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 SIXTH EDITION

Communication

Judy C. Pearson Jeff Butler

PaulE. Nelson ‘Stephen Ihde
Scott Titsworth Jim Katt
Lynn Harter Burt Pryor

SS
Graw
Hill
etree
From the Authors

Your life is punctuated with critical moments in which communication

plays an important role, Whether you are talking to a potential employer
during a job interview, a loved one about an important Issue facing
yourfamily, or an instructor about an assignment, what you say and
how you say it can dramatically shape the outcome ofan interac-
tion, Our goal in writing Human Communication is to help you feel
confident in any situation. We want you to have the knowledge,
skills, and attitudes necessary to be a successful communicator.
Wewant youto be ready to
+ Communicate effectively in novel and uncertain situations
+ Assess who you are talking to andestablish common ground
+ Listen effectively and respond appropriately
+ Practice the skills appropriate to a variety of relationships and
cultures,
+ Adapt your communication using technologies that enhance,
express, and transmit your messages
Speak with confidence andclarity on important topics
Human Communication draws on the best available research to
help you develop the knowledge you need to communicate effec-
tively in a variety of situations. The research-based theories we
presentin this text, coupled with the street savy you have devel-
‘oped over the course of your life, will equip you with a strong
foundation for reading situations, acting appropriately, and adapting
your communication behaviors.
As instructors in the field of communication, we believe that
personal improvement in communication begins with a clear under-
standing of your own attitudes and of therelationships you build
with others. Human Communication will help you developtheskills
you need to tell the story of yourlife and serve as a foundation
forlifelong success.
— Judy C. Pearson
— Paul E. Nelson
— Scott Titsworth
— Angela M. Hosek
brief contents
Parti Fundamentals of Communication Studies
Chapter 1 An Introduction to the Study of Communication 2
Chapter 2 Perception, Self, and Communication 20
Chapter 3 Language and Meaning 46
Chapter 4 Nonverbal Communication 64
Chapter 5 Listening 88

Part 2 Communication Contexts

Chapter 6 Interpersonal Communication 106
Chapter 7 Intercultural Communication 136
Chapter 8 Small-Group Communication 154
Chapter 9 Workplace Communication 184

Part 3 Fundamentals of Public Speaking

Chapter 10 Understanding Communication Apprehension 214
Chapter 11 Being Credible and Using Evidence 230
Chapter 12 Organizing Your Presentation 260
Chapter 13 Effective Delivery and Use of Visual Aids 290
Chapter 14 Persuasive Presentations 318

Appendix A: Communicating In Our Technological World 342

Glossary 346
Index 353
From the Authors iv
Preface xvii
Acknowledgments xxvii
Part 1 Fundamentals of Communication Studies
Chapter 1 AnIntroduction to the Study of Communication 2
What Is Communication? 3
Communication is Pervasive 3
Communication is Amoral 3
Communication Allows Us to Advance OurLifeAgenda 4
What Can We Learn from Aristotle? 5
Logos—"Listen to My Message BecauseIt Makes Sense" 5
Pathos—‘Listen to My Message Because ofthe Feelings It Evokes” 5
Ethos—“Listen to My Message Because | Am a Competent, Trustworthy,
and Wellintentioned Person” 5
The SMCREFactors 7
Source Variables 8 i “With Dre.
8 rememi
Message Variables
Channel Variables 8
= whatI read.”
ReceiverVariables 9
EnvironmentVariables 9
Which Variables Can YouControl? 9
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) 10
Central Routeor Peripheral Cues? 10
Motivation and Ability 11
Communication Contexts 12
Interpersonal Communication 12
Small Group Communication 13
Organizational Communication 13
Public Speaking 14
Mass-Media Communication 14
Health Communication 14
Family Communication 15
The Ethics of Communicating 15
What Have We Learned? 16
Chapter Review & Study Guide 16
Summary 16
Key Terms 17
Study Questions 17
Critical Thinking 18
Sizing Things Up Scoring andInterpretation 18
References 19
vi Contents
Chapter 2 Perception, Self, and Communication 20
Defining Perception 21
Differences in Perception 22
Identity Factors 22
Temporal Conditions 23
Past Experiences and Roles 23
Present Feelings and Circumstances 23
‘The Perceptual Process 24
Selection 24
Organization 25
Interpretation 28
Errors in Our Perceptions 29
Stereotyping 30
First impressions 31
Who Are You? 33
How You Became Who You Are 33
Needs 35
Learning More About Yourself 36
HowYou Present Yourself 38
Chapter Review & Study Guide 41
Summary 41
Key Terms 42
‘Study Questions 42
Critical Thinking 43
Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 43
References 43

Chapter 3 Language and Meaning 46

Defining Language 47
Language Has Rules 47
Language and Culture Are intertwined 48
Language Organizes and Classifies Reality 49
Language Is Arbitrary 50
Language is Abstract 51
Languageto Avoid When Speaking 51
Grammatical Errors 51
Slang 52
Clichés 52
Euphemisms 53
Profanity 53
 Jargon 54
Regionalisms 54
Gender-Biased, Racist, Heterosexist, and Ageist Language 55
Improving Language Skills 56
Use Descriptiveness 56
Use Concrete Language 58
Differentiate Between Observations and Inferences 59
Chapter Review & Study Guide 61 “SmartBook helps
Summary 61 me identify what we are
KeyTerms 61 going to be coveringin
Study Questions 61 class.”
| Critical Thinking 62
| Sizing Things Up Scoring and interpretation 62
References 63
| Chapter 4 Nonverbal Communication 64
Defining NonverbalCommunication 65
How Verbal and Nonverbal Communication Are Related?
The Ambiguity of Nonverbal Codes 67 66
One Code Communicates a Variety of Meanings 67
A Variety of Codes Communicate the Same Meaning
Nonverbal Codes 68 67
| Bodily Movement and Facial Expression 68
Physical Attraction 70
| Space 71
Time 73
| Touching 74
Vocal Cues 76
Clothing and Artifacts 78
Ways to Improve Nonverbal Communicatio
n 79
Chapter Review & Study Guide 82
Summary 82
KeyTerms 83
Study Questions 83
Critical Thinking 84
Sizing Things Up Scoring and int
References 84 erpretation 84
Chapter 5 Listening 88
WhatIs Listening? 90
A Systems ModelofListening 94
Five Ways of Listening 92
Discriminative Listening 92
Comprehensive Listening 92
Therapeutic Listening 92
eS
Critical Listening
¥
92
“SmartBook lets me
Appreciative Listening 93 nat aera oe
WhatKindofListener Are You? 94 i
Listening Styles and Personality 96
Listening Styles and Empathy 97
Listening and Gender 98
How Can You Improve Your Own Listening Skills? (Receiver) 98
Ask Pre-Questions 99
Consider Yourinterest Level 99
Use Elaboration Strategies 99
As a Listener, Take 51% of the Responsibility for the Communication Transaction 99
Choose to Focus 100
BeAware of Logical Fallacies, Source Credibility, and Appeals 100
Keepa Listening Journal 100
Be Willing to Listen 100
How CanYou Facilitate Increased Listening in the Audience? (Sender) 100
Have a Strong Messagethatis Relevant to Your Audience 100
Use Confident Language 101
Define any Unfamiliar Terms and use Standard English 101
Offer Opportunities for Clarification 101
Assume that Your Audience May Not Have the SameListening Style as You 101
Chapter Review & Study Guide 102
Summary 102
KeyTerms 102
Check Your Understanding: Exercises and Activities 102
References 103

Part 2 Communication Contexts

Chapter 6 Interpersonal Communication 106
TheNature of Communicationin interpersonalRelationships 108
Defining Interpersonal Communication 108
Defining interpersonal Relationships 109
The Importanceof Interpersonal Relationships 110
 The Dark Side ofInterpersonal Relationships 112
SelfDisclosure in the Developmentof interpersonal Relationships 112
Friendship 115
TheValue of Friendships 115
Friendships and New Technology 116
Cross-Cultural Relationships 117
TheStages in Interpersonal Relationships 118
Developing Relationships 118
Maintaining Relationships 118
When Relationships Deteriorate 120
Motivations for Initiating, Maintaining, and Terminating Relationships
‘Motivations for initiating Relationships 121 121
Motivations for Maintaining Relationships 122
Motivations for Terminating Relationships 123
Essential Interpersonal Communication Behaviors 125
Usin
g Affectionate and Supportive Communication 125
Influencing Others 126
“SmartBook helps me
Developing a Unique Relationship 126 feel more ‘Prepared for
class.”
The Possibilities for Improvement
127
Bargaining 127
Maintaining Behavioral Flexibility 128
Chapter Review & Study Guide 130
Summary 130
Key Terms 130
‘Study Questions 130
Critical Thinking 131
Sizing Things Up Scoring and
interpretation
References 132 131

Chapter7 intercut
tural Communication
The Import 136
ance ofStud) Ying
Defining Cultures 139 Intercultural Communication 138
The Goals of Non-Dominant Cul
Intercultural Communicatio tural Comm, uunication 140
Ethnocentrism 142 n Pr ob le ms 14 4
Stereotyping 142
Prejudice 143
Characteristics ofDifferent Cu
individualistic Versus Collecttures 144
tivist Cultures 144
 Uncertainty-Accepting Versus Uncertainty-Rejecting Cultures 146
On-TimeVersus Sometime Cultures 146
Strategies for Improving Intercultural Communication 147
Chapter Review & Study Guide 150
‘Summary 150
Key Terms 150
‘Study Questions 150
Critical Thinking 151
Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 154
References 152
“Tam @ big big fan Of of
emphasizes the topics |
howSmartBook
7 with.”
Chapter 8 Small-Group Communication 154
The Importanceof Learning About Small Groups 156
Defining Small-Group Communication 158
The Types and Functions of Small Groups 159
Establishing Culture in Small Groups 160
The Development of Group Norms 160
The Development of Roles for Group Members 162
Group Cohesiveness 164
The Effect of Diversity on Group Culture 166
The Roleof Leadership in Small Groups 168
Defining Leadership 168
Ways of Enacting Leadership 169
Problem Solving and Decision Making 171.
Effective Group Problem Solving 172
Other Work to Accomplish in Groups 174
Technology and Group Communication Processes 175
How to Communicate in Small Groups 177
Being an Ethical Group Member 178
Chapter Review & Study Guide 180
Summary 180
Key Terms 180
Study Questions 181
Critical Thinking 181
‘Sizing Things Up Scoringand Interpretation 182
References 182
Contents
Chapter 9 Workplace Communication 184
Defining Workplace Communication 185
Types ofOrganizations 186
Communication Networks 187
Preparingfor the Job Market
Conducting a Self-inventory 188
Creating a Personal Network 189
Searching for a Job 190
Preparing Cover Letters 191
Preparing Résumés and Other Credentials 191
Preparing forthe Interview 195
Gather Information “Reviewing with
GeneralInterviewing Strategies 196 SmartBookabout once
Answering QuestionsEffectively and Ethically 198 a weekis a good way to
Asking QuestionsEffectively and Ethically 199 refresh my memory.”
Preparingforillegal Questions 199
The Postinterview Stage 200
Communication Skills Needed on the Job 201
Workplace Communication Competence 201
Specific Workplace Communication Skills 202
Ethical Dimensions in the Workplace 207
Aggressive Communication 207
Honesty 207
Sexual Harassment 208
Chapter Review & Study Guide 209
Summary 209
Key Terms 210
Study Questions 210
Critical Thinking 211
Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 211
References 211

Part 3 Fundamentals of Public Speaking

Chapter 10 Understanding Communication
Apprehension 214
Normal Speaker Anxiety 215.
What Is Communication Apprehension? 215

xi Contents
What Are the Causes of Communication Apprehension? 216
Genetic Contributors 216
Environmental Reinforcers 216
Personality Traits. 217
Cultural Factors 217
‘Summary: Causes of Communication Apprehension 218 |
What Are the Effects of Communication Apprehension? 218
CA and Standardized Test Scores 218
CA and Grades 218
CA and Class Selection 218 |
CA and College Graduation 219
‘Summary: Effects of Communication Apprehension 219
How Do We Reduce the Effects of Communication Apprehension? 220
Use Positive Self‘Talk 220 ——_________,
Use Positive Visualization 221 £ nelaeiwerte
Utilize Kinesic inputs 221 activities in SmartBook are
‘most helpful because | need |
Change Your Perspective 222
Be Prepared 223 | thatextra push when learning.”
Chapter Review & Study Guide 227 |
Summary 227
Key Terms 228
‘Study Questions 228 |
Critical Thinking 229 |
References 229 |
Chapter 11 Being Credible and Using Evidence 230 |
Source Credibility and Its Importance 234 |
Dimensionsof Credibility 233
Competence 233
Trustworthiness 233
Dynamism 234
Common Ground 234
Strategies for Improving Credibility 235
How to Be Strategic in Finding Information 238
Principles for Effective Research 238
Locating Information for Your Presentation 240 |
‘TypesofSupporting Material 247
Examples 247
Narratives 248
Surveys 248
Testimony 249 }
 Numbersand Statistics 249
Analogies 250
Explanations 250
Definitions 254
Think Aboutthe Mix 251
How to Cite Sources of Information 252
Ethical Principles to Follow for Credibility and Research 253
Ethics and Source Credibility 253
Ethics and Supporting Material 254
Chapter Review & Study Guide 256
Summary 256
Key Terms 256
Study Questions 257
Critical Thinking 258
‘Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation 258,
References 258
Chapter 12 Organizing Your Presentation 260
The Introduction 264
Gaining and Maintaining Audience Attention 261
Arousing Audience Interest 263
Stating the Purpose of Thesis 264
Establishing Your Credibility 265
Forecasting Development and Organization 266
The Body 266
ThePrinciples of Outlining 267
“| like the SmartBook The Rough Draft 269
helsananes besauas TheSentence Outline 271
they keep me on track.” The Key-Word Outline 272
Organizational Patterns 274
Transitions and Signposts 281
The Conclusion 282
The References 284
Chapter Review & Study Guide 287
Summary 287
Key Terms 287
Study Questions 288
Critical Thinking 288
Sizing Things Up Scoring and interpretation 289
References 289

xiv Contents
 Chapter 13 Effective Delivery and Use of Visual Aids 290
Delivery 291
Communication vs. PerformanceOrientation 291
Delivery Style 293
What's Wrong with Using a Manuscript? 294
Delivery and Message Processing 295
Eye Contact 296
Delivery and Credibility 296
Using Visual AidsEffectively 297
Defining Visual Aids 297
WaysVisual Aids Help Us Communicate More Effectively 297
Attract Audience Attention 297
Emphasize Key Points 297
‘Show TheRelationship between Points 298
Simplify Numeric Information 298
Make Examples More Specific 299
Ilustrate Difficult-To-Describe Objects or Scenes 299
Ilustrate Symbolic Relationships 300
Characteristics of Effective Visual Aids 301
Effective Visual Aids Are Visible 301
Effective Visual Aids Are Non-Distracting 302
Effective Visual Aids Are Simple and Clear 302
Effective Visual Aids Are Functional 303
‘Typesof Visual Aids 304
Objects or Models 304
Posters or Flip Charts 304
Overhead Transparencies 305
PowerPoint 305
Using PowerPoint Effectively 306
Who's the Presenter and Who's the Helper? 306
Maintain Eye Contact with Your Audience 306
‘Show Visuals Only When TheyAdd Something to Your Speech 306
DrawAttention to the Content, Not The Package 307
MakeYourVisuals Easy for Your Audience to Receive 308
Underused PowerPoint Techniques 309
Making PowerPoint“Fade to Black” During A Presentation 309
Using CustomAnimation for Your BulletLists 310
Highlighting Portions of a Slide 310
PowerPoint Recap 341
Final Thoughts on the Effective Useof Visual Aids 311
 Chapter Addendum 314
Creating a Black Slide in PowerPoint 311
Adjusting the Animation of Bullet Lists in PowerPoint 312
Highlighting Portions of a PowerPoint Slide 312
Tips for Projecting OverheadTransparencies 314
Chapter Review & Study Guide 315
Summary 315
Key Terms 315
Study Questions 316
Critical Thinking 316
References 317
Chapter 14 Persuasive Presentations 318
WhyIs the Study of Persuasion Important? 319
Defining the Conceptof Persuasion 319
The Elaboration Likelihood Model 320
Two Routes to Persuasion: Central and Peripheral 320
What ELM Research Offers Persuaders 321
Central Route Factors: Things That Make Elaboration More Likely
321
Source Characteristics 321
Message Characteristics 322
Channel Options 324
Receiver Characteristics and information Processing 324
Argument Quality: How to Plan a Strong Message 327
One-sided versus Two-sided Messages 328
Inoculation Theory: Resistance to Persuasion
328
Evidence: Statistics versus Stories
329
Fear Apeals 329
Peripheral Route Persuasion Cues 330
Source Characteristics 331
Message-Related Factors as Peripheral Persuasio
n Cues 334
Chapter Review & Study Guide 337
‘Summary 337
Key Terms 338
Study Questions 338
Critical Thinking 339
References 339
Appendix A: Communicating In Our Technolo
gical World 342
Glossary 346
Index 353

xvi Contents
preface
McGraw-Hill Connect: An Overview
McGraw-Hill Connect offers fullsemester access to comprehensive,reliable content
and leaming resourcesfor the communication course. Connect's deep integration with
mostlearning management systems (LMSs), including Blackboard and Desire2Learn
(021), offers single sign-on and deep gradebooksynchronization. Data from
Assignment Results reports synchronize directly with many LMSs, allowing scores to
flow automatically from Connect into schoolspecific grade books,if required.
The following tools and services are available as part of Connect for the
communication course.

fl era mics Prat

‘SmartBook + ‘SmartBook is an engaging and
imeractve reaing experience for
‘mastering fundamental communication
coment.
‘+The metacognitve component confims
leamers' understanding ofthe mateal.
+ Instrctors can actively connect
‘SmanBook assignments and resus to
higher-orderclassroom work and one-on-
‘one student conferences,
+ Learners can track their own
understanding and mastery of course
‘concepts and identi gaps in their
tnowiedee.
Connect Insight for ‘© Connect Insight for Instructors is an
Instructors ‘analytics resource that produces quick
feedback related to leamer performance
‘and leamer engagement.
‘© Its designed as a dashboard for both
{quick check-ins and detailed
performance and engagement views.
‘© SmartBook is an adaptive reading experience
‘Gesigned to change the way learners read and leam.
I orates 2 personalized reading experience by
‘ighieing the most impact concepts @ student
‘needs to lear at that moment in time.
‘+ SmanBook creates pesonaled learning plans based
‘on student responses to content question probes and
confidence scales, identifying the topics learners are
‘struggling with and providing learning resources to
create personalized leaning moments.
© SmartBook includes a variety of learning resources
‘ed directly to key content areas to provide students
‘with additional instruction and context This includes:
video and meciacips, interac side content, mii-
lectures, and image anaises.
© SmartBook Reports provide instructors with data to
quantity success and identity problem areas that
requle adéressng in and out of the classroom.
+ Leamers can access their own progess and concept
mastery repons.
Connect Insight for instructors offers a series of visual
‘ata displays that provide analysis on five key insights:
© How are my students doing?
‘+ How is this one student doing?
© How is my section doing?
‘+ How is this assignment doing?
‘© How are my assignments doing?

Connect insight for * Connect insight for Students is a
‘Students ‘powerful deta analytics tool that provides
_av-alance visualizations to help
earners understand their performance
‘on Connect assignments.
* Connect Insight for Student offers detals on each
‘Connect assignment to leamers. When possibleit
‘offers suggestions forthe leamers on how they can
improve scores.These data can help guide leames to
‘behaviors that wil lead to better scores in the future.
 erus
Speech Capture ‘© Speech Copture provides instructors with
‘8 comprehensive and efficient way of
managing in-class and online speech
assignments, Inuding student set
reviews, peer reviews, and instructor
godin.
‘Speech Preparation Tools ‘© SpeechPreparation Tools provide
learers with addtional support and
include Topic Helper, Outline ool, and
‘access to third-party Intemet sites the
EasyBilb (for formattingcations) and
‘Survey Monkey (to create auclence-
‘analysis questionnales and surveys).
Instructor Reports ‘© Instructor Reports provide data thet may
be useful for assessing programs or
‘courses as part of the acrectation
process
Student Reports ‘+ Student Reports allow leaner to review
their performance for specific
assignments ofr the course,
Pre- and PostTests ‘© Instructors can generate thelr own pre-
and posts-tests from the Test Bank
‘+ Pre- and posttests demonstrate what
learmers already know before ciass
begins and what they have eared by
the end
oa)
‘© Tegity allows instructors to capture
course material or lectures on video.
‘© Students can watchvideos recorded by
‘ther instructor and lean course material
at their own pace.
‘Simple LMS Integration "© Connect seamlessly integrates with every
learning management system
xviii Preface
Pua)
The Speech Capture too allow s instructors to easly
‘and efficientlyset up speech assignments forposedthelr
‘coursethat can easly be shared and ct.repur , 25
‘needed,throughout their use of Conne
Customizable rues and settings ngcanthebe spee saved and
share d, savin g time and svea miii ch
‘assignment process ftom creation to assessment.
‘© Speech Capture allows users, bath studentsssmeandnt
Instructs, to view videos during the asse
process. Feedback can be lft within a customized
ruboras time-stamped comments within the video-
playback itset
‘© Speech PreparationTools provide learners with
‘ditional resources to help with the preparation and
‘utining of speectes, 2s well aswith audience
analysis surveys.
© Instructors have the ality to make tools ether
‘avalzle or unavaibleto learners.
© Connect generates 2 numberof powerful reports and
chars that allow instructors to quicky review the
performance ofa gen learner oran entire section,
* lnstuctors can run reports that span multiple sections
and instructors, makingit anidealsolutionfor
Individual professors, course coordinators, and
epartment chal,
* Leamers can keep tack oftheir performance and
Idemy areas with which they struggle.
Instructors have accesto two sets of pre- and post
tests (at two levels). nstructors can use these tests to
ate a diagnostic and post-dagnostc exam vie
Connect,
Instructors can keep track of which
watched the videos they post. teams have |
Learners can watch and review lectures by their
instructor
Learners
a a can search each lectus re for specific bites of |
Leamers have automatic singe sign-on,
Connect assignment resus syncne to the the MS'sLMS
ne
Instructor's Guide to Connect
for Human Communication
When you assign Connectyou can be confident—and have data to
demonstrate—that the learners in your course, however diverse, are
acquiring the skills, principles, and critical processes that constitute
effective communication. This leaves you to focus on your highest
course expectations.

TAILORED TO YOU. Connect offers on-demand, single sign-on access to

learners—wherever they are and whenever they have time. With a
single, onetime registration, learners receive access to McGraw-Hill’s
trusted content. Learners also have a courtesy trial period during
registration.
EASY TO USE. Connect seamlessly supportsall major learning
management systemswith content, assignments, performance data, and
LearnSmart, the leading adaptive learning system. With these tools you
can quickly make assignments, producereports,focus discussions,
intervene on problem topics, and help atrisk learners—as you need to
and when you need to.
Human Communication SmartBook
A Personalized and Adaptive Learning Experience with Smartbook. Boost learner suc
cess with McGraw-Hill’s adaptive reading and study experience. The Human Communication
‘SmartBookhighlights the most impactful communication concepts the student needs to
teamat that moment in time, The learning path continuously adapts and, based on what
theindividuallearner knows and doesnot know, provides focused help throughtargeted
question probes and leaming resources.
Enhanced for the New Edition! With a suite of new learning resources and question
probes, as well as highlights of key chapter concepts, SmartBook’s intuitive technology
optimizes learnerstudy timeby creating a personalized learning path for improved course
performance andoverall learner success.
 ona

oe

eettses
‘SmartBook highlights the keyconcepts of every chapter, offering the learner a high-impa
(left). Here, highlighted text andanillustration together explain thelistening process. Highligh
when a student has demonstrated his or her understanding of the concept

Hundreds of Interactive Learning Resources. Presented in a range intera

Human Communicati on Learning Resources support learners who De struggli
master, or simply wish to review, the most important communicatic
to reinforce the m 'st important chapter concepts—from nonverbal
andcritical thinking skills fo workplace interviewing techni
tions—every Learning Resource is presented at the precisequesmonand org;
video, audio clip, or inter ctive minilesson, each of the 200-plus Lea
new to the new edition and was designed to give learners a lifelong
communication skills,

ttc he om
ie: Wet a Specht Gan Passe Agreement

xx Preface
More than 1,000 Targeted Question Probes. Classtested at colleges and universities
nationwide, a treasury of engaging question probes—new andrevised, more than 1,000
in all—giveslearners the information on communication they need to know, at every stage
of the learning process, in orderto thrive in the course. Designed to gauge learners’
comprehensionof the most important Human Communication chapter concepts, and pre-
sentedin a variety of interactive styles to facilitate student engagement,targeted question
probesgive learners immediate feedback on their understanding of the material. Each
question probeidentifies @ learner's familiarity with the instruction and points to areas
where additional remediation is needed.

‘The process of using messages togenerate meaning _Inastuation that allows mutual
‘epportunies for both speaking andIsteing ls defined es communication.
(lek the anawer you thinks ght
between at est to people; nrapereon
‘thin the st interpersonal
within te sett mass
‘beowen teas tno people arpersonal
‘De you know the ae? cae

Informed by the Latest Research. Thebest insights from today’s leading communications
scholarsinfuse every lesson and are integrated throughout Human Communication.
Fresh Examples Anchored in the Real World. Every chapter of Human Communication
opens with a vignette exploring communication challenges in our everydaylives. Dozens
Ofadditional examples appear throughout the new edition, each demonstrating an essen-
tial element of the communication process. Whether learners are reading a chapter,
responding to a question probe, or reviewing key concepts in a learning resource, their
every instructional moment is rooted in the real world. McGraw-Hill research shows that
high-quality examples reinforce academic theory throughoutthe course. Relevant examples
andpractical scenarios—reflecting interactions in school, the workplace, and beyond—
demonstrate how effective communication informs and enhances students’ lives and
careers,
‘A Greater Emphasis on Creativity. A newfeature, Communicating Creatively, illustrates
ways in which originality—from effective collaboration strategies, to emphasizing one's
personality, to using music to boost a message—canbe used to augment the communi-
cation skills addressed in the chapters.
 New Annotated Student Speech.thre The Informative
communicating Presentations chapter incl udes e compelling
creatively student speeches on cont tion new to s,theinclunew
empo rary topic c:
ing an informativ e pres enta
‘Memorable Message About College edition. Each speech models how @ speaker can
‘As @ way to celebrate Intemational Women’s Day, YouTube increase audience members’ awareness orti of an
encouraged people to empower young women with the #DearMe
campaign. The #DearMe campaign asks digtal creatorsaround issue, integ rate sour ces and othe r supp ng
the worl to upload “videoltrs” to thelr younger selvesthat material, and organ ize the mess age to help liste n
Provide the advice and encouragement thatthey wish they had
heard when they were younger. The campaign encouraged people
ers better understand a topic.
to use the hashtag #Dearkleon socal media to sharetheir mes- Tips for Embracing Diverse Cultures. Tohelp stu
‘sages. although the intial focus was on young gis,these video
letters applyto anyone wishing to tel thelr younger sehes or oth dents navigate the communication challenges of a
‘rs a supportive, clarving,and/or realistic message. A quick multicultural society, Engaging Diversity boxes offer
search ofthe videos yields an aay of messages, perspectives, guidance on topics such as nonverbal cues,
{nd identities. In this section,you have been leaning about how
Your selfpercentions and others’ perceptions of you haven pat, disabilities, bilingualism, new technologies, and pro-
formed who you are. Perhaps you can take the time to create @ vocative speech.
video orwite 3 handuritenletter to youryounger set, What.
‘would your letter say? What part does perceptionplayin your Guidance fora Lifetime. The enc-ofchapter fea
‘message to your younger sel"? ture, Be Ready for What's Next, stresses the
Souce: uve 8 (2025, Ma) Yue utes Pane cara ft lifelong application of communication skills and
‘aetna! Wor ay. at jw teen2035/6008)
‘outtedromecarbogrMteraters:worredy how mastery of these skills can help learners in
otherclasses, the workplace, andlife.

Speech Capture
Designed for usein face-to-face, realtime classrooms, as well as online courses, Speech
Capture allowsyou to evaluate your learners’ speeches using fully customizable rubrics.
You can also create and manage peer review assignments and upload videos on behalf
oflearners for optimal flexibility
Learners can access rubrics and leave com-
ments when preparing self-reviews and peer
eviews. They can easily upload a videoof their
speech from their hard drive or use Connect's built
in video recorder. Learners can even
rk instru upload additional files or documents, attach and
such as a
works cited page or a PowerPoint presentation
PeerReview. Peer review assignments are easier
than ever. Create and manage peer review assign
‘ments and customize privacy settings.
Speech Assessment. Connect Speech Capture
lets you customize the assignments, includin
reviews and peer reviews. it also save g sett.
Auenty used comments, -simsipivnmp s your fre
g your
provide feedback. es ra gerts
SelfReflection. The seifreview featur
leamers to revisit their own sentations e allows
are their progress over timepre
.
and com

Preface
Data Analytics
‘onnect Insight provides at-a-glance analysis on five keyinsights, available at a moment's
notice from your tablet device. The first and only analytics toolofits kind, Insight will tell
ou, in real time, howindividual students or sections are doing (or how well your assign-
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rom falling behind

Instructors can see how manylearners

have completed an assignment, how
long they spent on the task, and how
they scored

Preface xxiii
 Instructors can see, at @ glance, individual learner
performance: analytics showing learnerinvestmentin
assignments, and success at completing them, hel
Instructors identify, and aid, those who are at risk

Connect Reports
Instructor Reports allow instructors to quickly monitor learner activity, makingit easy to
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Somekey reports include:
Progress Overview report—Viewlearner progress for all modules, including how long
leamers have spent working in the module, which modules they have used outside any
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Sample report. Reports Most Challenging Learning Objectives report—icer
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your learners; these reports are organized byengin g for
chapt
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Cover areas that require additional reme diation and
practice,
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how knowledgeable your lear wing
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‘comprehension and learning,

Classroom Preparation Tools

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rson products designed to
the course. ng upon the foundations of
Annotated Instructor's Edition. The
teaching aidsfor each chapter in HumaAnnot ated instructor's Edition provides a
n Communication. it is alse wealth of
ere

xxiv Preface
Powerpoint Slides. The PowerPoint presentations for Human Communication provide chap-
ter highlights that help instructors create focused yetindividualized lessonplans.
‘Test Bank. The Test Bank is a treasury of more than 1,000 examination questions based
on the most important communication concepts explored in Human Communication; more
than 100 ofthe questions are newor revisedfor this edition.
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Preface xxv
 Chapter-by-Chapter Changesto the
New Edition: Highlights
New and updated material in this edition of Human Communication
reflects the latest researchin the field, as well as McGraw-Hill Education's
research identifying the skills and topics students find mostchallenging.
Chapter 2: New opening vignette on how language shapes
perceptions and expectations; reframedfocus onidentity as,
factorinfluencing perception; intergroup perspective added
to theoretical framing of chapter; updated research on stereo-
typing: new coverage oftechnology's impact on perception,
first impressions,online identity, and personalbranding
Chapter 3: New opening vignette on how words become
real"; new examples ofslang and clichéd language;
reframed focus on gender-biasedlanguage and new discus:
sion oftrans* language; new coverage of vanishing lan-
guages, communicating personality, and using we-and
statements during job interviews
Chapter 4: New coverage of communicating emotions,
using adaptors, adapting nonverbal behaviors to digitally
mediated communication, diversity, and nonverbal cues:
updated research on the dangers of overemphasizing phys-
ical attractiveness
Chapter6: New discussion ofself-disclosure, communica:
tion privacy management, social media, and visible and
Nonvisible disabilities; updated research on grieving and
social media
Chapter 7: New opening vignette on culture-based group
conflict; updated statistics on diversity in the United
States; new research on the importance of exposing
college students to diversity; new coverageof the role of
music in building cultural awareness
Chapter 8: New opening vignette on group work during
‘community crises; updated research on group work, group
think, and related tech apps; new Emerging Technology and
Group Roles section; new coverage of collaborative
working, the impact ofphysical structures on human inter
action, managing privacy, and conflict in work groups; n
‘Adapted Competent Group CommunicationEvaluation Fo
Chapter 9: Updated statistics on U.S. workforce trends; new
Coverage of organizational communication, personal brand
Ing, and bilingual communication in the workplace; ne
table outlining workplace communication competence skills
Chapter 14: Chapter reorganized to emphasize strategies
for locatinginformation for presentations; new coverage of
commonground, expertise, andcredibility
Chapter 12: Enhanced coverage of audience feedback
when creating the body of a speech
Prereatyee
‘The authors wishto extend a verysincere thank youto the many colleagueswhoassisted in the revision ofthis edition
‘of Human Communication. Many of our communication faculty colleagues andstudents have provided feedback, both
formal andinformal, about how to improve both the substance andfeel of this book. Such insightis critical, and
we are very appreciative of yourtime and expertise. We are forevergrateful to Judy Pearson, Paul Nelson, and Lynn
Harter, who were co-authorson previouseditions of this book. Your voices, spirit, and commitmentto students are,
and will foreverbe, integral parts of this project.
Reviewer Names Survey Participants
Gwen Dooley, Jackson State University Rebekah Pointer Adderley, Tarrant County College
AmberFinn, Texas Christian University Dr. Amy M. Atchley, Baton Rouge Community College
Chris Goble, Monmouth College ManuelG. Avilés-Santiago,Arizona State University
‘Angela Johansson, Kishwaukee College Joseph Bailey, Hardin-Simmons University
Katherine Lehman-Meyer, St. Mary's University Erin Begnaud, South Louisiana Community College—
‘Amy Lenoce, NaugatuckValley Community College Lafayette
‘Yvette Lujan, Miami Dade College, interAmerican Campus Tonya D.Bell, Labette Community College
Danie! McRoberts, NorthcentralTechnical College BryanBrown, Northern Virginia Community College—
Greg Ormson,Northcentral Technical College Woodbridge
Thomas Ruddick, Edison Community College Christy Burns, Jacksonville State University
Shari Santoriello, Suffolk County Community College, Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College
Eastern Tim Chandler, Hardin-Simmons University
Patricia Smith, Northcentral Technical College GenaChristopher, Jacksonville State University
Susan Smith, Broward College, South Campus Ingrid C Davis, Central Piedmont Community College
‘Adam Vellone, MiamiDade College, Homestead Campus Kevin Ells, Louisiana State University, Alexandria
Diana Elrod-Sarnecki, Des Moines Area Community
Connect and LearnSmart Contributors College
Jocelyn DeGroot Brown, Southern Illinois University, Jill Evans, Kettering College
Edwardsville John B. French, Cape Cod Community College
Leah Bryant, DePaul University Chris Goble, Monmouth College
Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College Mike Harsh, Hagerstown Community College
Tim Chandler, Hardin-Simmons University Daniel Hildenbrandt, Owensboro Community and
Denise Sperruzza, St. Louis Community College Technical College
Charlene Widener, Hutchinson Community College ‘Sandy Humphries, South Louisiana Community College
Nancy A. Hutchinson, Lipscomb University
Feature and Connect Plan Reviewers Kalil Isiam-Zwart, Eastern Washington University
Lawrence Albert, Morehead State University Tonya Blivens Kariuki, Tarrant County College
Theresa Albury, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus Carolyn Kershaw, Charter Oak State College
Brady Carey, Mt. Hood Community College ‘Amanda A. Knight, Andrew College
Nader Chaaban, Montgomery College, Rockville Erica Lamm, Northern Virginia Community College
Diane Egdorf, Des Moines Area Community College Philip Lane, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus
Philip Lane, Miami Dade College, Wolfson Campus Amy K. Lenoce, Naugatuck Valley Community College
Kara Laskowski, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Darren L. Linvill, Clemson University
Linda Long, North Lake College Matthew Malloy, Caldwell Community College and
Xin-An Lu, Shippensburg University of Pennsylvania Technical Institute
Kay Mueller, Des Moines Area Community College Anne Meintosh, Central Pledmont Community College
ReneeStrom, St. Cloud State University Jennifer Millspaugh, Richland College
Anestine Theophile-LaFond, Montgomery College, Rockville Denny Morell, Mass Bay Community College

Acknowledgments xxvii
 Robert Mott, York College of Pennsylvania ‘Shari Santoriello, Suffolk County Community College,
Terri Narrell, Snead State Community College Eastern
Lois B. Nemetz, Louisiana State University, Eunice Jesse Schroeder, Northwestern Oklahoma State
Steve “Butch” Owens, Navarro College University
Trudi Peterson, Monmouth College Don Simmons, Asbury University
Paul E. Potter, Hardin-Simmons University Patricia Spence, Richland College
DannaPrather, Suffolk County Community College Kari Stouffer, University of Texas, Dallas
Rebecca Putt, Charter Oak State College Charlene Strickland, Hardin-Simmons University
Gary D. Reeves, Baton Rouge Community College Karol L. Walchak, Alpena Community College
Maryanna Richardson,Forsyth Technical Community Diana M. Withers, Charter Oak State College
College
Rosemary Robertson-Smith, Louisiana State University,
Eunice
We are also indebted to the outstanding team of McGraw-Hill Education colleagues who contributed their time and talent
to this edition. Nancy Huebnerand Lisa Pinto provided critical guidance as we developed a vision for this edition. Your
wisdom and pragmatic approach provided us with confidence, while your enthusiasm and visioninstilled excitement!
There are many other individuals who worked on several essential aspects of this project, including Sally Constable,
‘Samantha DonisiHamm,Shella Frank, Laura Kennedy, Michael O'Loughlin, Jennifer Shekleton, Janet Smith, Linda Su, and
Kim Taylo. Thank youfor being partof the Human Communication team!
We were particularly blessed to work with a delightful editor, Victoria DeRosa.Victoria was a true collaborator on
this project. Her eyefor detail, insightful suggestions, understanding of ourvision, and commitmentto be inclusive to
students wasevident in the work shedid with us. We are so thankful to have had you with us on this journey!
Finally, we are reminded that book projectsare family endeavors. Scott wouldlike to thank Lynn Harterfor providing
a creative sounding board and unending support forthis project. Thanks also to Emma, Ned, and Cleo fortheir love and
fun diversions from the computer! Angela would like to thank Scott for the opportunity to collaborate on this project and
for his constantinterest in new and bold ideas. She is also gratefulfor the endless support and patience of her partner,
Timothy, andforthe little hands and laughterof herchildren,Lillie and Ayden,that remind herto bestill in the moment.

xxvill Acknowledgments
 © Comstock inages/Juperinag

an introduction to
the study of
communication
Jim Katt, University of Central Florida

When you haveread and thought about this chapter, you will be able to:
1. Explain how the process of communication is pervasive, amoral, and agenda-advancing.
2. Describe logos, pathos, and ethos, and understand what speakers can do to enhance each of
themin their presentations.
3. Explain the importance of the SMCRE variables.
4. Demonstrate ways to maximize the likelihood that your audience will be motivated and able to
processyour message.
5. Explain the various contexts in which communication takesplace.

This chapter will introduce you to the study of human commu

nication. First, we
will look at some ofthe attributes of the processof commu
nication. Next, we will
explore some of the theories of communication and demon
st trate how you can
apply those theories to become a better communicat
or. We wi ill preview the co
texts in which communication occurs and n-
discuss the oppor tunities and ch
lenges of each area ofstudy, and finally,
al-
wewill talk about an ethical framework
for communication.
 Ithough we have been communicating all of our lives, most of us
have not puta lot of thought into how the process of communica-
tion works. Before you begin your survey of various aspects of human
communication, it will be good to have an overview of how the process works.
Whether you are making a presentation for a college class or at work, or
simply interacting with co-workers, friends and family, knowing about the process of com-
munication can be helpful. Fortunately for you, there is a large body of knowledge just
waiting to be tapped.
The study of communication has a theoretical basis that draws from contemporary
empirical research as well as observations that date back centuries. This chapter makes
‘no attemptto cover the body of knowledge that makes up communication theory, but instead
looks at a few selected instances where some knowledge of communication theory can
help you be a more effective communicator in your everyday life.

What Is Communication?
Communication is a complex process that, many would argue,is extraordinarily difficult
to define. So, rather than attempting to define communication,let’s examine some of the
attributes of this process. Specifically, let’s look at how communication is pervasive, perasiveness
amoral, and necessary to advancing our life-agenda. Communication
er takes
ae together because
COMMUNICATION IS PERVASIVE people tend to look
Manyarguethat humansin the presence ofother humans cannot not communicate. Even Soman
when we try not to send any sort of message, it’s likely that others will infer meaning 37=\"26
from our lack of action. What do you think when someone doesn’t call you back, doesn’t
look at you when you're talking, or doesn’t answer your
email? If you're like most people, you start making inferences
about the other person’s motives for not responding—she’s
doesn't like me; he’s just a rude person; she’s afraid to talk
to me;he’s probably really busy; and so on. People tend to
look for meaning, even whenthere is no message. It’s human
nature, The problem is that, much of the time, the meaning
assigned to the lack of an overt message simply isn’t correct.
Your voicemail is full and all of a sudden people think you
don’t like them, or you're rude, or you're fearful, or too busy
to talk, But what does this inability to turn off the communi-
cation process mean for us as communicators? If we cannot
not communicate, if people are going to assign meaning to
our lack of sending messages, then maybe we would be better
off trying to send clear messages that have a better chance of being received accurately. What do you think
If the process of communication is going to continue whether we participate or not, it’s when someone does't
better that we becomeactive participants. retum your txt message?
COMMUNICATION IS AMORAL amoral
‘ 6 ‘ The process of
The word amoralis often misused, People use it when they really mean immoral. In corsmunicationis
the context of communication, amoral means ethically neutral—neither moral nor ethicaly neutral.
4 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

immoral. Perhaps a qui k analogamo y will help.

Think about those one-celly.ed You may ebas you
Evaluate Your Own Communication Skills studied in high schoolbiolog s this reca ll
‘We communicatein a variety of contexts. To improve your they reproduced asexually. Doe t or infen- mea
skill as @ communicator, you should assess your own com- cien
that the amoebas are sexually defially
‘munication skills in each of the general communication con- rior? No,it means they are sexu neutral
texts, so that you can identify your strengths and areas for far
neither male nor female. Scholars as munica back
growth, Read each of the following questions carefully, and as Aristotle have argued that the com -
respond using thefollowing scale:
Strongly disagree tion process is amoral. The morality, or lack
2= Disagree of morality, comes fromthe people engagedin
Neither agree nor disagree the process. Perhaps you've tried to persuade
4= Agree a roommate not to go out with a person you
5 = Strongly agree know is “bad news.” Or, maybe you'vetried to
1.| can use communication to solve conflicts with talk a friend out of using prescription drugs
friends. illegally to stay awake and be more mentally
2. | amable to express my ideasclearly whenworking, alert for finals, These are examples of moral
ina group. ethical communication behavior. In fact, many
3. | am comfortable when giving public speeches. would argue that failure to attempt to influ:
4. | can use the Internet to locate highly reputable ence your friend in these cases would be
information. immoral. Unscrupulous scam artists, who try
5.Otherpeople tell me that | am a good speaker. to sell worthless insurance policies to people
6. My friends tell me that | am a good listener. whoare poor and unknowledgeable, and dr
7.Others listen to my opinionsin group meetings. dealers, who try to convince your kids to try
8.People rely on me to find information on the web.
9. 1am good at delivering speeches. their products, use those same methods of per
10. 1 can effectively lead groups to discuss problems. suasion in immoral, unethical ways. The pro
11. | make friendseasily. cess is neutral—the people engaged in the
12. |am skilled at using computers to communicate process provide the morality, or lack of it. This
with others (e.g., using Skype,IM, chat rooms, and brings us to another aspect of communication
‘other communication tools). what exactly do we dowith it?
Note: This list has no “right” or “wrong” answers. It simply
provides an overview of your communication skills at the be-
inning of the course. You might want to complete the survey COMMUNICATION ALLOWS US TO
again at the end of the course to determine whether your ADVANCE OUR LIFE-AGENDA
scores have changed. A guide forinterpretingyour responses Communication is the means by which each of
appears at the end of this chapter. us advances our life-agenda. As infants, we
ried to be fed. Eversince, we have used what-
ever communication skills could muster to
influence others to think, feel, or act in ways that we believe they we
a statement may spark connotations of manipulation ot coer: ion(sshould ee
, While each
the
chapter to help dis iguish “persuasion” from “coercion”, we must remindPersuasion
that the process of communication is et lly neutral and that advancing ourse our
lv
agenda can be an ethical pursuit, enriching (or, at least, not harming) those arounlife. d
Or, it could be un unethical exploitation, advani icing our agenda at the
ers. Which one it is depends on the morality that we, as individua exp ens e of oth
process. ls, bri ng to the
If we acknowledge that communication is a Pervasive pro s that hap
withoutour a tive participation,thatit is by this process that wecesadvan pens with or
and thatitis possible to engage in agenda-advancing behavi ice ourl ife-agenda,
communication becomes more than a college Course requirorin eme
ane hical man
nt:
ner, then
skill. Becoming a more effective communicator about more th it’s an ess ent ial life
in your communication class—it's about becomin, 1 More effectiv an get tin , 8 a dece nt grade
e at fj fe.
 Chapter 2. An introduction to the Study of Communication

What Can WeLearn from Aristotle?

‘Twenty-five hundred years ago, long before anyone dreamed ofprinting presses, tele-
phones, radio, television, the Internet, or texting, people had lives to live and agendas to
advance. Public speaking was the primary mode of communication, Aristotle was a
student of Plato, and wrote prolifically on many subjects. He was a keen observer of
human behavior and lived in a culture where laws and societal issues were debated and
decided orally. It was a society where the most effective orators usually had the most
influence, so effective communication was important. Among the many things he wrote
about, Aristotle (trans, 1932) identified three types of appeals one might use when send-
ing a message. Hecalled them logos, pathos and ethos.
LOGOS—“LISTEN TO MY MESSAGE BECAUSE IT MAKES SENSE”
First are logical appeals, or logos. Presenting a series of arguments supported by evidence logos
can lead an audience to a “logical” conclusion. Some ways to increase the logical appeal Logical appeais.
of a message are to be well organized, to be sure that any claims that you might make
are based on credible evidence, and that the evidence is clearly presented. On a basic
level, if a message does not make logical sense, an audience is unlikely to be moved by
it. Consistency is also important. If we compose a mostly logical message that includes
a few weak or illogical arguments, there is a danger that the weak arguments will cast
doubts on the strong arguments and impugn the entire message. The logos you com-
municate says to whomeveris receiving your message, “Accept my message because it
makes sense.”
PATHOS—“LISTEN TO MY MESSAGE BECAUSE OF THE
FEELINGS IT EVOKES”
Aristotle also recognized the power of emotional appeals, or pathos. While sound logos pathos
attempts to influence what message receivers think, pathos is concerned with what they Emotional appeals.
feel. Statistical data and facts help you to appeal logically, but specific examples and
stories allow you to appeal emotionally—to make people receiving your message fee!
something about your topic. Some would suggest that while emotional appeals might be
effective for some topics, informative or technical topics should not employ pathos.
Although it would be difficult to imagine an effective presentation on a technical topic
that used only emotional appeals, the absence of pathos would be of equal concern. Why
should an audience care about a topic? Howshould they feel about the topic? Answering
these questions provides an emotional component to go along with the logical one. The
pathos in your message says to those receiving it, “Accept my message because of the
feelings it evokes.” Accepting it feels like the right thing to do, or rejecting it feels like
the wrong thing to do.
ETHOS—“LISTEN TO MY MESSAGE BECAUSE | AM
A COMPETENT, TRUSTWORTHY, AND WELL-INTENTIONED
PERSON”
The Greek word for the third type of appeal is ethos. Today we call that same concept ethos
“credibility.” At the most basic level, credibility (ethos) can be defined as a receiver's The receivers perception
perception of a sender's competence, trustworthiness, and goodwill (McCroskey & ot a senders
Teven, 1999). That definition seems simple enough, but let’s unpack it. Notice that it is competence and
tuustworthiness;
the receiver's perception, not reality, that determines ethos. As a message sender, your credibility
credibility is based on how competent, trustworthy, and well-intentioned those receiving
your message think you are, not on how competent, trustworthy, and well-intentioned
ee

© Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

you competent, but your

actually are. The receivers assign credibility. If you really @are
; lity
receivers don’t perceive you to be competent, they will not assign you hi gh credibi
In a like manner, ifyou really are trustworthy, but your roeivers don't peresive You 10
be trustworthy, they will not assign you high credibility. Goodwill hasto do with your
receivers’ perception of your intentions toward them. Dothey feel you have their best
interests in mind? Ordo they perceive you as self-serving, or someone whojust doesn’t
care one way or the other about them?To be a truly credible communicator, your audi-
cenice must perceive you as competent,trustworthy, and well-intentioned.
How’can you maximize your credibility? In the case of competence, if you have
expertise, let people know aboutit. Let's assume you were making a presentation about
computer animation software and you have been involved with computer animation since
you were 13 years old. You have already taken several courses in animation and spent
one summer interning for an animation company. If your audience knows about your
experience, they will undoubtedly see you as more competent than they would if they
had no knowledgeof your expertise. But they will not know unless you tell them.
Somepresenters are reluctant to mention their qualifications or experiencefor fear
+ Being well-prepared, of being perceived as boastful. It is, however, quite possible to present your expertise in
organized, and a humble manner, thus increasing your audience's perception of your competence with-
‘appropriatelydressed ‘out coming across as a braggart. “While some kids were busy conquering Dungeons and
for your presentation wil Dragons, I was glued to my computer,trying to conquer pixels and polygons. The anima-
increase your audience's tion bug caught me when I was 13 years old, andsince then I have devoted most of my
perceptionof your time to learning animation. Here at the University, I have completed several courses
competence, animation and was lucky enough to have spentlast summerinterning at Acme Animation.’in
ack Holingsworthy Getty Sometimes you may be speaking about a subject on which you not an expert. In
Images these cases, you may be able to “borrow” some expertise byciting are the qualifications of
Figure 1
Tips for increasing the
appeal ofyour message,
Locos
'=
bewell organized
=use credible evidence
'=
clearly present your evidence
‘=
maintain consistency by using sound arguments
PATHOS
'= provide specific examples andstories
* tell yourreceivers wt they should care about your mess
age
ETH
* you have expertise in your fope, describe it to your audi
* clearly cite the qualifications of your sources ence
* Present your message in an honest and trustworthy fash
* present your message in a prepared, organized manner ion
* adopt a ‘caring atitude toward those recohving your
message
 Chapter 4 An Introduction to the Study of Communication 7

the sources that you consulted in preparing your speech. For example, you might say,
“I've beeninterested in growing my own herbs,but really didn’t know very much about
it until I read The Secret Herb Garden by Virginia Block, head of Harvard University’s
Herbal Horticulture Department.”It's a way ofsaying, “I am competent to speak about
this topic, because I have consulted expert sources.”
In addition to their perceptions of your topical expertise, receivers also have percep-
tions about your competence as a communicator, A speaker's delivery canaffect the
receivers’ perception of that speaker's competence (McCroskey, 2001). Being well-
prepared, organized, and appropriately dressed for your presentation will also help
increase your audience's perception of your competence.
Perceptions of trustworthiness are a little more difficult to influence. Just saying
“I'm really trustworthy” tends to have a hollow ring. Fortunately, most people will
assume you are trustworthy unless you give them evidence to the contrary. Once you
give them reason to doubtyour honesty or reliability, however, it is difficult to regain
their confidence. For this reason,effective communicatorsare careful to present every-
thing in an honest, trustworthy fashion. Many attorneys have won cases by catching
opposing witnesses in a lie, Evenif the lies had nodirect impact on the cases, once it
has been established that certain witnesses do not always tell the truth, their trustworthi-
ness is damaged and their testimony is perceived as unreliable.
The perception of goodwill occurs when your audiencefeels that you care about
them, that you have their best interests at heart, and that you are concerned with them.
If you are making a presentation at work and you are ill-prepared or use visual aids that
are crudely produced, these factors may send a message that you just don’t care that
much about your audience, Presenters who value their audiences go to the trouble of
being well prepared.Also, a dismissive, flippant, or arrogant attitude (during a presenta-
tion or in every day interactions) may say, “I really don't care about you.” Thoughtful
communicators show their understanding and concern by adopting a caring attitude
toward those receiving their messages.
If you can tell people about your competence, avoid giving them any reason to doubt
yourtrustworthiness, and demonstrate that you have their best interests at heart, you
maximize the possibility they will perceive you as credible, The ethos in your presenta-
tion says to your audience, “Accept my message because I am a competent, trustworthy,
andwell-intentioned person.”
Over the years, there has been some disagreement over which type of appeal is most
effective in different situations. Since no clear answers have emerged, pethaps the most
practical advice to utilize logos, pathos, and ethos in every situation. When making a
formal presentation, keep your logic sound by making a series of clearly stated claims
and by avoiding logical fallacies. Include credible statistics and other data to support
those claims. Provide specific examples and stories to help your audience feel something
about your topic. Be sure your audience knows about your personal expertise, and avoid
giving them any reason to doubt your honesty. When communicating in a more informal
setting, work on being clear and logical, and help those receiving your message to feel
something about what you are saying. Know what you are talking about, be honest and
trustworthy, and care aboutthose with whom youinteract—andallow that caring to show.
Appeal to people with logic, emotion, and credibility—logos,pathos, and ethos.
The SMCREFactors
In an effort to study the complex process of communication, scholars have found it
helpful to categorize or group the many factors involved. One groupingis the SMCRE
model, which identifies five groups of communication variables: Source, Message,
 8 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

Channel, Receiver, and Environment. Although these categories canc be neseo

any
communicationsituation, let's consider the context of public speaking as
source In public speaking situation, the source is the speaker (including aa
Teens muategime perceptions), the message is th speakers intended message (as oppose! to any other
Ee incidental messages that might becomepart of the transaction), the channels are soun\
message and sight (in-person and in real time),the receivers are the audience (and their percep”
The message the tions), and the environmentis the situation or context in which the transaction takes
Spealerintends276. place, It may be helpful to remember that these are variables we would see if we could
“freeze frame” the communication process and study it in only one direction. In reality,
irae the process of communication is transactional, meaning we “are engaged in sending
whichthe message (encoding) and receiving (decoding) messages simultaneously” (Wenberg & Wilmot,
ac 1974,p. 5). So the SMCRE modelis less helpful for understanding howthe process of
aber communication works, butitis very useful when studying what elements, or variables,
The audience to makeup the process of human communication. Below are brief descriptions of each
whom the messageis category and some examples ofvariablesthatfit into each group. Bear in mind that the
et examples given are just a sampling. If we attemptedto present an exhaustive list, there
Re, would be scores of variables for each category.
The situationorcontext
‘nwhich the tansaction SOURCE VARIABLES
takes place.
The source is the person who initiates the communication transaction. In the case of
speeches,itis the speaker. This model suggests that the overall effectiveness of the com-
munication will be influenced by source factors such as ‘age, gender,intelligence, educa-
tion, attractiveness, personality, and voice quality as well as perceptual items such as
attitudes, prejudices, and values. Furthermore, how these variablesaffectthe process will
depend onthe situation. Take age, for example, Being a senior citizen maybe a positive
factor when making a presentation about the impact of the Korean War and a negative
factor when making a presentation about which video gamingplatform is best. Aristotle
believed that arguments should be accepted (or
he recognized that “external matters do count forrejected) solely on their own merits, but
much, because of the sorry natuve of
an audience” (Aristotle, trans. 1932, 3, 1, 1404a). Some twenty-three
hundred years later, his observation is still accurate—
still be swayed by external matters. Aronson and Millsaudiences
(1965)
can
pre.
sented identical messages attributed to either physically attractive or
Physically unattractive sources. The audience was more persuaded by
the message when it came from an attractive source, Since the topic
had nothing to do with grooming, fashion, or fitness, the attractiveness
of the source should not have made any difference —but i
MESSAGE VARIABLES
All of the elements in a messag
cess. Some ofthese variables woueldcanincl
affect the communication pro-
nizational scheme, use of humor,types ofudeappe
length of message, orga-
or use of evidence. Again,the effects wou als, types of arguments,
For example, using humor cann often be ld vary with the situation,
an
mightbe considered inappro, priate and hav effective device. : but iti
speech about world hunger, e @ negative impact on a
| Anemails probably
notthe best channelof CHANNEL VARIABLES
| communication for a In older versions of this model, the channels wei re defined by the fi
marrage proposal sound, touch,taste, and smell. More recently, modalities (ive,rec9orded,aete senses:a5sight,
leconf erenced,
 Chapter 4 An Introduction to the Study of Communication

computer-mediated, text-messaged, emailed) within the five senses have also been con-
sidered channel variables. Today, we have more choices than ever when it comes to
communication channels. Certainly, someare preferable to others in a given situation,
An email communication might be an effective way to announce an upcoming business
meeting, but probably notthe ideal channel for a marriage proposal. Most speeches are
face-to-face endeavors featuring sounds and sights, but as businesses increase their use
of internet and satellite technology, you may find yourself delivering an up-linked speech
to an audience that is scattered across the globe.
RECEIVER VARIABLES
In this model, thereceivers are people receiving the message. During speech,the receiv-
ers are the audience. Each member of the audience brings his or her own variables (such
as age, gender, cultural background,prior knowledge of topic, listening ability, and mood)
and perceptual items (such as attitudes, values, and prejudices). The same topic may require
a different approach based on receiver variables. For example, a presentation about the
importance of cancer screenings might emphasize screenings for prostate cancer to an
audience of men and breast cancer screenings to an audience of women.Effective com-
municators tailor their messages specifically to the audiences who will be receiving them.
ENVIRONMENT VARIABLES
Communication does not happenin a vacuum:it happens in places. Some places are noisy,
someare crowded, some are attractively decorated, some have comfortable chairs, some
are too cold, and some are messy. Research has shown that many of these “environmen-
tal”factors influence communication. Ask anyone who has tried to make a presentation
on hot, Florida afternoon in a room where the air-conditioning was not working, or
tried to have a serious conversation with a close friend while a roommate’s music was
blasting at party levels—environmental factors make a difference.

WHICH VARIABLES CAN YOU CONTROL?

Although this question has implications for communication in any context, let's stay with
our example of public speaking. Of the five groups of variables, which, as a speaker, do
you have the most control over? Many would answer “source,”since welike to think we
hhave control over ourselves. While that may be partially true, there are a lot of source
variables, like age, gender, height, ethnicity, and race, over which we have no control.
Consider the source variable, attractiveness. Yes, we can spruce ourselves up a little, and
even wear clothing that is appropriate to the rhetorical situation, but much of what oth-
ers find attractive or unattractive in us is out of our control,
In real-world situations, we are usually assigned the channel through which we are
to communicate. Occasionally your boss may say, “How do you think we can best get
the message across?” but, more often, she'll say, “I'm sending you to Toledo to give a
presentation to thesales force.”
Our environments are usually assigned as well. Once we get there, we may be able
to adjust the thermostat or the lighting, or re-arrange the chairs, but at best we have only
partial control over our environment,
‘The variables over which we havethe least control are the receiver variables. Speak-
ers rarely have the opportunity to choose audience members with certain characteristics.
‘An exception might be during political campaigns, when a candidate may speak to an
audience made up entirely of loyal constituents who were handpicked by the politician's
staff. This scenario, however, is the exception, not the rule. Most speakers speak to an
audience they did not choose.
 20 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

The variables over which we have the most control are the message variables. =
times speakers are assigned a topic, but rarely are theelements ofthe message prescribed
‘The messageis the invention of the speaker. The speaker generally gets to choose w
to include, what to leave out, how to order the information, what evidence to provide,
and what wordsto use. This is true in non-public speaking contexts as well. Whether
speaking, writing, emailing, or texting, the sender controls the message.
So, there are many, many variables affecting the process of communication, but, as
message senders, wehave little control over any except those that make up the message.
If communicating effectively is important to us (and it is), can we focus more attention
onour message and less on all of those other things we cannot control? How can we
influence those receiving our message to pay more attention to our arguments and our
evidence andless attention to our looks, the temperature of the room, or thefact that
they are tired from partying last night? Another communication theory provides a pos:
sible answer to these questions,
The Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM)
The Elaboration Likelihood Modelis one of the most thoroughly researched communica
tion theories. First described by Richard Petty and John Cacioppo (1986), the ELMis a
comprehensive theory of persuasion. What is described here is a just a portion of the
model, but it is a portion that has particular relevance to everyday communicating,
including public speaking. The Persuasive Communication chapter cover the ELM
in greater depth and examine how to apply the theory to persuasivewillpresentations. For
now, let's examine aspects of the ELM that generalize to almost any communication
situation,
CENTRAL ROUTE OR PERIPHERAL CUES?
ELM researchers found that receivers expend a lot of mental energy processing some
‘messages but very little energy processing others. More specifically receivers consetnes
elaboration mentally elaborate on elements of the message, scruti nizing the arguments and evidence,
The degeeto which a and at other times receiversgive the message only cursory
receiver sontinizes @
message,
decision to agree or disagree with the message on periphattent eral
ion, often basing thet
factor such as sone
atretveness othe temperature of the room (Anderson & Pryor, 1992),
central route (1986) termed the effortserutnizing of the message central routePety proce
& Caciono
processing the casual, more cursory message reception peripheral route processing, ssing od
Receivers mentally Their observation begs the question: “Why doreceivers expend i
elaborate on the
elements of your in central route processing sometimes, and oer times process only theeff ort to engag e
message and carefully and Cacioppo (1986) suggest that people intrinsically want to hold perip herly ?™ tony
scrutinize your don't have the time, inclination, or energ y to carefully scruti
corec t sit ade r
arguments and evidence. nize every message they
peripheral route ill process by the more
processing
Receivers give brief
attention to the message
without elaborated
vated and able are more likely to engage in Premise that those wih
thought. elaborative processing,” PY Ot -
ELM research also found that receiver attit
more persistent, more predime udes based on cen
ctive of behavior, and more resstamtralveroueeeaoe.
Petty & Cacioppo, 1986). So,if you make a speech and your audio reson
likely to retain those attitudes, more likely to act in accordance with
less likely to be un-persuaded by someone with 9 Op those
posing view. If we thinkattitudes, and
back to our
 Chapter 4 An Introduction to the Study of Communication a

examination of the SMCRE model, we notice that central route

processing is focused primarily on the message variables, and
peripheral route processing is focused more on sender, channel,
receiver, and environmentvariables. If our audience is focused pri-
marily on the message, they are basing their attitudes on the vari-
ables in the communication process over which we have the most
control. If our audience is focused on peripheral cues, they are
basing their attitudes on the elements over which we have very
little control. All of this suggests that speakers who invent high
quality messages have a better chance of being successful com-
municators if their audiences engage in central route processing.
MOTIVATION AND ABILITY
What can we, as speakers, do to increase the likelihood that our
audience will engage in elaborative (central route) processing?
Since we know that receivers are more likely to elaborateif they
are motivated and able, the question becomes, “What can we do
to maximize our audience's motivation and ability?”
Although a numberof motivational factors have been stud-
ied, the factor most useful to message senders is relevance. If
people believe a message is personally important (relevant) to them, they are more moti- Why do receivers
vated to process that message carefully (Petty & Cacioppo, 1979). Anything that we, as expend mental energy
speakers, can do to help our audience see how our messageis important to them has the processing some
potential to increase their motivation, Aristotle observed that “men pay attention to things messagesbut not
of importance, to their owninterests, to anything wonderful, to anything pleasant; and others?
hence you must give the impression that your speech has to do with the like” (Aristotle, ‘© John Lund/Drew Kely/
trans. 1932, 3. 14. 1415b). If we can give that impression, and increase our audience's Blend imagesLC
perceptions of relevance, we can increase their motivation, and thus their likelihood to
elaborate. So, we should do what we can to makeour messages relevant to our audience.
If you are making a presentation, tell your audience why your message will be
important or useful to them. Moreover, tell them early, so the likelihood that they will
engagein effortful processing of your entire message will be maximized. Sometimes the
relevance of a message is unclear until late in the presentation. In these cases, it is too
late for the audienceto go back and re-process the message. When you send a message,
makesure the answer to the “What's in it for me?” question is clear. If you are talking
to your boss about an idea you have to make your job more efficient, help your boss see
how it benefits the organization and how it benefits the boss. Even with something as
simple as an email to a friend, a subject line that indicates why this email is important
(as opposed to all of the others your friend receives that turn out to be unimportant) can
help get your message read. To maximize your audience's motivation to process your
message, make the case for relevance, and makeit early.
Ability is the other variable that determines a receiver's likelihood to elaborate. But
ability is a receiver variable and there little we can do to change our audience’s abi
ity to process a message. We can, however, avoid doing things that might diminish their
ability to process our messages. For example, when our messages include a lot of jargon
that receivers are unfamiliar with, we will lessen their ability to process the message. If
a message is spoken in Russian, only those who understand Russian will be able to
process the message. Jargon can be a foreign languageto the audience who is unfamiliar
with it, and its overuse can interfere with their ability to process the message.
Another impediment to message processing is the inclusion oftoo many behaviors
that distract from your message, In a written message, misspellings and grammatical
 22 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies:

errors can distract your audience and interfere with their message processing ability.
- ility. Ih
In
fan oral presentation, including an occasiona l “ah” or “um” will ero oe
your overall effectiveness. Sometimes, however, speakers include so mien 1. <0
‘um's” that audience attention is drawn away from the message. When this happens,
audience's ability to process the message in diminished . So, while we cannot cts
‘our audience's innate ability to process our message, we can maximize that ability Py
rnot doing things that interfere with their ability. :
In summary, those receiving your message are more likelyt o focus on your message
of your
(instead of peripheral cues)if they are motivated andable, Perceiving the relevancetechnical
‘message can increase motivation, and eliminating interfering elements (jargon,
references, distracting behaviors, etc.) can maximize their ability. Once engaged in the
central route, your audience will be more influenced by the message that you invented, and
less influenced by peripheral items over which you have no control.
Before leaving the ELM,three items need to be clarified. First, be reminded that
this discussion has covered only a portion of the Elaboration Likelihood Model. There
is much more to the model, but in this chapter we have covered only the basics to
emphasize the importance of making your messages relevant and accessible.
Second, although the “route” metaphor suggests a receiver either takes one route or
the other—that is, relies on central message processing or peripheral cues—the ELMis
not an either/or model. Motivation and ability will cause the effect of peripheral cues to
be diminished, but not eliminated. Under conditions of high elaboration likelihood, non-
message factors will still be a part of the process, but they will be less influential than
the message factors.
Third, having your audience focused on your message does not mean they will
necessarily accept your message. Increased scrutiny will favor strong messages and
Interpersonal expose weak messages (Petty & Cacioppo, 1984). If those receiving your message are
‘communication following the central route, they may accept or reject your message, but they will do so
The process of using based primarily on the message itself, not on peripheral cues. So, to increase the likeli-
messages to generate hood for successful communication, make your message relevant, avoid doing anything
meaning between at
least two people in a to impair your audience's ability, and create a strong,logically sound message.
situation thatallows
mutual opportunities for Communication Contexts
both speaking and
listening Before we concludethis introduction to the study of communication, we should be aware of
the various contexts in which communication takes place. In our discussion of the SMCRE
model, we included communication environ-
ments, the physical places where senders and
receivers exchange messages. When we speak of
communication context, however, are look-
ing at a broader concept, Let's take we
at some examples of communicationa contexts
brief look

INTERPERSONAL
‘claims« COMMUNICATION
to doubt your
them to ignore your a trate most important communicat
ple, ethics, ethos, a Fe Theea takes place between just tw ion
same time, but they oe Hildsabes exchanged betwee o peo-
\ child, husband and wife, . br brotnherparan
ent
OF ets between friendsare all ex d
erPersonal communication. am pl es
schol: ars see int
i erpersonal Many
communication as
 Chapter 4. An introduction to the Study of Communication 13

a face-to-face transaction, but others argue that some

mediated-by-technology exchanges can be considered
interpersonal (Trenholm & Jensen, 2008). Interper-
sonal communication is the way we establish and
maintain relationships andalso the way we disengage
from relationships. It is often the way we get into
conflicts with others, and also the way we resolve (or
don’t resolve) those conflicts. Interpersonal commu-
nication is a big part of our establishing our own
identities, of figuring out who weare and how we fit
into the world around us. And once wefigure out our
personal concept ofself, interpersonal communica-
tion is how we present ourself, disclose our self, and
defend our self (Canary, Cody, & Manusov, 2008). Smeavome
important communication
The study of interpersonal communication includes topics like defining and com- in our tvs takes place
municating one’s self, communicating verbally and non-verbally,listening, communicat- between just two people.
ing in relationships, maintaining relationships, achieving intimacy and empathy, and
managing interpersonal conflicts. The informal, unique, irreplaceable nature of interper-
sonal communication is characterized by the interdependence of the people involved and
by their willingness to disclose to one another (Adler & Proctor, 2007). It is what makes
interpersonal communication rewarding, and essential.
small group
SMALL GROUP COMMUNICATION ‘communication
ee
Whenthree or more individuals are interdependent, share goals, identify with one takesplace among three
another, and interact, they are involved in small group communication (Keyton, 9 mot individuals who
2006). Because small groups have communication dynamics that differ from other roberts ade
communication contexts, small group communication has becomeits own area of study. She'sals Cen
How do small groups make decisions? Solve problems? Assimilate new members? _inteact
Achieve mutual goals? These are just some of the questions that the study of small 5ssieatonal
group communication investigates. communication
The communication that
is necessary to form and
ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION maintain aoxpuiatin
Wecan accomplish a lot as individuals, or in small groups, but we can accomplish
much more when wejoin forces with many others and organize ourefforts. The + The studyof small
communication that is necessary to form and maintain an organization is the focus ‘70up communication
of the study of organizational communication. When individuals have a great idea, investigates how groups
whetherit is to produce a productor service, or to provide a non-profit service to of three or more work
society, how do they bringit to fruition? Theyorganize. Organizations are established together to successfully
for somecreative enterprise, but the very act of organizing accomplish their goals.
constrains the creativity that the organizations intend to pur-
sue. Balancing the competing interests of being creative and
being organized is the mission of organizational communica-
tion (Eisenberg & Goodall, 2004). Over the years, different
management theories have changed the way organizations
operate, and those changes manifest themselves in the ways
that organizations communicate.Thereare classical approaches,
human relations approaches, human resources approaches,
systems approaches, and cultural approaches to managing
organizations; each affects the way an organization
 14 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

communicates. The study of organizational communicat tion also includes the com-
the communication of assimilation, and the role communi-
munication of leadership,ie
cation plays in conflict resolution (Miller, 2006). a 2
In today’s world, managing an organization is increasingly difficult. Communication
plays a key role in how organizations survive and thrive—orfail. It has been said that
‘communication is the glue that holds organizations together. Today, more than ever, that
glue needs to be strong.In today’s world, managing an organization is increasingly dif-
ficult. Communication plays a key role in how organizations survive and thrive—orfail.
Ithas been said that communication is the glue that holds organizations together. Today,
more than ever, that glue needs to be strong.

public speaking PUBLIC SPEAKING

The process ofusing In spite ofall ofthe technological advances weenjoy, and the plethora of communication
messagesto generate
‘meaningsin a situation modes from which we can choose, one of the oldest communication contexts remains
in which a single source oneofthe most important: public speaking.The ability to stand in front of a group of
transmits a message to people and speak effectively has distinguished America’s leaders from Lincoln and Roo-
‘a numberof receivers. sevelt to Kennedy, Reagan, and Obama. And although many of us will not be called
mass-modia upon to communicate with the entire nation, there will be opportunities for each ofus
communication to speak publicly at work and in our communities. Effective oral communication consis-
The process of using tently ranks among the top five skills employers lookforin the people they hire (c.2.,
messagesto generate Hymowitz, 1990). You'll notice that several chapters in this book are devoted to public
meaningin a mediated speaking—it’s that important.
system, between2
source and a large
umberof unseen MASS-MEDIA COMMUNICATION
receivers. In Aristotle's time, the size of one’s audience was limited by the number of people who
Journalism could fit into the venue and the distance a speaker's voice could carry. Over the years,
The communication of however, technology has madeit possible to reach increasingly larger audiences, First, it
news, information about was newspapers and magazines, then radio, and later television, and now we have the
events in our communi:
ties, our nation, and our internet with its constantly changing modalities. All of these
world; and commentary ‘messages to be sent to millions of people simultaneously. have made it possible for
Journalism, with its roots in newspapers and magazines, deals
With the communication of news, information about events happening
in our communities, our nation, and our world,
explication of what those events mean, Today,and commentary—the
radio
the intemet, and even cell phones join the traditional and
print
television,
media as
outlets for joumalism, The technology may change, but knowing
understanding whatis happening around us continues to be and
‘o our personal lives, our communities, and our society as integral
a whole
Interpersonal, small group, organizational, public, and
media are the basic contexts for the study of communication,mace-
Some more specialized contexts have also emerged, Let's but
ofthose specialized communication contexts, look at two
HEALTH COMMUNICATION
Advances in medicine have given us heal th and treatm
ur grandparents could not have dreame: «of ent options that
+ Clear,effective ,b
have also contributed to a much more complicated (and. expensive) ut the se same advances
communicationin health With that complication comes the need for clearer, more e fective hea lth -care system.
patients and heath-care providers, and amon health-care Professio com mun ica tion betwee
nals. Because this typne
careis essential
iis Ryan/ age fotostock ‘of communication has unique demands and gserio us cons quences, health communicatio
n
 Chapter 4 An Introduction to the Study of Communication 45

has become a communication contextofits own. Scholars are researching health commu-
nication issues and universities are beginning to offer courses in health communication,
FAMILY COMMUNICATION
The complicated world we now live in has also taken its toll on families. The issues
facing families today are more difficult that those that faced families a few decades ago.
Thetraditional, nuclear family with one parent as bread-winner and the other as caretaker
hhas been supplanted by two-incomefamilies, one-parent families, and an infinite variety
of blended families, More than ever before, effective communication within the family
is crucial, In recent years, scholars have begun to research and better understand the
unique dynamics of communication within the context of the family.
Communication is a complex, pervasive process. Studying communication according
to the contextin whichit occurs is just one way that we can better understand that pro-
cess, and one more waythat we can become more effective communicators.
The Ethics of Communicating
Early in this chapter, we talked about the process of communication being amoral
(ethically neutral), and that the morality—or ethics—of communication comes notfrom
the process, but rather from the people involved in that process. So what does it mean
to communicate ethically? The National Communication Association's (NCA) “Credofor
Ethical Communication” offers several principles to guide us in answering that question:
Questions ofright and wrongarise whenever people communicate.Ethical com-
munication is fundamental to responsible thinking, decision making, and the
development of relationships and communities within and across contexts, cul-
tures, channels, and media. Moreover, ethical communication enhances human
worth and dignity by fostering truthfulness, fairness, responsibility, personal
integrity, and respect for self and others, We believe that unethical communica
tion threatens the quality of all communication and consequently the well-being
ofindividuals and the society in which we live. Therefore we, the members of
the National Communication Association, endorse and are committed to practic~
ing the following principles of ethical communication:
© Weadvocate truthfulness, accuracy, honesty, and reason as essential to the
integrity of communication.
© Weendorse freedom of expression, diversity of perspective, and toleranceof
dissent to achieve the informed and responsible decision making fundamen-
tal to a civil society.
© We strive to understand and respect other communicators before evaluating
and responding to their messages.
© Wepromote access to communication resources and opportunities as neces-
sary to fulfill human potential and contribute to the well-being offamilies,
communities, and society.
© Wepromote communication climates of caring and mutual understanding that
respectthe unique needs and characteristics of individual communicators.
‘© We condemn communicationthat degrades individuals and humanity through
distortion, intimidation, coercion, and violence, and through the expression
ofintolerance and hatred.
* Weare committed to the courageous expression of personal convictions in
pursuit of fairness and justice.
 26 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studies

© We advocate sharing information, opinions,acy and feelings when facing sis

nificant choices while also respecting priv and conficonsdentiality.
nces of our
© We accept responsibility forthe short- and long-term eque
‘own communication and expect the same of others.
oes your communication measure up to the standayou rdsset forth in the NCA Credo? How
would yourlife be different if those with whom differ regularly interactlived up to the
standards set forth above? How would yourlife be ent if you always lived up to
those standards? The process is neutral. The rest is up to us.
What Have WeLearned?
Although this chapter does not pretend to offer a complete overview of communibe cation
theory,we have tried to bring together a number of theoretic al elements that can use~
ful in preparing and delivering oral presentations. We have seen the importan t and per-
vasive role communication plays in our lives. We have learned from Aristotle that our
message might appeal toreceivers’ sense of logic, to their emotions, or to their willing-
hess to accept a competent, trustworthy, and benevolent source. Rather than choosing
‘among these three strategies, look for ways to utilize all three in your presentations. The
SMCREmodel reminds us that there are many factors that affect our attempts to com-
municate, but we have very little control over factors outside of the message itself. The
Elaboration Likelihood Modelhelps explain why receivers sometimes focus on our mes-
sage and sometimes focus on peripheral factors. Our discussion of the ELM also suggests
some ways we might increase the likelihood of keeping our audience message-centered.
Weintroduced some ofthe contexts in which communication occurs, and we dis-
coveredthat each type of communication—whether it takes place on the interpersonal
level,in small groups,in organizations, in a public forum,or via one of the mass media—
hasits own unique opportunities and challenges. We also introduced the more specialized
contexts of health communication and family communication.
Finally, we looked at the “NCA Credo for Ethical Communication” as a guide to
communicating honestly and respectfully.
It has been said that nothing is more practical than a good theory. As you continue
communicating in college and later in your careers, you should find many practical
applications for the theories introduced in this chapter.

Chapter Review & Study Guide

Summary
In this chapter you learned the following:
1. Human communication is difficult to define but has -* Pathos—emotional appeals
characteristics that can be identified. + hoe—ource creck
2. Among those characteristics are the following: + Competence :
Communication is pervasive + Trustworthiness
Communicationis amoral + Goodwit!
+ Communication is how we advance our 4. The SMCRE ‘Model model det detines five categories
Iite-egenda ‘cation variables: ee oF onus
3. Aristotle suggested three ways message Senders appeal «Source variables
to their audiences: + Message variables
| Logos—logical appeals
 Chapter 4. An Introduction to the Study of Communication a7

+ Channelvariables: 10. Although the term *route” suggests an either-or rela-

+ Receiver variables:
+ Environment variables
5. As senders of messages, we generally have the most 111. When engaged in central route processing, receivers
control over message variables.
6. TheElaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) offers insight
Into why receivers sometimes expend mental effort 12. Communication also occurs in various contexts.
scrutinizing an incoming message, and why they process
messages only superficially at othertimes.
7. The ELM identifies two types of message processing:
+ Central route—effortful, elaborative processing,
* Peripheral route—superficial processing
8. Twofactors determine a receivers likelihood to engage
In elaborative,central route processing:
+ Motivation
+ Ability
9. Although the term “route” suggests an eitheror rela
tionship between the two types of processing,there is
actually a continuum from wholly central to wholly
peripheral processing.
tionship between the two types of processing, there is
actually a continuum from wholly central to wholly
peripheral processing.
‘are focused on the message, and thus notice both
strengths and weaknesses in the message.
Communication contexts are studied because each
presents unique opportunities and challenges. We
Introduced thefollowing communication contexts:
+ Interpersonal communication
+ Small group communication
‘+ Organizational communication
+ Public communication
+ Mass communication
+ Health communication
+ Family communication

Key Terms
amoral health communication pathos
central route interpersonal communication peripheral route
channel journatism pervasiveness
communication context logos public communication
elaboration ‘mass communication ‘small group communication
Elaboration Likelihood Model message SMCRE
environment motivation source
ethos organizational communication transactional
family communication

Study Questions
4. When we say communication is amoral, we mean
‘a, There is no moralityin communication
b. Communication itself is ethically neutral
©. Communication is everywhere
4. Ethical communication is impossible to achieve
2, Logos could best be described by which of the following ‘4, We generally have the most control over which variable?
statements?
a, Listen to my message because of the feelings it
evokes.
b. Listen to my message becauseit will advance your
lifeagenda
. Listen to my message because it makes sense
4d. Listen to my message because | am a competent,
trustworthy and wellintentioned person
3. By describing your topic expertise to your audience and
citing the qualificationsof the sources you use,you are
sing which of Aristotle's appeals?
a. Logical . Pathos
b. Ethos. 4d, Logos
f. Ourselves . The environment
. The receivers d, The message
5. An audience is more likely to elaborate on your mes-
sage if they are
a, Motivated and able
Paying attentionto your appearance
cc. Comfortable and have a goodattitude
d. Neutral toward your message
48 Part One Fundamentals of Communication Studles

6. Which of the following might diminish receivers’ ability ¢. Interpersonal communication

to process a message?
a. Excessive use oflogical appeals.
b. Interfering elements like jargon, technical refer-
ences and distracting behaviors
Using strictly central route processing
4. Strong messages
7. Communication that takes place between two people is
called
‘aPublic speaking
', Organizational communication
c. Interpersonal communication
4. Family communication
8. Balancing the competing interests of being creative and
being organized is the mission of
a. Journalism
b. Family communication
Answers:
1. (D}; 2 (Ch; 3. (OY; 4. (A; 5. (2); 6. (O); 7. (C); B. (Ay; 9. (2); 10.(0)
4. Organizational communication
the top five skills
9. Which of the following ranks among hire?
‘employerslook forin the people they
a. Effective oral communication skills
. Central route processing shils
. The ability to use logical appeals
4d. Theabilityto defend our self concept
+10. When three or more people are interdependent, share
goals,identify with one another and interact they are
involved in
a, Mass communication
b Small group communication
«Central route communication
d. Interpersonal communication

Critical Thinking
4. Think about the last time you didn’t hear back from 2. Think about a recent presentation you heard in class.
‘someone when you thought you should. How did you re- What did the presenter do or not do to enhance your
‘act? What meaning did you assign to that lack of com- ability and motivation to process the message?
munication? What, if anything, did you doto resolve the
situation?

Sizing Things Up Scoring and Interpretation

Evaluate Your Own Communication Skills
togetheryour answers fral ion to achieve an overall
score, or as a way of analyzquest
‘This chapter introducesthe concept of communication com
Contexts of processes. Thislaingterpartic ular communication
petence. The survey you completed measures your compe-
tence. Each question in the survey asksyou to indicate how
effectively you can communicate within a particular context appro
analyzing your responses to each statement. ach would involve
of communication (e.€., friendships or digitally mediated ‘average oF response to any individual questionI yourfs
vere
below 3
communication}; some questions also target specific you may be lower in self-perceived communicat
tence. A score
suggests that younear3 is
perceiaverag
ion compe.
veyoue,rsoandhigh
purposes for communicating (e.€., resolving conflict). You a score higher then
‘can use this scale either as a global Communication
Competence Scale, in which case you should average competence.
iher in commu
nication
. ae
fiz.
Chapter 4 An Introduction to the Study of Communication
References
4. Adler, R.B.,& Proctor, R. F (2007). Looking out/Looking
in (12th ed,). Belmont, CA: Thomson.
2, Anderson,S., and Pryor, B.(1992). Speech fundamentals:
‘Accontemporary approach. Needham Heights, MA: Ginn.
3. Aristotle(trans, 1932). The rhetoricofAristotle (L. Cooper,
Trans.), New York: AppletonCenturyCrofts.
4, Canary, D. J., Cody, M. J., & Manusov, V. L. (2008).
Interpersonal communication: A goals-based approach.
Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's.
5. Eisenberg, E. M., & Goodall, H. L.. Jr. (2004). Organize-
tional communication: Balancing creativity and con-
straint. Boston, MA: Bedford/St. Martin's.
6. Gurak, L. (2000). Oral presentations for technical com- 14. Petty, R., and Cacioppo, J. (1984). The effects of
‘munication. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
7. Hymowitz, C. (1990, March 1). Managing. Wall Street
Journal (Eastem Edition), p. B1. Retrieved March 29,
2008,from ABI/ INFORM Global database. (Document
10; 27584855).
8. Keyton, J. (2006). Communicating in groups (3rd ed).
New York: Oxford,
9. MoCroskey, J. C, (2001). An introduction to rhetorical 16. ‘Tenholm,
‘communication (8th ed.). Boston:Allyn and Bacon.
|. MeCroskey, J. C., & Teven, J, J. (1999). Goodwill:
A reexamination of the construct and its
19
‘measurement. Communication Monographs, 66,
90-103.
|. Miller, K., (2006). Organizational communication:
‘Approaches and processes (4th ed.). Belmont, CA:
Thomson,
. Mis, J., and Aronson,E. (1965). “Opinion change as a
function of the communicator’s attractiveness and
desire to influence.” Journal of Personalityand Social
Psychology, 1, 173-177.
Petty, R., and Cacioppo, J. (1979). Issue involvement
can increase or decrease persuasion by enhancing
messagerelevant cognitive responses. Journal of
Personality and Social Psychology, 37, 1915-1926.
involvement on responses to argument quantity and
‘quality: Central and peripheralroutes to persuasion.
Journal of Personalityand Social Psychology, 46, 69-81.
5. Petty, R., and Cacioppo, J. (1986). Communication and
persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to persuasion
{and attitude change. New York: Springer Verlag.
S., & Jensen, A. (2008). interpersonal com-
‘munication (6th ed.). New York: Oxford.
17. Wenberg, J., & Wilmot W. (1973). The personal commu:
nication process. New York: Wiley.
Another random document with
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 Hän ei kyennyt hillitsemään itseään, vaikka Aljoša oli läsnä,
ehkäpä ei tahtonutkaan hillitä itseänsä.

— Häntä pitäisi lyödä raipoilla, mestauslavalla, antaa pyövelin

lyödä, kaiken kansan nähden!…

Aljoša peräytyi ovea kohti.

— Voi Herra Jumala! — huudahti äkkiä Katerina Ivanovna lyöden

käsiään yhteen. — Ja hän sitten! Hän on saattanut olla niin
kunnoton, niin epäinhimillinen! Hänhän on kertonut tuolle elukalle
siitä, mitä tapahtui siellä, tuona kohtalokkaana, ikuisesti kirottuna,
kirottuna päivänä! »Toitte kauneutenne kaupaksi, rakas neiti!» Tuo
tietää sen! Teidän veljenne on roisto, Aleksei Fjodorovitš!

Aljoša tahtoi sanoa jotakin, mutta ei keksinyt ainoatakaan sanaa.

Hänen sydäntään kouristi kipeästi.

— Menkää, Aleksei Fjodorovitš! Minua hävettää, minua

kauhistuttaa! Huomenna… pyydän teitä polvillani, tulkaa huomenna.
Älkää tuomitko, antakaa anteeksi, minä en tiedä mitä vielä teen
itselleni!

Aljoša tuli kadulle aivan kuin huojuen. Hänenkin mielensä teki

itkeä niinkuin Katerina Ivanovna. Äkkiä hänet saavutti palvelustyttö.

— Neiti ei muistanut antaa teille tätä rouva Hohlakovin kirjettä, se

on ollut heillä päivällisestä asti.

Aljoša otti koneellisesti vastaan pikkuisen ruusunpunaisen

kirjekuoren ja pisti sen melkein tiedottomasti taskuunsa.
 11.

Vielä yhdeltä meni maine

Kaupungista luostariin ei ollut kuin vähän yli virstan verran matkaa.

Aljoša lähti kiireesti kulkemaan tietä, joka tähän aikaan oli autio. Oli
jo melkein yö, kolmenkymmenen askelen päästä oli vaikea jo erottaa
esineitä. Puolimatkassa oli tienristeys. Tien risteyksessä näkyi
yksinäisen pajun juurella jokin haamu. Heti Aljošan saavuttua
tienristeykseen haamu hypähti paikaltaan, syöksyi häntä kohti ja
huusi hurjalla äänellä:

— Rahat tai henki!

— Sinäkö se oletkin, Mitja! — lausui ihmeissään Aljoša, joka

kuitenkin oli kovasti hätkähtänyt.

— Hahhahhaa! Etpä aavistanut? Ajattelin: missä odottaisin sinua?

Hänen kotinsako luona? Sieltä vie kolme tietä, ja mahdollisesti en
huomaisi lähtöäsi. Päätin viimein odottaa tässä, sillä tästä hän
kulkee välttämättömästi, muuta tietä luostariin ei ole. No, ilmoita
totuus, litistä minut kuin torakka… Mutta mikä sinua vaivaa?

— Ei mikään veljeni… minä muuten vain, pelästyksestä. Ah,

Dmitri! Äsken tuo isän veri (Aljoša rupesi itkemään, jo kauan oli
hänen mielensä tehnyt itkeä, ja nyt oli kuin jotakin olisi irtaantunut
hänen sielustaan). — Sinä olit vähällä tappaa hänet… kirosit hänet…
ja nyt… täällä… äsken juuri… sinä lasket leikkiä… rahat tai henki!

— No, mitä sitten? Onko se sopimatonta? Eikö se sovi

tilaisuuteen?
 — Ei… minä vain…

— Odota. Katso yötä: näetkö, miten synkkä yö nyt on, millaiset

pilvet, miten on alkanut tuulla! Piilouduin tänne pajun alle, odotin
sinua ja ajattelin yht'äkkiä (siinä se Jumala on!): mitä maksaa enää
rehkiä, mitä odottaa? Tuossa on paju, huivi on, paita on, köyden saa
punotuksi aivan heti, kostuta sitä päällepäätteeksi hiukan, niin — et
enää ole maan päällä rasituksena etkä tuota häpeää alhaisella
olemassaolollasi! Samassa kuulin sinun tulevan, — Herra Jumala, oli
kuin äkkiä olisi lentänyt mieleeni jotakin: on siis olemassa ihminen,
jota minäkin rakastan, kas tuossa hän on, tuossa hän on, rakas
veliseni, jota rakastan kaikkein eniten maailmassa ja jota yksin vain
rakastan! Ja niin suurta rakkautta minä tunsin sinua kohtaan, niin
minä rakastin sinua tuolla hetkellä, että ajattelin: heittäydyn heti
hänen kaulaansa! Mutta tyhmä ajatus nousi mieleen: »huvitan häntä,
pelästytän». Ja minä huusin kuin mikäkin hölmö: »rahat»! Suo
anteeksi tyhmä temppu — se on pelkkää roskaa, mutta
sydämessäni… on oikeita ajatuksia… No, hitto vieköön, kerro
kuitenkin, miten siellä kävi. Mitä hän sanoi? Muserra minut, masenna
minut, älä sääli! Raivostuiko hän?

— Ei, ei niin… Siellä oli aivan toista, Mitja. Siellä… Tapasin siellä
äsken heidät molemmat.

— Kutka molemmat?

— Grušenjkan Katerina Ivanovnan luona.

Dmitri Fjodorovitš tyrmistyi.

— Mahdotonta! — huudahti hän. — Sinä hourailet! Grušenjka

hänen luonaan?
 Aljoša kertoi kaikki, mitä hänelle oli tapahtunut siitä hetkestä
lähtien, kun hän oli astunut sisään Katerina Ivanovnan luo. Hän
kertoi noin kymmenen minuutin ajan. Ei voi sanoa, että hän olisi
kertonut sujuvasti ja kauniissa muodossa, mutta hänen
kertomuksensa oli selvä, hän mainitsi tärkeimmät sanat, tärkeimmät
liikkeet ja esitti selvästi, usein yhdellä ainoalla piirteellä, mitä hän itse
oli tuntenut. Veli Dmitri kuunteli ääneti, katseli peloittavan
liikkumattomana eteensä, mutta Aljošalle oli selvää, että hän oli
ymmärtänyt jo kaikki, oikein käsittänyt koko asian. Mutta mitä
pitemmälle kertomuksessa tultiin, sitä enemmän hänen kasvonsa
alkoivat näyttää ei synkiltä, vaan ikäänkuin uhkaavilta. Hän rypisti
kulmansa, puri hampaansa yhteen, hänen liikkumaton katseensa tuli
vielä liikkumattomammaksi, jäykemmäksi, peloittavammaksi… Sitä
yllättävämpää oli, että hänen kasvonsa, jotka siihen asti olivat olleet
vihaisen ja hurjan näköiset, muuttuivat yht'äkkiä käsittämättömän
nopeasti, yhteenpuristetut huulet erkanivat toisistaan ja Dmitri
Fjodorovitš purskahti äkkiä hillittömään ja teeskentelemättömään
nauruun. Hän suorastaan hytki naurusta eikä sentähden voinut
pitkään aikaan edes puhuakaan.

— Ei siis suudellut kättä! Eipä suudellutkaan, vaan juoksi pois! —

huuteli hän jonkinmoisen sairaalloisen innostuksen vallassa, —
voisipa sanoa julkean innostuksen vallassa, jos tuo innostus ei olisi
ollut niin sydämestä tulevaa. — Toinen siis huusi, että hän on tiikeri!
Tiikeri se onkin! Ettäkö hänet siis pitäisi viedä mestauslavalle? Niin,
niin, pitäisi kyllä, pitäisi, olen itse sitä mieltä, että pitäisi, olisi jo kauan
sitten pitänyt! Näetkö, veliseni, tulkoon vain mestauslava, mutta
täytyy sitä ennen tulla terveeksi. Minä ymmärrän julkeuden
kuningattaren, juuri tuommoinen hän on, tuossa
kädensuutelemisjutussa hänen koko olemuksensa laatu tuli näkyviin,
tuon hornan hengettären! Hän on kaikkien hornan hengettärien
kuningatar, mitä vain voi kuvitella maailmassa olevan! Tämä on
omalaatuista innostusta! Hän siis juoksi kotiin? Heti paikalla minä…
ah… Minä juoksen hänen luokseen! Aljoška, älä syytä minua,
minähän olen sitä mieltä, että kuoliaaksi kuristaminen olisi hänelle
liian lievä rangaistus…

— Entä Katerina Ivanovna! — huudahti Aljoša surullisesti.

— Hänetkin näen, näen kokonaan läpi hänetkin, näen niinkuin en

koskaan ennen ole nähnyt! Tämä on kerrassaan kaikkien neljän
maanosan löytö, toisin sanoen viiden! Semmoinen askel! Tämä on
aivan se sama Katenjka, instituutin tyttönen, joka ei pelännyt juosta
päättömän, raa'an upseerin luo sen ylevän aatteen ajamana, että
pelastaisi isänsä, ja antautui vaaraan tulla törkeästi loukatuksi! Mutta
se on meidän ylpeyttämme, se on uskaltamisen tarvetta, se on
kohtalon uhmailua, taisteluhaaste äärettömyydelle! Sanotko tuon
tädin hillinneen häntä? Tiedätkö, tuo täti itsekin on omavaltainen,
hänhän on tuon moskovalaisen kenraalinrouvan sisar, hän nosti
nenäänsä vielä enemmän kuin tämä, mutta hänen miehensä
todistettiin syylliseksi valtion varain kavallukseen, menetti kaikki,
sekä maatilansa että muun, ja ylpeä vaimo nöyrtyi äkkiä eikä ole sen
koommin kohonnut. Hän siis koetti hillitä Katjaa, mutta tämä ei
totellut. »Kaikki, mukamas, kykenen voittamaan, kaikki taipuu
tahtooni. Jos tahdon, niin lumoan Grušenjkankin» ja — hänhän uskoi
itseensä, korskeili itsensä edessä, kuka siis on syyllinen? Luuletko,
että hän tahallaan ensimmäiseksi suuteli Grušenjkan kättä ja että
hänellä oli viekkaita laskelmia? Ei, hän rakastui tosissaan, ihan
täydellä todella Grušenjkaan, taikka ei Grušenjkaan, vaan omaan
haaveeseensa, omaan hourekuvaansa, — sen tähden että se on
minun haaveeni, minun hourekuvani! Aljoša, ystäväiseni, kuinka
pelastuitkaan noiden tuollaisten käsistä? Läksitkö juoksemaan
pakoon koottuasi kouriisi viittasi liepeet? Hahhahhah!

— Veli, sinä et näytä ottaneen huomioon, kuinka olet loukannut

Katerina Ivanovnaa kertomalla Grušenjkalle tuosta päivästä, ja tämä
paukautti hänelle heti päin silmiä, että te itse »olette salaa käynyt
kavaljeerien luona kauneuttanne kaupittelemassa»! Veljeni, voiko
olla suurempaa loukkausta kuin tämä? — Aljošaa kiusasi kaikkein
enimmän se ajatus, että hänen veljensä tosiaankin iloitsi Katerina
Ivanovnan nöyryytyksestä, vaikka tämä tietysti oli mahdotonta.

— Pyh! — sanoi Dmitri Fjodorovitš rypistäen äkkiä kauheasti

kulmiaan ja lyöden kämmenellään otsaansa. Vasta nyt hän kiinnitti
huomionsa asiaan, vaikka Aljoša äsken oli kertonut kaikki, sekä
loukkauksen että Katerina Ivanovnan huudahduksen: »Teidän
veljenne on roisto!» — Niin, kenties tosiaankin olen kertonut
Grušenjkalle tuosta »kohtalokkaasta päivästä», niinkuin Katja sanoo.
Niin, se on totta, olen kertonut, nyt muistan! Se oli silloin Mokrojessa,
minä olin juovuksissa, mustalaistytöt lauloivat… Mutta minähän itkin
ääneen, itkin silloin itse, olin polvillani, rukoilin Katjan kuvan edessä,
ja Grušenjka ymmärsi sen. Hän ymmärsi silloin kaikki, minä muistan,
hän itki itsekin… Hitto vieköön! Saattoiko olla nyt toisin? Silloin itki ja
nyt… Nyt »tikari sydämeen»! Sellaista on akkaväen homma.

Hän loi silmänsä alas ja vaipui ajatuksiinsa.

— Niin, minä olen roisto! Kieltämättä roisto, — lausui hän äkkiä

synkällä äänellä. — Sama se, itkinkö vai enkö, roisto minä kuitenkin
olen! Kerro siellä, että otan tuon nimityksen vastaan, jos se voi
lohduttaa. No, riittää jo, hyvästi, ei maksa lörpötellä! Ei ole iloista.
Sinä menet omaa tietäsi ja minä omaani. Enkä enää tahdo
tavatakaan paitsi ehkä aivan viimeisellä hetkellä. Hyvästi, Aleksei! —
Hän puristi voimakkaasti Aljošan kättä ja lähti nopeasti, aivan kuin irti
riistäytyen, astelemaan kaupunkiin päin silmät yhä alas luotuina ja
päätään nostamatta. Aljoša katseli hänen jälkeensä eikä uskonut,
että hän saattoi mennä tuolla lailla menojaan aivan lopullisesti.

— Seis, Aleksei, vielä yksi tunnustus, yksistään sinulle! — sanoi

Dmitri Fjodorovitš kääntyen yht'äkkiä takaisin. — Katso minua, katso
tarkasti: näetkö, tässä, tässä näin, on tekeillä hirveän häpeällinen
teko. (Sanoessaan »tässä näin» Dmitri Fjodorovitš löi nyrkillään
rintaansa niin omituisen näköisenä, kuin häpeällinen teko olisi ollut
säilyssä juuri siinä, hänen rintansa päällä jossakin kohti, kenties
taskussa tai ommeltuna kaulasta riippumaan.) Tunnet minut jo:
roisto, tunnustettu roisto! Mutta tiedä, että mitä ikinä minä lienenkään
tehnyt ennen tai teen nyt ja vastedes, — niin ei mikään, ei mikään
ole roistomaisuudessa sen kunniattoman teon veroinen, jota nyt,
juuri tällä hetkellä, kannan täällä rinnassani, juuri tässä, tässä, ja
joka on toimimassa ja toteutumassa ja jonka minä täydellisesti
kykenen pysähdyttämään, voin pysähdyttää tai panna toimeen,
huomaa se! No, tiedä siis, että minä panen sen toimeen enkä sitä
estä täyttymästä. Kerroin äsken sinulle kaikki, mutta jätin tämän
kertomatta, koska ei edes minullakaan riittänyt siihen
häikäilemättömyyttä! Minä voin vielä pysähtyä; jos pysähdyn, niin
voin jo huomenna saada puolet menetetystä kunniastani takaisin,
mutta minä en pysähdy, minä toteutan tuuman täydellisesti, ja ole
sinä vastaisuudessa todistajana, että olen puhunut tästä edeltäpäin
ja tietoisesti! Hävitys ja pimeys! Ei ole syytä mitään selitellä,
aikanaan saat tietää. Haiseva takakatu ja hornan hengetär! Hyvästi!
Älä rukoile puolestani, en ole sen arvoinen eikä se ole
tarpeellistakaan, ei ollenkaan tarpeellista… en ole sen tarpeessa!
Pois!…
 Ja hän poistui äkkiä, tällä kertaa lopullisesti. Aljoša lähti
kulkemaan luostaria kohti: »Kuinka, kuinka minä en enää koskaan
häntä näkisi, mitä hän puhuu?» pyöri hurjasti hänen päässään. »Jo
huomenna näen hänet ehdottomasti ja etsin hänet käsiini, etsin
vartavasten. Mitä hän oikein puhelee!…»

*****

Hän kiersi luostarin ympäri ja meni hongikon kautta suoraan

erakkomajalle. Siellä hänet päästettiin sisään, vaikka yleensä tähän
aikaan sinne ei ketään laskettu. Hänen sydämensä vapisi, kun hän
astui sisälle luostarinvanhimman kammioon: Miksi, miksi hän oli
lähtenyt täältä ulos, miksi luostarinvanhin oli lähettänyt hänet
»maailmaan»? Täällä oli hiljaisuus, täällä oli pyhäkkö, mutta siellä oli
rauhattomuus, siellä oli pimeys, jossa heti eksyi ja tuli
neuvottomaksi…

Kammiossa oli palvelijamunkki Porfiri ja pappismunkki Paísi, joka

koko päivän kuluessa oli aina tunnin kuluttua käynyt tiedustamassa
isä Zosiman terveydentilaa, joka, niinkuin Aljoša kauhukseen sai
kuulla, oli huonontumistaan huonontunut. Tavanmukainen
iltakeskustelukin munkkiveljien kanssa oli tällä kertaa täytynyt jättää
pois. Tavallisesti oli iltaisin joka päivä jumalanpalveluksen jälkeen
ennen nukkumaan menoa saapunut luostarin veljeskuntaa
luostarinvanhimman kammioon, ja jokainen tunnusti silloin toisten
kuullen sinä päivänä tekemänsä synnit, syntiset haaveensa,
ajatuksensa, kiusaukset, vieläpä riidatkin, mikäli semmoisia oli
sattunut. Jotkut ripittäytyivät polvillaan. Luostarinvanhin ratkaisi asiat,
sovitti, opetti, määräsi katumusharjoituksia, siunasi ja julisti
anteeksiannon. Juuri näitä veljien »ripittäytymisiä» vastaan
luostarinvanhinlaitoksen vastustajat taistelivat sanoen täten ripin
sakramenttia halvennettavan ja pitäen tätä miltei pyhyyden
herjaamisena, vaikka tämä oli kokonaan muuta. Hiippakunnan
korkeimmille viranomaisille esitettiin myös, että tämmöiset
ripittäytymiset, paitsi että ne eivät saavuttaneet hyvää tarkoitustaan,
todellisuudessa suuressa määrin johtivat syntiin ja kiusauksiin.
Monista veljistä oli muka vaikeata tulla luostarinvanhimman luo,
mutta he saapuivat vastoin tahtoaankin, koska kaikki muut siellä
kävivät, jotta heitä ei pidettäisi mieleltään ylpeinä ja kapinallisina.
Kerrottiin muutamien veljien iltatunnustuksille mennessään sopineen
keskenään aikaisemmin: »Minä, katsos, sanon vihastuneeni aamulla
sinuun, vakuuta sinä se todeksi», näin he tekivät, jotta olisi jotakin
sanottavaa ja vain päästäkseen asiasta. Aljoša tiesi, että näin oli
todellakin joskus tapahtunut. Hän tiesi myös, että veljien joukossa oli
niitäkin, jotka suuresti paheksuivat sitä, että oli tapana viedä
erakkojen omaisiltaankin saamat kirjeet ensin luostarinvanhimman
avattaviksi ja luettaviksi ennen niiden joutumista niiden saajille.
Tietysti edellytettiin, että tämän kaiken piti tapahtua vapaasta
tahdosta ja vilpittömästi, sydämen halusta, vapaaehtoisen
kuuliaisuuden ja sielun pelastukseksi tarkoitetun opetuksen nimessä,
mutta käytännössä, kuten nähtiin, se tapahtui usein kaikkea muuta
kuin vilpittömässä mielessä ja päinvastoin teeskennellen ja
epärehellisesti. Mutta vanhimmat ja kokeneimmat veljeskunnan
jäsenet pysyivät kannallaan ollen sitä mieltä, että »ken on vilpittömin
mielin astunut näiden seinien sisäpuolelle pelastuakseen, sille kaikki
tämä kuuliaisuus ja itsensä voittaminen on oleva ehdottomasti
suureksi hyödyksi pelastuksen tiellä; ken taas päinvastoin tuntee
olonsa vaivalloiseksi ja nurkuu, se ei oikeastaan olekaan munkki ja
on tullut suotta luostariin ja sellaisen paikka on maailmassa. Synniltä
ja perkeleeltä taas ei ole turvassa maailmassa eikä edes
temppelissä, joten siis ei ole mitään syytä hellitellä syntiä.»
 — Hän on mennyt heikoksi, on enimmäkseen nukuksissa, —
ilmoitti Aljošalle kuiskaten isä Paísi siunattuaan häntä. — Häntä on
suorastaan vaikea saada hereille. Mutta ei tarvitsekaan herättää.
Noin viideksi minuutiksi hän heräsi, pyysi viemään siunauksensa
veljeskunnalle ja pyysi veljiä rukoilemaan yöllä hänen puolestaan.
Huomenna hän aikoo vielä kerran nauttia herranehtoollista. Hän
muisteli sinua; Aleksei, kysyi olitko mennyt, vastattiin, että olet
kaupungissa. »Siihen minä hänet siunasinkin, siellä on hänen
paikkansa eikä tällä kertaa täällä», — näin hän puhui sinusta.
Rakkaudella hän sinua muisteli ja huolehtien, ymmärrätkö, millainen
onni on tullut osaksesi? Mutta kuinka hän tuli määränneeksi sinut
joksikin ajaksi maailmaan? Hän siis näkee edeltäpäin jotakin sinun
kohtalostasi! Ymmärrä, Aleksei, että jos palaatkin maailmaan, niin
teet sen täyttääksesi luostarinvanhimpasi sinulle määräämän
kuuliaisuusvelvollisuuden etkä tyhjään kevytmielisyyteen ja
maailman iloihin…

Isä Paísi poistui. Että luostarinvanhin teki lähtöä, siitä Aljoša oli
varma, vaikka vanhus vielä saattoikin elää päivän tai kaksi. Aljoša
päätti lujasti ja hehkuvin mielin, että hän huolimatta antamastaan
lupauksesta tavata isää, Hohlakoveja, veljeä ja Katerina Ivanovnaa
— ei seuraavana päivänä ollenkaan poistu luostarista, vaan jää
vanhuksensa luo hänen kuolemaansa asti. Rakkaus leimahti hänen
sydämessään, ja hän moitti katkerasti itseään siitä, että oli hetkeksi
siellä, kaupungissa, suorastaan unohtanut sen, jonka hän oli jättänyt
luostariin kuolinvuoteelle ja jota hän kunnioitti enemmän kuin ketään
muuta koko maailmassa. Hän meni vanhuksen makuukomeroon,
lankesi polvilleen ja kumarsi nukkuvalle maahan asti. Vanhus nukkui
hiljaa ja liikkumatta, hengittäen tasaisesti ja tuskin huomattavasti.
Hänen kasvonsa olivat rauhalliset.
 Palattuaan toiseen huoneeseen — samaan, jossa luostarinvanhin
aamulla oli ottanut vastaan vieraat, kävi Aljoša melkein riisumatta ja
ottaen jalastaan vain saappaat pitkälleen kovalle ja kapealle
nahkapäällyksiselle sohvalle, jolla hän oli jo pitkät ajat nukkunut joka
yö tuoden siihen vain tyynyn. Patjaa, josta hänen isänsä äskettäin oli
pitänyt ääntä, hän ei pitkään aikaan ollut muistanut levittää alleen.
Hän riisui vain lyhyen viittansa ja käytti sitä peitteenään. Mutta ennen
nukkumistaan hän heittäytyi polvilleen ja rukoili kauan. Palavassa
rukouksessaan hänellä ei ollut tapana pyytää Jumalaa tuomaan
selkenemistä hänen ahdistukseensa, vaan hän janosi vain riemuisaa
liikutusta, entistä sulotunnetta, joka aina oli tullut hänen sieluunsa,
kun hän oli kiittänyt ja ylistänyt Jumalaa, ja tuota kiitosta ja ylistystä
oli tavallisesti vain ollutkin hänen rukouksensa levolle käydessä. Tuo
riemu, joka tuli hänen sydämeensä, toi mukanaan kevyen ja
rauhallisen unen. Rukoillessaan taas nyt hän sattumalta tunsi
taskussaan sen ruusunpunaisen, pienen kirjeen, jonka hänelle oli
antanut hänen jälkeensä juossut Katerina Ivanovnan palvelijatar.
Hän tuli hämilleen, mutta rukoili rukouksensa loppuun. Sitten hän
jonkin verran empien avasi kirjeen. Siinä oli kirjelippu, jonka oli
allekirjoittanut Lise, — sama rouva Hohlakovin nuori tytär, joka
aamulla oli hänelle niin naureskellut luostarinvanhimman luona.

»Aleksei Fjodorovitš», kirjoitti hän, »kirjoitan teille kenenkään

tietämättä, salassa äidiltäkin, ja tiedän, miten pahasti se on tehty.
Minä en voi enää elää, jos en sano teille sitä, mikä on syntynyt
sydämessäni, mutta sitä ei pidä ennen aikojaan tietää kenenkään
muun kuin meidän kahden. Mutta kuinka sanon teille sen, mitä niin
tekee mieleni teille sanoa? Sanotaan, että paperi ei punastu, mutta
minä vakuutan teille, että se ei ole totta ja että paperi punastuu aivan
niinkuin minä itse nyt olen hirveän punastunut. Rakas Aljoša, minä
rakastan teitä, olen rakastanut jo lapsena, Moskovassa, kun te olitte
aivan toisenlainen kuin nyt, ja rakastan koko elämäni ajan. Sydämeni
on valinnut teidät, ja me yhdymme yhdeksi ja päätämme vanhoina
yhdessä elämämme. Mitä ikääni tulee, niin me odotamme niin kauan
kuin laissa on määrätty. Siihen mennessä minä ehdottomasti tulen
terveeksi, rupean kävelemään ja tanssimaan. Siitä ei voi olla mitään
epäilystä.

»Näettekö, kuinka olen joka kohdan miettinyt. Yhtä vain en osaa

ajatella: mitä te minusta ajattelette luettuanne tämän? Minä aina
nauran ja kujeilen ja äsken suututin teidät, mutta vakuutan teille, että
nyt juuri ennenkuin tartuin kynään minä rukoilin jumalanäidin kuvan
edessä ja rukoilen nytkin ja olen vähällä itkeä.

»Salaisuuteni on teille ilmaistu enkä tiedä, kuinka huomenna

tullessanne voin teihin katsahtaakaan. Ah, Aleksei Fjodorovitš, entä
jos taaskaan en voi hillitä itseäni, vaan, kuten hupsu, rupean
nauramaan niinkuin äskenkin teidät nähdessäni? Silloinhan te
pidätte minua pahana pilkantekijänä ettekä usko kirjettäni. Senvuoksi
pyydän teitä, rakkaani, jos te minua säälitte, että te huomenna
tullessanne sisälle ette katso minua liiaksi suoraan silmiin, sillä kun
katseemme kohtaavat toisensa, niin minä kenties pakostakin äkkiä
rupean nauramaan ja sitten te vielä kaiken lisäksi olette tuossa
pitkässä takissanne. Nytkin minä ihan kylmenen sitä ajatellessani ja
siksi älkää sisään tullessanne vähään aikaan ollenkaan katsoko
minuun, vaan katsokaa mammaa tai ikkunasta ulos…

»Kas nyt olen kirjoittanut teille rakkauskirjeen, voi hyvä Jumala,

mitä olenkaan tehnyt! Aljoša, älkää halveksiko minua, ja jos olen
tehnyt jotakin hyvin huonoa ja tuottanut teille surua, niin antakaa
minulle anteeksi. Nyt on minun kenties ainaiseksi menneen maineeni
salaisuus teidän käsissänne.
 »Tänään minä ehdottomasti itken. Näkemiin, kamaliin näkemiin.
Lise.

»P. S. Aljoša, tulkaa te vain välttämättömästi, välttämättömästi,

välttämättömästi! Lise.»

Aljoša luki kirjeen ihmetellen, luki sen kahdesti, mietti ja alkoi äkkiä
hiljaa ja makeasti nauraa. Sitten hän vavahti, tämä nauru tuntui
hänestä synnilliseltä. Mutta hetken kuluttua hän alkoi taas nauraa
yhtä hiljaista ja onnellista naurua. Hitaasti hän pani kirjeen takaisin
kuoreen, teki ristinmerkin ja kävi makaamaan. Ahdistus oli äkkiä
kadonnut hänen mielestään. »Herra Jumala, armahda heitä kaikkia,
noita äskeisiä, suojele heitä onnettomia ja rauhattomia ja ohjaa
heidän kulkunsa. Sinulla on keinot: kaikilla noilla keinoillasi pelastat
heidät. Sinä olet rakkaus, Sinä lähetät myös kaikille ilon!» mutisi
Aljoša tehden ristinmerkkejä ja vaipuen levolliseen uneen.

TOINEN OSA

Neljäs kirja
 Mullerruksia

1.

Isä Ferapont

Aljoša heräsi varhain aamulla, ennen päivän sarastusta.

Luostarinvanhin oli herännyt ja tunsi olevansa sangen heikko, mutta
halusi kuitenkin siirtyä vuoteesta nojatuoliin. Hän oli täydessä
tajussaan. Vaikka hänen kasvonsa olivatkin hyvin väsyneen
näköiset, niin ne olivat kirkkaat, miltei iloiset, ja hänen katseensa oli
iloinen, ystävällinen, kutsuva. — Kenties minäkin elän yli nyt alkavan
päivän, — sanoi hän Aljošalle. Sitten hän tahtoi heti ripittäytyä ja
nauttia herranehtoollisen. Hänen rippi-isänään oli aina isä Paísi. Kun
molemmat sakramentit oli suoritettu, alkoi viimeinen voitelu.
Pappismunkit kokoontuivat, kammio täyttyi vähitellen erakoista.
Sillävälin oli päivä valjennut. Alkoi saapua munkkeja luostaristakin.
Kun toimitus oli lopussa, tahtoi luostarinvanhin sanoa jäähyväiset
kaikille ja suuteli jokaista. Koska kammio oli ahdas, niin ensiksi
saapuneet poistuivat antaen tilaa toisille. Aljoša seisoi
luostarinvanhimman luona, joka uudelleen oli siirtynyt nojatuoliin.
Hän puhui ja opetti, minkä voi, ja vaikka hänen äänensä olikin
heikko, niin se kuitenkin oli vielä verraten luja. — Olen opettanut teitä
niin monta vuotta ja siis puhunut ääneen niin monta vuotta, että on
tullut tavaksi puhua ja puhuessani teitä opettaa ja se on mennyt niin
pitkälle, että minun melkein on ollut vaikeampi olla vaiti kuin puhua,
isät ja rakkaat veljet, vielä nytkin, kun olen ollut heikko, — laski hän
leikkiä katsellen liikutettuna ympärillään olevia. Aljoša muisti
myöhemmin yhtä ja toista siitä, mitä hän silloin sanoi. Mutta vaikka
hän puhuikin selvästi ääntäen eikä aivan matalalla äänellä, niin
hänen puheensa kuitenkin oli jokseenkin hajanaista. Hän puhui
monista asioista ja näytti tahtovan sanoa kaiken, puhua vielä kerran
ennen kuoleman hetkeä loppuun kaiken, mitä vielä oli jäänyt elämän
aikana puhumatta, eikä vain opettaakseen, vaan ikäänkuin hartaasti
haluten tehdä toisetkin osallisiksi ilostaan ja ihastuksestaan, purkaa
vielä kerran elämässä sydämensä sisällystä…

— Rakastakaa toisianne, isät — opetti vanhus (mikäli Aljoša

myöhemmin muisti). — Rakastakaa Herran kansaa. Emme me ole
pyhempiä kuin maailmassa-olijat sen vuoksi, että olemme tulleet
tänne ja sulkeutuneet näitten seinien sisälle, vaan päinvastoin
jokainen, joka on tänne tullut, on jo tänne tulollaan tunnustanut
olevansa huonompi kaikkia maailman lapsia, huonompi kaikkia ja
kaikkea maan päällä… Ja kuta kauemmin munkki sitten elää
seiniensä sisäpuolelle sulkeutuneena, sitä herkempi hänen pitää
myös olla tuntemaan tämä. Sillä päinvastaisessa tapauksessa
hänellä ei ollut mitään syytä tullakaan tänne. Mutta kun hän
tunnustaa, että hän ei ole ainoastaan huonompi kaikkia maailmassa,
vaan myös kaikkien ihmisten edessä syyllinen kaikkien ja kaiken
puolesta, kaikkien ihmisten syntien tähden, koko maailman ja
itsekunkin syntien, silloin vasta eristäytymisemme tarkoitus
saavutetaan. Sillä tietäkää, rakkaani, että joka ainoa meistä on
epäilemättä syyllinen kaikkien ja kaiken puolesta maan päällä, ei
vain maailman yhteiseen syntiin, vaan kukin omasta kohdastaan
kaikkien ihmisten ja jokaisen ihmisen puolesta täällä maan päällä.
Tämä tietoisuus on munkin elämän tien kruunu ja jokaisen ihmisen,
joka maan päällä vaeltaa. Sillä eivät munkit ole erikoisia ihmisiä,
vaan ainoastaan sellaisia, jommoisia kaikkien ihmisten maan päällä
tulisi olla. Silloin vasta sydämemme värähtäisikin rajattomaan, koko
maailman käsittävään ja loppumattomaan rakkauteen. Silloin
jokainen teistä kykenee saavuttamaan koko maailman rakkaudella ja
pesemään kyynelillään pois maailman synnit… Jokainen kulkekoon
oman sydämensä ympärillä, jokainen ripittäytyköön itselleen
lakkaamatta. Älkää pelätkö omaa syntiänne silloinkaan, kun olette
tulleet siitä tietoisiksi, kunhan vain kadutte, mutta älkää asetelko
Jumalalle ehtoja. Ja taas minä sanon teille: älkää ylpeilkö. Älkää
ylpeilkö pienten edessä, älkääkä ylpeilkö suurten edessä. Älkää
vihatko niitäkään, jotka hylkäävät teidät, jotka häpäisevät teitä, jotka
herjaavat ja panettelevat teitä. Älkää vihatko jumalankieltäjiä, vääriä
opettajia, materialisteja, olkaa vihaamatta ilkeitäkin heidän
joukossaan eikä vain hyviä, sillä heidän joukossaan on paljon hyviä
ja varsinkin meidän aikanamme. Sulkekaa heidät rukouksiinne näin:
pelasta, Jumala, kaikki, joilla ei ole ketään puolestaan rukoilijaa,
pelasta nekin, jotka eivät tahdo Sinua rukoilla. Ja lisätkää samalla:
en pyydä tätä ylpeydessäni, Herra, sillä itse olen huonompi kaikkia ja
kaikkea… Rakastakaa Herran kansaa, älkää antako tulokkaiden
hajoittaa laumaa, sillä jos te nukutte laiskuuteenne ja inhottavaan
ylpeyteenne ja varsinkin oman voitonpyyntöönne, niin tulee kaikilta
suunnilta niitä, jotka hajoittavat laumanne. Selittäkää kansalle
evankeliumia väsymättä… Älkää ottako lahjoja… Hopeata ja kultaa
älkää rakastako älkääkä pitäkö itsellänne… Uskokaa ja pitäkää
merkit. Kohottakaa lippu korkealle…

Vanhus puhui muuten katkonaisemmin kuin tässä on esitetty ja

kuin Aljoša sittemmin kirjoitti muistiin. Toisinaan hänen puheensa
aivan katkesi, niinkuin hän olisi koonnut voimia, hän läähätti, mutta
oli innoissaan. Häntä kuunneltiin liikutetuin mielin, vaikka monet
ihmettelivätkin hänen sanojaan ja pitivät niitä hämärinä…
Myöhemmin muisteltiin kaikkia näitä sanoja. Kun Aljoša joutui
hetkiseksi poistumaan kammiosta, niin häntä hämmästytti kammioon
ja sen läheisyyteen kerääntyneitten munkkien yleinen mieltenkuohu
ja odotus. Muutamissa tuo odotus oli melkein pelokasta, toisissa
juhlallista. Kaikki odottivat jotakin suurta tapahtuvan heti
luostarinvanhimman kuoltua. Tämä odotus oli eräältä kannalta
katsoen tavallaan kevytmielistäkin, mutta se oli vallannut kaikkein
ankarimmatkin vanhukset. Kaikkein ankarimmat olivat pappismunkki
Paísin kasvot. Aljoša oli poistunut kammiosta ainoastaan siksi, että
hänet oli salaa kutsunut ulos erään munkin välityksellä Rakitin, joka
oli tullut kaupungista ja tuonut Aljošalle omituisen kirjeen rouva
Hohlakovilta. Tämä ilmoitti Aljošalle erään uutisen, joka juuri nyt oli
sangen mielenkiintoinen. Seikka oli semmoinen, että edellisenä
päivänä oli niiden uskovaisten rahvaannaisten joukossa, jotka olivat
tulleet tervehtimään luostarinvanhinta ja saamaan hänen
siunauksensa, ollut eräs kaupungin ämmistä, Prohorovna,
aliupseerin leski. Hän oli kysynyt luostarinvanhimmalta, voiko hän
mainita kirkossa vainajana ja sielumessun toimittamista varten
poikansa Vasenjkan, joka oli mennyt virka-asioissa kauaksi
Siperiaan, Irkutskiin, ja josta hän jo vuoteen ei ollut saanut mitään
tietoja. Tähän oli luostarinvanhin antanut hänelle ankaran
vastauksen kieltäen niin tekemästä ja nimittäen sellaista
sielumessua noituuden kaltaiseksi toiminnaksi. Mutta sitten hän oli
antanut eukolle anteeksi tämän tietämättömyyden tähden ja lisännyt
»aivan kuin katsoen tulevaisuuden kirjaan» (niin kuuluivat sanat
rouva Hohlakovin kirjeessä) seuraavan lohdutuksen: »että hänen
poikansa Vasja on varmasti elossa ja että hän pian joko itse saapuu
äitinsä luo tai lähettää kirjeen ja että hän vain menisi kotiinsa ja
odottaisi. Ja kuinka kävi?» — lisäsi rouva Hohlakov innostuneesti. —
»Ennustus täyttyi aivan sananmukaisesti ja paremminkin.» Tuskin oli
ämmä palannut kotiin, kun hänelle annettiin Siperiasta tullut kirje,
joka jo oli häntä odottamassa. Mutta vielä enemmänkin: tässä
kirjeessä, joka oli kirjoitettu matkan varrelta Jekaterinburgista, Vasja
ilmoitti äidilleen olevansa itse tulossa Venäjälle erään virkamiehen
kanssa ja että noin kolmen viikon kuluttua tämän kirjeen
saapumisesta »hän toivoo saavansa syleillä äitiään». Rouva
Hohlakov pyysi hartaasti ja lämpimästi Aljošaa ilmoittamaan tämän
äskeisen »ihmeellisen ennustuksen» apotille ja koko veljeskunnalle:
»Sen pitää tulla kaikkien, kaikkien tietoon!» — huudahti hän
kirjeensä lopussa. Tämä kirje oli kirjoitettu kiireesti, ja kirjoittajan
mielenliikutus näkyi sen joka rivistä. Mutta Aljošan ei tarvinnut enää
ilmoittaa veljeskunnalle mitään, sillä jokainen tiesi jo kaikki: Rakitin
oli lähettäessään munkin häntä hakemaan antanut tälle sen lisäksi
tehtäväksi »nöyrimmästi ilmoittaa hänen korkea-arvoisuudelleen isä
Paísille, että hänellä, Rakitinilla, on hänelle eräs niin tärkeä asia, että
hän ei uskalla hetkeäkään lykätä sen ilmoittamista, samalla kuin hän
nöyrimmästi pyytää anteeksi rohkeuttaan». Koska munkki oli
ilmoittanut Rakitinin pyynnön isä Paísille aikaisemmin kuin Aljošalle,
niin Aljošan tehtäväksi paikalle tultua jäi vain kirjeen lukeminen ja
sen esittäminen heti isä Paísille vain jonkinmoisena
todistuskappaleena. Nytpä myös tämä juro ja epäluuloinen mies
luettuaan kulmakarvat rypyssä tiedon »ihmeestä» ei voinut täysin
hillitä eräänlaista sisällistä tunnettaan. Hänen silmänsä välähtivät,
huulet alkoivat äkkiä hymyillä arvokasta ja ymmärtävää hymyä.

— Mitä vielä saanemmekaan nähdä? — pääsi äkkiä aivan kuin

vahingossa hänen suustaan.

— Mitä vielä saanemmekaan nähdä, mitä vielä saanemmekaan

nähdä! — toistelivat munkit ylt'ympäri, mutta isä Paísi rypisti
uudelleen kulmiaan ja pyysi kaikkia olemaan edes toistaiseksi
kertomatta tästä ääneen kenellekään, »kunnes saadaan vielä
varmempi tieto, sillä maailmanlasten keskuudessa on paljon
kevytmielisyyttä, ja tämäkin asia on voinut tapahtua aivan
luonnollisella tavalla», lisäsi hän varovasti aivan kuin
rauhoittaakseen omaatuntoaan, mutta tuskin ollenkaan uskoen
tarpeelliseksi omaa varovaisuuttaan, minkä toisetkin varsin hyvin
huomasivat. Tietysti »ihme» tuli heti koko luostarin ja myös monien
luostariin jumalanpalvelukseen saapuneitten ulkopuolisten tietoon.
Kaikkein enimmän näytti tapahtunut ihme hämmästyttävän luostariin
poikennutta vaeltavaa munkkia, joka oli tullut kaukana pohjoisessa,
Obdorskissa, olevasta Pyhän Sylvesterin pikkuisesta luostarista.
Hän oli eilen tervehtinyt luostarinvanhinta seisoen rouva Hohlakovin
vieressä ja kysynyt häneltä terävästi osoittaen hänelle tuon rouvan
»parantunutta» tytärtä: — Kuinka teillä on rohkeutta tehdä tuollaisia
tekoja?

Asian laita oli niin, että hän nyt oli sangen ymmällä eikä oikein
tietänyt, mitä uskoisi. Eilen illalla hän oli käynyt vielä luostarissa isä
Ferapontin luona tämän erityisessä kammiossa mehiläistarhan
takana, ja häntä oli hämmästyttänyt tämä kohtaus, joka oli tehnyt
häneen oudon ja peloittavan vaikutuksen. Tämä vanhus, isä
Ferapont, oli se sama hyvin korkeassa iässä oleva munkki, suuri
paastooja ja vaikenija, jonka jo olemme maininneet luostarinvanhin
Zosiman vastustajana ja ennen kaikkea luostarinvanhinjärjestelmän
vastustajana, jota järjestelmää hän piti vahingollisena ja
kevytmielisenä uutuutena. Tämä oli sangen vaarallinen vastustaja,
vaikka hän, vaikenija kun oli, ei puhunut juuri kenellekään
sanaakaan. Vaarallinen hän oli etupäässä siksi, että monet
veljeskunnan jäsenet olivat täydelleen hänen puolellaan ja monet
luostarissa käyvistä maallikoista kunnioittivat häntä suurena
hurskauden harjoittajana ja uskon sankarina, siitä huolimatta, että
huomasivat hänet ehdottomasti kaistapäiseksi. Mutta se juuri
viehättikin, että hän ei ollut aivan täysijärkinen. Luostarinvanhin
Zosiman luona ei tämä isä Ferapont koskaan käynyt. Vaikka hän
elelikin erakkomajassa, niin häntä ei sanottavasti häiritty
erakkomajoissa noudatettavilla säännöillä juuri siksi, että hänen
käytöksensä ei ollut aivan täysijärkisen käytöstä. Hän oli
seitsemänkymmenenviiden vuoden ikäinen, jollei vanhempikin, ja
asui mehiläistarhan tuolla puolen muurin kulmauksessa vanhassa,
melkein lahonneessa puisessa kammiossa, joka oli siihen laitettu jo
ammoisina aikoina, jo viime vuosisadalla, eräälle niinikään suurelle
paastoojalle ja vaikenijalle, isä Joonaalle, joka oli elänyt sadan viiden
vuoden ikään ja jonka teoista vieläkin kierteli luostarissa ja sen
ympäristössä paljon mielenkiintoisia kertomuksia. Isä Ferapontin
onnistui saada aikaan se, että hänetkin vihdoin, noin seitsemän
vuotta sitten, sijoitettiin tuohon samaan yksinäiseen pikku kammioon,
joka yksinkertaisesti oli mökki, mutta muistutti suuresti kappelia, sillä
siinä oli erittäin paljon lahjaksi tuotuja pyhäinkuvia, joitten edessä
alati paloivat niinikään lahjoitetut lamput, ja näitä hoitelemaan ja
sytyttelemään olikin isä Ferapont oikeastaan sinne pantu. Hän söi,
kuten kerrottiin (ja se olikin totta), vain kaksi naulaa leipää kolmessa
päivässä, ei muuta. Leivän toi hänelle joka kolmas päivä
mehiläistarhassa asuva mehiläisten hoitaja, mutta tällekin häntä
palvelevalle mehiläisten hoitajalle isä Ferapont aniharvoin virkkoi
sanaakaan. Nämä neljä naulaa leipää ynnä sunnuntaisin tuotu
siunattu ehtoollisleipä, jonka igumeni säännöllisesti myöhemmän
jumalanpalveluksen jälkeen lähetti pyhälle miehelle, olivatkin hänen
ruokanaan koko viikon aikana. Vettä vaihdettiin hänen tuoppiinsa
joka päivä. Jumalanpalvelukseen hän saapui harvoin. Luostariin
tulleet rukoilijat näkivät hänen viettävän toisinaan koko päivän
rukoilussa, jolloin hän oli kaiken aikaa polvillaan eikä katsonut
ympärilleen. Jos hän joskus antautui heidän kanssaan puheisiin, niin
hän puhui lyhyesti, katkonaisesti, omituisesti ja melkein aina