga,
Ragaert, & Dewulf, 2014).
As per the recently released State of Food and
Agriculture Report (FAO SOFA report, 2019), and by
duly considering all stages of the food supply chain; roots,
tubers, oilseeds, fruits and vegetables incur for the highest
rates of loss and generate more waste than cereals and
pulses. Further, this loss can also be region dependent, for
example, on-farm losses and those incurred during trans-
portation are higher for cereals and pulses in eastern and
south-eastern Asia. In addition, in low-income countries
(e.g. in Africa), losses of cereals and pulses remain a
major problem. Moreover, in this report it is also stated
that food wastes are more prevalent in high-income coun-
tries, due to consumers demand for good or visually
appealing quality of products. In addition, these consu-
mers have a tendency to over-buy, coupled with poor in-
home storing options. Further, this report clearly indicates
that it is also vital to understand the impact and role of
different actors (stakeholders) in the food supply (value)
chain, and across different geographic populations. It is
opined that to overcome sustainability challenges aimed
toward a reduction in food wastes, sustainable solutions
needs to adopted taking into confidence various stake-
holders emanating from public private partnerships and
sharing vital information among each other (O’keefe,
2014).
1.4 Food industry wastes and renewable
energy production
Producing renewable energy (fuels) with a sustainable
production approach remains a major challenge to the
dependent industries. Substituting fossil resources in
energy production can be attained by adopting a strategic
planning framework aimed at effectively tapping into the
potential of renewable carbon sources. Depletion of the
natural resources and anticipated constraints on the free
availability of fossil fuels have paved way for the explora-
tion of novel fuel resources which can impart less stress
on the environment. In this regard, researchers around the
world are focusing on sustainable utilization of agri-food
wastes (or biomass) to obtain renewable energy. A wide
range of low-cost carbon-based renewable sources can be
explored to tap their potential as a valuable feedstock, but
this greatly depends on the specific region’s policies.
Advanced biorefinery methods focusing on zero-waste
strategies and supporting the circular bio-economy con-
cepts have been opined by many experts as the best possi-
ble option for this.
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 7
The major component of plant origin agri-food wastes
(biomass) or by-products includes lignocellulosic biomass,
which is opined to be a good base to exploit for fuel or bioe-
nergy production. The perception of a biorefinery revolves
around valorization of wastes to produce biofuels and other
chemicals of interest. The production of bioethanol by fer-
mentative microorganisms via enzymatic breakdown of cel-
lulose and hemicellulose has been reported (Das et al.,
2012). The application of green processing technologies for
the conversion of food industrial wastes into biofuel has
been reported by many researchers (Edwards & Doran-
Peterson, 2012; Parmar & Rupasinghe, 2013; Zheng et al.,
2012). Apple pomace, wheat husk, oil industry wastes, grain
wastes, and others are considered to be some of the
suitable raw materials for producing biofuels (Mahlia,
Ismail, Hossain, & Silitonga, 2019; Razaghi, Karthikeyan,
Hao, & Heimann, 2016; Tan et al., 2014; L. Wang,
Littlewood, & Murphy, 2013). Pineapple wastes have been
used for producing fuel (bioethanol) as well as to obtain the
multipurpose useful bioactive compound, bromelain (Gil &
Maupoey, 2018). Valorization of winery wastes and by-
products to produce value-added products such as ethanol,
tartate salts, and poly(3-hydroxybutyrate) has been reported
(Devesa-Rey et al., 2011; Dimou et al., 2015). Fuel (ethanol)
production from papaya peel, sugarcane bagasse, and many
fruit wastes has been also illustrated (Mohan, Ramesh, &
Reddy, 2012; Rahmath, Derman, Ravintaran, & Jambo,
2018).
Pomace from the winery industry which is subjected
to pyrolysis (bio-energy and biochar system) has been
reported to impart a positive effect on the environment
with reduced CO2 emissions (Zabaniotou, Kamaterou,
Pavlou, & Panayiotou, 2018). Winery wastes and by-
products (e.g., stems, grape leaves, seeds, and pomace)
have been reviewed recently for their potential use in
biorefinery (Ahmad et al., 2020). The use of olive pulp
wastes obtained after processing is recommended for
bioethanol production (Georgieva & Ahring, 2007).
Furthermore, the production of biodiesel from spent cook-
ing oil (waste oil) such as those obtained from palm,
canola, and soybean, as well as from the oil meal of
camellia, peanut, and sesame has been documented
(Abbas et al., 2016; Chang, Tsai, & Ko, 2018; Lokman,
Rashid, Yunus, & Taufiq-Yap, 2014; Sheinbaum, Balam,
Robles, Lelo de Larrea, & Mendoza, 2015). In contrast,
microalgae, although not considered as real waste,
remains as an underutilized source. Some microalgae,
such as the species of Spyrogyra and Cladophora, are
recommended for exploration as a cheap source of raw
material to produce biodiesel (Mureed et al., 2018).
However, one of the major constraints on producing
biofuel is the inefficiency in having a continuous supply
of a particular type of raw material/feedstock or the
wastes/by-products throughout the year. Generally,
8 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
wastes/by-products occur as a heterogeneous mixture
(seeds, stem, leaves, peel, etc.) and remains unsegregated.
This makes the practical applicability of standardized pro-
tocols difficult. Also, the ability of rapid degradation of
raw materials in the environment can be another issue to
be resolved.
On the other note, research into sustainable fuel pro-
duction through the use of animal wastes and by-products
remains in its infancy. However, in some Asian and
African countries, cow dung (dry cakes) and poultry drop-
pings have been used as a natural source of fuel for pro-
duction of biogas (Alfa, Dahunsi, Iorhemen, Okafor, &
Ajayi, 2014; Raj, Jhariya, & Toppo, 2014; Sfez, De
Meester, & Dewulf, 2017). Interesting investigations have
been undertaken using cow dung ash with waterless puri-
fication of biodiesel obtained from waste cooking oil
(Avinash & Murugesan, 2017). Moreover, animal fat
wastes have also been explored for producing biodiesel
(Alptekin, Canakci, & Sanli, 2014; Hancsók, Sági, &
Valyon, 2018). The production of bioethanol and bioelec-
tricity from industrial waste water supplemented with fruit
and vegetable wastes has been reported (Khan & Hussain,
2017). Adopting wet torrefaction process is suggested as a
suitable process that can convert a mixture of municipal
solid wastes into value-added renewable high-energy solid
fuels (Triyono, Prawisudha, Aziz, Pasek, & Yoshikawa,
2019). By-products of the palm oil industry include palm
kernel shells, empty fruit bunches, and trunks. Recently,
effective utilization of empty fruit bunches obtained after
harvesting of oil palm fruits was methodically reviewed
to identify various technological processes to obtain bio-
solid fuels (Yoo, Park, Seo, & Kim, 2019). The use of
seaweeds for biogas production is also being studied
(Sitompul, Bayu, Soerawidjaja, & Lee, 2012). Based on
the ongoing trends, it is evident that agri-food wastes (or
biomass) can be effectively valorized and become a
potential raw material source for biofuel production.
1.5 Composting of agri-food wastes
The production of natural compost from agri-food indus-
trial wastes offers wide prospects and opportunities to
recycle nutrients and improve overall soil quality.
Biofertilizers have been referred to as an environmental-
friendly sustainable solution to manage a wide range of
biomass (wastes) originating from agri-food industries,
cattle raising, domestic solid wastes, and waste water
obtained post-food processing and from household and
agriculture fields (Cajamarca et al., 2019; De˛bska,
Długosz, Piotrowska-Długosz, & Banach-Szott, 2016;
Haraldsen, Andersen, Krogstad, & Sørheim, 2011; Nanda,
Dalai, Gökalp, & Kozinski, 2016). Composting of wastes/
by-products can be one of the most sustainable environ-
mental alternatives for safe disposal when implementing
solid waste management strategies. In addition, conver-
sion of wastes/by-products into natural compost opens up
the option to be an alternative for chemical-based fertili-
zers. The use of vegetal wastes (fruits and vegetables),
legumes, tea wastes, coffee grounds, and others as a natu-
ral composting material has provided encouraging results
on overall crop productivity (Ghinea, Apostol, Prisacaru,
& Leahu, 2019; Samet, Charfeddine, Kamoun, Nouri-
Ellouze, & Gargouri-Bouzid, 2018; Wolna-Maruwka
et al., 2019; Zhang & Sun, 2018).
In the majority of instances, it is recommended to opt
for “on-farm” composting, which can help in direct valo-
rization of wastes/biomass. However, stringent policies,
such as those of the EU, renders it much more difficult
for on-farm composting and compost derivative applica-
tions, especially when safety is of concern. Nevertheless,
in many of middle- and low-income regions, safety in rele-
vance to natural compost production is not of paramount
importance.
The use of fruit and vegetable wastes as a soil amend-
ment and for the production of natural compost is a common
practice in many countries. However, these types of wastes
are reported to induce soil instability by growth of unwar-
ranted microbial contaminants (Ajila, Brar, Verma, & Rao,
2012). Additionally, the use of these waste types for soil
applications for an extended time is also questionable (P.
Madejón, Burgos, Cabrera, & Madejón, 2009; E. Madejón,
Madejón, Burgos, de Mora, & Cabrera, 2009). Exploring
vegetal wastes as a potential substrate for rearing earth-
worms for production of dried meal, intended to be used fur-
ther as a food and feed, has been proposed (Tedesco, Conti,
Lovarelli, Biazzi, & Bacenetti, 2019). These researchers
adopted a LCA method to solve the multifunctionality of the
system, along with understanding the economic distribution
between earthworms and vermi-compost. In another study
(Tedesco, Castrica, Tava, Panseri, & Balzaretti, 2020),
within 3 months, earthworms converted 3750 kg of vegetal
wastes into 1050 kg of compost with minimal environmental
impact. From this study, it was also divulged that heat treat-
ments (121 C for 20 min) were an effective mode of sterili-
zation from a food safety point of view.
On a positive note, vegetal wastes (from fruits and
vegetables) in soil have been proposed as an effective
heavy metal adsorbent. This feature can be attributed to
their structure (fibrous or porous) and to the presence of
cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, phosphate, sulfate,
phenolic compounds, and amino groups in proteins that
are able to bind to the pollutants (Azouaou, Sadaoui, &
Mokaddem, 2008; Hashem, Abdelmonem, & Farrag,
2007). The potentiality of an urban agriculture system
with organic waste valorization has been discussed in
depth by Weidner and Yang (2020). In Fig. 1.3, the
resource nexus between an integrated urban agriculture
and waste management system is depicted.

FIGURE 1.3 Resource nexus of an integrated urban agriculture and waste management system. Reproduced with permission from Weidner, T., &
Yang, A. (2020). The potential of urban agriculture in combination with organic waste valorization: Assessment of resource flows and emissions for
two European cities. Journal of Cleaner Production, 244, 118490. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2019.118490; Elsevier License number:
4936940745368: License date: Oct 27, 2020.
Furthermore, insects have also been recommend to be
used for treating organic wastes and converting them to pro-
duce value-added products (Čičková, Newton, Lacy, &
Kozánek, 2015). Black soldier fly (Hermetia illucens) larvae
are recommend to be used in organic wastes management to
produce value-added products (da Silva & Hesselberg,
2020; Isibika, Vinnerås, Kibazohi, Zurbrügg, & Lalander,
2019; Liu, Awasthi, Awasthi, Duan, & Zhang, 2020).
Nevertheless, pretreatment of wastes is a necessity, espe-
cially when they contain high amounts of cellulose, hemicel-
lulose, lignin, and other complex compounds.
1.6 Bioactive compounds and bioactivity
Sustainable recovery of valuable resources in the form of
bioactive compounds, industrially valued chemicals,
enzymes, natural pigments, acids, biopolymers, etc. from
agri-food industrial wastes and/or by-products assumes
prime importance in the current global scenario, espe-
cially with regard to the bio-economy/circular economy
concepts. Available literature and public databases have
clearly pointed out the production of high value-added
products with potential usage in food, nutraceuticals, cos-
metics, cosmeceuticals, and pharmaceutical applications.
Plant-based bioactive compounds have been isolated and
characterized from fruits, vegetables, beverage and cereal
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 9
industrial wastes/by-products. Accordingly, the potentiality
has been established for their antimicrobial, antioxidant,
anticancer, antiinflammatory, and antiimmunomodulatory
activities, as well as other health benefits (Coman et al.,
2020; Hussain et al., 2020; Trigo, Alexandre, Saraiva, &
Pintado, 2020). Some of the health-promoting compounds
such as polyphenols, flavonoids, tannin, dietary fiber, pig-
ments, and peptides have been isolated from apple and wine
pomace, grape skin and seeds, peels of banana, mango,
orange, papaya, pomegranate, lemon, potato, and tomato
(Akhtar, Ismail, Fraternale, & Sestili, 2015; Andreou,
Dimopoulos, Dermesonlouoglou, & Taoukis, 2020; Frontuto
et al., 2019; Garcı́a-Lomillo, Gonzalez-SanJose, Del Pino-
Garcı́a, Rivero-Perez, & Muniz-Rodriguez, 2014; Ghosh,
Gillis, Sheviryov, Levkov, & Golberg, 2019; Parniakov,
Barba, Grimi, Lebovka, & Vorobiev, 2016; Peiró, Luengo,
Segovia, Raso, & Almajano, 2019; Viuda-Martos et al.,
2014). In addition, legume residues have been identified as
a rich source of proteins, peptides, and dietary fiber (del
Mar Contreras et al., 2019; Mateos-Aparicio, Redondo-
Cuenca, & Villanueva-Suárez, 2012). Single-cell proteins
from waste biomass that find potential usage as poultry and
cattle feed have been also reported (Gervasi et al., 2018;
Spalvins, Zihare, & Blumberga, 2018).
Effective valorization of wastes (mixed food and bev-
erage industrial wastes) as a suitable feedstock for
10 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
producing sugars (biorefinery process) has been studied
extensively by many researchers. Some interesting studies
indicate recovery of sugars from softwood, lignocellulose
materials, and sugarcane bagasse (Haque et al., 2017;
Kwan et al., 2018; Olsen, Arantes, & Saddler, 2015; Yu
et al., 2013). Apart from the normally explored wastes,
there are some underutilized resources which command
high potentiality. For example, after the harvesting of
banana, the waste parts mainly consist of leaves, stems,
and pseudo-stem, which are either discarded as landfill or
used for composting. Moreover, banana wastes from
industries (after juice extraction, chips, or wine produc-
tion) are comprised mainly of peel and pulp (Ho, Aziah,
& Bhat, 2012; Ho, Tan, Aziz, & Bhat, 2015; Ho et al.,
2015; Osma, Herrera, & Couto, 2007), which can be con-
sidered as a good source of bioactive compounds.
Available studies have indicated isolation of antioxidant
and antimicrobial activity-possessing compounds such as
anthocyanin cyanidin-3-rutinoside, epigallocatechin, and
their derivatives from banana inflorescence bracts
(Padam, Tin, Chye, & Abdullah, 2012; Pazmiño-Durán,
Giusti, Wrolstad, & Glória, 2001). On the other hand, the
fermentation of fruits, vegetables, and cereal-based wastes
and by-products has been shown to result in increased
amounts of health-promoting bioactive compounds
(Cantatore et al., 2019; Durante et al., 2019; Godard,
Hennequin, Hallier, & Demarigny, 2018; Pontonio,
Dingeo, Gobbetti, & Rizzello, 2019; Pontonio, Lorusso,
Gobbetti, & Rizzello, 2017; Madrera, Bedriñana, &
Valles, 2017; Ricci et al., 2019).
Further, the majority of plant-based wastes/by-products
have been identified as encompassing health-promoting
dietary fibers (carbohydrate polymers), which primarily
contain soluble types such as gums, mucilage, and pectin;
and insoluble types including those of cellulose, hemicel-
lulose, and lignin. Apple peel and pomace have been
widely exploited for their dietary fiber content, which usu-
ally ranges between 15% 36% (Perussello, Zhang,
Marzocchella, & Tiwari, 2017; Sudha, Baskaran, &
Leelavathi, 2007). Moreover, a high dietary fiber content
(90% 93%) has been reported from corn wastes (corn
cobs), a produce which holds one of the highest markets
globally (Anioła, Gawe˛cki, Czarnocińska, & Galiński,
2009). Various types of berry wastes and by-products gen-
erated from food industries, such as those of cranberry,
blueberry, strawberry, gooseberry, chokeberry, rowan-
berry, raspberry, blackcurrant, and redcurrant have been
reported to contain high amounts of dietary fibers (Alba
et al., 2018; Gouw, Jung, & Zhao, 2017; Reißner et al.,
2019). In addition, grape pomace (González-Centeno
et al., 2010; Deng, Penner, & Zhao, 2011), orange peel
(Rafiq et al., 2018), and mango wastes and by-products
also have been reported to contain high dietary fiber (Ajila
& Rao, 2013; Ajila, Leelavathi, & Rao, 2008).
Additionally, high amounts of dietary fiber (soluble and
insoluble) have been detected in wastes/by-products origi-
nating from some of popular tropical fruits such as durian,
papaya, pear, peach, pineapple, jackfruit, kiwi, mango-
steen, and pomegranate (Almeida, Lima, Giloni-Lima, &
Knob, 2015; Benito-González, López-Rubio, & Martı́nez-
Sanz, 2019; Colantuono, Vitaglione, Ferracane,
Campanella, & Hamaker, 2017; Grigelmo-Miguel,
Gorinstein, & Martı́n-Belloso, 1999; Ho et al., 2015;
Larrauri, Rupérez, & Calixto, 1997; Martin-Cabrejas,
Esteban, Lopez-Andreu, Waldron, & Selvendran, 1995).
In addition, dietary fiber also has been isolated and charac-
terized from some vegetable wastes/by-products such as
those of corn, carrot, cauliflower, onion, and potato (Afifi,
2011; Anioła et al., 2009; Chau, Chen, & Lee, 2004;
Femenia, Lefebvre, Thebaudin, Robertson, & Bourgeois,
1997; Gumul, Ziobro, Noga, & Sabat, 2011; Stojceska,
Ainsworth, Plunkett, İbanoğlu, & İbanoğlu, 2008). An
insoluble residue of soybeans (okara), which occurs as an
important leftover after tofu or soy milk production, is
highly nutritious. Okara contains nearly 50% dietary fiber,
cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, 25% protein, and up
to 15% oil, with minimal amounts of starch/simple carbo-
hydrates (O’Toole, 1999; Mateos-Aparicio, Redondo-
Cuenca, & Villanueva-Suárez, 2010). The importance of
dietary fiber on human health is well established. Dietary
fiber as a prebiotic can help in the maintenance of gut
health and gut microbiota, help to lower the risks associ-
ated with the development of coronary heart diseases, dia-
betes, hypertension, stroke, obesity, lowering of serum
cholesterol levels, and many other gastrointestinal pro-
blems such as constipation, diverticulitis, duodenal ulcer,
and gastroesophageal reflux diseases (Anderson et al.,
2009). Based on the available literature, it is clear that
agri-food industrial wastes/by-products can be a prospec-
tive source of bioactive dietary fiber, which has high
potential and practical applications in food, feed, and phar-
maceutical applications.
On the other hand, currently all around the world, nat-
ural plant-based pigments are gaining importance and
finding wide usage in food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic
applications. However, in many instances, artificial
[chemically synthesized] pigments remains as the first
choice with wide popularity owing to the low cost of pro-
duction. Nevertheless, some of the safety aspects and reg-
ulatory restrictions have remained an issue of concern in
the use synthetic pigments as colorants. In this sense, pig-
ments isolated from natural resources are considered to be
much safer. Various types of pigments, such as anthocya-
nin, beta carotene, betalain, carotenoids, and chlorophyll
have been isolated from agri-food industrial wastes and/or
by-products. Anthocyanins and pro-anthocyanidins have
been obtained from grape pomace and blackberry residues
(Brazinha, Cadima, & Crespo, 2014; Machado, Pereira,

Barbero, & Martı́nez, 2017; Machado et al., 2018).
Betalins have been extracted from peel wastes of red
dragon fruit (Rodriguez, Vidallon, Mendoza, & Reyes,
2016; Thirugnanasambandham & Sivakumar, 2017) and
from opuntia fruit peels (Melgar et al., 2019). Carotenoids
have been separated from carrot pomace and pomegranate
peel (Goula, Ververi, Adamopoulou, & Kaderides, 2017;
Kaderides, Mourtzinos, & Goula, 2020; Tiwari,
Upadhyay, Singh, Meena, & Arora, 2019). Further, Kehili
et al. (2017) extracted β-carotene and lycopene from
tomato by-products. Chlorophyll pigment was obtained
from avocado, cucumber, and watermelon peels (Zeyada,
Zeitoum, & Barbary, 2008; W. Wang, Bostic, & Gu,
2010). In addition, valorization of bakery wastes for pro-
ducing pigments (bio-colorants) has been also suggested
(Haque, Kachrimanidou, Koutinas, & Lin, 2016). Natural
pigments from wastes and by-products can be easily
extracted through the application of low-cost green pro-
cessing technologies.
Additionally, highly priced organic acids have been
produced from apple pomace, pineapple, kiwi, mango
fruit peel, and bread wastes (Gullon, Yanez, Alonso, &
Parajo, 2008; Imandi, Bandaru, Somalanka, Bandaru, &
Garapati, 2008; Jawad, Alkarkhi, Jason, Easa, &
Norulaini, 2013; Leung, Cheung, Zhang, Lam, & Lin,
2012; Sagar, Pareek, Sharma, Yahia, & Lobo, 2018).
These organic acids obtained from natural sources can
find wide applications in pharmaceuticals (in drug manu-
facture), cosmeceuticals, foods, and textile industry
applications.
The production of various types of enzymes from
agri-food industrial wastes and/or by-products has been
reported in the accessible databases. Wastes and by-
products such as bran (from rice, oats, and wheat), corn-
cobs, and straw, being natural sources of carbon, can be a
potential low-cost eco-friendly substrate to produce
industrially useful enzymes. According to Mandalari,
Bisignano, Curto, Waldron, and Faulds (2008) low-cost
enzymes can be obtained from agri-industrial by-products.
Solid-state fermentation (SSF) is considered to be one of
the most reliable methods that can be adopted to produce
enzymes from food industrial wastes or from other solid
agriculture-based biomasses (through the use of fungi like
Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus awamori). Enzymes
have been obtained from fruit wastes (e.g. polygalacturo-
nase and pectin methylesterase) by employing SSF
(Patidar, Nighojkar, Kumar, & Nighojkar, 2018).
Industrially useful enzymes like acetyl glycosaminidase,
alkaline phosphatase, lipase, protease, chitinase, hyaluroni-
dase, and transglutaminase have been obtained from fish-
ery wastes (Venugopal, 2016). Progress made in genetic
engineering focuses on enhancing the efficiency of micro-
bial strains along with adoption of novel biotechnological
tools for the production of enzymes, and this holds much
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 11
promise in the near future to exploit food wastes/by-
products.
The production of flavoring compounds from food
industrial wastes/by-products can generate good revenue.
Distillers’ grains (from wheat) has been characterized for
the presence of aroma compounds (Roth et al., 2014).
Olive mill wastes has been used to produce flavor com-
pounds by using fungi like Rhizopus oryzae and Candida
tropicalis (Guneser et al., 2017). The use of industrial fer-
mentation wastes during the cultivation process of
Lactobacillus brevis has led to the production of volatile
oils containing aroma-active compounds (Ono et al.,
2015). A study was undertaken by dos Reis et al. (2018)
wherein yeasts (Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Candida para-
psilosis, and Pichia anomala) were used to treat “vinasse”
(vinasse are hazardous liquid wastes generated after pro-
duction of alcoholic beverages such as tequila and cacha-
ça and pose a serious threat to biodiversity if left
untreated). As an outcome of this study, apart from being
an effective and economical biological treatment, value-
added aroma compounds could also be produced from
these vinasse/wastes.
With regard to the animal sector, a wide array of bio-
active compounds have been derived. From the meat
industry, the wastes/by-products generated includes blood
(hemoglobin and plasma), bones and skin, and other trim-
mings and cuttings. These have been explored to obtain
various types of bioactive peptides, collagen hydrolysates,
amino acids, and proteins, which hold high prospects for
use in food, pharmaceuticals, and other applications
(Lynch, Álvarez, O’Neill, Keenan, & Mullen, 2018;
Lynch, Mullen, O’Neill, Drummond, & Álvarez, 2018;
Mora, Reig, & Toldrá, 2014; Toldrá, Mora, & Reig,
2016). Bioactive peptides have been extensively derived
from buffalo horn, bovine tendon collagen, and hydroly-
sates, which exhibit good emulsifying properties
(Banerjee & Shanthi, 2012; R. Liu, Wang, & Duan, 2010;
Sathivel et al., 2004). With regard to seafood industry,
astaxanthin pigment, chitin, chito-oligosaccharides, colla-
gen, gelatin, polyunsaturated fatty acids, EPA, DHA, and
proteoglycans have been routinely isolated from fish
shrimps and shellfish processing wastes (Hirose, Narita,
Asano, & Nakane, 2018; Hu et al., 2019; Ismail, 2019;
Jayathilakan, Sultana, Radhakrishna, & Bawa, 2012;
Kobayashi, Kakizaki, Nozaka, & Nakamura, 2017;
Taheri, Anvar, Ahari, & Fogliano, 2013). From the poul-
try industries, protein hydrolysates, bioactive peptides,
keratin, amino acids, and enzymes have been recovered
which possess potential industrial applications (Callegaro,
Brandelli, & Daroit, 2019; Kshetri et al., 2020; Lasekan,
Bakar, & Hashim, 2013; Mi et al., 2020; Taheri et al.,
2013). Apart from those discussed here, there are other
value-added products that can be produced from food
industrial wastes/by-products, and some of these include
12 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
bio-oils, catalysts, surfactants, polyurethane foams, textile
materials, bio-based polyesters, renewable polycarbonate
resins, and biopesticides.
Nevertheless, the major constraint in exploring wastes
and/or by-products for commercialization to obtain a par-
ticular bioactive compound or a value-added product can
be influenced greatly by the process employed, produc-
tion efficiency, recovery and purification processes
adopted, and the economic situation of the dependent
industry or region. In addition, safety rules and regula-
tions imposed by a particular region also need to be duly
considered. Sustainable tapping of these bioactive
resources by the application of green processing techni-
ques can prove beneficial. Moreover, additional income
generation for the dependent industry by effective utiliza-
tion of wastes/by-products to produce value-added com-
pounds can support the food security of a region also.
1.7 Wastes and by-products as food and
livestock feed
Recently, “taste the waste” has become a widely popular
phrase, a concept being well acclaimed by consumers and
dependent industry personnel. As indicated earlier, it is a
well-known fact that food industrial wastes/by-products
contain high amounts of nutraceutically valuable bioac-
tive compounds, capable of imparting significant health
benefits to consumers (Ajila & Rao, 2013; Hussain et al.,
2020; Makris, Boskou, & Andrikopoulos, 2007).
The functional properties of the residue flour obtained
after beverage production from fruits and vegetables wastes
such as from apple, passion fruit, orange, watermelon, pome-
granate, carrot, lettuce, cucumber, and pumpkin have been
studied for the production of value-added bakery-based pro-
ducts such as biscuits, bread, crackers, cookies, spreadable
and fortified cheese, cereal bars, and yogurt (Cantatore et al.,
2019; Ferreira et al., 2015; Lucera et al., 2018; Mir, Bosco,
Shah, Santhalakshmy, & Mir, 2017; X. Wang, Kristo, &
LaPointe, 2019). Olive oil industrial by-products have been
used for enhancing the healthy components (luteolin, querce-
tin, and apigenin) of pasta and fish burgers (Cedola,
Cardinali, Del Nobile, & Conte, 2017; Padalino et al., 2018).
Onion peel (skin) powder has been fortified to produce wheat
bread with enhanced health-promoting potential (Gawlik-
Dziki et al., 2015). Enrichment of “taralli,” a bakery-based
product (from southern Italy) with fermented olive mill waste
paste showed improvement in the overall nutraceutical value
(carotenoids, polyphenols, tocochromanols) (Durante et al.,
2019). Research works also have been undertaken to evaluate
the glycemic index of food products produced using fruit
waste flour supplemented as a functional ingredient (Alongi,
Melchior, & Anese, 2019; Soto-Maldonado, Concha-Olmos,
Cáceres-Escobar, & Meneses-Gómez, 2018). Tomato peel
extract has been used as a natural colorant and as an antioxi-
dant in ice creams (Rizk, El-Kady, & El-Bialy, 2014). On a
similar note, tomato processing by-products which are rich in
antioxidants (lycopene) have been used as an additive to pre-
vent lipid peroxidation during the preparation of Tunisian
butter (Abid et al., 2017). In the breweries sector, valoriza-
tion of berry pomace (bilberries, blackcurrants, chokeberries,
grapes) to produce wine, and the use of apple pomace and
orange peels for production of brandy have been reported
(Majerska, Michalska, & Figiel, 2019).Valorization of beer
industry wastes for producing value-added food products for
human consumption has been also proposed (Garcia-Garcia,
Stone, & Rahimifard, 2019).
In the dairy sector, fortification of butter using dietary
fiber obtained from vegetal wastes (e.g., celery root and
leaves, spinach, orange, and stone pear) resulted in
improved sensory qualities like spreadability, firmness,
and shelf-life (Saraç & Dogan, 2016). Further, the produc-
tion of probiotic drinks using food industrial wastes/by-
products has been described (Vodnar et al., 2019). The
use of fruits wastes (e.g., grape seed and pomegranate
peel extracts) in cheese preparations, as a natural preser-
vative to control microbial pathogens like Staphylococcus
aureus, Listeria monocytogenes, and Salmonella enterica
has been described (Shan, Cai, Brooks, & Corke, 2011).
The use of soybean by-products (commonly referred to as
okara, which has high dietary fiber) as an additive in bis-
cuits and snack food preparations has been documented
(O’Toole, 1999).
Pulse by-products (red, green, black gram) with high
protein content have been explored for producing deep-
fried snacks (Tiwari, Gunasekaran, Jaganmohan,
Alagusundaram, & Tiwari, 2011). Chickpea, mung bean,
and pigeon pea hulls, which are high in polyphenolic com-
pounds and exhibit antioxidant and antimicrobial activities,
have been used as meat additives (Kumar, Yadav, Ahmad,
& Narsaiah, 2015). Chickpea husk and hull, which are
good sources of protein, dietary fiber, and antioxidant com-
pounds, are recommended for use as baking additives
(Niño-Medina et al., 2019). The incorporation of corn bran
for producing new food components has been reported
(Rose, Inglett, & Liu, 2010). Barley bran is a by-product
that contains significant amounts of dietary fiber (mainly
beta glucan), imparting rich health benefits. Beta glucan
obtained from barley has been a widely popular dietary
component used in food and pharmaceutical applications
(Karimi, Azizi, Xu, Sahari, & Hamidi, 2018). Brewery-
spent grains, which are rich in proteins, essential amino
acids, vitamins, minerals, maltosaccharides, and hemicellu-
lose (arabinoxylans), are recommended to be used in pro-
ducing nutritious dry pasta (Nocente, Taddei, Galassi, &
Gazza, 2019; Treimo et al., 2009).
In the meat and marine sector, dietary fiber obtained
from fruit wastes (e.g., apple, plum and grape pomace,

orange peel, etc.) have been used in fermented sausages
and other meat and fish products to enhance shelf life,
add flavor, and provide nutritional value (Andrade,
Ferreira, & Gonçalves, 2016; Fernández-López, Sendra,
Sayas-Barberá, Navarro, & Pérez-Alvarez, 2008; Lafarga
et al., 2017; Munir, Hu, Liu, & Xiong, 2019; Sogut &
Seydim, 2018; Torres-León et al., 2018).
In the livestock sector, a great deal of knowledge has
been developed over the past few decades on the use of
food industrial wastes/by-products as livestock feed.
Some of the wastes generated (e.g., pea skin, carrot cull
and flakes, pumpkin and cumber peel, cabbage wastes,
rapeseed pomace) have been fed directly to domesticated
animals including cattle, goats, and pigs (Bakshi,
Wadhwa, & Makkar, 2016; Musayeva et al., 2016;
Wadhwa, Kaushal, & Bakshi, 2006). In an interesting
case study undertaken in Japan, recycled food wastes that
were used as feed were witnessed to be much more eco-
nomical when compared with amenities which were not
using recycled food waste loops (Takata et al., 2012).
Wastes/by-products obtained after beer production (e.g.,
barley wastes, spent grain, and spent yeast) have been
proposed to be good nutrient sources for feeding animals
(Garcia-Garcia et al., 2019). Enhanced productive perfor-
mance in egg-laying hens by incorporating food proces-
sing industrial wastes (e.g., guava fruit) also has been
reported (El-Deek, Hamdy, Attia, & El-Shahat, 2009).
The use of food wastes as the main source of protein to
replace regular fish meals (fish feeds) has been explored
(Cheng et al., 2016). Various types of food wastes/by-pro-
ducts obtained from cereals, fruits, vegetables, meat, and
bones have been processed into pellets and used as aqua-
culture feed (Cheng et al., 2016; Choi, Lam, Mo, &
Wong, 2016; Islam et al., 2004; Sethuramalingam &
Haniffa, 2002; Weeratunge & Perera, 2016).
As the use of agri-food wastes and/or by-products
holds much promise for developing novel foods and
feeds, it would be worth utilizing innovative fractionation
and stabilization technologies to produce healthy food
products for human consumption or at least as livestock
feed.
1.8 Bioplastics and green composites
Globally, there is currently increased environmental con-
cern over the extensive use of petroleum-based plastics
owing to the various health hazards caused as well as
their nonbiodegradable nature. It is estimated that glob-
ally, on average, 80% of petroleum-based plastics remain
as waste (Blank, Narancic, Mampel, Tiso, & O’Connor,
2020). Nevertheless, the majority of petroleum-based
plastics either goes to landfill or are incinerated, with a
very tiny amount being reused and recycled. Recently,
researchers have been exploring better alternatives to
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 13
petroleum-based plastics, and this has created renewed
interest in the exploration for natural biodegradable
sources such as the production of bioplastics. These bio-
plastics can either be produced using natural biopolymers
or can be synthesized by microbes. Biopolymer-based
plastics can offer rapid biodegradability with a reduced
carbon footprint and could be obtained in a sustainable
way from various renewable sources (Dietrich, Dumont,
Del Rio, & Orsat, 2017; Siracusa, Rocculi, Romani, &
Dalla Rosa, 2008). In current global scenario, as that of
the COVID-19 pandemic, a single-use disposable bioplas-
tic assumes increasing importance.
According to the European Bioplastics and nova-
Institute (2019), bioplastics make up to a mere 1% of the
359 million tonnes of plastic produced annually. Further,
the current market trends for global production capacity
for bioplastics are expected to significantly increase from
2.11 million tonnes (in 2019) to B2.43 million tonnes (by
2024). PHA that form a part of renewable and biodegrad-
able biopolymers are visioned to impart positive effects in
the proposed bio-economy scenario (Alsafadi, Ibrahim,
Alamry, Hussein, & Mansour, 2020). As per the report of
European Bioplastics and nova-Institute (2018), biopoly-
mers like PHA and polylactic acid have a major role to
play in the coming decades.
Agricultural wastes (biomass/feedstock) rich in ligno-
cellulose have been recommended to obtain PHA and
poly-3-hydroxybutyrate (PHB) which are endorsed as
alternatives to petroleum-based plastics. According to
Chee et al. (2010), PHA was produced from bacteria
wherein renewable resources were converted to bioplas-
tics. In addition, reports are available wherein agri-food
industrial wastes (feedstock) are opined to be a potential
source for producing PHA. Production of PHA from food
industrial wastes (lignocellulose biorefineries), cheese
whey, and cooking oil wastes have been reported by vari-
ous researchers (Desroches, Escouvois, Auvergne, Caillol,
& Boutevin, 2012; Dietrich, Dumont, Del Rio, & Orsat,
2019; Kourmentza et al., 2018; Valentino, Riccardi,
Campanari, Pomata, & Majone, 2015; Verlinden et al.,
2011). Nevertheless, agri-food industrial wastes/by-pro-
ducts have been recommended as a potential carbon sub-
strate to produce PHA through the application of various
innovative green techniques (Alsafadi et al., 2020; Baei
et al., 2010; Follonier et al., 2014; Obruca, Marova,
Melusova, & Mravcova, 2011; Preethi, Sasikala, &
Aravind, 2012). Kitchen waste has been investigated as a
potential carbon source for production of PHA by
Bacillus subtilis (Rao, Haque, El-Enshasy, Singh, &
Mishra, 2019). Also, tremendous efforts have been made
on developing biopolymer-based food packaging systems
using agricultural wastes and food industry by-products
(Dash, Ali, Das, & Mohanta, 2019; D. Kim & Min, 2012;
Puscaselu, Gutt, & Amariei, 2019; J. D. Xu et al., 2018).
14 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
Biocomposites from agriculture have been developed
from industrial wastes/by-products, such as fibers, starch,
cellulose, rice husk, wheat husk, winery wastes, and sea-
shell wastes, (Benito-González et al., 2019; Ferri et al.,
2020; Mindivan & Göktaş, 2020; Muthuraj, Lacoste,
Lacroix, & Bergeret, 2019; Sanchez-Olivares, Rabe,
Pérez-Chávez, Calderas, & Schartel, 2019). With the
ongoing research trends and future expected demands
coupled with environmental concerns, it is evident that
agri-food industrial wastes and by-products can be effec-
tively exploited for the production of value-added bioplas-
tics. Through a sustainable approach and with the
application of modern biotechnological and agri-food pro-
cessing tools, the production of bioplastics can be a
potential revenue generator and support the economy of a
region.
1.9 Sustainable green processing
technologies
The application of appropriate process design techniques
with sustainability principles for valorization of agri-food
wastes and/or by-products has led to some interesting out-
comes. It is vital that the mode of operations needs to be
standardized to generate minimal wastes along the entire
processing line to secure maximal outputs and to obtain sus-
tainable value-added products. To achieve this, several types
of conventional and non-conventional methods of extraction
and processing have been proposed. Conversion of wastes
(biomass or feedstock) and/or by-products by conventional,
chemical, biotechnological (fermentation, microbial, enzy-
matic), and bioprocessing modes are common. These pro-
cesses have led to the production of value-added products,
as discussed previously. Though a wide array of technolo-
gies are available today, this comes with certain benefits as
well as limitations. Examples for some of these technologies
include radiation processing, supercritical carbon dioxide
extraction, pulsed light, pulse electric field, sonication/ultra-
sound, high-pressure treatments, enzyme-assisted extraction
and ionic liquids extraction. The majority of the nonthermal
techniques are referred to as cold extraction technologies,
which involve the generation of minimal heat and low
energy requirements with high retention of targeted biomole-
cules. Further, solvent-based green extraction techniques
make use of water, ethanol, glycerol, ionic liquids, and
plant-based edible oils. When a processing or extraction
technology is being employed, several factors need to be
carefully considered, for example, extractability potential,
energy consumption, safety and health aspects, sustainable
production, etc. Some of the recent developments on the
efficiency of green extraction methods to obtain value-added
compounds have been discussed by Saini and Keum (2018),
who have provided more insights on this topic.
1.10 Regulatory issues
The effective valorization of agri-food wastes and/or by-
products not only offers a solution to overcome environmental
stress, but also opens up an avenue for additional income gen-
eration to the dependent industries. Sustainable utilization of
these naturally discarded products can eventually contribute
toward ensuring sustainable progression to meet societal
needs. Nevertheless, it is mandatory for industries to abide by
various regulatory laws and safety rules of local government
while tapping the potentiality of wastes and/or by-products. It
is a well-established fact that agri-food-processing wastes
degrade rapidly in the environment, leading to foul smells (if
untreated for long time), and this is mainly due to microbe-
initiated decomposition or anaerobic digestion. In comparison
with other organic wastes, food wastes have been observed to
decompose rapidly in landfills, with high methane release
(Saqib, Sharma, Baroutian, Dubey, & Sarmah, 2019). In addi-
tion, some of these wastes and/or by-products might not be
completely biodegradable due to their basic biochemical com-
position. As all of these can lead to pollution, creating stress
on the environment, most countries are taking the utmost care
to impose laws on safe disposal of wastes (solid or liquid)
with stringent auditing aimed at implementing strict compli-
ance with the regulatory guidelines. For example,
Communication from the EU Commission (2005) clearly
stated the definition of recovery and disposal activities, new
ways to foster recycling, and the management of bio-wastes
followed by waste prevention. Commercialization of new
chemicals or compounds produced from food wastes repro-
cessing is rather restricted as per the Regulation Evaluation
Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals Legislation
(REACH) legislation of the EU (Council of the European
Union, 2006). According to REACH (2006), any production
unit or industry needs to register chemicals which are
intended for commercialization. EC Regulation of the EU
Parliament and the Council (EC Regulation, 2009) via
Animal by-products Regulation has clearly stated the rules
with regard to the use of animal by-products and other
derived products that are not recommended for human con-
sumption. Draft regulations are focused on the production,
use, practices, and exporting of selected processed animal
products (containing proteins). Also, rules and regulations on
animal by-products use as compost, biogas, pet foods, manure
export, attestation of certificates for imported of animal
by-products, etc. are duly considered. In Europe, official legis-
lations are accepted as directives, regulations, and decisions
(Costa, Massard, & Agarwal, 2010). In the EU regulations
(EC No 133/2008), one of the issues being addressed is the
use of additives obtained from food by-products.
Valorization of agri-food wastes/by-products has opened
up possibilities for obtaining bioactive compounds which
can be utilized as a novel source of additives (Gowe, 2015).
However, legislation for the practical use and approval of

new additives along with safety aspects remains a top prior-
ity to protect consumers (EFSA Panel on Food Additives &
Nutrient Sources added to Food ANS, 2012). Certain addi-
tives like anthocyanin, β-carotene, lycopene, and chloro-
phyll, which are naturally present in plant-based food waste/
by-products (e.g., grape wastes, tomato wastes, green leaf
vegetable by-products), are authorized bioactive compounds
which comply with safety regulations and can be used for
various potential applications (Baysal, Ersus, & Starmans,
2000; Corrales, Toepfl, Butz, Knorr, & Tauscher, 2008;
Gherezgihier et al., 2017; Kalogeropoulos, Chiou, Pyriochou,
Peristeraki, & Karathanos, 2012). As per the Codex
Alimentarius and FDA, anthocyanin pigment as a colorant has
been approved for those obtained from grape skin extracts
(enocyanin) (Bridle & Timberlake, 1997). Globally, food
wastes have been used to feed poultry, cattle, goats, pigs,
small ruminants, and fish. It is opined that the composition of
wastes be analyzed prior to use as an animal feed (Kasapidou,
Sossidou, & Mitlianga, 2015). However, in many countries,
legislation is not applicable for the reuse of food wastes as ani-
mal feed, although it is illegal in the EU, as, mainly owing to
safety concerns, recycling of food wastes as livestock feed
was banned in the EU (EC Regulation, 2002). As per the EU,
minimizing of wastes from animal origin requires amended
legislation for its reuse (EC Regulation, 2009). However, feed-
ing can still be permitted if there are no contamination or
safety risks (Zu Ermgassen, Phalan, Green, & Balmford,
2016). Recently, various federal guidelines in relation to ani-
mal feeding operations and nutrient management (in the
United States) have been reviewed (Rosov, Mallin, & Cahoon,
2020). These researchers have highlighted the inconsistencies
and gaps in the regulations, animal waste nutrient management
practices, and environmental issues, along with identifying
some of the shortcomings which need to be updated in relation
to policies (to overcome concerns for the environment and
human health). In a recent study (Mak, Xiong, Tsang, Iris, &
Poon, 2020), various gaps that need to be filled to achieve sus-
tainable food waste management in a circular bio-economy
concept were identified. This work included reviews on exist-
ing policies, and evaluated the global scenario on food wastes
and their management (mainly in households and commercial
enterprises).
Based on the available information, it is evident that
legal acts and regulations need to be enforced to govern
food waste/by-product reuse in a sustainable and eco-
friendly way.
1.11 Conclusion, opportunities, and
future challenges
Based on the available evidence, agri-food industries are
facing critical impediments on the safe disposal of wastes
and/or by-products which are generated post-processing
Sustainability challenges Chapter | 1 15
of raw materials. In this regard, adopting a biorefinery
approach will ensure sustainable exploitation of high
value-added ingredients from these wastes/by-products.
Supporting and adopting the circular bio-economy con-
cept is needed urgently, not only to minimize waste gen-
eration and reduce environmental stress, but also for
reuse/reconverting wastes or by-products to produce sus-
tainable value-added products. The whole concept of cir-
cular economy is aimed toward improving resource
efficiency.
Nevertheless, identifying the food wastes hierarchy
and closed-loop pathways should be of paramount impor-
tance. Understanding the various theoretical frameworks
on sustainable development in relation to agri-food busi-
ness sustainability is also vital. Due consideration needs
to be given to estimate the fundamental inputs of food
losses and food wastes on the generation of greenhouse
gases, which needs to be carefully monitored to minimize
the economic burdens in a region. The main drivers of
food loss (e.g., farming techniques, poor infrastructure,
poor handling, inefficiency in marketing, etc.) and food
wastes (e.g., globalization trends, economy of the region,
appropriate collection of wastes, urbanization, consumers,
market trends, innovations, education, etc.) need to be
carefully understood. Moreover, the agri-food supply
chain needs to be unambiguously reassessed to enhance
the integration of various interconnected supply chain fea-
tures to address and overcome various recurring sustain-
ability challenges.
Furthermore, at an industrial level, the separation of
wastes (into solid and liquid portions) is one of the major
constraints which has caused practically difficulties and is
highly uneconomical. Coupled with this are the disparities
witnessed among the huge volumes of waste/by-products
generated, concomitant with seasonal variations that ren-
ders sustainable processing (of biomass or feedstock) to
be much more challenging. The dependent agri-food
industries are constantly seeking to adopt novel, cost-
effective technologies which can reduce production costs,
minimize waste generation, and provide economic gains.
Nevertheless, for a long time these agri-food industrial
wastes/by-products have been sent to landfills, or used for
compositing or as a bio-fuel. Moreover, instead of extending
unwarranted financial burdens on treating wastes and by-
products (residue treatment), modern processing methods
and biotechnological tools (innovations aimed toward the
recovery process) can seamlessly be rendered functional to
convert them into value-added products. It is anticipated that
value-added products thus obtained will find wide applica-
tions in industries as a potential source of functional food
ingredients, nutraceuticals, livestock feed, aqua feeds, and
for pharmaceutical and cosmeceutical applications. The iso-
lation of bioactive compounds, industrially valued organic
acids, enzymes, pigments, etc. has been a part of
16 Valorization of Agri-Food Wastes and By-Products
valorization of agri-food processing wastes/by-products strat-
egies. To gain maximal benefits, the standardization of
suitable technologies is a prerequisite, and this depends on
the food commodities or the raw materials that are being
processed or being considered (e.g. dairy, meat, fruits, vege-
tables, seeds, breweries, seafood, etc.). In addition, much
depends on the pretreatments and extraction techniques used
in recovery processes.
The fortification of food products (as a natural addi-
tive, as preservatives, or as a nutraceutical component) by
bioactive components obtained from wastes and/or by-
products needs to be carefully monitored, specifically
concerning safety clearance. However, consumers’ accep-
tance after proper labeling (on their reuse in producing/
fortifying for novel products) is worth investigation. Still,
developing organoleptically acceptable food products
using wastes/by-products to meet consumer demand and
for commercialization (mass production) remains a chal-
lenge. Appropriate identification of the most promising
wastes and/or by-products for production of novel food or
feed products on a pilot scale for commercialization pur-
poses would be beneficial.
Going forward, it is worth mentioning that, despite the
economic situation and strict regulations, most countries
around the world still depend on chemical-based fertili-
zers. In addition, in some of the middle- and low-income
countries, conversion of agri-food wastes/by-products into
value-added products (e.g., for the production of bioac-
tive/nutraceutically valuable compounds) could be an eco-
nomic burden. Keeping this scenario in mind, it would be
worth exploring agri-food industrial wastes/by-products
for sustainable conversion to produce natural compost or
biofertilizers. However, a word of caution remains on the
safety practices involved during composting (e.g., the
presence of toxigenic fungi in natural composts has been
a recurring issue in many regions) and respecting stipu-
lated rules and regulations of the region.
Proceeding further, various market opportunities and
consumer demands need to be carefully understood, along
with predicting various constraints that could be incurred.
It should not be forgotten that processing and conversion
of wastes and/or by-products into value-added products
can sometimes be much more expensive than disposing of
them. Hence, there is a genuine need for developing low-
cost rapid conversion technologies for valorization pur-
poses. Long-term sustainability challenges in a specific
agriculture-based food sector need to be carefully evalu-
ated and redesigned along with developing appropriate
working models of waste management. Hence, developing
sustainable agri-food business models to tap into natural
resources that are discarded as wastes is vital. However, a
responsible approach needs to be adopted while designing
sustainable innovation models without overlooking the
ever-growing impacts of climate change on the agri-food
supply chain. It would be worth assessing the techno-
economic feasibility and performances for industrial/pilot-
scale applications for the data/information generated on
valorization of wastes and/or by-products. Based on con-
sumer and environmental needs, top priority needs to be
placed on opting for pilot-scale green processing and
environmentally sustainable technologies.
Moreover, due consideration and inputs need to be
taken from the main actors/drivers, involving researchers,
R&D personnel, academicians, economists, policy
makers, NGOs, prominent stakeholders, and local farmers
to plan for sustainable valorization of wastes and by-
products. Though a linear economy has contributed
toward the expected stability, the concept of a circular
economy will definitely witness some initial hiccups,
especially on the investment front, with various risks
involved and requiring improved efficiencies. More fund-
ing opportunities from local governments to undertake
aggressive research and developmental activities on valo-
rization of wastes and/or by-products is greatly required,
which could help to unlock the innovative pathways to
achieving sustainable innovations. A common vision and
mutually agreeable framework needs to be designed for
each region, based on the economic situation.
Contributions from digital platforms, keeping in mind
various sustainable value propositions and dimensions,
can also be duly considered to gain the much anticipated
success. By tapping into the potentiality of digital tech-
nologies, the efficiency of production and processing cou-
pled with minimization of waste generation and maximal
utilization of by-products with negligible impacts on the
environment can also be planned using a sustainable
approach.
Finally, in the future, it is expected that new technolo-
gies will infiltrate all areas of human life and society,
with a requirement for redesigning of innovative food sys-
tems by means of novel set targets, digitalization, eco-
friendly innovations in supply chain managements, and
relevant strategic projections aimed at amending current
policies and regulations (along with implementation) in
an effective and sustainable way. These needs to be
achieved for efficient valorization of agri-food industrial
wastes and/or by-products, which is also a necessity to
ensure the food security of a region.
Acknowledgment
The theme of this chapter is connected with the ERA-Chair in
VALORTECH project at the Estonian University of Life Sciences,
which has received funding from the European Union’s Horizon
2020 Research and Innovation Program under grant agreement No.
810630.

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Another random document with
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oy mostrastes no soys hija del
fiero Marte, segun la hermosura lo
deueys ser de la deesa Venus, y
del hermoso Adonis, y si de
ninguno destos, no podeys
dexallo de ser de la discreta
Minerua, que tan gran discretion
no puede proceder de otra parte,
aunque lo mas cierto deue ser
aueros dado naturaleza lo
principal de todos ellos. E para
tan nueua y tan grande merced,
como es la que auemos recebido,
nueuos y grandes auian de ser
los seruicios con que deuia ser
satisfecha. Mas podria ser que
algun tiempo se osfresciesse
ocasion, en que se conosciesse la
voluntad que de seruir tan
señalada merced tenemos. E
porque paresce que estays
cansada, vamos a la fuente de los
alisos, que está junto al bosque, y
alli descansareys. Vamos señora
(dixo la pastora) que no tanto por
descansar del trabajo del cuerpo,
lo desseo, quanto por hablar en
otro, en que consiste el descanso
de mi anima y todo mi
contentamiento. Esse se os
procurará aqui con toda la
diligentia possible (dixo Polidora)
porque no aya a quien con mas
razon procurar se deua. Pues la
hermosa Cinthia se boluio a los
pastores, diziendo: Hermosa
pastora, y animosos pastores, la
deuda, y obligacion en que nos
aueys puesto, ya la veys, plega a
dios que algun tiempo la podamos
satisfazer, segun que es nuestro
desseo. Seluagia respondió: A
estos dos pastores, se deuen,
hermosas nimphas, essas
offertas, que yo no hize mas de
dessear la libertad, que tanta
razon era que todo el mundo
desseasse. Entonces (dixo
Polidora): ¿Es este el pastor
Sireno tan querido algun tiempo,
como aora oluidado de la
hermosa Diana: y esse otro su
competidor Syluano? Si (dixo
Seluagia). Mucho me huelgo (dixo
Polidora) que seays personas a
quien podamos en algo satisfazer
lo que por nosotras aueys hecho.
Dorida muy espantada dixo: ¿qué
cierto es éste Sireno? Muy
contenta estoy en hallarte, y en
auerme tú dado ocasion a que yo
busque a tu mal algun remedio,
que no será poco. Ni aun para
tanto mal bastaria siendo poco,
dixo Sireno. Aora vamos a la
fuente (dixo Polidora) que allá
hablaremos mas largo. Llegados
que fueron a la fuente lleuando
las nimphas en medio a la pastora
se assentaron entorno della; y los
pastores a peticion de las
nimphas se fueron a la aldea a
buscar de comer, porque era ya
tarde, y todos lo auian menester.
Pues quedando las tres nimphas
solas con la pastora, la hermosa
Dorida començó a hablar desta
manera.
Esforçada y hermosa pastora, es
cosa para nosotras tan estraña
ver una persona de tanto ualor y
suerte, en estos ualles y bosques
apartados del concurso de las
gentes, como para ti será uer tres
Nimphas solas, y sin compañia
que defendellas pueda de
semejantes fuerças. Pues para
que podamos saber de ti lo que
tanto desseamos, forçado será
merçello primero con dezir quien
somos: y para esto sabras,
esforçada pastora, que esta
Nimpha se llama Dorida, y aquella
Cinthia, y yo Polidora: viuimos en
la selua de Diana, adonde habita
la sabia Felicia, cuyo offiçio es dar
remedio a passiones
enamoradas: y veniendo nosotros
de visitar a una Nimpha su
parienta, que biue desta otra
parte de los puertos Galiçianos,
llegamos á este valle vmbroso y
ameno. E paresçiendonos el lugar
conueniente para passar la
calorosa siesta, a la sombra de
estos alisos y verdes lauros,
embidiosas de la harmonia que
este impetuoso arroyo por medio
del verde prado lleua, tomando
nuestros instrumentos, quisimos
imitada, e nuestra ventura, o por
mejor dezir, su desuentura, quiso
que estos saluages, que segun
ellos dezian, muchos dias ha que
de nuestros amores estauan
presos, vinieron a caso por aqui.
Y auiendo muchas vezes sido
importunadas de sus bestiales
razones, que nuestro amor les
otorgassemos, y viendo ellos que
por ninguna uia les dauamos
esperança de remedio, se
determinaron poner el negoçio a
las manos, y hallando nos aqui
solas, hizieron lo que vistes al
tiempo que con vuestro socorro
fuimos libres. La pastora que oyó
lo que la hermosa Dolida auia
dicho, las lagrimas dieron
testimonio de lo que su affligido
coraçon sentia, y boluiendose a
las Nimphas, les començo a
hablar desta manera:
No es amor de manera (hermosas
Nimphas de la casta diosa) que
pueda el que lo tiene tener
respecto a la razon, ni la razon es
parte para que un enamorado
coraçon dexe el camino por do
sus fieros destinos le guiaren. Y
que esto sea uerdad, en la mano
tenemos la experiençia, que
puesto caso que fuessedes
amadas destos saluages fieros, y
el derecho del buen amor no daua
lugar a que fuessedes dellos
offendidas, por otra parte, vino
aquella desorden con que sus
varios effectos haze, a dar tal
industria, que los mismos que os
auian de seruir, vos offendiessen.
E porque sepays que no me
muero solamente por lo que en
este valle os ha succedido, os
dire lo que no pense dezir, sino a
quien entregué mi libertad, si el
tiempo, o la fortuna dieren lugar a
que mis ojos le vean, y entonçes
vereys, cómo en la escuela de
mis desuenturas deprendi a
hablar en los malos successos de
amor, y en lo que este traydor
haze en los tristes coraçones que
subjectos le estan. Sabreys pues,
hermosas Nimphas, que mi
naturaleza es la gran Vandalia,
provincia no muy remota desta
adonde estamos, nascida en una
ciudad llamada Soldina: mi madre
se llamó Delia, y mi padre
Andronio, en linaje y bienes de
fortuna los más prinçipales de
toda aquella prouinçia. Acaescio
pues que como mi madre auiendo
muchos años que era casada, no
tuuiesse hijos (y a causa desto
biuiesse tan descontenta, que no
tuuiesse un dia de descanso) con
lagrimas y sospiros cada hora
importunaua el çielo, y haziendo
mil ofrendas y sacrifiçios,
suplicaua a Dios le diesse lo que
tanto desseaua, el qual fue
seruido, vistos sus continuos
ruegos y oraçiones, que siendo ya
passada la mayor parte de su
edad, se hiziesse preñada. El
alegria que dello reçibio juzguelo
quien despues de muy deseeada
una cosa, la uentura se la pone
en las manos. E no menos
partiçipó mi padre Andronio deste
contentamiento porque lo tuuo tan
grande, que seria impossible
podelle encarescer. Era Delia mi
señora affiçionada a leer historias
antiguas, en tanto estremo, que si
enfermedades, o negoçios de
grande importançia no se lo
estoruauan, jamas passaua el
tiempo en otra cosa. E acaescio
que estando, como digo, preñada,
y hallandose una noche mal
dispuesta, rogo a mi padre que le
leyesse alguna cosa, para que
occupando ella el pensamiento,
no sintiesse el mal que la
fatigaua. Mi padre que en otra
cosa no entendia, sino en dalle
todo el contentamiento possible,
le començo a leer aquella hystoria
de Paris, quando las tres
Deas[1242] se pusieron a juyzio
delante dél, sobre la mançana de
la discordia. Pues como mi madre
tuuiesse que Paris auia dado
aquella sentençia
apassionadamente, y no como
deuia, dixo que sin duda él no
auia mirado bien la razon de la
diosa de las batallas, porque
preçediendo las armas a todas las
otras qualidades, era justa cosa
que se le diesse. Mi señor
respondio que la mançana se
auia de dar a la más hermosa, y
que Venus lo era más que otra
ninguna, por lo qual Paris auia
sentençiado muy bien, si despues
no le succediera mal. A esto
respondio mi madre, que puesto
caso que en la mançana
estuuiesse escrito se diesse a la
más hermosa, que esta
hermosura no se entendia
corporal, sino del ánima: y que
pues la fortaleza era una de las
cosas que más hermosura le
dauan, y el exerçiçio de las armas
era un acto exterior desta virtud,
que a la diosa de las batallas le
deuia de dar la mançana, si Paris
juzgara como hombre prudente y
desapassionado. Assi que,
hermosas Nimphas, en esta porfia
estuuieron gran rato de la noche,
cada uno alegando las razones
más a su proposito que podia.
Estando en esto, uino el sueño a
uençer a quien las razones de su
marido no pudieron. De manera
que estando muy metida en su
disputa, se dexó dormir. Mi padre
entonçes se fue a su aposento, y
a mi señora le paresçio, estando
durmiendo, que la diosa Venus
venia a ella, con un rostro tan
ayrado, como hermoso, y le
dezia: Delia, no sé quien te ha
mouido ser tan contraria de quien
jamas lo ha sido tuya. Si memoria
tuuiesses del tiempo que del amor
de Andronio tu marido fuyste
presa, no me pagarias tan mal lo
mucho que me deues: pero no
quedarás sin galardon; yo te hago
saber que pariras vn hijo y vna
hija, cuyo parto no te costará
menos que la vida, y a ellos
costará el contentamiento lo que
en mi daño as hablado: porque te
çertifico que seran los más
desdichados en amores, que
hasta su tiempo se ayan uisto. E
dicho esto, desaparesçio, y luego
se le figuró a mi señora madre
que venia a ella la diosa Pallas, y
con rostro muy alegre le dezia:
Discreta y dichosa Delia, ¿con
qué te podré pagar lo que en mi
fauor contra la opinion de tu
marido esta noche has alegado,
sino con azerte saber, que pariras
vn hijo y vna hija los mas
venturosos en armas que hasta
su tiempo aya auido? Dicho esto
luego desaparescio, despertando
mi madre con el mayor sobresalto
del mundo: y de ay a un mes,
poco más o menos pario a mi, y a
otro hermano mio, y ella murio de
parto, y mi padre del grandissimo
pesar que vuo murio de ay a
pocos dias. E porque sepays
(hermosas Nimphas) el estremo
en que amor me ha puesto, sabed
que siendo yo muger de la
qualidad que aueys oydo, mi
desuentura me ha forçado que
dexe mi habito natural, y mi
libertad, y el debito que a mi
honrra deuo, por quien por
ventura pensará que la pierdo, en
ser de mí bien amado. Ved qué
cosa tan escusada para vna
muger ser dichosa en las armas,
como si para ellas se vuiessen
hecho. Deuia ser porque yo
(hermosas Nimphas) les pudiesse
hazer este pequeño seruiçio,
contra aquellos peruersos; que no
lo tengo en menos que si la
fortuna me començasse a
satisfazer algun agrauio de los
muchos que me ha hecho.
Tan espantadas quedaron las
Nimphas de lo que oyan, que no
le pudieron responder, ni
repreguntar cosas de las que la
hermosa pastora dezia. Y
prosiguiendo en su historia, les
dixo: Pues como mi hermano y yo
nos criassemos en un monasterio
de monjas, donde vna tia mia era
abadessa, hasta ser de edad de
doze años, y auiendolos
cumplidos, nos sacassen de alli:
A él lleuaron a la corte del
magnanimo y inuencible Rey de
los Lusitanos (cuya fama, y
increyble bondad tan esparzida
está por el vniuerso) a donde,
siendo en edad de tomar armas,
le succedieron por ellas cosas tan
auentajadas y de tan gran
esfuerço, como tristes y
desuenturadas por los amores. E
con todo esso fue mi hermano tan
amado de aquel inuictissimo Rey,
que nunca jamás le consintio salir
de su corte. La desdichada de mí,
que para mayores desuenturas
me guardauan mis hados,
fue [1243] lleuada en casa de vna
aguela mia (que no deuiera, pues
fue causa de biuir con tan gran
tristeza, qual nunca muger
padescio). Y porque (hermosas
Nimphas) no ay cosa que no me
sea forçado dezirosla, ansi por la
grand uirtud, de que vuestra
estremada hermosura da
testimonio, como porque el alma
me da que aueys de ser gran
parte de mi consuelo: sabed que
como yo estuuiesse en casa de
mi aguela, y fuesse ya de quasi
diezisiete años, se enamoró de mí
un cauallero que no biuia tan
lexos de nuestra posada que
desde un terrado que en la suya
auia no se viesse un jardin
adonde yo passaua lar tardes del
uerano. Pues como de alli el
desagradescido Felis uiesse a la
desdichada Felismena (que este
es el nombre de la triste que sus
desuenturas está contando) se
enamoró de mí, o se fingio
enamorado. No sé quál me crea,
pero sé que quien menos en este
estado creyere más acertará.
Muchos dias fueron los que Felis
gastó en darme a entender su
pena: y muchos más gasté yo en
no darme por hallada que él por
mi la padesciesse: y no sé cómo
el amor tardó tanto en hazerme
fuerça que le quisiesse; deuio
tardar, para despues uenir con
mayor impetu. Pues como yo por
señales, y por passeos, y por
musicas, y torneos, que delante
de mi puerta muchas uezes se
hazian, no mostrasse entender
que de mi amor estaua preso,
aunque desde el primero dia lo
entendi: determinó de escriuirme.
Y hablando con una criada mia, a
quien muchas uezes auia
hablado, y aun con muchas
dadiuas ganado la noluntad, le dio
una carta para mí. Pues uer las
saluas que Rosina (que assi la
llamauan) me hizo primero que
me la diesse, los juramentos que
me juró, las cautelosas palabras
que me dixo, porque no me
enojasse, cierto fue cosa de
espanto. E con todo esso se la
bolui arrojar a los ojos, diziendo:
Si no mirasse a quien soy, y lo
que se podria dezir, esse rostro
que tan poca uerguença tiene, yo
le haria señalar, de manera que
fuesse entre todos conoscido.
Mas porque es la primera uez,
basta lo hecho, y auisaros que os
guardeys de la segunda.
Paresceme que estoy aora viendo
(dezia la hermosa Felismena)
cómo aquella traydora de Rosina
supo callar, dissimulando lo que
de mi enojo sentio: porque la
vierades (o hermosas Nimphas)
fingir vna risa tan dissimulada,
diziendo: Iesus, señora, yo para
que ryessemos con ella la di a
nuestra merçed, que no para que
se enojasse dessa manera: Que
plega a Dios, si mi intençion ha
sido dalle enojo, que Dios me le
dé el mayor que hija de madre
aya tenido. Y a esto añadio otras
muchas palabras, como ella las
sabia dezir, para amansar el
enojo que yo de las suyas auia
reçebido: y tomando su carta, se
me quitó delante. Yo despues de
passado esso començe de
imaginar en lo que alli podria
uenir, y tras esto, paresce que el
amor me yua poniendo desseo de
ver la carta; pero tambien la
verguença estoruaua a tornalla a
pedir a mi criada, auiendo
passado con ella lo que os he
contado. Y assi passé aquel dia
hasta la noche en muchas
variedades de pensamientos. Y
quando Rosina entró a
desnudarme; al tiempo que me
queria acostar. Dios sabe, si yo
quisiera que me boluiera a
importunar, sobre que reçibiesse
la carta: mas nunca me quiso
hablar, ni por pensamiento en
ella. Yo por ver si saliendole al
camino, aprouecharia algo, le
dixe: ¿ansi, Rosina, que el señor
Felis sin mirar más, se atreue a
escreuirme? Ella muy secamente
me respondio: Señora, son cosas
que el amor trae consigo: suplico
a vuestra merçed me perdone,
que si yo pensara que en ello le
enojaua, antes me sacara los
ojos. Qual yo en entonçes quedé,
Dios lo sabe: pero con todo esso
dissimulé, y me dexó quedar
aquella noche con mi deseo, y
con la ocasion de no dormir. Y
assi fue, uerdaderamente ella fue
para mi la mas trabajosa y larga,
que hasta entonces auia passado.
Pues uiniendo el dia: y más tarde
de lo que yo quisiera, la discreta
Rosina entró a darme de uestir, y
se dexó adrede caer la carta en el
suelo. Y como la vi le dixe: ¿qué
es esto que cayó ay? Muestralo
aca. No es nada, señora, dixo
ella. Ora muestralo aca, dixe yo,
no me enojes o dime lo que es.
Iesus, señora, dixo ella, ¿para
qué lo quiere uer? la carta de ayer
es. No es por çierto, dixe yo,
muestrala acá por ver si mientes.
Aun yo no lo vue dicho, quando
ella me la puso en las manos,
diziendo: mal me haga Dios si es
otra cosa. Yo aunque la conoci
muy bien, dixe: en verdad que no
es esta, que yo la conozco, y de
algun tu enamorado deue ser: yo
quiero leella, por ver las
neçedades que te escriue;
abriendola vi que dezia desta
manera:
Señora: siempre imaginé que
vuestra discreçion me quitara el
miedo de escreuiros, entendiendo
sin carta lo que os quiero: mas
ella misma ha sabido tan bien
dissimular, que alli estuuo el
daño, donde pense que el
remedio estuuiesse. Si como
quien soys juzgays mi
atreuimiento, bien sé que no
tengo vna hora de vida: pero si lo
tomays segun lo que amor suele
hazer, no trocaré por ella mi
esperança. Suplicoos, señora, no
os enoje mi carta, ni me pongays
culpa por el escreuiros, hasta que
experimenteys si puedo dexar de
hazerlo. Y que me tengais en
possession de vuestro, pues todo
lo que puede ser de mí, está en
vuestras manos, las quales beso
mil bezes.
Pues como yo viesse la carta de
mi don Felis, o porque la leí en
tiempo que mostraua en ella
quererme más que a si, o porque
de parte de esta ánima cansada
auia disposiçion para imprimirse
en ella el amor de quien me
escreuia: yo començe a querelle
bien, y por mi mal yo lo començe,
pues auia de ser causa de tanta
desuentura. E luego pidiendo
perdon a Rosina de lo que antes
auia passado, como quien
menester la auia para lo de
adelante: y encomendandole el
secreto de mis amores, bolui otra
vez a leer la carta, parando a
cada palabra un poco, y bien
poco deuio de ser, pues yo tan
presto me determiné, aunque ya
no estaua en mi mano, el no
determinarme: y tomando papel y
tinta, le respondi desta manera.
No tengas en tan poco, don Felis,
mi honra que con palabras
fingidas pienses perjudicalla. Bien
sé quien eres y vales, y aun creo
que desto te aurá nascido el
atreuerte, y no de la fuerça que
dizes que el amor te ha hecho. E
si es ansi como me afirma mi
sospecha, tan en vano es su
trabajo, como tu valor y suerte, si
piensas hazerme yr contra lo que
a la mia deuo. Suplicote que
mires quán pocas uezes
succeden bien las cosas que
debaxo de cautela se comiençan,
y que no es de cauallero
entendellas de una manera, y
dezillas de otra. Dizesme que te
tengo en possession de cosa mia.
Soy tan mal condiçionada que
aun de la esperiençia de las
cosas no me fio quanto más de
tus palabras. Mas con todo esto
tengo en mucho lo que en la tuya
me dizes, que bien me basta ser
desconfiada, sin ser tambien
desagradescida.
Esta carta le embié que no
deuiera, pues fue occasion de
todo mi mal, porque luego
començo a cobrar osadia para me
declarar más sus pensamientos, y
a tener ocasion para me pedir que
le hablasse: en fin (hermosas
Nimphas) que algunos dias se
gastaron en demandas, y en
respuestas, en los quales el falso
amor hazia en mí su
acostumbrado offiçio: pues cada
hora tomaua más possession
desta desdichada. Los torneos se
tornaron[1244] a renouar, las
musicas de noche jamas
cessauan, las cartas, los amores
nunca dexauan de yr de una parte
a otra, y ansi passó casi un año:
al cabo del qual, yo me vi tan
presa de sus amores, que no fui
parte para dexar de manifestalle
mi pensamiento, cosa que él
desseaua mas que a su propia
uida. Quiso pues mi desuentura,
que al tiempo en que nuestros
amores más ençendidos
andauan, su padre lo supiesse, y
quien se lo dixo se lo supo
encarescer de manera, que
temiendo no se casasse conmigo,
lo embió a la corte de la gran
princessa Augusta Cesarina,
diziendo que no era justo que un
cauallero moço y de linage tan
prinçipal, gastasse la moçedad en
casa de su padre, donde no se
podian aprender sino los viçios de
que la ociosidad es maestra. El se
partio tan triste, que su mucha
tristeza le estoruó auisarme de su
partida, yo quedé tal quando lo
supe, qual puede imaginar quien
algun tiempo se vio tan presa de
amor, como yo por mi desdicha lo
estoy. Dezir yo aora la vida que
passaua en su ausencia, la
tristeza, los sospiros, las lagrimas,
que por estos cansados ojos cada
dia derramaua no sé si podré: que
pena es la mia, que aun dezir no
se puede, ved cómo podra
suffrirse: Pues estando yo en
medio de mi desuentura, y de las
ansias que la ausencia de don
Felis me hazia sentir,
paresciendome que mi mal era
sin remedio, y que despues que
en la corte se viesse, a causa de
otras damas de más hermosura, y
qualidad, tambien de la ausençia
que es capital enemiga del amor,
yo auia de ser oluidada:
determiné auenturarme a hazer lo
que nunca muger penso. Y fue
vestirme en habito de hombre, y
yrme a la corte, por ver aquel en
cuya vista estaua toda mi
esperança, y como lo pense, ansi
lo puse por obra, no dandome el
amor lugar a que mirasse lo que a
mí propria deuia. Para lo qual no
me faltó industria, porque con
ayuda de vna grandissima amiga
mia y thesorera de mis secretos
que me compró los vestidos que
yo le mandé, y un cauallo en que
me fuesse, me parti de mi tierra, y
aun de mi reputacion (pues no
puedo creer que jamas pueda
cobralla) assi me fue derecha a la
corte, passando por el camino
cosas que si el tiempo me diera
lugar para contallas, no fueran
poco gustosas de oyr. Veynte dias
tardé en llegar, en cabo de los
quales llegando donde desseaua,
me fuy a posar vna casa la más
apartada de conuersaçion que yo
pude. Y el grande desseo que
lleuaua de ver aquel destruydor
de mi alegria, no me dexaua
imaginar en otra cosa, sino en
cómo, o de dónde podia velle.
Preguntar por él a mi huesped no
osaua, porque quiça no se
descubriesse mi venida. Ni
tampoco me parescia bien yr yo a
buscalle: porque no me
succediesse alguna desdicha, a
causa de ser conoscida. En esta
confusion passé todo aquel dia
hasta la noche, la qual cada hora
se me hazia un año. Y siendo
poco más de media noche, el
huesped llamó a la puerta de mi
aposento, y me dixo que si queria
gozar de una musica que en la
calle se daua, que me leuantasse
de presto, y abriesse una
ventana. Lo que yo hize luego, y
parandome en ella, oí en la calle
vn page de don Felis, que se
llamaua Fabio (el qual luego en la
habla conosçi) cómo dezia a otros
que con el yuan: Ahora, señores,
es tiempo, que la dama está en el
corredor sobre la huerta tomando
el frescor de la noche. E no lo vuo
dicho, quando començaron a
tocar tres cornetas y un
sacabuche, con tan gran
concierto, que parescia una
musica celestial. E luego
començo una boz cantando a mi
parescer lo mejor que nadie
podria pensar. E aunque estuue
suspensa en oyr a Fabio, en
aquel tiempo ocurrieron muchas
imaginaciones, todas contrarias a
mi descanso, no dexé de aduertir
a lo que se cantaua, porque no lo
hazian de manera que cosa
alguna impidiesse el gusto que de
oyllo se reçebia, y lo que se cantó
primero, fue este romance:

Oydme, señora mia,

si acaso os duele mi mal,
y aunque no os duela el oylle,
 no me dexeys de escuchar;
dadme este breue descanso
porque me fuerçe a penar:
¿no os doleys de mis sospiros,
ni os enternesce el llorar,
ni cosa mia os da pena
ni la pensays remedyar?
¿Hasta quando mi señora,
tanto mal ha de durar?
no está el remedio en la
muerte,
sino en vuestra voluntad,
que los males que ella cura,
ligeros son de passar:
no os fatigan mis fatigas
ni os esperan fatigar:
de uoluntad tan essenta
¿qué medio se ha de esperar
y esse coraçon de piedra
cómo lo podré ablandar?
Bolued, señora, estos ojos
que en el mundo no ay su par.
Mas no los boluays ayrados
si no me quereys matar,
aunque de una y de otra
suerte
matays con solo mirar.

Despues que con el primero

concierto de musica vuieron
cantado este romance, oí tañer
vna dulçayna, y vna harpa, y la
boz del mi don Felis. El contento
que me dio el oylle, no ay quién lo
pueda imaginar: porque se me
figuró que lo estaua oyendo en
aquel dichoso tiempo de nuestros