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COMPUTERIZED
ENGINE CONTROLS
Eleventh Edition
COMPUTERIZED
ENGINE CONTROLS
Eleventh Edition
Steve V. Hatch
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Printed in the United States of America

Print Number: 01 Print Year: 2019
CONTENTS
Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Common Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Acknowledgments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xi Sensing Devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Actuators. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
SECTION 1: GENERIC CHAPTERS System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Chapter 1: A Review of Electricity Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
and Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Chapter 4: Common Operating
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Principles for Computerized Engine
Electrical Circuits Versus Electronic Circuits . . . . . . 4
Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Electron Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Electrical Theory. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Electrical Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Polarity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Fuel Volatility and Fuel Octane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Circuit Faults. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19 Electronic Fuel Injection System Operating
Electrical Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20 Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Semiconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21 Operating Modes of a Fuel Injection System. . . . . 96
Integrated Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Fuel Injection System Components
The Digital Age . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 and System Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33 Ignition System Operating Principles. . . . . . . . . . 112
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition . . . 117
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34 Emission-Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
42 V and 48 V Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Chapter 2: Computers in Cars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Automatic Stop-Start Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
Why Computers?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
How Computers Work. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Chapter 5: Introduction to Diagnostic
Functions of the Engine Computer . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Controlling Exhaust Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56 Concepts and Diagnostic Equipment. . . . . . . . . . 127
Closed-Loop Operation and Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Open-Loop Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
The PCM and Exhaust Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Diagnostic Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Attitude of the Technician. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58 Diagnostic Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59 Diagnostic Exercise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Chapter 6: Exhaust Gas Composition
Chapter 3: Common Components for and Analysis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Computerized Enginge Control Systems. . . . . . . . 62 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62 Exhaust Gas Composition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
v
vi CONTENTS
Measured Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

Gas Analyzers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Diagnosing with the Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178 Chapter 10: Advanced Driver
Assist Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Chapter 7: Understanding OBD II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Advanced Driver Assist Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
CARB/EPA/SAE/OBD Background . . . . . . . . . . . 180 Sensors Used with Advanced Driver
What Does OBD II Do?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Assist Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Diagnostic Management Software. . . . . . . . . . . . 181 Electronic Driver Convenience Features. . . . . . . 259
Standardization. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184 Telematics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
OBD II Monitors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 Driver Warning and Alert Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . 265
The Ten Global Modes of OBD II. . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 The Six Levels of Autonomous Vehicles . . . . . . . 266
Cold Start Emissions Reduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Software Hack Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Reducing The Escape of HC Emissions Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
During Refueling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204 Chapter 11: Approach to Diagnostics . . . . . . . . . 271
Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Chapter 8: Automotive Multiplexing and
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Networking of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Narrowing Down the Problem Area . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Pinpoint Testing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Diagnosing Intermittent Symptoms . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Multiplexing Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 Testing Catalytic Converters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Multiplex System Designs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 Evaporative System Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Multiplexing Protocols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Diagnosing Air-Fuel Ratio Problems . . . . . . . . . . 287
Communication on a J1850 VPW Data Bus . . . . 213 Diagnosing an Emission Test Failure. . . . . . . . . . 289
Communication on a Can Data Bus. . . . . . . . . . .214 Reprogramming a Computer. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Body Control Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Diagnosis of Excessive Parasitic Draw
Multiplexing Variations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217 on a Modern Vehicle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Fiber Optic Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 The Essential Tools of Electronic
Other Bosch Protocols. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 System Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Data Bus Security and Software Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Hack Prevention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Diagnosis of Multiplexed Circuits. . . . . . . . . . . . . 220 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 SECTION 2: MANUFACTURER-
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
SPECIFIC CHAPTERS
Chapter 9: Hybrid and Electric Vehicles. . . . . . . 224
Chapter 12: General Motors
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Computerized Engine Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Common Components. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Common Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Hybrid and Electric Vehicle Designs . . . . . . . . . . 227 Engine Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Honda Hybrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312
Toyota Hybrids. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231 Fuel Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
General Motors Hybrid Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237 Spark Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Ford Hybrids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Emission Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Fuel Cell Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .245 GM Ecotec Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
CONTENTS vii
GM LT1 Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Chapter 15: European (Bosch) Computerized

Other ECM-Controlled Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Engine Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Body Control Module. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
GM Multiplexing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
GM Driver Assist Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 402
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Bosch Fuel Management Systems
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 Overview. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 The Bosch Motronic and LH-Motronic
Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Chapter 13: Ford Motor Company
Fuel Management System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
Computerized Engine Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Spark Management System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Emission Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Electronic Transmission Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
Powertrain Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 Bosch Motronic and OBD II. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353 Motronic ME7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
Fuel Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 Motronic MED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Ignition Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363 BMW Valvetronics System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Emission Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Ecoboost Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Other PCM-Controlled Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Body Control Modules and Ford Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
Multiplexing Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
Voice Recognition Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372 Chapter 16: Asian Computerized Engine
Advancetrac™ System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 Controls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375 Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 Nissan: Electronic Concentrated Control
System (ECCS). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
Chapter 14: Chrysler Corporation Toyota Computer-Controlled System (TCCS) . . . 434
Computerized Engine Controls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Objectives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 Honda: Programmed Fuel Injection (PGM-FI). . . 444
Key Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Powertrain Control Module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379 Mazda Skyactiv-X System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
Inputs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 Diagnostic Exercise. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Fuel Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Idle Speed Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388 Review Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Spark Management Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Emission Control Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392 Appendix A: Automotive-Related Internet
Other PCM-Controlled Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394 Addresses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
Chrysler Multiplexing Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
Advanced Chrysler Electronic Systems. . . . . . . . 395 Appendix B: Automotive Apps for
System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398 Smartphones and Tablets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
Review Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
PREFACE
The application of electronics has made automotive of each chapter as key terms, and they appear
technology exciting, fast paced, and, certainly, more in boldface type at their first use in the chapter.
complicated. Technological advancements continue to These key terms are also defined in the glossary.
add complexity to the modern automobile at record- ●● Diagnostic & Service Tips. These tips offer advice
setting rates. Almost all systems on the automobile are that can be helpful to the technician when diag-
now controlled by electronic control modules. Autono- nosing and servicing vehicles as well as when
mous (self-driving) cars and trucks already exist and addressing customer concerns.
are being experimented with on public roads. They will ●● Summary. Each chapter contains a summary that
likely soon be available in dealership showrooms for reviews the major concepts presented.
consumers to buy. Today’s automobiles already have ●● Diagnostic Exercise. Following the chapter sum-
collision avoidance systems, lane departure/lane sway mary, a diagnostic exercise is provided that pres-
warning systems, and parking assist systems that can ents an important chapter concept in the context of
control the electric steering system in order to paral- a real-life scenario.
lel park the vehicle precisely in a tight parking space. ●● Review Questions. Review questions are provided
Ultimately, the advancements in technology require at the end of each chapter to help readers to test
automotive service technicians to be trained in the their recall and comprehension of the material,
electronic principles used in automotive technology and as well as to reinforce the concepts covered. All
to continue to actively pursue upgrade training through- of these review questions have been written in a
out their careers. Those who do this will find the task multiple-choice format—the type of question that
challenging, but achievable and rewarding. would be found on an ASE test.
This text was written in response to a widely recog-
nized need within the industry: to help both entry-level WARNINGS AND CAUTIONS
students and experienced professional technicians
acquire a strong grasp of how computerized automotive Personal safety concerns about specific computerized
systems operate and how to diagnose problems with engine control systems are highlighted where applica-
them. Although this text focuses mainly on electronic ble. This text follows industry standards for using the
engine control systems, it will also help readers under- following terms:
stand the principles that underlie any vehicle system ●● Warnings indicate that failure to observe correct
that is under the control of a computer. diagnostic or repair procedures could result in per-
Computerized Engine Controls is written with the sonal injury or death.
assumption that readers are familiar with the basic ●● Cautions indicate that failure to observe correct
operating principles of the internal combustion engine. diagnostic or repair procedures could result in
damage to tools, equipment, or the vehicle being
serviced.
CHAPTER AIDS
Students should understand that although working
Chapters in this edition contain the following features:
with computerized controls is not inherently dangerous,
●● Objectives. Objectives are provided at the begin- failure to observe recognized safety practices is. There
ning of each chapter to help the reader identify the are, unfortunately, many more injuries and accidents in
major concepts that are presented. the automotive repair business than there should be.
●● Key Terms. Terms that are unique to computerized Good safety practices, if learned early in a student’s
engine control systems are listed at the beginning career, can literally be lifesaving later on.
viii
Preface ix
NEW TO THIS EDITION follow. These are the reasons that ASE continues to
provide questions on their tests regarding exhaust
This textbook continues to be divided into two sec- gas composition.
tions, as with the tenth edition. Section I contains all ●● Chapter 10, a chapter that was new to the tenth
the generic chapters—Chapter 1 through Chapter 11. edition of this textbook, has been reorganized and
The principles in these chapters apply to all modern given a new name, as per the now-common name
vehicles, regardless of manufacturer. Section II con- for the systems discussed in this chapter: Advanced
tains all the manufacturer-specific chapters—Chapter Driver Assist Systems, also known as ADAS.
12 through Chapter 16, with one chapter dedicated to ●● Chapter 16 now includes a section on the Mazda
each of the following: Activ-X Spark Controlled Compression Ignition
●● General Motors Computerized Engine Controls (SPCCI) system, which will be introduced on the
●● Ford Motor Company Computerized Engine Controls Mazda 3 in the 2020 model year.
●● Chrysler Corporation Computerized Engine Controls ●● Other subtle changes are also found throughout
●● European (Bosch) Computerized Engine Controls the textbook including such things as the addition
●● Asian Computerized Engine Controls of a digital mass air flow sensor to the Ford chapter
(Chapter 13), the addition of a 48 V system to the
Some of the changes for the eleventh edition of Chrysler chapter (Chapter 14), and the addition of an
Computerized Engine Controls include the following: analog mass air flow sensor to Honda in the Asian
●● The figures and photographs in the textbook are chapter (Chapter 16). Some additional information
now in full color, providing a higher level of defini- has also been added to Chapter 16 regarding a
tion and understanding for the reader than previous Honda concept known as Honda Earth Dreams.
editions. ●● Additional questions have been added to the review
●● Chapter 4 now includes a section on Homogeneous questions section in several of the chapters, and
Charge Compression Ignition (HCCI) technology many other questions have simply been updated.
that many manufacturers have been working to
bring to market.
●● Chapter 6 has been renamed Exhaust Gas Com- SUGGESTIONS ON HOW
position and Analysis. Whether or not the student/
technician has an exhaust gas analyzer available,
TO USE THIS TEXT
he/she, at the very least, needs to understand Different manufacturers often follow the same basic
the theory of exhaust gas composition. This the- principles. You can learn a great deal by placing your
ory allows the reader to properly understand the initial focus on the information that is applicable to
emission systems that are present on the modern most, if not all, vehicles. Therefore, you should first
automobile. And it is also critically important to study the generic chapters in Section I. Once you have
understanding the purpose and intent behind the mastered the information in Section I, read the chapters
concepts of OBD II, as explained in Chapter 7 to in Section II according to your specific interests.
SUPPLEMENTS
SUPPLEMENTS INSTRUCTOR RESOURCES that will help students learn and apply concepts while
it allows instructors to measure skills and outcomes
A full suite of instructor resources is available online, with ease.
including MindTap meets the needs of today’s automotive
●● Lesson plans with answers to all diagnostic exer- classroom, shop, and student. Within the MindTap,
cises and end-of-chapter review questions faculty and students will find editable and submittable
●● Lab sheets correlated to the ASE L-1 task list job sheets correlated to relevant ASE L-1 tasks. MindTap
●● PowerPoint lecture slides also offers students the opportunity to reinforce their
●● Chapter tests powered by Cognero® understanding of theory, improve their critical thinking
●● An image gallery with all photographs and illustra- skills, and practice using diagnostic tools in a virtual
tions from the text environment with the inclusion of Cengage’s unique
●● A MindTap Educator’s Guide to help you custom- theory simulations. A suite of S/P2® safety, pollution,
ize your course and make the most of MindTap’s and soft skills modules for diesel technicians is available
media-rich online learning experiences. in the Learning Path. Additional engaging activities
include videos, animations, matching exercises, and
To access these instructor resources, go to login gradable assessments.
.cengage.com and create an account or log into your Instructors can customize the MindTap Learning
existing account. Path by adding or hiding content to match their syllabus
and grading preferences. Analytics and reports provide
MindTap for Computerized Engine Controls, a snapshot of class progress, time on task, engage-
11th edition ment, and completion rates.
MindTap for Computerized Engine Controls provides a

customized learning solution with relevant assignments
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I am, once again, very honored to be able to present Finally, many thanks to the following for their critical
the current revision of this textbook. There are many reviews of this edition of the text:
people upon whom I depend greatly and without whom Michael D. Logan, Universal Technical Institute,
this textbook would not be the success it is today. Avondale, Arizona
I would like to thank my family, my friends, and my Mitch Connor, ASE Master Certified Plus L1 and
colleagues who have encouraged me. I would also Light Duty Diesel, Lake Superior College, Duluth,
like to thank my students, both at the entry level and Minnesota
at the professional level, who, while in my classes Dr Randell Peters, Professor and Chairperson,
over the years, have affirmed the need for a textbook Department of Applied Engineering and Technology
such as this and have provided me with the positive Management, Indiana State University, Terre Haute,
feedback that has continued to encourage me in this Indiana
endeavor. I also enjoy the feedback of real-world Richard L. Cox, ASE Master Technician/Advanced
diagnostic situations provided to me by the professional Level Engine Specialist and Instructor, NCK Tech
technicians in my classes that reinforce the theories of College, Hays, Kansas
this textbook. I would like to thank William K. Bencini Steven P. Klausing, University of Northwestern
of Colorado State University in Pueblo, Colorado, who Ohio, Lima, Ohio
allowed me to use several of his photos of Honda The publisher would also like to thank the author,
i-VTEC components in the book. And I would like to Steve V. Hatch, for providing the photographs used
thank Chris Chesney of CARQUEST Technical Institute throughout this edition of the textbook and for the CAN
for the information he provided to me and for the fuse data bus waveforms used for the cover image.
voltage drop charts in Chapter 11.
I would also like to thank my wife, Geralyn, for her
continued patience with the many hours that this effort
has required of me.
xi
Section 1
GENERIC CHAPTERS
CHAPTER 1
A Review of Electricity
and Electronics
KEY TERMS OBJECTIVES
Amp or Ampere Upon completion and review of this chapter, you should be able to:
Amperage •• Explain the differences between electrical and electronic circuits.
Analog •• Define the difference between an element and a compound.
Armature •• Describe the importance of an atom’s valence ring as it pertains to electrical theory.
Capacitor •• Explain the relationship between voltage, resistance, and amperage.
Clamping Diode •• Identify examples of series circuits and parallel circuits.
Compound •• Describe the construction and operation of semiconductors such as diodes and
Digital transistors.
Diode •• Define the difference between an analog voltage signal and a digital voltage signal.
Dual In-Line Package (DIP) •• Describe the relationship between variable frequency, variable duty cycle, and variable
Electrical pulse-width.
Electromotive Force
Electronic The earliest automobiles had little in the way of electrical systems, but as the
Element automobile has become more complicated and as more accessories have been added,
Free Electron electrical and electronic systems have replaced mechanical methods of control on
H-Gate today’s vehicles. Additional electronic control systems have made and will continue
to make the automobile comply with government standards and consumer demands.
Integrated Circuit (IC) Today, most major automotive systems are controlled by computers.
Molecule This increased use of electrical and electronic systems means two things for the
Negative Ion automotive service technician: first, to be effective, all service technicians need skills
Ohm in electrical diagnosis and repair, almost regardless of the technician’s service spe-
cialty; second, technicians with such skills will command significantly greater financial
Ohm’s Law
rewards and will deserve them.
Permeability There are several principles by which electrical systems operate, but they are
Positive Ion all fairly simple; learning them is not difficult. As each principle is introduced to you
Reluctance through your reading or in class, ask questions and/or read until you understand it.
Review the principles often, and practice the exercises that your instructor assigns.
Resistance
Semiconductor
Solenoid ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS VERSUS ELECTRONIC
Transistor
CIRCUITS
Valence Ring
Volt The differences between electrical circuits and electronic circuits are not always
clear-cut. This has led to some confusion about the use of terms and how an electronic
Voltage or Voltage Potential
system differs from an electrical system. Perhaps the comparisons in the following
Voltage Drop table will help.
Chapter 1 A Review of Electricity and Electronics 5
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

Do physical work: heat, light, and electromagnetism Communicate information: voltages or on/off signals.
used to create movement.
Use electromechanical devices: motors, solenoids, Use solid-state devices (semiconductors) with no
relays. moving parts, such as transistors and diodes.
Operate at relatively high current or amperage. Operate at relatively low current or amperage.
Have relatively low resistance (ohms). Have relatively high resistance (ohms).
May or may not be controlled by an electronic circuit. Are used to control electrical circuits.
Think of electrical circuits as the muscle and elec- the characteristics of that substance. For example, a
tronic circuits as the brain. Electrical circuits have been molecule of water, or H2O, is made up of two atoms of
used in the automobile since the first one came off the hydrogen and one atom of oxygen (H is the chemical
assembly line, but electronic circuits have only been symbol for hydrogen, and O is the chemical symbol for
added to the automobile in more recent years. For oxygen). If a molecule of water is broken down into its
example, interior lighting circuits began on the automo- component atoms, it is no longer water.
bile as simple electrical circuits without any electronic As molecules are made up of atoms, atoms are in
control. But, more often than not, interior lighting sys- turn made up of:
tems on today’s vehicles are controlled electronically by
a computer. ●● Electrons, or negatively charged particles
Even though the use of solid-state components ●● Protons, or positively charged particles
may often be used as a criterion to identify an elec- ●● Neutrons, or particles with no charge; at the level
tronic circuit, solid-state components, such as power of atomic activity concerning us here, neutrons just
transistors, may also be used in an electrical circuit. add mass to the atom
A power transistor is a type of transistor designed to
carry larger amounts of amperage than are normally The smallest and lightest atom is the hydro-
found in an electronic circuit. A power transistor is gen atom. It contains one proton and one electron
essentially a highly reliable relay. ( Figure 1–1); it is the only atom that does not have
Ultimately, an electrical circuit is a circuit that a neutron. The next smallest and lightest atom is the
p erforms work through a load device. An electronic helium atom. It has two protons, two neutrons, and two
circuit is used to intelligently control an electrical circuit. electrons (Figure 1–2). As the hydrogen atom is the
Therefore, an electrical circuit may or may not be under smallest and lightest, and as it has one electron and
the control of an electronic circuit. one proton, it is given an atomic number of 1. As helium
It should also be noted that a component identified is the next lightest, it has an atomic number of 2. Every
as an electronic device always needs a proper power atom has been given an atomic number that indicates
(positive) and ground (negative) just to power up prop- its relative size and weight (or its mass) and the number
erly, whether it is a small integrated circuit (IC) chip of electrons, protons, and neutrons it contains. An atom
or a complex, sophisticated computer. If either one is usually has the same number of electrons, protons, and
lacking, it cannot do its assigned job properly. neutrons.
ELECTRON THEORY Electron
Molecules and Atoms

A study of electricity begins with the smallest pieces
of matter. All substances—air, water, wood, steel,
stone, and even the various substances that our
b odies are made of—are made of the same bits of
Proton
matter. Every substance is made of units called mol-
ecules. A m olecule is a unit formed by combining
Orbit path
two or more atoms; it is the smallest unit that a given
substance can be broken down into and still exhibit all FIGURE 1–1 Hydrogen atom.
6 COMPUTERIZED ENGINE CONTROLS
Neutrons First layer (2 electrons)

Second layer (8 electrons)
Protons
Nucleus
Electrons (29 protons)
Orbit path
Outer layer (1 electron)
FIGURE 1–2 Helium atom.
Third layer (18 electrons)
FIGURE 1–3 Layers of electrons around a
Elements copper atom nucleus.
Once the three different bits of matter are united to
form an atom, two or more atoms combine to form a
electrons orbiting around its nucleus, the e lectrons
molecule. If all the atoms in the molecule are the same,
form in layers, rather than all of them traveling in the
the molecule is called an element. Which element it
same orbit (Figure 1–3). Some, however, share the
is depends on how many protons, neutrons, and elec-
same orbit, as seen in Figure 1–3. For the purposes of
trons the atoms contain. There are more than a hun-
this text, only the electrons in the last layer are of any
dred different elements. Some examples of elements
real importance. This layer is often called the outer shell
are gold, lead, iron, and sodium. Examples of other
or valence ring. The student should realize that we are
elements that are of concern to an automotive techni-
speaking very loosely here when we describe electrons
cian include hydrogen, carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and
in shells having orbits. For our purposes, this simple
silicon. An element, then, is a pure substance whose
explanation (a model once called the Rutherford atom)
molecules contain only one kind of atom.
satisfactorily conveys the nature of the electron.
As mentioned, electrons are negatively charged
Compounds and protons are positively charged. You have prob-
A substance such as water, which contains hydrogen ably heard or know that like charges repel and unlike
and oxygen atoms, is called a compound. Examples of charges attract. Electrons are always moving; in fact,
other compounds that are of concern to an automotive they are sometimes said to move at nearly the speed
technician include carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, of light. These characteristics work together to explain
hydrocarbons, and oxides of nitrogen. Therefore, many of the behaviors of an atom that make current
compounds consist of two or more elements. flow. Current is defined as a mass of free electrons
moving in the same direction.
There are two types of current: direct current (DC)
Molecules and alternating current (AC). Direct current always
A molecule consists of a minimum of two atoms that flows in one direction. Current from a battery is the
are chemically bonded together; it is electrically sta- best example. Most of the devices in an automobile
ble, with a neutral charge. A molecule may contain two use DC. Circuits with AC repeatedly switch the polarity
or more identical atoms and therefore be an element, of the circuit so that current flow (electron movement)
such as an oxygen molecule 1O2 2, or it may have atoms reverses direction repeatedly. The power available
of two or more elements and therefore be a compound, from commercial utility companies is AC and cycles
such as water 1H2O2. (changes polarity) 60 times per second. This is known
as 60 Hertz (Hz) AC voltage. One cycle occurs when
the current switches from forward to backward to
Atomic Structure and Electricity forward again. The car’s alternator (an AC generator)
Notice in Figure 1–1 and Figure 1–2 that the protons produces AC current, which is converted to DC before it
and neutrons are grouped together in the center of leaves the alternator.
each atom, which is called the nucleus of the atom. The fast-moving electron wants to move in a
The electrons travel around the nucleus of the atom in straight line, but its attraction to the proton nucleus
an orbit, similar to the way that the Earth travels around makes it act like a ball tied to the end of a string twirled
the sun. But because an atom usually has several around. The repulsive force between the electrons
keeps them spread as far apart as their attraction to the potential (the greater the number of oppositely charged
nucleus will allow. ions) at each end of the circuit, the greater the number
The fewer electrons there are in the outer shell of of electrons that will start to flow. This potential differ-
the atom and the more layers of electrons there are ence between the two charges is commonly known as
under the outer shell, the weaker is the bond between voltage potential.
the outer electrons and the nucleus. If one of these An example can be created by attaching something
outer electrons can somehow be broken free from its between the two ends of a circuit that will produce pos-
orbit, it will travel to a neighboring atom and fall into the itive and negative ions. This is what a battery or gener-
outer shell there, resulting in two unbalanced atoms. ator does in a circuit (Figure 1–4). If you connect both
The first atom is missing an electron. It is now positively ends of a copper wire to a battery, the voltage poten-
charged and is called a positive ion. The second atom tial will cause electron flow through the wire. However,
has an extra electron. It is negatively charged and is because the wire will not be able to handle the electron
called a negative ion. Ions are unstable. They want flow that the battery can provide, it will burn open very
either to gain an electron or to get rid of one so that quickly. Therefore, some kind of resistance, or opposi-
they are balanced. tion to a steady electric current, is needed in the wire.
Actually, this resistance has two functions. It limits cur-
rent flow so as to keep the wire from burning open, and
ELECTRICAL THEORY it also turns the current flow into some type of useful
work—heat, light, or electromagnetism.
Voltage Potential It is the voltage potential that makes current flow.
Actually, three factors must be present for an electrical
An atom that is a positive ion has positive potential. It
circuit to work properly. These three factors are volt-
has more positive charge than negative charge because
age potential, resistance to flow, and current flow, as
it has more protons than electrons. Suppose that this
demonstrated in the following example:
atom is at one end of a circuit (Figure 1–4). Further
suppose that there is a negative ion at the other end of
the circuit in that this atom has an extra electron, thus Suppose that you have a glass of your favorite
giving it a negative potential. Because of the difference lemonade sitting on your patio table on a nice sum-
in potential at the two ends of the circuit, an electron mer day. Suppose that there is a straw sitting in the
at the negatively charged end will start moving toward glass of lemonade. There is atmospheric pressure
the positively charged end. The greater the difference in acting on the lemonade in the glass and, therefore,
at the lower end of the straw. There is also atmo-
spheric pressure present at the upper end of the
Atom with Atom with
straw (remember, it is just sitting there on the patio
negative charge positive charge
table at the moment). Because there is no potential
(negative ion) (positive ion)
difference between the pressures at the two ends
of the straw, the lemonade is not flowing in the straw.
Electron flow from Now, if you simply close your mouth over the upper
negative to positive end of the straw but do not change the pressure
in your mouth, you will still not get the lemonade to
flow up the straw. You must provide a pressure dif-
ference (or potential) in order to get the lemonade
Light bulb to flow up the straw. You do this by creating a nega-
tive pressure within your mouth (i.e., a pressure that
is less than the atmospheric pressure acting on the
Negative ions at Positive ions at lemonade in the glass). The pressure differential is
negative terminal Battery positive terminal what causes the lemonade to flow up the straw. If
you want to get a larger flow of lemonade, you must
create a larger pressure difference (or suck harder).
Electron flow from However, this only tells half the story. Another factor
negative to positive that influences the volume of lemonade that you get
to flow up the straw is the size of the straw. Sup-
pose that you replace your normal-size straw with
a slender coffee stir stick/straw. This small straw
would limit the volume of lemonade that you could
Light bulb get to flow up the straw. The same is true in an elec-
FIGURE 1–4 Negative versus positive potential. trical circuit. The amount of current that flows in an
electrical circuit is dictated by two factors—how Magnetic flux field

much voltage potential is applied to the circuit and
how much resistance to flow is present in the cir-
cuit. This is, in essence, what is commonly known
as Ohm’s law, described later in this chapter. You
can also apply this same principle to a fuel injector N
in that the flow rate of a fuel injector is dictated by
the amount of pressure difference between the two
ends of the injector and the orifice size (restriction)
of the injector.
Magnetism
Magnetism is closely tied to the generation and use of S
electricity. In fact, one of the prevailing theories is that
magnetism is caused by the movement and group ori-
entation of electrons. Some materials strongly demon-
strate the characteristics associated with magnetism,
FIGURE 1–5 Magnetic field.
and some do not. Those that strongly demonstrate the
characteristics of magnetism, such as iron, are said where magnetic strength is the greatest. As the lines
to have high permeability. Those that do not, such of force extend out of the north pole, they begin to
as glass, wood, and aluminum, are said to have high spread out. Here you see opposition between char-
reluctance. acteristics 2 and 5. The lines of force want to take the
shortest d istance between the poles, but they spread
Lines of Force out because of their tendency to repel each other (char-
acteristic 5). The result is a magnetic field that occupies
It is not known whether there actually is such a thing a relatively large area but has greater density near the
as a magnetic line of force. What is known, however, is body of the magnet.
that magnetism exerts a force that we can understand Because the body of the magnet has high perme-
and manipulate if we assume there are magnetic lines ability, the lines of force are concentrated in the body
of force. Magnetic force is linear in nature, and it can of the magnet (characteristic 4). This accounts for
be managed to do many kinds of work. By assigning the poles of the magnet having the highest magnetic
certain characteristics to these lines of force, we can strength.
explain the behavior of magnetism. Magnetic lines of If there is an object with high permeability near the
force: magnet, the magnetic lines of force will distort from
their normal pattern and go out of their way to pass
1. Have a directional force (north to south outside the through the object (Figure 1–6). The tendency for the
magnet) lines of force to pass through the permeable object is
2. Want to take the shortest distance between two stronger than their tendency to take the shortest route.
poles (just like a stretched rubber band between The lines of force will, however, try to move the object
the two points from which it is held) toward the nearest pole of the magnet.
3. Form a complete loop
4. Are more permeable to iron than air
5. Resist being close together (especially in air)
6. Resist being cut
N
7. Will not cross each other (they will bend first)
Magnetic lines of force extending from a magnet Soft iron

make up what is commonly called a magnetic field (temporarily
and more correctly called magnetic flux (Figure 1–5). assumes a
If a magnet is not near an object made of permeable polarity)
material, the lines of force will extend from the north S
pole through the air to the south pole (characteristic 1).

S
The lines of force will continue through the body of N
the magnet to the north pole to form a complete loop

(characteristic 3). Every magnet has a north pole and
a south pole. The poles are the two points of a magnet FIGURE 1–6 Magnetic field distortion.
Electromagnets low permeability of the air in the center (Figure 1–10).

If the core is placed toward one end of the coil
Early researchers discovered that when current passes (Figure 1–11), the lines of force exert a strong force on
through a conductor, a magnetic field forms around the it to move it toward the center so that they can follow a
conductor (Figure 1–7). This principle makes the use of shorter path. If the core is movable, it will move to the
electromagnets, electric motors, generators, and most center of the coil. A coil around an off-center, movable,
of the other components in electrical circuits possible. and permeable core is a solenoid. A spring is usually
If a wire is coiled with the coils close together, most used to hold the core off center. When the current flow
of the lines of force wrap around the entire coil rather is switched on to create the electromagnet, the mag-
than going between the coils of wire (Figure 1–8). This netic field is stronger than the spring tension and will
is because if they do try to wrap around each loop in overcome the spring tension in order to move the iron
the coil, they must cross each other, which they will not core. This solenoid can be used to do physical work
do (characteristic 7) (Figure 1–9). such as to engage a starter drive to a flywheel or to
If a highly permeable core is placed in the center lock or unlock a door. But for most subjects to which
of the coil, the magnetic field becomes much stronger this textbook pertains, there will be a valve attached
because the high permeability of the core replaces the to the movable iron core. This solenoid-operated valve
may be either spring-loaded normally closed (N/C)
and then opens when electrically energized or spring-
loaded normally open (N/O) and then closes when
electrically energized.
low
o nf
ctr Motors
Ele
In an electric motor, current is passed through a
c onductor that is looped around the armature core
( Figure 1–12). The conductor loops are placed in
FIGURE 1–7 Lines of force forming around a
grooves along the length of the core. The core is
conductor. If you place your left hand on the made of laminated discs of permeable soft iron that
wire with your thumb pointing in the direction
of electron flow, your fingers will be pointing
in the direction of the directional force of the Electron flow
magnetic lines of force. When thinking of
conventional current flow, the same would
apply for the right hand.
Directional force of
Electron
magnetic flux lines
flow
FIGURE 1–9 Magnetic lines of force cannot
cross.
Directional force of Electron

magnetic flux lines flow
S N
S N
FIGURE 1–8 Magnetic field around a coil.
Place your left hand, with thumb extended,
around the coil with your fingers pointing in
the direction of the electron flow through the
coil. Your thumb will point to the north pole of Soft iron core
the magnetic field. FIGURE 1–10 Electromagnet.
Directional force of
magnetic flux lines
S N
Note: Core will move to center of coil regardless

of directional force of magnetic flux lines.
FIGURE 1–11 Solenoid.
Armature conductors
Armature core
Motor frame
Armature shaft
Field poles:
electromagnets Magnetic field
or permanent around conductors
magnets
Flux field
END VIEW OF MOTOR

FIGURE 1–12 Electric motor.
are pressed onto the armature shaft. The soft iron core poles. The motor frame on which the poles are mounted
causes the magnetic field that forms around the con- acts as the magnet body.
ductor to be stronger due to its permeability. There are Looking at the armature conductor near the north
several conductor loops on the armature, but only the field pole in Figure 1–12, you see that its magnetic
loop that is nearest to the center of the field poles has field extends out of the armature core and that it has
current passing through it. The loops are positioned so a clockwise force. The magnetic field between the field
that when one side of a loop is centered on one field poles has a directional force from north pole to south
pole, its other side is centered on the other field pole. pole. At the top of the armature conductor, the field it
The field poles are either permanent magnets or has produced has a directional force in the same direc-
pieces of soft iron that serve as the core of an elec- tion as that of the lines of force between the field poles.
tromagnet. If electromagnets are used, an additional The lines of force in this area are compatible, but com-
conductor (not shown in Figure 1–12) is wound around bining these two fields in the same area produces a
each field pole, and current is passed through these high-density field. Remember that magnetic lines of
field coils to produce a magnetic field between the field force resist being close together.
At the bottom of the armature conductor, the lines Horseshoe magnet Flux lines
of force formed around it have a directional force oppo-
site to that from the north field pole. The lines of force Moving
will not cross each other, so some lines from the field N
conductor
pole distort and go up and over the conductor into the
already dense portion of the field above the conductor,
and some just cease to exist. This produces a high-
density field above the conductor and a low-density field
below it. The difference in density is similar to a differ-
ence in pressure. This produces a downward force on
the conductor. S
The other side of the armature loop, on the other
side of the armature, is the same except that the current Lines of force wrapping
is now traveling the opposite way. The loop makes a around conductor as it
U-shaped bend at the end of the armature. The mag- moves through flux field
netic field around this part of the conductor has a coun- FIGURE 1–14 Cutting lines of force.
terclockwise force. Here, the lines of force around the
conductor are compatible with those between the field
poles under the conductor, but they try to cross at the in generators to produce voltage and current flow. The
top. This produces an upward force on this side of the principle will work regardless of whether:
armature loop. The armature rotates counterclockwise.
To change the direction in which the armature turns,
●● The conductor is moved through a stationary
either change the direction that current flows through magnetic field, as in a DC generator.
the armature conductors or change the polarity of the
●● A magnetic field is moved past stationar y
field poles. conductors, as in an AC generator.
●● The lines of force in an electromagnetic field are
moved by having the circuit producing the magnetic
Magnetic Induction field turned on and off, as in an ignition coil.
Passing voltage through a wire causes a magnetic field
to form around the wire. However, if lines of force can Note that in each case, movement of either the
be formed around a conductor, a voltage is produced lines of force or the conductor is needed. A magnetic
in the wire and current starts to flow. This assumes, field around a conductor where both are in steady state
of course, that the wire is part of a complete circuit. will not produce voltage. The amount of voltage and
Lines of force can be made to wrap around a conduc- current produced by magnetic induction depends on
tor by passing a conductor through a magnetic field four factors:
(Figure 1–13). This phenomenon occurs because
of characteristic 6. As the conductor passes through 1. The strength of the magnetic field (how many lines
the magnetic field, it cuts each line of force. Because of force there are to cut). A tiny amount of voltage
the lines of force resist being cut, they first wrap is induced in the wire by each line of force that
around the conductor, much like a blade of grass would is cut.
if struck by a stick (Figure 1–14). This principle is used 2. The number of conductors cutting the line of force.
Winding the conductor into a coil and passing one
side of the coil through the magnetic field cut each
line of force as many times as there are loops in
Flux lines the coil.
N 3. The speed at which the conductors pass through
the magnetic field.
4. The angle between the lines of force and the con-
ductor’s approach to them.
Amperage
Conductor
S Amperage is a measure of the amount of current
flowing in a circuit. One ampere (amp or A) equals
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 (6.25 billion billion)
Horseshoe magnet
e lectrons moving past a given point in a circuit per
FIGURE 1–13 Magnetic induction. second. This is often expressed as 1 coulomb.
Voltage depending on the atomic structure of the material. For

example, lead has more resistance than iron, and iron
A volt (V) is a measure of the force or pressure has more resistance than copper. It also varies with the
that causes current to flow; it is often referred to as temperature of the conductor. Loose or dirty connec-
voltage. The difference in potential is voltage. The most tions in a circuit also offer resistance to current flow.
common ways of producing voltage are chemically, as Using current flow to do work (to create heat, light, or
in a b
attery, or by magnetic induction, as in a genera- a magnetic field to move something) also amounts to
tor. A more accurate but less-used name is electromo- resistance to current flow. There are five things that will
tive force. Note that volts are what drive the electrons influence resistance within a wire and/or circuit:
through the circuit; voltage is the measurement of that
force. Similarly, amps are the number of electrons ●● Atomic structure of the material—for example,
moving; amperage is the measurement of that number. copper wiring versus aluminum wiring.
●● Wire gauge—a smaller gauge of wire (higher
Resistance number) increases circuit resistance.
●● Wire length—as the wire’s length is increased, its
The fact that voltage is required to push current through
resistance also increases.
a circuit suggests that the circuit offers resistance. ●● Temperature—as the temperature of a conductor
In other words, you do not have to push something
increases, the resistance also increases.
unless it resists moving. Resistance limits the amount ●● Physical condition—cuts, nicks, corrosion, and
of amperage that flows through a circuit (Figure 1–15).
other deficient physical aspects of a conductor,
The unit of measurement of resistance to flow is ohm
connector, or load will increase the resistance of
1 V 2. If a circuit without enough resistance is connected
the circuit, thus creating excessive voltage drop
across a reliable voltage source, wires or some other
within the circuit, resulting in reduced current flow.
component in the circuit will be damaged by heat
because too much current will flow.
Sometimes students get confused between voltage
As mentioned, a bond exists between an electron
and amperage while doing tests on electrical systems.
and the protons in the nucleus of an atom. That bond
Review these definitions, and consider the influence
must be broken for the electron to be freed so that it can
that voltage and amperage have on a circuit. It might
move to another atom. Breaking that bond and moving
also help to remember that voltage can be present in a
the electron amount to doing work. Doing that work rep-
circuit without current flowing. However, current cannot
resents a form of resistance to current flow. This resis-
flow unless voltage is present.
tance varies from one conductive material to another,
Voltage Drop
4Ω
When current is flowing through a circuit, voltage is
lost, or used up, by being converted to some other
energy form (heat, light, or magnetism). This loss of
12 V voltage is referred to as voltage drop. Every part
of a circuit offers some resistance, even the wires,
although the resistance in the wires should be very
low (Figure 1–16). The voltage drop in each part of
the circuit is proportional to the resistance in that part
Low resistance allows more
of the circuit. The total voltage dropped in a circuit
current to flow.
must equal the source voltage. In other words, all
of the voltage applied to a circuit must be converted
20 Ω
to another energy form within the circuit. If exces-
sive voltage drop occurs somewhere in a circuit due
to unwanted resistance, the amperage flowing in the
12 V circuit will be reduced. This also reduces the voltage
drop across the intended load component because
excessive voltage drop is occurring elsewhere in the
circuit. This reduces the load component’s ability to
function properly. Many good computers have been
Higher resistance allows less replaced simply because of problems involving exces-
current to flow. sive voltage drop in the power and ground circuits that
FIGURE 1–15 Resistance versus current flow. are used to power up the computer.
0.1 V lost across 0.2 V lost 5.82 V lost in 5.82 V lost in

fuse and connections in switch light as heat light as heat
as heat as heat and light and light
11.98 V 11.88 V 11.66 V 5.84 V

5.83 V 0.01 V
12.00 V 11.87 V 11.67 V
2V 2V
0.005 V
12 V
0.00 V
Small voltage drops
lost in wire as heat
0.005 V lost in
frame or body
ground path
as heat
VOLTAGE CONVERTED TO OTHER ENERGY FORMS
FIGURE 1–16 Voltage drop.
It should be stressed that, in order for voltage to (Figure 1–17), the current flow can be determined as
be dropped or used up, current must be flowing in the follows:
circuit. If current is not flowing in the circuit (as in the
case of a burned fuse or other open), voltage will not I 5 E>R or
be dropped, but rather source voltage will be present I 5 12 V>2 V 5 6 A
regardless of resistance all the way from the battery to
the positive side of the open, and a ground measure- (The Greek letter V, or omega, is often used as a
ment of 0 V will be present on the ground side of the symbol or an abbreviation for ohms, and amps is the
open as well. term often used as an abbreviation for amperes.)
If the resistance is 4 V and the current is 1.5 A, the
voltage applied can be found by:
Ohm’s Law
Ohm’s law defines the relationship between amperage, E 5 I 3 R or
voltage, and resistance. Ohm’s law says that it takes E 5 1.5 A 3 4 V 5 6 V
1 V to push 1 A through 1 V of resistance. Ohm’s law
can be expressed in one of three simple mathematical If the voltage is 12 V and the current is 3 A, the
equations: resistance can be found by:
E5I3R R 5 E>I or
I 5 E>R R 5 12 V>3 A 5 4 V
R 5 E>I
Perhaps the easiest way to remember how to use
where: E 5 electromotive force or voltage
these equations is to use the diagram in Figure 1–18.
I 5 intensity or amperage
R 5 resistance or ohms
The simplest application of Ohm’s law enables you to

find the value of any one of the three factors—amperage,
voltage, or resistance—if the other two are known. For
example, if the voltage is 12 V and the resistance is 2 V FIGURE 1–17 A simple series circuit.
3. Circuitry or current conductors complete the circuit

E between the voltage source and the load.
Also, most electrical circuits will have some type of

I × R component to provide each of the following functions:
FIGURE 1–18 Ohm’s law calculation. ●● Circuit protection, such as a fuse or circuit breaker,
serves to open the circuit in the event of excessive
current flow.
●● Circuit control, such as a switch or relay (electri-
To find the value of the unknown factor, cover the cally operated switch), provides the ability to con-
unknown factor with your thumb, and multiply or divide trol when current flows in the circuit.
the other factors as their positions indicate. ●● Ground, meaning the metal of the vehicle’s body,
There are many other applications of Ohm’s law, chassis, and engine, is commonly used in place of
some of which are quite complex. (A more complicated running a copper wire on the negative side of the
application is covered later in this chapter.) An auto- circuit (referred to as a negative ground).
motive technician is rarely required to apply Ohm’s law
directly to find or repair an electrical problem on a vehi- These components are often represented by
cle. But knowing and understanding the relationship of s ymbols, as shown in Figure 1–19. You should note that
the three factors is a must for the technician who wants any circuit protection devices, circuit control devices,
to be able to diagnose and repair electrical systems and grounds constitute part of the circuitry or current
effectively. conductors when used.
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS Circuit Types

There are two distinct types of electrical circuits, plus
Conductors and Insulators combinations of the two.
Previously, while discussing the electrons in the outer
Series Circuits. In a series circuit, there is only one
shell of an atom, it was said that the fewer electrons
path for current flow, and all the current flows through
there are in the outer shell, the easier it is to break them
every part of the circuit. Figure 1–19A and Figure 1–19B
loose from the atom. If an atom has five or more elec-
show simple series circuits. Even though there is only
trons in its outer shell, the electrons become much more
one load in each of these circuits, all the circuits qualify
difficult to break away from the atom, and the s ubstance
as series circuits because there is only one path for cur-
made up of those atoms is a very poor conductor—so
rent flow. Figure 1–20 shows a better example of a series
poor that it is classed as an insulator. Rubber, most
circuit. Not only is there just one path for current flow, but
plastics, glass, and ceramics are common examples
there are also two loads in series with each other. When
of insulators. Substances with four electrons in their
outer shell are poor conductors but can become good there are two or more loads in series, the current must
pass through one before it can pass through the next. The
ones under certain conditions. Thus, they are called
characteristics of a series circuit include the following:
s emiconductors. Silicon and germanium are good
examples of semiconductors. (Semiconductors are cov-
ered in more detail later in this chapter.) ●● Current flow is the same at all parts of the circuit.
Conductors are substances made up of atoms with ●● Resistance units are added together for total
three or fewer electrons in their outer shell. These elec- resistance.
trons are called free electrons because they are loosely ●● Current flow decreases as resistance units are
held and can be freed to travel to another atom. added.
●● All the voltage will be used up by all the resistance
in the circuit if current is flowing. There will be no
Circuit Design voltage left after the last resistance. Furthermore,
The following three elements are essential to the each ohm of resistance will share equally in the
operation of all electrical circuits: voltage drop.
●● An open in any part of the circuit disrupts the entire
1. Voltage source, such as a battery or generator, circuit.
provides voltage to the power circuit.
2. Load, such as a motor or light, performs the func- The following problems apply Ohm’s law to a series
tion the circuit was designed to perform and also circuit. Refer to Figure 1–21, which shows a compound
provides resistance to limit current. series circuit.
Voltage source Circuit protection Circuit control Load

(battery) (fuse) (switch) (type not indicated)
Conductor
Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Voltage source (circuit breaker) (switch) (light)
(battery)
Ground symbols indicate that points

are connected by frame or body
B
Voltage source Circuit protection

(alternator) (fusible link)
Relay
Load
(motor)
Control circuit
Ground side switch
C
When control circuit is turned ON, its coil creates a magnetic
field that closes the contacts, which turns ON the motor.
FIGURE 1–19 Circuit components.
Load 2 Series Circuit—Problem 1. Assume that the resis-

Load 1 (motor) tance of R1 is 2 V and that of R2 is 4 V; find the total
(resistor) current flow. In a series circuit, the resistance value of
each unit of resistance can be added together because
all of the current passes through each resistor.
I 5 E>R or
I 5 E> 1R1 1 R22 or
I 5 12 V> 12 V 1 4 V 2 or 12 V>6 V 5 2 A
FIGURE 1–20 Series circuit.

R1 R2 5.2 A
A
1.2 A 4A
A A
12 V
FIGURE 1–21 Series circuit. 10 3

12 V
Series Circuit—Problem 2. Assume the resistance

values are unknown in Figure 1–21, but that the total
current flow is 3 A. To find the total resistance:
FIGURE 1–22 Parallel circuit.
RT 5 E>I or
RT 5 12 V>3 A 5 4 V There are three possible mathematical formulas
for calculating the total resistance in a parallel circuit
Series Circuit—Problem 3. Find the voltage drop depending on the number of branches and how the
across R1, applying the same resistance values as resistances relate to each other. There is also a short-
in Problem 1. Each ohm of resistance shares equally cut method that can be used in place of any of the three
in the total voltage drop in a series circuit. Therefore, formulas, as demonstrated. The following p roblems
how much voltage is dropped (used up) by each ohm of apply Ohm’s law to a parallel circuit.
resistance in a circuit is also numerically equal to how
many amps are flowing in the circuit. As an example, Parallel Circuit—Problem 1: Calculating Total Resis-
if a 12 V circuit has a resistance total (RT) of 6 V we tance for a Parallel Circuit with Two Branches. The
know that the current flow is 2 A 112>6 5 22. But the product of R1 multiplied by R2 divided by the sum of
same math is also used to calculate how much volt- R1 plus R2 equals the resistance total (RT). This is
age is dropped by each measured ohm of resistance mathematically stated as:
to flow. If each ohm of resistance shares equally in the
voltage drop, then 12 V divided by 6 V indicates that 1R1 3 R22 > 1R1 1 R22 5 RT
each ohm of resistance will drop 2 V. Thus, because
you are concerned with the voltage drop across R1 In Figure 1–23, assume that R1 is 3 V and R2 is
in Figure 1–21, multiply the resistance of R1 by the 4 V. Then calculate the RT as follows:
circuit’s amperage.
13 V 3 4 V 2 > 13 V 1 4 V 2 5 12 V >7 V 5 1.71 V
Voltage drop across R1 5 R1 3 I or
2 V 3 2 A 5 4 V1Voltage drop across R12 Notice that the RT is less than the least resistor
value. This is because the total resistance to the flow of
Parallel Circuits. In a parallel circuit, the c onductors electrons is reduced as more branches that allow flow
split into branches with a load in each branch are added to the circuit.
( Figure 1–19C and Figure 1–22). Some current will
flow through each branch, with the most current flow- Parallel Circuit—Problem 2: Calculating Total
ing through the branch with the least resistance. The R esistance for a Parallel Circuit with More Than
characteristics of a parallel circuit include the following: Two Branches That Have Equal Resistances. The
resistance total (RT) is equal to the resistance of one
●● Current varies in each branch (unless resistance in
each branch is equal).
●● Total circuit current flow increases as more
branches are added.
●● Total circuit resistance goes down as more 12 V
branches are added and will always be less than R1 R2
the lowest single resistance unit in the circuit.
●● Source voltage is dropped across each branch.
●● An open in one branch does not affect other
branches. FIGURE 1–23 Parallel circuit with two branches.
branch divided by the number of branches. This is all the current flows to find the total current flow. Then
mathematically stated as: divide the assumed voltage by the total current flow
to find the resistance total. Let us try applying it to
1Resistance of one branch2 > Figure 1–24 with the same resistance values as used
1Number of branches2 5 RT earlier.
Let us assume a source voltage of 12 V. Using
In Figure 1–24, if each of the resistances in each Ohm’s law, we can calculate the current flow easily for
of the four branches is 3 V (all are equal), the total each branch as follows:
resistance can be calculated by dividing 3 V (the
resistance value of one branch) by 4 (the number 12 V divided by 2 V 1R12 56A
of branches). Thus, the resistance total would equal 12 V divided by 3 V 1R22 54A
0.75 V. Notice, again, that the RT is less than the 12 V divided by 4 V 1R32 53A
least resistor value. 12 V divided by 6 V 1R42 52A
Parallel Circuit—Problem 3: Calculating Total Resis- Then add up the current of each branch.
tance for a Parallel Circuit with More Than Two
Branches That Have Dissimilar Resistances. The
6 A 1 4 A 1 3 A 1 2 A 5 15 A
resistance total (RT) is equal to the reciprocal of the
sum of the reciprocals of each of the branch’s resis-
tance values. This is mathematically stated as: Now divide the assumed voltage by the total
current.
1> 1 11>R12 1 11>R22 1 11>R32 1 11>R42
12 V divided by 15 A 5 0.8 V 1RT2
1 1and so on c 2 2 5 RT
Now let us assume another convenient voltage of
In Figure 1–24, if R1 5 2 V, R2 5 3 V, R3 5 4 V,
60 V. Again, using Ohm’s law, we can easily calculate
and R4 5 6 V, then:
the current flow for each branch as follows:
RT 5 1> 1 11>22 1 11>32 1 11>42 1 11>62 2 or
60 V divided by 2 V 1R12 5 30 A
RT 5 1> 1 10.52 1 10.332 1 10.252 1 10.162 2 or
60 V divided by 3V 1R22 5 20 A
RT 5 1>1.24 5 0.806 V
Notice, again, that the RT is less than the least
resistor value. Also, this complex mathematical formula Then add up the current of each branch.
is best done using a calculator with a memory feature.
But there is an easier way. 30 A 1 20 A 1 15 A 1 10 A 5 75 A
Solving Total Resistance for a Parallel Circuit Using Now divide the assumed voltage by the total
the Method of Assumed Voltages. This is a “cheat” current.
method for finding the resistance total of any parallel
circuit, whether it has two branches or more than two 60 V divided by 75 A 5 0.8 V 1RT2
branches and whether the resistances of the branches
are equal or dissimilar. Therefore, any voltage that is convenient to use
Assume any convenient voltage, be it your source with the particular resistance values will work for this
voltage or any other voltage that is convenient to shortcut method. This makes it easy enough to calcu-
perform the math with. Calculate the current flow for late the resistance total for any parallel circuit, thereby
each branch at the assumed voltage. Then add up eliminating the need for a calculator.
Series-Parallel Circuits. Some circuits have charac-

teristics of a series as well as those of a parallel circuit.
1 There are two basic types of series-parallel circuits. The
R1 R2 R3 R4 most common is a parallel circuit with at least one resis-
2 tance unit in series with all branches (Figure 1–25). All
the current flowing through the circuit in Figure 1–25
must pass through the indicator light before it divides
FIGURE 1–24Parallel circuit with more than to go through the two heating elements, which are in
two branches. parallel with each other.
Indicator light Heat Indicator light

elements
R3
R1 R3
12 V 2 1
12 V R1 R2
Winding R2
4
FIGURE 1–26 Series string in parallel.
FIGURE 1–25 Series-parallel circuit. If 3 V are dropped across R3 from a source voltage
of 12 V, 9 V are applied to R1 and R2.
To solve for current, resistance, or voltage drop val-
ues in a series-parallel circuit, you must identify how Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 4. Find the current
the resistance units relate to each other, and then use flow through each of the following resistors.
whichever set of formulas (series circuit or parallel cir- The current flow through R1 is calculated as
cuit) applies. follows:
Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 1. In Figure 1–25, I1 5 E>R1 or

assume a resistance of 4 V for the indicator light (R3), I1 5 9 V>20 V 5 0.45 A
20 V for R1, and 30 V for R2. Find the total resistance
for the circuit. The current flow through R2 is calculated as
Branches R1 and R2 are in parallel with each other follows:
and in series with R3. First, use the product over the
sum method (or the method of assumed voltages may I2 5 E>R2 or
also be used) to solve for the combined resistance of I2 5 9 V>30 V 5 0.30 A
R1 and R2.
The second type of series-parallel circuit is a
R 5 R1 3 R2>R1 1 R2 or arallel circuit in which at least one of the branch c ircuits
p
R 5 20 V 3 30 V >20 V 1 30 V contains two or more loads in series (Figure 1–26).
R 5 600 V >50 V 5 12 V This type of circuit may be referred to as a series string
in parallel. Finding the total current, resistance, or
Now add the total resistance of R1 and R2 112 V 2 voltage drop for this circuit is easy. Identify the branch,
to the resistance of R3 14 V 2. or branches, that have multiple loads in series and add
up the resistances within that branch. Then treat the
RT 5 R 1R1 and R22 1 R3 or 12 V 1 4 V 5 16 V circuit like any other parallel circuit. When troubleshoot-
ing this kind of circuit in a vehicle, failing to recognize
Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 2. Find the total the branch of a circuit you are testing as having loads in
current flow for the circuit. series could cause confusion.
IT 5 E>RT or IT 5 12 V>16 V 5 0.75 A

POLARITY
Before you can find the current flow through R1 or Just as a magnet has polarity—a north pole and a south
R2, you must find the voltage applied to R1 and R2. pole that determine the directional force of the lines of
Remember that R3 is in series with both R1 and R2. force—an electrical circuit has polarity. Instead of using
Also remember that in a series circuit, a portion of the north and south to identify the polarity, an electrical
source voltage is dropped across each resistance unit. circuit’s polarity is identified by positive and negative.
Therefore, because there is a voltage drop across R3, An electrical circuit’s polarity is determined by its power
a full 12 V is not applied to R1 and R2.
Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 3. Find the voltage

drop across R3. CAUTION
If you are not absolutely sure about the circuit you
V3 5 IT 3 R3 or are testing, consult the correct wiring schematic for the
V3 5 0.75 A 3 4 V 5 3 V vehicle.
Positive side Worn or burned

of circuit contacts
Load Likely locations for loose

or corroded connections
Negative side FIGURE 1–28 Possible locations in a circuit for

of circuit an open or high resistance.
FIGURE 1–27 Circuit polarity.
it could, because the additional resistance reduces
current flow through the circuit (Figure 1–28). Excessive
source. The best example is a battery (Figure 1–27). resistance can also result from a faulty repair or mod-
The side of the circuit that connects to the positive ification of a circuit in which a wire that is too long or
side of the battery is positive and on most vehicles is too small in diameter has been installed. The location
the insulated side. The voltage on this side is usually of excessive resistance in a circuit can be easily found
near the source voltage. Most of the voltage is dropped with a series of voltage drop tests, which are discussed
in the load where most of the work is done. The nega- in Chapter 5.
tive side of the circuit carries the current from the load
to the negative side of the battery. There is usually very
little resistance in the negative side of the circuit, and Shorts
the voltage is near zero. Because this side of the circuit
A short is a fault in a circuit that causes current to
has the same potential as the vehicle’s frame and sheet
bypass a portion of a circuit. The term short as used in
metal, this side of the circuit is not usually insulated, but
electrical terminology means that the current is taking
rather is connected to the metal of the engine, chassis,
a shortcut rather than following the path it is supposed
or body and is therefore referred to as the ground side
to take.
of the circuit.
If, in an electromagnetic load, the windings
o verheat, resulting in melting of the material that
insulates one winding from the next, the current may
CIRCUIT FAULTS bypass just a few of the windings, thus reducing the
Three kinds of faults can occur in an electrical or elec- circuit’s intended resistance (Figure 1–29A). If only a
tronic circuit: opens, excessive resistance, and shorts. relatively small number of the coil’s loops are shorted,
the increase in current flow might not be enough to
further damage the circuit, although it might blow a fuse
Opens if the circuit is fuse protected. The device might even
By far the most common fault in electrical and elec- continue to work but probably at reduced efficiency.
tronic circuits is an open circuit, or open. An open cir- But if the shorted load is controlled by a computer,
cuit means that there is a point in the circuit where the resulting increase in current flow may be substan-
resistance is so high that current cannot flow. An open tial enough to destroy the computer’s ability to con-
can be the result of a broken wire, a loose or dirty control this circuit (depending upon the current protection
nection, a blown fuse, or a faulty component in the load that may or may not be designed into the computer),
device. Experienced technicians know that wires rarely resulting in the need to replace the computer as part
break except in applications in which the wire experi- of the repair. Or the current may bypass the entirety of
ences a lot of flexing. Most opens occur in connections, the load, thus reducing the circuit’s resistance to near
switches, and components. A switch in a circuit pro- 0 V (Figure 1–29B). Also, a short may bypass a switch
vides a way to conveniently open the circuit. Of course, or relay-operated switch and thus create an “always
when a circuit is opened deliberately, it is not a fault. on” condition in which the circuit cannot be properly
controlled (Figure 1–29C).
Excessive Resistance Short to Power. Figure 1–29B demonstrates a short
A loose or dirty connection or a partially cut wire can to power (positive) and a short that also allows current
cause excessive resistance in a circuit. Under these to fully bypass the load. This would likely quickly blow
conditions, the circuit can still work, but not as well as the fuse due to the increased current. In this example,
the fuse but instead would keep the circuit energized

Current continuously.
bypasses Short
loop (coils make
physical contact) ELECTRICAL COMPONENTS
A
Fixed Resistors
Short
A fixed resistor is a component that has a fixed
e lectrical resistance designed into it (Figure 1–30).
Carbon is a substance commonly used to form a fixed
resistor. A fixed resistor can be designed with many
different levels of fixed resistance, different tolerances,
and different wattage ratings.
B Variable Resistors
A variable resistor has three terminals (Figure 1–30).
The outermost two terminals have a specific fixed resis-
tance designed between them. The center terminal
connects to an electrically conductive wiper that wipes
across the length of the resistive material, therefore
Short changing the resistance between the center terminal
C and each of the outermost terminals.
A variable resistor may be used to control current
FIGURE 1–29 Shorts. flow in a load circuit, in which case it is known as a rheo-
stat. It may also be used as a sensor to sense physical
position and mechanical action as described in Chap-
the circuit will not operate at all until the problem is ter 3. It may operate in a linear fashion (straight-line
corrected and the fuse is replaced. If an improper fuse movement) or in a rotary fashion. Generally, rheostats
has been installed with an amperage rating that is have a high-wattage design and a resistance mate-
higher than the manufacturer-recommended amper- rial that consists of a wound resistance wire. Sensors
age rating, a fire could result. DO NOT EVER replace a have a low-wattage design and a resistance material
fuse with one other than the fuse recommended by the that consists of carbon. Either type has a physical wear
manufacturer unless the manufacturer directs you to do factor due to the wiping action of the wiper across the
so through a technical service bulletin (TSB). resistance material and will commonly fail over time.
A short finder is an excellent tool for finding this
type of short; it consists of a self-resetting circuit
breaker that temporarily replaces the fuse and a sen-
Capacitors
sitive inductive meter that can sense the pulsing of the A capacitor is an electrical component that will store
magnetic field from the battery to the point of the short. and give up electrons according to the voltages it is
connected between (Figure 1–30). It does not have
Short to Ground. Figure 1–29C demonstrates a short electrical continuity through it and, therefore, does not
to ground (negative) and a short that also bypasses the complete the circuit it is connected into. The n umber
switch that controls the load. This short would not blow of electrons that can be stored in it is known as its
Fixed Rotary Linear Variable Capacitor

resistor variable variable resistor
resistor resistor
FIGURE 1–30 Symbols for common electrical components.
capacitance, usually rated in microfarads 1mF2. One in its outer shell, it exhibits a tendency to acquire
farad is 6.28 billion billion electrons or 1 amp’s worth of more until it has eight. If there are seven electrons in
electrons. the outer shell, the tendency to acquire another one
A capacitor consists of two electrical elements is stronger than if there are only six. Once there are
separated by a dielectric insulator. A simple capacitor eight, it becomes very stable; in other words, it is hard
can be made by layering a sheet of wax paper (noncon- to get the atom to gain or lose an electron. In a semi-
ductive) in between two sheets of aluminum foil (con- conductor material—for example, a silicon crystal—the
ductive) and then rolling them up into a tight roll. One atoms share valence electrons in what are called cova-
piece of foil will not touch the other piece of foil. There- lent bonds (Figure 1–31). Each atom positions itself so
fore, it will not complete a circuit that the two pieces that it can share the valence electrons of neighboring
of foil are connected into. However, because of the atoms, giving each atom, in effect, eight valence elec-
close proximity of the two pieces of foil to each other, trons. This lattice structure is characteristic of a crystal
each foil will take on and give off electrons according solid and provides two useful characteristics:
to the voltages it is connected between and according
to its physical size. In essence, a capacitor is a storage 1. Impurities can be added to the semiconductor
battery for electrons. material to increase its conductivity; this is called
doping.
2. It becomes negative temperature coefficient,
SEMICONDUCTORS meaning that its resistance goes down as its tem-
perature goes up. (This principle is put to use in
Semiconductors are the basis of today’s solid-state temperature sensors, as discussed in Chapter 3.)
electronics—electronic devices such as computers and
amplifiers that can control the most complex systems
without having any moving parts. As mentioned previ-
Doping
ously in this chapter, a semiconductor is an element All the valence electrons in a pure semiconductor
with four valence electrons. The two most-used semi- material are in valence rings containing eight electrons
conductor materials for solid-state components are sili- (Figure 1–31). With this atomic structure, no electrons
con and germanium. Of these two, silicon is used much can be easily freed, and there are no holes to attract
more than germanium. Therefore, most of this discus- an electron even if some were available. The result is
sion will apply to silicon. that this material has a high resistance to current flow.
As previously stated, an atom with three or fewer Adding very small amounts of certain other elements
electrons in its outer shell easily gives them up. If an can greatly reduce the semiconductor’s resistance.
atom has more than four but fewer than eight electrons Adding trace amounts (about 1 atom of the doping
Si Si Si Si
Valence
electron
Si Si Si Si
Si Si Si Si
Each silicon atom shares an electron with each neighboring atom.

FIGURE 1–31 Covalent bonds.
lement for every 100 million semiconductor atoms) of

e bonding with neighboring atoms; it is held in place only
an element with either five or three valence electrons by its attraction to its parent phosphorus atom—a bond
can create a flaw in some of the covalent bonds. that can be broken easily. This doped semiconductor
Adding atoms with five valence electrons (referred material is classified as an N-type material. Note that
to as pentavalent atoms) such as arsenic, antimony, or it does not have a negative charge because the mate-
phosphorus achieves a crystal structure as shown in rial contains the same number of protons as electrons.
Figure 1–32. In Figure 1–32, phosphorus is the dop- It does have electrons that can be easily attracted to
ing element, and silicon is the base semiconductor some other positive potential.
element. Four of the phosphorus atom’s five valence Adding atoms with three valence electrons (referred
electrons are shared in the valence rings of neighboring to as trivalent atoms) such as aluminum, gallium,
silicon atoms, but the fifth is not included in the covalent indium, or boron achieves an atomic structure as seen
Si Si Si Si
Free
electron P Si Si Si
Si Si Si P
FIGURE 1–32 Silicon doped with phosphorus.
B Si Si Si
Hole
Si Si B Si
Si Si Si Si
FIGURE 1–33 Silicon doped with boron.
Doping Semiconductor Crystals P-type N-type
In actuality, a PN junction is not produced by placing Holes

a P-type and an N-type semiconductor back to back. Free
Rather, a single semiconductor crystal is doped on one electrons
side with the pentavalent atom’s opposite sides and on
the other with trivalent atoms. The center of the crys-
tal then becomes the junction. The doping is done by
first bringing the semiconductor crystal to a molten
temperature. In a liquid state, the covalent bonds are
broken. The desired amount of doping material is then FIGURE 1–34 P-type and N-type crystals.
added. As the semiconductor crystal cools, the cova-
Note: For simplicity, only the holes and free
lent bonds redevelop with the doping atoms included.
electrons in the valence ring are shown.
in Figure 1–33. In Figure 1–33, boron is used as the

Depletion zone
doping material in a silicon crystal. The boron atom’s
three valence electrons are shared in the valence
ring of three of the neighboring silicon atoms, but the P-type N-type
valence ring of the fourth neighboring silicon atom is
left with a hole (electron deficiency) instead of a shared Holes
Free
electron. Remember that a valence ring of seven elec-
electrons
trons aggressively seeks an eighth electron. In fact, the
attraction to any nearby free electron is stronger than
the free electron’s attraction to its companion proton
in the nucleus of its parent atom. Thus, this material is
classified as a P-type.
Negative ions Positive ions
PN Junction Junction
Figure 1–34 shows a P-type crystal and an N-type FIGURE 1–35 PN junction. Note: For simplic-
crystal separated from each other. This figure shows ity, only the holes and free electrons in the
only the free electrons in the N-type material and the valence ring are shown.
holes (electron deficiencies) in the P-type material that
result from the way in which the doping atoms bond
with the base semiconductor material. If the P-type ●● The phosphorus atoms near the junction in the
and the N-type are put in physical contact with each N-type have each lost an electron, which makes
other, the free electrons near the junction in the N-type them positive ions (the free electron that crossed
cross the junction and fill the first holes they come to the junction to fill a hole in the P-type abandoned a
in the seven-electron valence rings near the junction in proton in the nucleus of the phosphorus atom).
the P-type (Figure 1–35). The junction is the area that ●● The boron atoms near the junction in the P-type
joins the P-type and N-type. This action quickly creates have each gained an electron, which makes them
a zone around the junction in which: negative ions (the electron that dropped into the
valence ring around the boron atom is not matched
●● There are no more free electrons in that portion of by a proton in the nucleus of the boron atom).
the N-type.
●● There are no more free holes (electron d eficiencies) The positive ions near the junction in the N-type
in that portion of the P-type. are attracted to the free electrons that are farther from
●● The valence rings near the junction in both the the junction, but they are more strongly repulsed by the
N-type and P-type have eight shared electrons, so negative ions just across the junction. Likewise, the
they are reluctant to gain or lose any more. negative ions in the P-type are attracted to the holes
that are farther from the junction, but those holes are
Another way to state the information in the preced- more strongly repulsed by the positive ions on the
ing list is to say that there are no longer any current car- N-side of the junction. The extra electrons in the neg-
riers in the zone around the junction. This zone is often ative ion atoms are somewhat attracted to the nearby
referred to as the depletion zone. It is also sometimes holes, but they are more strongly bound by the covalent
referred to as a boundary layer. In addition: bonding into which they have just dropped.
Keep in mind that a layer of negative ions along Neutralized Neutralized

the junction in the P-type and a layer of positive ions negative ions positive ions
along the junction of the N-type have been created. The
opposing ionic charges on the two sides of the depletion P-type N-type
zone create an electrical potential of about 0.6 V (0.3 V
for germanium). This potential, often referred to as the
barrier potential, cannot be measured directly, but its
polarity prevents current from flowing across the junc-
tion unless it is overcome by a greater potential.
Diodes
If two of these semiconductor materials, one N-type
and one P-type, are placed back to back, the simplest Hole Electron
semiconductor device, known as a diode, is formed. A flow flow
diode operates as an electrical one-way check valve
with no moving parts; it will allow current to pass in one
direction only. If a positive electrical potential is applied
to the positive end and a negative electrical potential
is applied to the negative end and the applied electri- FIGURE 1–36 Forward bias voltage applied to
cal pressure (voltage) is greater than 0.6 V, the applied a diode.
polarity will cause the diode to gain continuity across
the PN junction. In this condition the diode is said to
be forward biased (Figure 1–36). The higher negative Free P-type N-type Free
potential introduced by the forward bias voltage at the holes electrons
negative side of the crystal repels the free electrons in
Depletion zone
the N-type material. They move toward the junction,
canceling the charge of the positive ions. At the same
time, the higher positive potential introduced by the
forward bias voltage on the positive side of the crystal
repels the free holes in the P-type. They move toward
the junction, canceling the charge of the negative ions.
With the barrier potential overcome, current easily flows
across the junction, with electrons moving toward the
external positive potential and holes moving toward
the external negative potential. When the forward bias Negative Positive
ions ions
Conventional Current Flow

versus Electron Current Flow
FIGURE 1–37 Reverse bias voltage applied to
Before electrons were known, Benjamin Franklin a diode.
surmised that current was a flow of positive charges
moving from positive to negative in a circuit. Franklin’s
belief became so accepted that even after electrons voltage is removed, barrier potential redevelops, and
were discovered and scientists learned that current flow the diode again presents high resistance to current flow.
consists of electrons moving from negative to positive, If this polarity is reversed, the diode acts as an
the old idea was hard to give up. As a result, the idea insulator. In this condition the diode is said to be
of positive charges moving from positive to negative is reverse biased (Figure 1–37). If a reverse bias voltage
still often used. It is referred to as conventional current is applied, with a negative potential applied to the
flow or less formally as hole flow. P-side and a positive potential applied to the N-side,
The conventional current flow theory has gotten the positive potential attracts free electrons away from
a boost in recent years because it helps explain how the junction, and the negative potential attracts holes
semiconductors work: positively charged holes move away from the junction. This causes the depletion zone
from positive charges to negative charges as electrons to be even wider and the resistance across the junction
move from negative charges to positive charges. to increase even more. If the reverse bias voltage goes
high enough—that is, above 50 V for most rectifier the cathode end), it will operate as an insulator. Figure
diodes (those designed to conduct enough current to 1–38B shows a modified diode symbol that represents
do work, and the most common type)—current will flow. a zener diode.
It will rise quickly, and in most cases the diode will be On actual diodes, the diode symbol can be printed
damaged. This is called the breakdown voltage. on one side to indicate the anode and cathode ends
Diodes can be designed to carry various amounts (Figure 1–38C), or a colored band can be used instead
of current. For example, the diodes in an alternator are of the symbol (Figure 1–38D). In this case the colored
designed to carry a substantial amount of current; at band will be closer to the cathode end. Figure 1–38E
the other extreme, the miniaturized diodes contained shows a power diode. A power diode is large enough
within an IC chip can only carry very small amounts of to conduct larger amounts of current to power a work-
current and yet will still function electrically as diodes. ing device. It will be housed in a metal case, which can
The amount of current that a diode (or any other type serve as either the anode or the cathode connector
of semiconductor with one or more PN junctions) can and will also dissipate heat away from the semiconduc-
safely handle is determined by such things as its physi- tor crystals inside. The polarity of a power diode can be
cal size, the type of semiconductor and doping material indicated by markings, or in the case of specific part
used, its heat dissipating ability, and the surrounding number applications such as for an alternator, it may be
temperature. If the circuit through which forward bias sized or shaped so that it can be installed only one way.
voltage is applied does not have enough resistance to
limit current flow to what the semiconductor can toler- Diode Applications
ate, it will overheat and the junction will be permanently
damaged (open or shorted). The best-known application of diodes in the automobile
is their use to rectify AC voltage to DC voltage within
Diode Symbols
The symbol most commonly used to represent a diode
is an arrow with a bar at the point (Figure 1–38A). The Zener Diode
point always indicates the direction of current flow using
A zener diode is one in which the crystals are more
conventional theory. With electron theory, the flow is
heavily doped. Because of this the depletion zone is
opposite the direction that the arrow is pointing. The
much narrower, and its barrier voltage becomes very
arrow side of the symbol also indicates the P-side of
intense when a reverse bias voltage is applied. At a
the diode, often referred to as the anode. The bar at the
given level of intensity, the barrier voltage pulls elec-
end of the arrow’s point represents the N-side and is
trons out of normally stable valence rings, creating
often called the cathode. Thus, a better way to look at a
free electrons. When this occurs, current flows across
diode symbol within an electrical schematic and know
the diode in a reverse direction without damaging the
how it affects the circuit is to do as follows: If the polarity
diode. The breakdown voltage at which this occurs can
applied to the diode is more positive at the anode end
be controlled by the amount of doping material added
(or more negative at the cathode end), it will operate as
in the manufacturing process. Zener diodes are often
a conductor; likewise, if the polarity applied to the diode
used in voltage-regulating circuits.
is more negative at the anode end (or more positive at
Cathode
Colored
band
A B C D
Metal case
Anode E
Low-power
Diode symbols
in-line diodes
FIGURE 1–38 Diodes.
A However, because the alternator contains three

stator windings into which the rotating field windings
1 2
induce voltage pulses, one immediately after another,
initially three sets of these positive and negative voltage
pulses are induced into the stator windings for each
passing of a north and a south pole of the field windings
2 1 (Figure 1–42). Then six diodes contained in the recti-
B fier bridge are used to fully rectify the negative voltage
pulses into positive voltage pulses (Figure 1–43). The
effective voltage applied to the battery is actually a rela-
tively stable DC voltage that only varies slightly around
14.2 V, as shown by the solid waveform depicted in
Figure 1–44. The slight variation in this waveform is
2 1
known as alternator AC ripple and is best measured at
the alternator output terminal with an AC voltmeter or
a lab scope. If a diode is open or shorted, or if a stator
winding is open, the amplitude (difference between the
FIGURE 1–39 Full wave AC-to-DC rectification. high and the low voltage) of this signal will be excessive.
Excessive AC ripple causes problems with a computer’s
internal and external communication and can be a rea-
son why good computers are unnecessarily replaced.
AC ripple should never exceed 200 millivolts (mV).
0V
FIGURE 1–40 AC voltage induced in a stator 0V

winding with one north magnetic field and FIGURE 1–41 Full wave rectification of the AC
one south magnetic field passing by. voltage to a DC voltage.
the alternator. The winding in Figure 1–39 represents

one of the stator windings within the alternator. The
alternator’s rotating electromagnetic field windings
0V
induce an AC voltage pulse, within each stator wind-
ing with each passing of a north and south pole of the
electromagnetic field windings (Figure 1–40). In Figure
1–39, when point A is positive and point B is negative, FIGURE 1–42 AC voltage pulses induced in the
the positive charge at point A is blocked by the diode
three stator windings of an alternator.
on the left and is conducted by the diode on the right,
and the negative charge at point B is blocked by the
diode on the right and conducted by the diode on the
left. When point A is negative and point B is positive,
the negative charge at point A is blocked by the diode
on the right and is conducted by the diode on the left, 0V
and the positive charge at point B is blocked by the
FIGURE 1–43 Voltage pulses of three stator
diode o n the left and conducted by the diode on the
right. Thus, the AC voltage pulses are applied to windings, all rectified to positive voltage pulses.
the vehicle’s battery as positive DC voltage pulses,
because the negative AC voltage pulse has now been
flipped upright as a positive voltage pulse (Figure 1–41).
This is known as full wave AC-to-DC rectification. (Half
wave rectification would simply use one diode to block 0V
the negative voltage pulses, turning them into wasted
heat energy, whereas full wave rectification uses both FIGURE 1–44 The resulting DC voltage after
the positive and negative pulses by turning the nega- AC-to-DC rectification as it is applied from the
tive pulses into positive ones.) alternator’s output terminal to the battery.
Another automotive application of diodes is to the load) is turned off, current collapses very quickly,
ontrol current flow paths in circuits that share a
c just as when you shut off a valve in a water pipe, the
common load component. An example of this is shown valve forcibly and immediately stops the flow of water.
in Figure 1–45. The driver’s door switch closes when In an electrical circuit, when the driver is turned off, the
the door is opened to alert the module that it should current stops rapidly. As a result, the electromagnetic
remove the motorized shoulder belt from the driver. field collapses so rapidly across its own winding that
Similarly, the passenger’s door switch closes when the it induces a voltage potential within the winding of the
passenger door is opened to alert the module that it opposite polarity of the originally applied voltage. In
should remove the motorized shoulder belt from the many circuits, this voltage spike is suppressed at the
passenger. However, either switch will ground the actuator’s winding in order to keep it from reaching and
“door ajar” lamp in the instrument cluster to illuminate damaging the on-board computers.
it. Without diodes, opening one door would cause a In order to suppress the voltage spike created
ground signal that would back up through the other each time an electromagnetic load is de-energized, a
door’s circuit and would cause the module to believe circuit must be placed in parallel to the electromagnetic
falsely that both doors had been opened. By using load that will allow the voltage potential to dissipate.
diodes within the “door ajar” lamp assembly, the circuits The voltage potential, of course, simply consists of an
can be effectively isolated from each other even though excess of electrons at the negative end of the wind-
either circuit can illuminate the warning lamp. ing and a deficiency of electrons at the positive end. If
A third automotive application that uses diodes is another wire were simply connected between the two
voltage spike suppression, though the diode is only one ends of the winding, the voltage spike would be allowed
of three methods used. Figure 1–46 shows a winding to dissipate each time it was induced in the winding.
that represents an electromagnetic load that is switched However, this also creates another problem in that the
on and off. When current flow is switched on, current wire also constitutes a short that bypasses the load
ramps up relatively slowly to the fully saturated level device during normal operation. So a component must
as dictated by Ohm’s law, just as turning on a water be added to this parallel circuit to restrict the current
valve will only allow the water pressure that is present that could bypass the load during normal operation
to begin pushing water through the pipe. Therefore, the while allowing the voltage spike that is induced in the
resulting electromagnetic field does not build quickly winding each time it is de-energized to dissipate.
enough to induce a voltage spike within the electromag- Three different methods are commonly used. If a
netic winding as it expands across it. H owever, when diode is placed in this parallel circuit with the c athode
the driver (transistor within the computer that controls end placed toward the positive side of the circuit, the
diode blocks the current flow during normal operation
12 V (Figure 1–47). This prevents any current from bypassing
the load, but it will allow the voltage spike to dissipate
Ignition
switch
1 2
2 1
0V 12 V
Warning lamp assembly

FIGURE 1–46Electromagnetic load controlled
by a computer’s transistor.
Motorized shoulder
belt control module
1 2
Driver Passenger
door door 2 1
switch switch 0V 12 V
FIGURE 1–45 Diodes used to control current FIGURE 1–47 A diode used to suppress the
flow paths in circuits that share a common voltage spike, known as a spike diode or a
load. clamping diode.
through the diode each time the circuit is de-energized Transistors

due to the reversed polarity of the voltage spike. This is
commonly called a clamping diode. Another method The transistor, probably more than any other single
is to place a calculated resistance in the parallel circuit component, has made possible the world of modern
that allows a minimal amount of current flow during electronics. A transistor operates as an electrical switch
normal operation but has a resistance value that is with no moving parts. Transistors most commonly used
low enough to allow the bulk of the voltage spike to in automotive applications are called bipolar transistors
dissipate. The diode or resistor is commonly seen in because they use two polarities—electrons and holes
electrical schematics in spike suppression relays. A third (electron deficiencies). Bipolar transistors contain three
method is to place a capacitor in the parallel c ircuit, doped semiconductor crystal layers called the collector,
which temporarily absorbs the voltage spike potential, the base, and the emitter (Figure 1–48). The base is
such as in many Ford idle air control solenoids. always sandwiched between the emitter and the collec-
There are many other applications of diodes in tor. The major difference between a diode and a tran-
today’s vehicles, including solid-state voltage regulators sistor is that a transistor has two PN junctions instead
and electronic modules. As the simplest semiconduc- of one. In effect, a transistor is two diodes placed back
tor, the diode is a basic but effective building block of to back. They can be arranged to have a P-type emit-
today’s electronic systems. ter and collector with an N-type base (a PNP transis-
tor) or an N-type emitter and collector with a P-type
base (an NPN transistor). PNP transistors are used for
positive side switching, and NPN transistors are used
Semiconductor crystals for negative (ground) side switching. Because auto-
motive computers control most automotive load com-
ponents by switching the ground side, the NPN is the
more common transistor; it is discussed in the following
paragraphs.
In an NPN transistor, the emitter is heavily doped
with pentavalent atoms; its function is to emit free elec-
trons into the base. The base is lightly doped with tri-
Emitter Base Collector valent atoms and is physically much thinner than the
other sections. The collector is slightly less doped than
FIGURE 1–48 Components of a bipolar the emitter but is more doped than the base.
transistor.
Junctions
Negative ions Negative ions

Positive ions Holes Positive ions
Free
electrons
Free
electrons
Depletion zones
N P N
FIGURE 1–49 Unbiased transistor.
Recalling the discussion of the PN junction, you between the base and the emitter allows current to flow
know that a barrier potential forms at each junction between the collector and the emitter.
(Figure 1–49). An NPN transistor can be forward biased A transistor is also much like a relay in that a
by applying an external voltage of at least 0.6 V to both relatively small current through the base circuit controls
the base and the emitter, with the positive potential a larger current through the collector. The amount of
to the base (the P portion) and the negative potential current through the base is determined by the amount
to the emitter. With a positive potential also applied to of voltage and resistance in the base circuit. In fact, by
the collector, the diode will gain continuity through it carefully controlling the voltage applied to the base, the
from the collector to the emitter, thereby completing the amount of current flow through the collector can also
circuit for whatever load is connected to the collector be controlled. If enough voltage is applied to the base
(Figure 1–50). to just start reducing barrier potential, a relatively small
Because the base is lightly doped, it does not have amount of current will begin to flow from the emitter to
many holes into which the free electrons can drop. The the collector. This is called partial saturation. As base
holes that do exist are quickly filled. Because the base voltage is increased, collector current increases. When
crystal is thin and has so few holes for free electrons to enough voltage is applied to the base, full saturation
drop into, the majority of the free electrons coming from is achieved. There is usually a small voltage spread
the emitter cross the base into the collector. The col- between minimum and full saturation, and once full
lector readily accepts them because the free electrons saturation is achieved, increasing voltage at the base
in the collector are attracted to the positive potential at will not increase collector current. If too much voltage is
the collector electrode and leave behind a lot of posi- applied, the transistor will break down.
tive ions. Because there are so few holes that allow free Transistors, therefore, act like switches that can be
electrons to drop into valence rings in the base, the cur- turned on by applying power to the base circuit. There
rent in the base/emitter circuit is quite small compared are many types of transistors, but the most common fall
to the current in the collector/emitter circuit. into two categories: power and switching.
If the biasing voltage is removed from the base, Power transistors are larger because the junc-
the barrier potential is restored at the junctions, and tion areas must be larger to pass more current across
both base and collector currents stop flowing. The base them. Passing current across the junctions produces
current flow caused by the forward-biasing voltage heat; therefore, a power transistor must be mounted
Neutralized Neutralized
negative ions negative ions
Neutralized Base
positive ions Positive ions
Free
Free electrons
electrons
Emitter Collector
N P N
– +
FIGURE 1–50 Forward-biased NPN transistor.
on something, ordinarily called a heat sink, which can Transistor Symbols and Transistor Operation
draw heat from the transistor and dissipate it into the
air. Otherwise, it will likely overheat and fail. In electrical schematics, transistors are represented
Switching transistors are much smaller. They are by symbols. Figure 1–51 shows the symbols that
often used in information processing or control circuits, represent the components of a transistor: the collector,
and they conduct currents ranging from a few milliamps the base, and the emitter. When these components
(thousandths of an ampere) down to a few micro-amps are arranged as in Figure 1–52, an NPN transistor is
(millionths of an ampere). They are most often designed represented. (Most electrical schematics will put a cir-
for extremely fast on and off cycling rates, and the base cle around these three components, but exceptions will
circuits that control them are designed to turn them on be seen in some schematics.) An NPN transistor can
at full saturation or to turn them off. easily be identified because the emitter always points
outward (simply pretend that the NPN acronym stands
for NEVER POINTING IN). In Figure 1–52, the IC chip
controls the signal to the base leg of the transistor in
order to turn it on and off. This controlling signal must be
Effect of Temperature of a positive polarity as the base is also positive (simply
on a PN Junction match the polarity of the applied voltage potential to the
polarity of the base—or the middle letter of the tran-
As the temperature of a semiconductor device goes sistor’s acronym). But remember that the transistor’s
up, the electrons in the valence ring move at a greater controlling circuit must also be completed through the
speed. This causes some to break out of the valence emitter. Therefore, if the base takes a positive potential
ring, creating more free electrons and holes. The to forward bias the transistor, then the emitter must be
increase in the number of free electrons and holes connected to a negative potential. The negative poten-
causes the depletion layer to become thinner, reducing tial applied to the emitter is always connected, thereby
the barrier potential. Barrier potential voltages of 0.7 V allowing the transistor to be controlled solely by the
for silicon and 0.3 V for germanium semiconductors switching on and off of the positive potential applied to
are true at room temperature only. At elevated tem-
peratures, the lower barrier potential lowers the exter-
nal bias voltage required to cause current to flow across
the junction and raises the current flow. COLLECTOR
This means that the expected operating tempera-
ture range of a semiconductor device must be consid-
ered when the circuit is being designed and that when BASE
in operation, the operating temperature must be kept
within that temperature limit. If the operating tempera-
ture goes higher, unless some kind of compensating EMITTER
resistance is used, current values will go up, and the FIGURE 1–51 The components that make up a
semiconductor might be damaged. transistor.
12 V 1
Controlled
circuit: 250 mA
NPN
TRANSISTOR
Controlling
circuit: 10 mA
12 V 1
In this example, the emitter is carrying 260 mA.
FIGURE 1–52 An NPN transistor circuit.
12 V 1
PNP
TRANSISTOR
Controlling Controlled
circuit: 10 mA circuit: 300 mA
12 V 1
In this example, the emitter is carrying 310 mA.
FIGURE 1–53 A PNP transistor circuit.
the base. Of course, if the emitter of an NPN transistor H-Gate Operation

is always connected to a negative potential by reason of
the controlling circuit, then it must also be connected to An H-gate is defined as two pairs of transistors designed
the same negative potential by reason of the controlled to be able to reverse the polarity applied to a load
circuit. That is, when the positive potential is switched component, thereby reversing the direction of current
on at the base, the collector will then gain electrical flow through the load. In Figure 1–54, the load compo-
continuity with the emitter, thus applying the emitter’s nent is shown on the center leg of a circuit that looks
negative potential to whatever load is connected to like the letter H. If transistors A are turned on, current
the collector. Therefore, an NPN transistor is used for flows through the motor in one direction. If transistors B
negative (or ground) side switching. are turned on, the direction of current flow through the
It should also be noted that the emitter carries motor is reversed. The computer turns on the transistors
both the base-to-emitter current flow of the controlling in pairs only, either transistors A or transistors B. This is
circuit and the collector-to-emitter current flow of the common in DC motors and stepper motors (discussed
controlled circuit. Therefore, in Figure 1–52, if 10 milli- in Chapter 3) that are used to control the engine’s idle
amps (mA) is flowing through the base and emitter in speed. H-gates are also used in controlling motorized
order to forward bias the transistor and 250 mA is flow- shoulder safety belts and temperature/mode doors in
ing from the collector through to the emitter once the heating, ventilation, and air conditioning systems. In
transistor gains continuity, then the emitter is carrying an electrical schematic, an H-gate is more likely to be
a total of 260 mA. depicted as in Figure 1–55 or Figure 1–56.
Likewise, when these components are arranged
as in Figure 1–53, a PNP transistor is represented. A
PNP transistor can be identified by the fact that the
emitter always points inward. With a PNP transistor, a 12 V 12 V
negative potential is applied to the base to forward bias
the transistor, and the emitter is always connected to a
A B
positive potential. Therefore, because the emitter has a
positive potential applied by reason of the controlling
circuit, it will also apply the same positive potential to
and through the collector to the load when the transis-
tor gains electrical continuity through it. Therefore, a M
PNP transistor is used for positive side switching of a
load component. Although this is done less often than
ground side switching, it is sometimes done for safety
reasons, as explained in Chapter 3. Also, sometimes a
computer must be able to reverse polarity in a circuit, B A
as with a reversible DC motor, and will therefore use
both NPN and PNP transistors to control the motor. An
H-gate uses both types of transistors for this express
purpose. FIGURE 1–54 An H-gate.
Computer
12 V
M
12 V
FIGURE 1–57 Integrated circuit (IC) chip.
also be taken when handling an electronic component

containing ICs to avoid exposing it to an electrostatic
FIGURE 1–55 Electrical schematic depicting an discharge (ESD), such as those you sometimes expe-
H-gate. rience when touching something with ground potential
after walking across a carpet.
Many ICs are mounted in a chip with two rows of
Computer legs (one row of legs on each side of the chip), known
as a dual in-line package (DIP). These legs provide
terminals that are large enough to connect to a circuit
board.
M Logic Gates
If two semiconductor elements placed back to back
create the simplest semiconductor—the diode—and
if three of these elements placed back to back form
FIGURE 1–56 Electrical schematic depicting an a transistor, when more than three of these elements
are placed back to back, combinations of transistors,
H-gate.
known as logic gates, are formed. Logic gates form the
decision-making circuits within an IC chip; they are dis-
cussed in greater depth in Chapter 2.
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS
Thanks to scientific research, manufacturers of elec-
Stepping Up the Amperage
tronic systems produce microscopic transistors, diodes, In Figure 1–52, the logic gates within the IC chip can
and resistors. As a result, complete circuits are pro- only carry a small amount of current, about 10 mA,
duced containing thousands of semiconductor devices which is enough to forward bias the transistor that
and connecting conductor paths on a chip as small as controls a load that is external to the computer. (This
2 or 3 millimeters (mm) across. An IC chip, as shown in transistor is known as a driver.) The transistor, in turn,
Figure 1–57, can operate with current values as low as carries the 250 mA (or 0.25 A) that the electromagnetic
a few milliamps or lesser, and can process information, load draws (assuming the load’s resistance is about
make logic decisions, and issue commands to larger 48 V in a 12 V circuit). If this load is the winding of a
transistors. The larger transistors control circuits that fuel pump relay, when the transistor turns on current
operate on larger current values. Personal computers flow through the relay’s winding, the relay’s electrical
and the computers in today’s vehicles became possi- contacts will close and supply about 5 A to the fuel
ble because of the development of ICs. Because the pump motor. Thus, the IC chip is actually controlling
components in an IC are so small, they cannot toler- a 5 A load even though it is only capable of handling
ate high voltages. Care must be taken to avoid creating a few milliamps within itself. It is all about stepping up
high-voltage spikes, such as those produced by discon- the amperage. The circuit in Figure 1–53 would operate
necting the battery while the ignition is on. Care must similarly.
THE DIGITAL AGE Binary Code or Serial Data. This digital pulse train
is less closely related than the other three and will be
Voltage Characteristics discussed in depth in Chapter 2.
There are two ways of categorizing voltage: AC versus Variable Digital Frequency. Used by certain sensors
DC, as described in the early portion of this chapter, on the input side of a computer, this allows for greater
and analog versus digital. precision in reporting information to a computer. The
frequency of this signal varies, but the on-time of the
AC versus DC Voltage. On an oscilloscope, a DC signal is stable. The frequency of this signal should be
voltage will appear as a voltage that can operate in a measured with a frequency counter known as a hertz
range from 0 V to a positive voltage, but never goes meter. (Frequency is a count of how many full on and
below the ground level (0 V), whereas an AC voltage off cycles occur in the time frame of one second.) While
goes both above and below ground. you could measure the on-time of this signal, it is gen-
erally not beneficial to do so.
Analog versus Digital Voltage. An analog voltage
will appear on an oscilloscope as a voltage that is in Variable Duty Cycle. This is used by a computer as
a constant state of change, changing between a low a method of controlling some load components. The
value and a high value. While it will at times be at the on-time of this signal varies, but the frequency of the
extreme low or the extreme high value, at other times signal is stable. The on-time of this signal should be
it will be at a level somewhere in between the two measured with a duty cycle meter in order to measure
extremes. You could equate this to the dimmer switch the signal’s on-time as a percentage of the total cycle.
that might be used to control the lighting in your dining (In the absence of such a meter, a DC voltmeter or a
room—it can be adjusted fully off, fully on and bright, or dwell meter may be used, although the resulting mea-
to a dimmed lighting level somewhere in between. An surement will have to be converted to percent of duty
analog voltage may be either AC or DC. cycle on-time.) While you could measure the frequency
A digital voltage, on the other hand, will be one of this signal, it is generally not beneficial to do so.
of two voltage values (the two extremes) but will never
be at a value in between. It is usually in either an “off” Variable Pulse-Width. This is used by a computer as
condition or an “on” condition, as with a standard light a method of controlling some load components. Both
switch that allows the lights to be turned fully off or fully the on-time and the frequency of this signal will vary,
on and bright, but will not allow adjustment to some but, like a variable duty cycle, it is of most importance
lighting level in between. It could also be one voltage to measure the on-time of the signal. However, the
value versus another voltage value. A digital voltage on-time is generally measured as a real-time measure-
may also be either AC or DC. ment (as milliseconds or ms), unlike the method used
Early computers made analog adjustments on the to measure the on-time of a variable duty cycle.
output side in response to analog inputs on the input
side. By the late 1970s, analog computers were giving The relationship between variable frequency,
way to digital computers, and the latter began appearing variable duty cycle, and variable pulse-width can be
on the automobile. The IC chips, transistorized circuits, described as follows: If the frequency of a consistent
and logic gates discussed earlier (and to be discussed digital pulse train was measured at 10 Hz (10 cycles
further, throughout this textbook) are indicative of those per second), it could be derived from that measurement
computers that are known as digital computers. that a full on/off cycle would be 100 ms long (1 second
or 1,000 ms divided by the frequency). If a duty cycle
meter then showed that the duty cycle on time was 6
The Four Digital Pulse Trains percent, the pulse-width of the signal would be 6 ms (6
percent of 100 ms).
You need to be familiar with the four rapidly switched
voltage signals that are switched in a digital fashion.
These are known as digital pulse trains. Each of these
signals has two characteristics that can be measured: SUMMARY
the signal’s on-time and the frequency of the signal
(the definition of frequency as it is used here is cycles In this chapter, we have looked at the basics of electric-
per second, which is measured in hertz). Of these ity and electrical relationships. We have also discussed
four digital signals, the last three retain a certain rela- the various types of electrical circuits and looked at the
tionship that will enhance your understanding of them various methods that may be used to calculate their
as you complete this portion. The four digital pulse resistance. Then we took an in-depth look at the basic
trains are: elements of all electronic systems, including diode
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Bomba felt a sick faintness come upon him as he watched with
repulsion the loathsome sight. He stepped back a pace or two with
an impulse to shut the scene away from him. But at that moment
Sobrinini beheld him and called to him.
She halted in her dance, and the snakes, uncoiling themselves from
about her arms and neck, as though they knew that their part in the
frenzied performance was over, slithered off quietly into the long
marsh grass and sought their lairs.
Sobrinini darted through the ring of breathless natives, and before
Bomba had guessed her purpose threw her skinny arms about the
boy’s neck.
“Bartow! My Bartow!” she cried, in a loud, cracked voice. “Come and
dance with Sobrinini. Come!”
But Bomba drew back, striving to disengage himself from the
clinging arms of the witch woman. If one of her own loathsome
snakes had coiled about his neck, he could hardly have felt a greater
repulsion.
“Come! Come, dance with Sobrinini,” the woman said in a wheedling
voice, as she untwined her shriveled arms to grasp him by the hand.
“I will call back my snakes, and you shall fondle them to show you
that they will not fill your veins with poison or crush your bones when
Sobrinini is nigh. Come! Why do you draw back? What are you
waiting for, Bartow?”
“But I am not Bartow,” blurted out Bomba in his desperation to be rid
of her and learn the truth about himself. “Jojasta, the medicine man
of the Moving Mountain, called me Bartow also. But I am not he. I
am Bomba! Bomba, the jungle boy!”
Sobrinini paused, a look of bewilderment overspreading her sharp
features.
“Not Bartow? Not Bartow?” she mumbled, coming close to peer into
the lad’s face. “No, no, not Bartow, surely. But then you are Bartow’s
ghost.”
“I am no ghost!” cried Bomba. “Bones are in my body. Blood runs
through my veins. See—if you prick my flesh, it bleeds.”
In his eagerness to prove to the old crone that he was human and no
ghostly visitor, Bomba drew forth his machete and thrust the sharp
point of it into his brown, sinewy forearm. Blood welled up from the
slight cut, red, pulsing blood.
“See—I am no ghost!” cried the lad again. “Ghosts do not have
blood. Ghosts do not have bones. One can walk through ghosts as
one walks through the mists of the early morning. Let anyone try to
walk through me, Bomba, the jungle boy!”
The natives had stopped dancing and singing their wild invocation to
the dawn. Now they stood in a half circle about Sobrinini and Bomba,
looking on curiously.
At Bomba’s challenge, not one of them stirred. He looked
exceedingly dangerous, standing in all his splendid strength with the
sunlight glinting on the red point of his upraised machete. It would
not be well to try to walk through him.
The puzzled expression had deepened upon the face of Sobrinini.
She stood regarding Bomba with bewilderment and a dawning
suspicion.
“Then if you are not Bartow and no ghost,” she demanded, “who are
you?”
And suddenly all the lad’s long groping for the truth, his passionate
eagerness to learn the facts concerning his parents, the many
disappointments he had suffered and the realization of his desperate
loneliness rushed over him in an overwhelming flood, and filled him
with emotion that found vent in a headlong torrent of words.
“Who am I? If I could give you the answer to that question, Sobrinini,
I would not be here. I know nothing about myself except that I am
Bomba, a boy of the jungle, and have spent my life with Cody
Casson on the edge of the swamp. Casson could not tell me who I
am nor who my father and my mother were. He sent me to Jojasta,
and Jojasta before he died said, ‘Go to Sobrinini, she will tell you!’ I
have come, Sobrinini.”
He took a step toward her, hands outstretched.
At that instant there was a wild yell, and a native, panting, the sweat
streaming from him, dashed toward them and flung himself at the
feet of Sobrinini.
“The Great Spirit of the Jungle save us!” cried the frightened wretch,
trembling as with the ague. “The headhunters have come! The great
chief, Nascanora, is at hand!”
CHAPTER XX
IN THE HANDS OF THE HEADHUNTERS
There was a chorus of frightened exclamations and a wild scattering

of the natives that showed the dread that Nascanora’s name inspired
in all the people of that region.
In a twinkling, Sobrinini and Bomba found themselves alone.
The old woman herself had grown ashen. She grasped Bomba by
the hand.
“Come!” she said. “I will hide you. Quick!”
But even as she spoke there was a wild yell from the forest, and a
horde of savages, headed by Nascanora himself, burst into the
clearing.
Bomba had drawn his knife, determined to sell his life dearly. Seeing
his threatening attitude, the savages were rushing on him with
spears held high when a command from Nascanora halted them.
“Do not kill him—now,” he commanded. “That would be too easy. His
death, when it comes, must be hard and long. And after that his
head shall stand on the wigwam to show how Nascanora deals with
his enemies.”
Sobrinini stepped forward, her eyes glaring.
“Beware what you do, Nascanora,” she warned. “Leave this boy
alone and go your way lest I put my spell upon you. It is not well to
make Sobrinini angry.”
There was a murmur of uneasiness among the savages, for the
fame of Sobrinini as a witch had gone far and wide. That Nascanora
himself was not wholly unmoved was evident from the way he
evaded the blazing eyes of the old woman.
But he was made of sterner stuff than his followers, and he had
come too far to be balked of his prey.
“I would have no quarrel with Sobrinini,” he said placatingly. “I do not
wish to hurt her or her people. But the boy must go with me. Else I
will kill all the people on this island and take their heads along for the
women of my tribe to rejoice over. Nascanora has spoken!”
Before Sobrinini could speak, Bomba intervened. To fight against
such odds was hopeless. Flight was equally impossible. He must
submit to capture, and trust to his quick wit and courage to escape
later.
“Listen, Sobrinini!” he said. “They are many, and I do not wish that
your people should die. I will go with Nascanora. But first,” he added,
turning to the chief, whose eyes were glowing with a baleful glare of
triumph, “I would ask Nascanora a question.”
“Speak!” said the chief.
“Nascanora is a great chief,” said Bomba. “He is not afraid of
anyone. Is it not so?”
“It is so,” replied Nascanora, rather astonished at the tribute, but
swelling with pride.
“Then will Nascanora fight Bomba alone?” asked the lad. “Fight him
with knives?”
If a bomb had been thrown into the midst of the savages it would not
have created greater surprise. They looked at each other in
amazement. Was the boy mad?
The most astounded of all was Nascanora himself. He could not
believe his ears. To be bearded thus, he, Nascanora, in the presence
of his braves and by a boy! His eyes glowed with fury and his face
grew dark with menace.
“Such idle words will make your death still harder,” he threatened. “It
is not well to mock Nascanora.”
“I do not mock,” returned Bomba quietly. “I would make a compact
with Nascanora. I will fight him with knives. We can throw the knives
or fight hand to hand, as Nascanora chooses. But Nascanora must
swear by his gods and command his braves that, if he is killed, the
captives shall go free. It is for their freedom that I will fight
Nascanora. Surely he is not afraid.”
Lithe, supple, muscular, his head held high as he flung out the
concluding taunt, Bomba gazed full into the glowering eyes of the
chief. He hoped that Nascanora would be goaded into accepting the
challenge. The boy was a master of the machete, either thrust or
thrown. If he should conquer, as he felt sure he would, his victory at
one stroke would free the captives. If he should lose—well, that was
in the hands of fate.
Nascanora’s face was a study. It was working with rage that did not
hide, however, a shade of apprehension. He had tested the boy’s
courage on one previous occasion, and had learned to respect it. He
towered over his captive in size, but he doubted whether he
exceeded him in strength. And he doubted very much whether he
equaled him in skill and agility.
The chief was in a quandary. He knew that his braves were looking
on and wondering at his hesitation. On the other hand, life was dear
to him.
He glared at Bomba. The lad looked unflinchingly at him. And in the
duel of eyes, Nascanora’s were the first to fall.
“It is not for a great chief like Nascanora to fight with a boy,” he
blustered, seeking to cover his defeat. “He shall learn what happens
to them who speak boastful words to Nascanora. Bind his hands and
we will go.”
The command was quickly obeyed. Sobrinini again attempted to
interpose, but Bomba checked her.
“Sobrinini is good,” he said, “but there is no reason why she and her
people should be killed. Bomba will go, but he will come back again.”
“Yes, yes,” she whispered agitatedly. “You will come back. You are
brave. You made Nascanora’s heart turn to water. Sobrinini can see
into the future. You will come back, and then I will tell you what you
want to know.”
Bomba would have urged her to tell him then, but he was roughly
hurried away, leaving Sobrinini to wring her withered hands and
mutter invocations to her gods.
Despite his dangerous plight, Bomba found himself in a strangely
buoyant frame of mind. He still felt the exaltation that came from his
triumph over Nascanora. He had shamed him in the eyes of his
braves. Perhaps that would weaken his prestige with them and make
ultimate escape easier.
He was not oblivious, of course, to the fact that his defiance had
made Nascanora a more bitter enemy than ever. He watched the
angry figure striding along at the head of his braves. Doubtless at
this moment the chief was thinking of some fiendish mode of torture
with which to slake his thirst for revenge.
Before long they reached the part of the island where Nascanora
had disembarked. Here two great war canoes were drawn up.
Bomba was pushed into one of them, then the natives got in. With a
few swift thrusts of the paddle the canoes were sent into the center
of the stream. Then they headed their course for the mainland.
The savages were familiar with the rapids, and, evading the pitfalls
of the river, rapidly neared the other shore.
As they drew closer, Bomba saw the rest of Nascanora’s band
camped close to the shore. In the ring they formed he could see a
group of dejected figures, evidently the captives.
The canoes touched the bank. Bomba was pulled out by a couple of
braves and thrust into the crowd of prisoners. His eyes flew from
face to face.
They rested on the frail, tired visage of an old man who rose and
tottered toward him.
“Casson!” cried Bomba.
“Bomba!” exclaimed Casson pantingly as he threw his arms about
the boy’s shoulders.
CHAPTER XXI
THE GIANT CATARACT
The old man sobbed as he hugged the lad to his breast.

Bomba’s joy at the reunion was no less, though his bound hands
prevented him from returning the embrace.
When at last they stood apart and looked fondly at each other,
Bomba was grieved to the heart to see the ravages that the
hardships and miseries of the journey had made in the face and
frame of the old naturalist. The first was so thin as to be almost
transparent, and the latter had wasted to a shadow.
But he was still alive. Bomba had not come too late to see him once
more in the flesh. He would still have a chance of rescuing him and
taking him back to the old cabin where he could end his days in
peace. But the boy’s heart sank as he looked at the bonds on his
own wrists and realized how slight his chances were to rescue
anybody while he was a captive himself.
When their first emotion had somewhat subsided, Bomba had time
to look about for the others that he knew. Many faces were strange
to him, and it was evident that, from the headhunters’ point of view,
their foray had been crowned with great success. They were carrying
back an unusually large number of prisoners, some to be tortured
and killed, others to drag out a lifetime of misery.
Bomba’s eyes lighted on Pipina, who came forward eagerly and
threw her arms about his neck with an outburst of tears and broken
ejaculations. Also, there was Hondura, the Araos chief, who greeted
him merely with a grunt and the habitual stolidity of his race.
Then his eyes fell upon Pirah, the young daughter of Hondura, who,
herself unbound, came running toward him with outstretched arms.
She clasped Bomba’s hands fondly, noting sorrowfully that they were
bound, and snuggled close up to him, smiling in his face. He reached
down, and as she drew near, rubbed her cheek with his.
“Is Bomba glad to see Pirah?” she asked almost happily.
“Yes,” answered the boy, forbearing to add that he would far rather
never have seen her at all than to see her in such a position. “Pirah
saved Bomba’s life when he came to the village of the Araos, and
Bomba will never forget.”
“But no, Bomba, you must not be glad. We are captives,” and the
child’s bright face clouded. “We go as slaves. You may not teach me,
as you did before, to shoot the bow and arrow. Do you remember
when you came to our village that you showed me how to use your
bow? But now—oh, what is to become of you, of me?”
Every word the little girl uttered stabbed Bomba to the heart. She
had saved his life once. She was his friend, and he had all too few
friends. He shuddered to think of what might be the fate of this
innocent child in the hands of the savage headhunters.
Their captors were preparing to break camp and were so busy with
their packing that for the time the prisoners were left to themselves.
That gave Bomba his chance to get together with Casson, Hondura
and Pipina, and exchange experiences.
He learned, to his relief, that they had not been treated as harshly as
he had feared. Their captors had kept them fairly well fed. But they
had told them frankly and gleefully why they did this. They wanted
them to be strong enough to endure for a long time the tortures that
would be meted out to them at the great festival that would attend
the entry of the triumphant warriors into their village.
But however fiendish might be the motive, the fact remained that the
prisoners were fairly strong and well. Bomba was glad of this, as it
would facilitate matters if a chance offered to make a break for
liberty.
He told them in detail of his own adventures, not neglecting the way
he had shamed Nascanora, at which they laughed gleefully. And he
brought new courage to them by telling them that the Araos, with all
the strength they could muster from other tribes, were following on
their trail. At any time now they might appear in sight and deliver
them.
While he was talking he looked up and saw two figures approaching
him. They were downcast and abject and held their faces so low on
their breasts that at first he did not recognize them. But as they drew
nearer, he saw that they were Ashati and Neram.
“You here, too?” he said, as they squatted down beside him.
“Yes, master,” Ashati answered for both, while Neram nodded his
head despondently.
“I am sorry,” said Bomba. “How did it come that you fell into the
hands of Nascanora?”
“We were waiting for you near the bank of the river,” replied Ashati,
“when we heard the march of feet. We hid in the jungle, hoping that
the enemy would go past and not see us. But they had with them the
man you caught and who told you the way to go to the island of
Sobrinini. He led them to the place where you met him, and they
beat the bushes till they found us.”
“And that man told Nascanora that I had gone to the island, and that
is why they came there for me!” exclaimed Bomba.
“We should have killed the man while we had him on the ground,”
stated Neram.
“No,” said Bomba. “But it would have been well to have bound him
and left him with you until after Nascanora had passed by. Yet the
man swore by his gods that he would not tell.”
“Nascanora has ways of making men speak,” put in Ashati
significantly.
“His heart is as black as Jojasta’s was,” declared Neram, as though
that summed up the total of human depravity. “He will torture us with
fire and steel and then place our heads on the wigwams of his
people.”
“I do not think so,” said Bomba. “Sobrinini told me that I would get
away from him. And Bomba will not leave his friends Ashati and
Neram behind.”
The news helped to dissipate the gloom on the countenances of the
slaves.
“If Sobrinini said so, it must be true!” exclaimed Ashati, “for she is a
witch.”
“The greatest in all the jungle,” confirmed Neram. “She is very wise.
Her snakes whisper in her ears and tell her what will be in the days
to come.”
They turned away much cheered and comforted, and just then their
captors gave the signal for the march.
The prisoners were herded roughly together in the center of the
marching columns, so that there could be no possible chance to
escape. Fortunately, they had had a long rest while the war party
under Nascanora had been making the raid on Snake Island, so they
were in fairly good condition for the journey, and that the journey
would not be a long one was now evident from the thunderous sound
that grew ever louder and louder in their ears. They were
approaching the Giant Cataract, where dwelt Nascanora and his
people.
To the hapless prisoners, that sound was like the knell of doom.
The thunderous sound increased in volume, and suddenly at a turn
in the trail, the most magnificent sight that Bomba had ever seen
burst upon them.
They had reached the Giant Cataract!
CHAPTER XXII
RUSPAK GLOATS
From a great bluff, hundreds of feet in height, a huge torrent of

water poured down into a gorge beneath and rose again in an ocean
of spray. The sound was deafening. The mass of waters gleamed
with all the colors of the rainbow. It was almost beyond the
imagination of a dreamer.
It made Bomba catch his breath and stand entranced. For a few
minutes he forgot that he was a prisoner, forgot the horrors that
might await him. His soul drank in the beauty of this mighty cataract
and its splendor. He had heard of its wonders, but had never
dreamed it could be like this.
But there was little time to dwell on its grandeur and sublimity. The
harsh voices of their guards drove the prisoners on. To the besotted
minds of their captors the cataract was nothing, except that it
signified that they were once more at home and now could revel in
the torture of their victims.
The main village lay near the foot of the fall, and from this now came
pouring out the women and children and old men of the tribe.
There were shouts of delight as they saw the number of prisoners
that their warriors had brought with them. They gathered about the
captives, taunting and jeering at them and striking them with sticks
until the guards intervened, not out of pity, but in order that the
captives might be kept in good condition for the horrid festival that
Nascanora was planning.
The prisoners passed through the streets of the village and their
hearts sank, for they saw the human heads, shriveled and blackened
by the sun, that were fastened on poles on the tops of the wigwams.
They had evidently been there a long time. Now a new collection
was in prospect.
In the center of the village was a rough stockade. Into this the
prisoners were corralled and left under the supervision of guards,
while the others of the band dispersed to their homes.
The captives sank down under a pall of horror. This, then, was the
end of the trail. A day or two more, while their captors were
preparing for the great festival of blood, and then torture and death.
The only calm and collected person in the whole enclosure was
Bomba. Not that he was dwelling in a fool’s paradise. He did not
disguise from himself the awfulness of the situation. But he faced it
unflinchingly. His courage had never been at a higher pitch. His mind
had never worked more clearly. He could die, and die bravely, if need
be. But he meant to live.
He was making things as comfortable as he could for Casson and
little Pirah when he heard his name spoken. He looked up quickly
and saw before him Ruspak, the medicine man.
It was Ruspak that Bomba had once captured in the jungle and
compelled to accompany him to the cabin where Casson lay at the
point of death. Against his will, Ruspak had been forced to minister
to the sick man, whom his native medicines finally brought back from
the grave. When this had been done, Bomba had dismissed the
medicine man with gifts and they had parted with professions of
friendship.
But how insincere those professions had been on the part of Ruspak
and how deeply he had resented the affront to his dignity as a
medicine man was evident now by the malignity in his eyes and the
gloating smile on his lips.
“So Bomba, the mighty Bomba, is a prisoner in the hands of
Nascanora!” he jeered. “He finds now what happens to one who
insults the messenger of the gods.”
Bomba looked at him quietly, but made no answer.
“Where now is the white man’s magic?” Ruspak sneered, as he
looked mockingly at Casson. “Where is the puma that kept guard
before the door?”
Still Bomba kept quiet, and looked at his tormentor with a contempt
that stung Ruspak to the quick.
“So Bomba has lost his tongue,” snapped the medicine man. “But
Nascanora will find that tongue. He will pull it out with redhot pincers.
Then he will cool Bomba’s mouth with water. You came to the Giant
Cataract. You see plenty water. Bomba shall have water. We will fill
his body with it till he bursts.”
Still Bomba disdained to answer.
“Bomba is strong,” mocked Ruspak. “Very strong. That is good. He
can stand torture for a long time before he dies. His eyes can be
plucked out, and still he will live. He can be burned with torches in a
hundred places and still he will live. His fingers can be cut off one by
one, and still he will live. Death will seem very sweet to Bomba. He
will pray for it, but it will be a long time before it comes. Nascanora
will see to that.”
But all his recital of the horrid tortures that were preparing for Bomba
failed to elicit a single word from the contemptuous captive, and
Ruspak at last left him and went away, mumbling to himself and
licking his lips in anticipation.
Bomba turned to Casson and Hondura, who were seated near by.
He hoped that they had not heard all that Ruspak had said. But the
tears in the faded eyes of Casson showed that he had heard all too
clearly and that his heart was wrung with anguish.
“Do not mind him,” the lad soothed the old man, as he patted him on
the shoulder. “He speaks big words, but they are like the wind in the
trees. If my hands had not been bound, it would have been a bad
thing for Ruspak.”
“He has a black heart and a tongue that is as bitter as the aloe
plant,” said Hondura.
Bomba glanced around to see that none of the sentries were
observing him.
“Hondura,” he said, “slip your hand under the puma skin that covers
my chest, reach up near my neck and tell me what you find.”
Hondura did so, and drew back his hand quickly as it touched
something hard and sharp.
“It is your machete,” he whispered.
“Yes,” replied Bomba in the same low tone. “I hung it there in a
noose when I heard the headhunters were coming. After they had
bound my hands, they were in such a hurry to get away from the
witch, Sobrinini, that they did not search me. They thought of it
afterward, but when they looked for it in my belt it was gone, and
they thought I had lost it or left it in Sobrinini’s house. But it is here,
and it will be a good friend to Bomba.”
Hondura’s eyes lighted up as he grunted his satisfaction.
“It may yet find the heart of Nascanora,” he said.
“Perhaps,” assented Bomba. “But first the hands of Bomba must be
free. When it is dark, Hondura will take the knife and cut the bonds of
Bomba, not all the way, or the guards may notice, but so near
through that Bomba can burst them when he wills.”
“Hondura will do so,” promised the Araos chief.
The tropic night soon fell and the darkness was made more intense
than usual by the absence of moon or stars. A great storm was
gathering. Claps of thunder deafened their ears and vivid lightning
flashes shot across the sky.
Before long the windows of heaven were opened, and the rain came
down in a deluge. It was a veritable cloudburst.
There was a shedlike structure in the stockade, used for storage of
fodder for the cattle, and into this the prisoners huddled, finding
some shelter from the fury of the elements.
For hours the torrential rain persisted. All that time Bomba’s brain
was at work thinking out plans of escape, rejecting one, seizing on
another, and weighing the chances of all. The case was desperate,
but his spirit was indomitable.
Presently he noted a change in the sound of the cataract. The rains
had swelled it tremendously, and its roar had increased. But it was
not this that the jungle lad especially noted. It was a series of sharp
reports, of splintering crashes, of jars that shook the earth, that
caused him to listen in wonder.
Then he heard a loud screaming as of men and women in panic, a
rushing of many feet and hoarse shouts that sent the guards
scurrying from their posts in terror.
“The rocks of the falls are breaking! The cataract is coming down on
the village! Run! Run! Run!”
CHAPTER XXIII
A MAD STAMPEDE
Bomba was on his feet instantly, his mind working with precision and
rapidity.
He sensed in a moment the full meaning of the calamity and the
advantages that he and the other captives might reap from it.
The enormous bulk of water that had swelled the volume of the
cataract from the rain had broken the rocks that formed its brink.
These had given way so that the course of the cataract had
changed, and part of the water that had previously fallen into the
gorge was now sweeping down on the doomed village.
In accordance with his promise, Hondura had severed the boy’s
bonds so that only a single strand was left. This he snapped like
thread.
The guards had gone, forgetting all about the prisoners in the wild
instinct of self-preservation. They had joined the rabble that were
now rushing from their huts and through the passageways between,
only intent for the moment on getting away from the waters that
threatened to overwhelm them.
Bomba called Hondura and Pipina to his side.
“The gods have been good to us,” he cried. “We must go now and go
quickly. They will not think of us until their fright is over. Hondura, get
your people and lead them out. Pipina, take care of Casson. I will
take Pirah—carry her if necessary—and go in front. Keep close to
me.”
In a twinkling his orders were carried out. The prisoners, stirred to
new life by this unexpected chance of escape after all hope had
been lost, responded to the call of their chief, hurried out of the
stockade and mingled with the frantic, fleeing headhunters.
Not the slightest notice was taken of them by their captors. The night
was very dark, and in their excitement it was impossible for the
headhunters to distinguish friend from foe. All thought was lost save
that of getting away from the doom that threatened them.
Bomba’s marvelous sense of direction stood him in good stead. Dark
as it was, he knew exactly the way he meant to go.
Luckily it was not the way in which the majority of the panic-stricken
people had chosen. They were pressing toward the north. Bomba’s
plan was to go toward the south, retracing the path they had followed
that afternoon.
This had a double advantage. With every step he would be widening
the distance between the prisoners and their captors. If he could
once win clear of the crowd, he and his companions would have a
whole night’s start in case of pursuit.
Then, too, he felt sure that by this time the people of Hondura’s tribe,
with what auxiliaries they could have mustered, had set out to rescue
their chief. At any time now they might be met coming, and coming in
such force that they would have a good chance for victory, if it came
to a fight with the headhunters.
Bomba hurried on in the lead, protecting and shielding little Pirah in
every way he could. Pipina and Casson were close behind, and the
rest of the prisoners, led by Hondura, followed at their heels.
The party of captives had almost reached the end of the straggling
village when a huge figure loomed up before them. He was
hastening in a direction opposite to them, but not at such a headlong
pace, as though he had a certain dignity to maintain which forbade
too much yielding to fright.
Bomba could not see his face, but he knew that there was but one
such towering figure in the tribe. It was Nascanora!
Bomba handed over Pirah to Hondura. Then he felt for his knife.
He still kept up his pace, hoping to pass the chief without being
noticed. But there was something in his stride or form that aroused
the chief’s suspicions.
“Stop!” he commanded, barring the way and stooping down to peer
into the boy’s face.
Bomba had pulled out his knife from its hiding place by the blade. He
had no time to grasp the hilt, but with all the power in his muscular
arm he swung the heavy weapon, and the iron haft struck Nascanora
right between the eyes. The giant chief went down as though he had
been hit by an axe.
Like a flash, Bomba dragged him out of the road and threw him into
the bushes at the side.
“Better make sure with the point of the knife,” suggested Hondura.
“No,” said Bomba, “I will not kill a man who cannot fight. He will not
wake till morning, and then we shall be far from here.”
His hopes were higher now as he pressed on. His one fear had been
that Nascanora might rally his people and pursue his former
prisoners. That fear now had vanished. Without their chief the
headhunters would be confused and bewildered, and, not knowing
what to do, would probably do nothing.
But now another enemy threatened. The waters of the cataract that
had already wiped out most of the village were expanding into the
open country. Already it was lapping at the fugitives’ heels, as
though determined to draw them back and overwhelm them. It
retarded their progress. Their feet stuck in the clammy ooze. The
water kept rising higher and higher. It reached their ankles. It
reached their knees. It seemed as though it were destined to
conquer.
Then, just when it seemed that hope must be abandoned, an
inspiriting cry came from Bomba.
“The road is leading upward!” he shouted. “We are coming to a hill!
The waters shall not have us!”
There was a jubilant chorus of shouts as the party struck the incline,
and in a few minutes they were on ground above the swirling waters
of the mighty river. The Giant Cataract had reached out for them, but
they had eluded its grasp!
It was an exhausted but happy throng of refugees that sank down
upon the slope as soon as they had reached a safe distance.
Their situation had changed as though by the waving of a magician’s
wand. Two hours before they had been helpless victims in the hands
of the headhunters, doomed to torture and to death. Now their
enemies were scattered, demoralized, fleeing for their lives from an
enemy as pitiless as themselves.
The rain had ceased now, and the traveling promised to be easier.
Bomba gave them a little time to rest, and then the journey was
resumed.
The lake that now extended between them and their enemies was
another element in their favor. It would be some time before the
waters would subside so as to make pursuit possible.
All through the night the little party pressed on, and not until the first
glimmer of dawn appeared in the eastern sky did they stop to make
camp and obtain a much needed rest on the banks of the River of
Death.
While the Indians scurried around in the forest to find jaboty eggs,
nuts, and fruit for the morning meal, Bomba climbed a great tree on
the bank of the river to look back on the trail they had traversed.
From the top he could see for many miles. His keen eyes scanned
the horizon, but could detect no traces of pursuers.
With his heart temporarily at rest, he was about to descend when he
became conscious of a swaying, rocking motion of the tree. At the
same moment a shout came from below:
“The tree is falling! Come down! Quick!”

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Printed in the United States of America

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . viii Common Features. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62

Measured Gases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169 System Diagnosis and Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

GM LT1 Engine. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337 Chapter 15: European (Bosch) Computerized

MindTap for Computerized Engine Controls ­provides a

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS

ELECTRON THEORY Electron

Molecules and Atoms

Neutrons First layer (2 electrons)

electrical circuit is dictated by two factors—how Magnetic flux field

Magnetic lines of force extending from a magnet Soft iron

pole through the air to the south pole (characteristic 1).

the magnet to the north pole to form a complete loop

Electromagnets low permeability of the air in the center ­(Figure 1–10).

Directional force of Electron

Note: Core will move to center of coil regardless

END VIEW OF MOTOR

Voltage depending on the atomic structure of the material. For

0.1 V lost across 0.2 V lost 5.82 V lost in 5.82 V lost in

11.98 V 11.88 V 11.66 V 5.84 V

The simplest application of Ohm’s law enables you to

3. Circuitry or current conductors complete the ­circuit

Also, most electrical circuits will have some type of

ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS Circuit Types

Voltage source Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Circuit protection Circuit control Load

Ground symbols indicate that points

Voltage source Circuit protection

Ground side switch

Load 2 Series Circuit—Problem 1. Assume that the resis-

FIGURE 1–20 Series circuit.

FIGURE 1–21 Series circuit. 10 3

Series Circuit—Problem 2. Assume the resistance

Series-Parallel Circuits. Some circuits have charac-

Indicator light Heat Indicator light

FIGURE 1–26 Series string in parallel.

Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 1. In Figure 1–25, I1 5 E>R1 or

IT 5 E>RT or IT 5 12 V>16 V 5 0.75 A

Series-Parallel Circuit—Problem 3. Find the voltage

Positive side Worn or burned

Load Likely locations for loose

Negative side FIGURE 1–28 Possible locations in a circuit for

the fuse but instead would keep the circuit energized

Fixed Rotary Linear Variable Capacitor

Each silicon atom shares an electron with each neighboring atom.

­ lement for every 100 million semiconductor atoms) of

FIGURE 1–32 Silicon doped with phosphorus.

FIGURE 1–33 Silicon doped with boron.

Doping Semiconductor Crystals P-type N-type

In actuality, a PN junction is not produced by placing Holes

in Figure 1–33. In Figure 1–33, boron is used as the

Keep in mind that a layer of negative ions along Neutralized Neutralized

Conventional Current Flow

A However, because the alternator contains three

FIGURE 1–40 AC voltage induced in a stator 0V

the alternator. The winding in Figure 1–39 ­represents

Warning lamp assembly

MindTap for Computerized Engine Controls provides a

Electromagnets low permeability of the air in the center (Figure 1–10).

3. Circuitry or current conductors complete the circuit

lement for every 100 million semiconductor atoms) of

the alternator. The winding in Figure 1–39 represents

through the diode each time the circuit is de-energized Transistors