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Interplay
Interplay
The Process of Interpersonal Communication
FOURTEENTH EDITION
Ronald B. Adler
Santa Barbara City College
Lawrence B. Rosenfeld
The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill
Russell F. Proctor II
Northern Kentucky University
New York • Oxford

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Adler, Ronald B. (Ronald Brian), 1946– author. |

Rosenfeld, Lawrence B., author. | Proctor, Russell F., author.
Title: Interplay: the process of interpersonal communication / Ronald B.
Adler, Santa Barbara City College, Lawrence B. Rosenfeld, University of
North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Russell F. Proctor II, Northern Kentucky
University.
Description: Fourteenth edition. | New York, NY: Oxford University Press,
[2018]
Identifiers: LCCN 2017031955 | ISBN 9780190646257 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780190646264
(pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Interpersonal communication.
Classification: LCC BF637.C45 A33 2018 | DDC 302.2—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017031955
987654321
Printed by LSC Communications, United States of America
Brief Contents
Preface xv
PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
1 Interpersonal Process 3
2 Culture and Interpersonal Communication 37
3 Interpersonal Communication and the Self 69
4 Perceiving Others 103
CREATING AND RESPONDING TO

PART 2 MESSAGES
5 Language 135
6 Nonverbal Communication 165
7 Listening: Receiving and Responding 195
8 Emotions 227
PART 3 DIMENSIONS OF INTERPERSONAL

RELATIONSHIPS
9 Dynamics of Interpersonal Relationships 259
10 Communication in Close Relationships: Friends, Family,
and Romantic Partners 291
11 Managing Conflict 323
12 Communication Climate 353
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Author Index AI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Contents
Preface xv
FOUNDATIONS OF INTERPERSONAL
PART 1 COMMUNICATION
1 Interpersonal Process 3
Why We Communicate 4
Physical Needs 5
Identity Needs 6
Social Needs 7
FEATURES
Practical Needs 8
MEDIA CLIP: Solitude and Connection: The Communication Process 9
Wild 6
Early Models of Communication 9
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION:
Loneliness and the Internet: A Delicate
Insights from the Transactional Communication Model 10
Balance 7 Communication Principles 13
AT WORK: Communication and Career The Nature of Interpersonal Communication 15
Advancement 9 Communication Misconceptions 17
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Tweeting: The
Communication Competence 19
Channel Affects the Message 12
Principles of Communication Competence 19
MEDIA CLIP: Pathologically Competent:
House of Cards 22 Characteristics of Competent Communication 21
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Social Media and Interpersonal Communication 23
Your Use of Social Media 24
Characteristics of Social Media 23
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Sidestepping
Permanence: The Attraction of
Social Media and Relational Quality 28
Snapchat 27 Communicating Competently with Social Media 29
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Men Read Mean CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 33
Tweets to Female Sports Reporters” 31
KEY TERMS 34
ACTIVITIES 34
2 Culture and Interpersonal Communication 37

Culture and Communication 38
Culture and Co-Culture 38
Intercultural Communication 40
vi
CO N T EN T S vii
FEATURES Interpersonal and Intercultural Dimensions

MEDIA CLIP: Embracing Tradition and of Communication 42
Change: Meet the Patels 39 Intercultural Differences as Generalizations 43
MEDIA CLIP: Straddling Cultures:
black-ish 49 Cultural Values and Norms 43
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: High Versus Low Context 43
When “Harmless” Labels Do Harm 50 Individualism Versus Collectivism 44
AT WORK: Organizations Are Power Distance 46
Cultures 55 Uncertainty Avoidance 47
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Saying “I’m Achievement Versus Nurturing 48
Sorry” in Japanese and English:
Different Codes 58 Co-Cultures and Communication 48
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Race and Ethnicity 48
What Is Your Intercultural Gender Identity/Sexual Orientation 50
Communication Competence? 60
Age/Generation 51
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Momondo:
(Dis)abilities 52
The DNA Journey” 62
Socioeconomic Status 53
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Living in Another
Culture: Adapting and Adopting 63 Codes and Culture 54
Verbal Codes 54
Nonverbal Codes 58
Developing Intercultural Communication

Competence 59
Motivation and Attitude 60
Tolerance for Ambiguity 61
Open-Mindedness 61
Knowledge and Skill 62
Patience and Perseverance 63
CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 64
KEY TERMS 65
ACTIVITIES 66
3 Interpersonal Communication and the Self 69

Communication and the Self-Concept 70
How the Self-Concept Develops 71
Characteristics of the Self-Concept 73
The Self-Fulfilling Prophecy and Communication 76
viii CONTENTS
FEATURES Presenting the Self 77

FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Does Instagram =
Public and Private Selves 78
#Instasad? 73
Characteristics of Impression Management 79
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Dove Evolution
Face-to-Face Impression Management 80
Commercial” 74
Impression Management in Social Media 80
MEDIA CLIP: Reflecting Years of
Appraisal: This Is Us 75 Impression Management and Honesty 83
AT WORK: Impression Management in Disclosing the Self 84
the Workplace 81
Self-Disclosure Factors 85
MEDIA CLIP: The Promise and Perils of
Models of Self-Disclosure 86
Online Relationships: Catfish: The TV
Show 82 Benefits and Risks of Self-Disclosure 88
Guidelines for Self-Disclosure 91
Talking Frankly About STDs 90 Alternatives to Self-Disclosure 93
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 98
Online and Offline Self-Disclosure 93
KEY TERMS 99
ACTIVITIES 100
4 Perceiving Others 103

The Perception Process 104
Reality Is Constructed 104
Steps in the Perception Process 106
FEATURES
Influences on Perception 110
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Online Channels Access to Information 110
Affect Perception 108 Physiological Influences 110
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “All That Psychological Influences 112
We Share” 110 Social Influences 113
AT WORK: Sexual Harassment Cultural Influences 117
and Perception 115
Common Tendencies in Perception 118
MEDIA CLIP: Master of Perception:
Sherlock 118 We Make Snap Judgments 119
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Hurtful We Cling to First Impressions 120
Communication: A Matter We Judge Ourselves More Charitably Than We Do Others 121
of Perception 122 We Are Influenced by Our Expectations 122
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: We Are Influenced by the Obvious 123
Distorting Perception: The Gaslight
We Assume Others Are Like Us 123
Effect 126
MEDIA CLIP: Gaining Empathy: Synchronizing Our Perceptions 124
Undercover Boss 128
Perception Checking 124
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Building Empathy 126
Your Empathy Quotient 129
KEY TERMS 131
ACTIVITIES 131
CO N T EN T S ix
PART 2 CREATING AND RESPONDING TO MESSAGES

5 Language 135
The Nature of Language 136
Language Is Symbolic 136
Language Is Rule-Governed 137
Language Is Subjective 139
FEATURES
Language and Worldview 139
MEDIA CLIP: Invented Languages: Game The Impact of Language 141
of Thrones 137
Naming and Identity 141
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: The Negative
Consequences of Fat Talk 141
Affiliation 142
Power and Politeness 143
AT WORK: Swearing on the Job 144
Sexism and Racism 145
Precision and Vagueness 148
Sorry, Not Sorry 145
The Language of Responsibility 152
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION:
Sexist Language 146 Gender and Language 156
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Vague Extent of Gender Differences 156
Facebook Posts—Congressional
Hearings” 149
Non-Gender Influences on Language Use 158
MEDIA CLIP: Damning with Faint Praise: Social Media and Language 158
Florence Foster Jenkins 151
Online Language and Impression Management 158
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: The Language of Online Language and Gender 160
Online Community 159
KEY TERMS 162
ACTIVITIES 162
6 Nonverbal Communication 165

Nonverbal Communication Defined 166
Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 167

Nonverbal Communication Is Always Occurring 167
Nonverbal Communication Is Primarily Relational 168
FEATURES Nonverbal Communication Is Ambiguous 169
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: The Power of Nonverbal Communication Occurs in Mediated Messages 170
Periods. In Texting. 171
Nonverbal Communication Is Influenced by Culture and
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Gender 170
Nonverbal Immediacy Behaviors 174
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Body Functions of Nonverbal Communication 172
Language” 175 Creating and Maintaining Relationships 172
MEDIA CLIP: A Life of Deception: Regulating Interaction 173
The Americans 176 Influencing Others 175
MEDIA CLIP: In a Different Voice: Influencing Ourselves 175
Speechless 179
x CONTENTS
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Nonverbal Concealing/Deceiving 175

Imitation: The Sincerest Form of
Managing Impressions 177
Flattery 180
AT WORK: Let Your Voice Be Heard 183 Types of Nonverbal Communication 178
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: The Body Movement 178
Inequality of “Lookism” 188 Touch 181
Voice 182
Distance 184
Territoriality 187
Time 187
Physical Attractiveness 188
Clothing 189
Physical Environment 189
KEY TERMS 191
ACTIVITIES 192
7 Listening: Receiving and Responding 195

The Nature of Listening 196
The Importance of Listening 196
Listening Defined 197
Listening Styles 199
The Challenge of Listening 202

FEATURES
Recognizing Barriers to Listening 202
AT WORK: Listening on the Job 197
Avoiding Poor Listening Habits 203
Your Listening Styles 200 Components of Listening 204
MEDIA CLIP: Multifaceted Listening: Hearing 204
The Profit 201
Attending 204
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: Understanding 205
The Myth of Multitasking 205
Remembering 206
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Responding
Responding 206
Helps Speakers Tell Their Stories 207
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Brené Brown on Types of Listening Responses 207
Empathy” 215
Silent Listening 208
MEDIA CLIP: Responding Directively: Questioning 209
Scandal 219
Paraphrasing 211
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Exchanging Empathizing 214
Advice Online 220
Supporting 216
Analyzing 218
CO N T EN T S xi
Evaluating 218
Advising 219
Which Response Type to Use? 221
KEY TERMS 223
ACTIVITIES 224
8 Emotions 227
What Are Emotions? 229
Physiological Changes 229
Nonverbal Behavior 230
Cognitive Interpretations 230
FEATURES
Verbal Expression 231
MEDIA CLIP: Intelligence of Another Influences on Emotional Expression 232
Variety: The Big Bang Theory 228
Personality 232
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “The Marriage
Hack” 231
Culture 233
Gender 234
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Managing Grief
with Humor 233 Social Conventions and Roles 235
Social Media 235
AT WORK: Emotional Labor on the
Job 236 Emotional Contagion 237
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: Expressing Emotions Effectively 238
Fictional Characters, Real Feelings:
Parasocial Relationships 237 Recognize Your Feelings 238
Choose the Best Language 239
Your Emotional Intelligence 243 Share Multiple Feelings 241
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: When Talking Recognize the Difference Between Feeling and Acting 242
About Feelings Makes Things Accept Responsibility for Your Feelings 242
Worse 252 Choose the Best Time and Place to Express Your
MEDIA CLIP: Self-Talk and Resilience: Feelings 242
Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt 254
Managing Emotions 244
Facilitative and Debilitative Emotions 244
Thoughts Cause Feelings 245
Irrational Thinking and Debilitative Emotions 247
Minimizing Debilitative Emotions 251
Maximizing Facilitative Emotions 254
KEY TERMS 256
ACTIVITIES 256
xii CONTENTS
DIMENSIONS OF INTERPERSONAL
PART 3 RELATIONSHIPS
9 Dynamics of Interpersonal Relationships 259
Why We Form Relationships 260
Appearance 260
Similarity 261
Complementarity 262
Rewards 262
FEATURES Competency 264
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: The Proximity 265
Anguish of Abusive Relationships 263
Disclosure 265
MEDIA CLIP: The Power and Peril of
Disclosure: Homeland 265 Models of Relational Dynamics 266
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Communicating Stages of Relational Development 266
About Relational Baggage 268 Dialectical Tensions 273
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: The Dialectical
Tensions of Cell Phone Use 275 Communicating About Relationships 278
MEDIA CLIP: Finding Connection: Content and Relational Messages 278
Trainwreck 276 Maintaining and Supporting Relationships 280
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Couples Swap Repairing Damaged Relationships 284
Phones and Go Through Each Other’s
History” 277
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: KEY TERMS 288
Relational Maintenance 282
ACTIVITIES 288
AT WORK: Relational Repair on
the Job 284
10 Communication in Close Relationships: Friends,

Family, and Romantic Partners 291
Communication in Friendships 292
Types of Friendships 292
Friendships, Gender, and Communication 294
Friendship and Social Media 297
FEATURES Communication in Successful Friendships 298
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Close
Friendships: State of the Union 295 Communication in the Family 301
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Can Men and Creating the Family Through Communication 302
Women Be Just Friends?” 296 Patterns of Family Communication 304
AT WORK: Social Media Relationships Effective Communication in Families 307
with Coworkers 300
CO N T EN T S xiii
MEDIA CLIP: Voluntary Families: Communication in Romantic Relationships 311

Finding Dory 302
Characteristics of Romantic Relationships 312
Effective Communication in Romantic Relationships 316
Your Family’s Communication
Pattern 307 CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 319
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Parental
KEY TERMS 320
Disclosures with Adult Children 309
MEDIA CLIP: Maybe “I Do,” Maybe I ACTIVITIES 320
Don’t: Married at First Sight 315
Virtually Unfaithful: Emotional
Infidelity Online 318
11 Managing Conflict 323

What Is Conflict? 324
Expressed Struggle 325
Interdependence 325
Perceived Incompatible Goals 325
Perceived Scarce Resources 326
FEATURES
Inevitability 326
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: The Dangers of
Mind-Reading Expectations 326 Conflict Styles 327
MEDIA CLIP: Fighting over Scarce Avoidance (Lose-Lose) 328
Resources: Empire 327
Accommodation (Lose-Win) 329
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: Competition (Win-Lose) 330
Ghosting: The Ultimate Silent
Treatment 329
Compromise 331
Collaboration (Win-Win) 332
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Signs You’re
the Passive Aggressive Friend” 331 Which Style to Use? 334
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Conflict in Relational Systems 336
Your Method of Conflict Resolution 335
Complementary and Symmetrical Conflict 336
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: “We Have to Serial Arguments 338
Talk”: Men and Women in Conflict 342
Toxic Conflict: The “Four Horsemen” 339
MEDIA CLIP: Hostile Takeover:
Conflict Rituals 340
The Founder 345
AT WORK: Third-Party Dispute Variables in Conflict Styles 341
Resolution 346
Gender 341
Culture 343
Conflict Management in Practice 344

KEY TERMS 350
ACTIVITIES 350
xiv CONTENTS
12 Communication Climate 353

What Is a Communication Climate? 354
How Communication Climates Develop 355

Levels of Message Confirmation 356
Causes and Effects of Defensiveness 361
FEATURES
DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION: Creating Supportive Climates 362
Cyberbullying: Inflicting Pain Evaluation Versus Description 363
Online 355
Control Versus Problem Orientation 364
ASSESSING YOUR COMMUNICATION: Strategy Versus Spontaneity 365
Confirming and Disconfirming
Communication 358
Neutrality Versus Empathy 366
Superiority Versus Equality 367
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Phubbing: Losing
Out to Your Partner’s Phone 359 Certainty Versus Provisionalism 368
MEDIA CLIP: Victimized by Invitational Communication 370
Aggressiveness: Moonlight 360
The Language of Choice 371
FOCUS ON RESEARCH: A Blurt Can
Responding Nondefensively to Criticism 372
Hurt 366
MEDIA CLIP: Changing the Climate, Ever CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 377
So Slowly: Doc Martin 369 KEY TERMS 378
WATCH AND DISCUSS: “Emotional
Correctness” 370
ACTIVITIES 378
AT WORK: Taking the High Road:

Keeping Cool Under Fire 373
Glossary G-1
References R-1
Credits C-1
Author Index AI-1
Subject Index SI-1
Preface
A wise editor once told us that any revision to a successful textbook should
be both familiar and fresh. It should include plenty of updated material,
but it should retain the essence of its time-tested approach. We have
worked hard to make sure this edition of Interplay achieves those goals.
This new edition builds on the approach that has served students and
professors over almost four decades. The accessible writing style is based
on the belief that even complicated ideas can be presented in a straightfor-
ward way. A variety of thought-provoking photos, sidebars, and cartoons
make the subject more interesting and compelling. In terms of its scholarly
grounding, Interplay cites more than 1,500 sources, nearly a third of which
are new to this edition. These citations have a strong communication focus,
as we continue to spotlight scholarship from our field. Research and theory
aren’t presented for their own sake, but rather to explain how the process
of interpersonal communication operates in everyday life.
NEW IN THIS EDITION

One effective way of incorporating new concepts and research is to offer
plenty of cutting-edge material in sidebars. Reviewers tell us these sidebars
are essential to Interplay’s success, so we’ve updated them across the board.
• Focus on Research boxes—18 of which are new to this edition—cover
timely subjects including the pros and cons of communicating via
Snapchat, cultural differences in how speakers apologize, the relation-
ship between Instagram and social comparison, the role of punctua-
tion in text messages, relational struggles caused by cell phone use,
disclosures between parents and their adult children, and the negative
effects of mind-reading expectations.
• Dark Side of Communication sidebars address problems including
how seemingly harmless labels can cause interpersonal damage,
talking frankly about STDs, saying “sorry” too often, the dangers of
multitasking, and the harmful effects of “ghosting.”
• Media Clips use both television shows and films to dramatize how
communication concepts operate in everyday life. New TV shows
include black-ish (co-cultural communication), This Is Us (self-
concept), Game of Thrones (language), The Americans (deception),
Speechless (nonverbal communication), Unbreakable Kimmy Schmidt
(emotion management), and Empire (conflict). New feature films
include Wild (social needs), Meet the Patels (culture), Trainwreck (rela-
tional dialectics), Finding Dory (family), and Moonlight (aggressiveness).
• At Work boxes help readers apply scholarship to their careers. New
topics include letting your voice be heard (literally) on the job, rela-
tional repair at work, online relationships with coworkers, and keep-
ing cool under fire. xv
xvi PREFACE
• Watch and Discuss is a new feature in this edition. These thumbnail

images point to YouTube videos for viewing in or out of the classroom
and are followed by two discussion prompts each. Topics include
mean tweets and disinhibition, “vaguebooking” (posting ambigu-
ous messages on Facebook), how your body language can affect the
way you feel, listening with empathy, privacy management and cell
phones, whether women and men can “just be friends,” passive aggres-
sive communication, and “emotional correctness.”
• Assessing Your Communication instruments in every chapter help
students understand and improve how they communicate in import-
ant relationships. New instruments in this edition focus on social
media use and relational maintenance skills.
We have also made many changes to the text proper to address the latest
communication research and changing communication practices. These
include the following:
• Chapter 1 includes two new topics: masspersonal communication—

messages that are personal yet public; and multimodality—the ability
and willingness to use multiple channels of communication.
• Chapter 2 offers new discussions on code-switching, intersectionality,
and communicating about disabilities.
• Chapter 4 has enhanced coverage of empathy and the role it plays in
helping communicators understand and appreciate each other.
• Chapter 5 offers a new summary of gender and language usage.
• Chapter 6 adds a review of research on how our own nonverbal be-
havior influences the way we feel.
• Chapter 8 provides new coverage of self-talk as a means for managing
emotions.
• Chapter 10 updates and extends the discussion of friendship and
describes the relational value of singleness.
• Chapter 11 moves up the topic of conflict and describes how serial
arguments work in interpersonal communication.
• Chapter 12 now concludes the book with coverage of communication
climate, which includes new and updated material on confirming mes-
sages, aggressiveness, ostracism, and the language of choice.
DIGITAL AND PRINT ANCILLARY

RESOURCES
In addition to the text, a variety of ancillaries provide resources for both
instructors and students. Whether you have taught with Interplay for
many years or are encountering it for the first time, you will note that we
use film, television, and other references to popular culture throughout
the book to engage students and help them apply concepts. While this has
long been a hallmark of our approach and book, we’re pleased to now offer
featured videos for students and instructors. Short clips from the Media
Clip and Watch and Discuss features are now included on the student
PREFA CE xvii
website, in the course cartridges for your learning management system,

and in OUP’s Dashboard system and its integrated ebook.
Online Learning
• Dashboard delivers an enhanced ebook and interactive activities and
assessments to track student progress in a simple and intuitive online
environment. All Dashboard content is engineered to work on mobile
devices, including Android and iOS platforms.
With this edition’s Dashboard, professors and students have more in-
teractive and engaging content than ever before. Each chapter includes:
❍ Brief audio and video chapter summaries to help students review
the basics
❍ Flashcards to help students master new vocabulary
❍ Interactive drag-and-drop chapter summaries to test whether stu-
dents know the basics and have the vocabulary in hand
❍ Multiple-choice pre- and posttests (20 multiple-choice questions
each) to assess students’ knowledge and ability to understand and
apply information
❍ Media Clip and Watch and Discuss video clips with assessments,
based on the book’s features, to help students apply what they have
learned
❍ Interactive versions of the book’s popular self-assessments to give
students immediate feedback on their communication skills and
behaviors
• Course Cartridges for a variety of learning management systems—
including BlackBoard, Canvas, D2L, Moodle, and more—gives you
Oxford’s quality content in your learning management system in just
a few clicks. The course cartridge for Interplay includes the test bank
and the following resources and activities in every chapter: flashcards,
pre- and posttests (20 multiple-choice questions each), audio and
video chapter summaries, and Media Clip and Watch and Discuss
video clips with multiple-choice assessments. With no new systems to
learn and no access code for students, course cartridges make online
assignments easy and accessible to all.
For Instructors
• The Ancillary Resource Center (ARC) at www.oup-arc.com is a
convenient, instructor-focused, single destination for resources to ac-
company Interplay. Accessed online through individual user accounts,
the ARC provides instructors with up-to-date ancillaries at any time
while guaranteeing the security of grade-significant resources. In addi-
tion, it allows OUP to keep instructors informed when new content
becomes available. The ARC for Interplay contains a variety of materi-
als to aid in teaching:
❍ Anenhanced Instructor’s Manual and Computerized Test Bank
provides teaching tips, exercises, and test questions that will
prove useful to both new and veteran instructors. The Instructor’s
xviii PREFACE
Manual includes teaching strategies, course outlines, plentiful in-

class activities with specific instructions and teaching tips, discus-
sion prompts, and journal prompts. The comprehensive Test Bank
offers approximately 100 class-tested exam questions per chapter
in multiple-choice, true/false, essay, and matching formats.
❍
Newly revised PowerPoint-based lecture slides have been redesigned
for optimal utility and accessibility.
• Now Playing: Instructor’s Edition, an instructor-only online supple-
ment, includes an introduction on how to incorporate film examples
in class, sample responses to the numerous discussion questions in the
student edition of Now Playing, viewing guides, additional films, and
references.
Contact your Oxford University Press representative or call (800) 280–0280
for more information on accessing these resources.
For Students
• Now Playing: Learning Communication Through Film looks at
contemporary and classic feature films through the lens of communi-
cation principles. Now Playing illustrates a variety of both individual
scenes and full-length films, highlighting concepts and offering
discussion questions for a mass medium that is interactive, familiar,
and easily accessible. This resource gives you numerous film examples
at your fingertips, saving you valuable preparation time. Contact your
Oxford University Press representative or call (800) 280–0280 to
package Now Playing with your textbook.
• The companion website at www.oup.com/us/interplay offers a wealth
of free and open study resources for students: flashcards, video and
audio chapter summaries, interactive self-tests, and Media Clip and
Watch and Discuss video clips with multiple-choice assessments.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The book you are reading wouldn’t have been possible without the help of
many talented people. We are grateful to the many colleagues whose sug-
gestions have helped make this book a far better one:
Julie Allee Chantele S. Carr Daniel Johnson

Ivy Tech Community College Estrella Mountain College Southwestern Michigan College
Marie Arcidiacono Audrey Deterding Shyla Lefever

Los Medanos College–Brentwood Northern Arizona University Old Dominion University
Campus Liz Edgecomb Julie Mayberry
Diane M. Badzinski Xavier University of Louisiana North Carolina State University
Colorado Christian University Annette N. Hamel Bonnie McCracken
Western Michigan University SUNY Geneseo
Ellen Bland
Central Carolina Community Debra Harper-LeBlanc Lucas Messer
College Lone Star College–North Harris Scottsdale Community College
PREFA CE xix
Craig Parmley Narissra Punyanunt-Carter Heidi Schara

Ivy Tech Community College Texas Tech University Riverland Community College
Karri Pearson Leighann Rechtin Lindsay Timmerman

Normandale Community College Ivy Tech Community College University of Wisconsin–Milwaukee
Interplay continues to benefit from the contributions of these colleagues

who helped shape previous editions:
Marcanne Andersen Darlene J. Geiger Tim Moreland

Tidewater Community College Portland State University Catawba College
Angie M. S. Anderson Debra Gonsher Mark Morman

Anoka-Ramsey Community College Bronx Community College Baylor University
Aurora Auter Em Griffin Kelly Morrison

University of Southwestern Louisiana Wheaton College Michigan State University
Nancy Bandiera Lowell Habel Johance F. Murray

Charleston Southern University Chapman University Hostos Community College/ CUNY
Sharon Beal Gail Hankins Noreen Mysyk

Long Beach City College/ Wake Technical College North Central College
Chapman University Gretchen R. Norling
Meredith Harrigan
Constance Berman SUNY Geneseo University of West Florida
Berkshire Community College Joey Pogue
Kristin Haun
Heather Bixler University of Tennessee Pittsburg State University
College of the Sequoias Tracey Powers
Lisa C. Hebert
Sandra Bodin-Lerner Louisiana State University Central Arizona College
Kean University Laurie Pratt
Brittany W. Hochstaetter
Colleen Butcher Wake Technical Community Chaffey College
University of Florida College Narissra Maria Punyanunt-Carter
Leeva Chung Shaorong Huang Texas Tech University
University of San Diego Raymond Walters College— Rasha I. Ramzy
University of Cincinnati Georgia State University
Kathleen Czech
Point Loma Nazarene University Joy A. Jones Rachel Reznik
Atlantic Cape Community College Elmhurst College
Andrea M. Davis
University of South Carolina Beverly Merrill Kelley Elizabeth Ribarsky
Upstate California Lutheran University University of Illinois—Springfield
Katrina Eicher Betty Kennan Gregory W. Rickert
Elizabethtown Community College Radford University Lexington Community College
Susan Fletcher Anastasia Kurylo Jennifer A. Samp
Hocking College Marymount Manhattan College University of Georgia
Karyn Friesen Andrea Lambert South Julie Simanski
Lone Star College—Montgomery Northern Kentucky University Des Moines Area Community College
Kristin K. Froemling Phil Martin Debbie Sonandre
Radford University North Central State College Tacoma Community College
xx PREFACE
Renee Strom Judith Vogel Michael Wittig

Saint Cloud State University Des Moines Area Community College Waukesha County Technical College
Dennis Sutton Emanuelle Wessels Gordon Young

Grand Rapids Community College Missouri State University Kingsborough Community College
Our thanks to Rachel Reznik (Elmhurst College) and Jessica Kratzer

(Northern Kentucky University), who served as Contributing Editors on
this edition and made numerous helpful additions to the text. We salute the
team of talented and congenial professionals at Oxford University Press, led
and inspired by John Challice. We thank Toni Magyar, our hands-on Editor;
Michele Laseau, Art Director; Barbara Mathieu, Senior Production Editor;
Lisa Grzan, Production Manager; Theresa Stockton, Production Team
Lead; Paul Longo, Assistant Editor; and Allegra Howard, Katlin Kocher,
and Alyssa Quinones, Editorial Assistants. We’re also grateful for the over-
sight of Editorial Director Patrick Lynch and Director of Development
Thom Holmes. Our Developmental Editor, Lauren Mine, deserves special
acknowledgment: A full account of her contributions would require a book
of its own. Our thanks also go to James Fraleigh for his copyediting talents
and to Colleen Dunham for crafting the useful indexes. Sandy Cooke of
OUP Canada tracked down images from films and television. Sherri Adler
chose the evocative photos that help make Interplay unique.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Ronald B. Adler is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Santa Barbara
City College. He is coauthor of Understanding Human Communication
(OUP, 2017); Essential Communication (OUP, 2018); Looking Out, Looking
In (2016); and Communicating at Work: Principles and Practices for Busi-
ness and the Professions (2013). Beyond his professional life, Ron tries to
give back to his community. He also enjoys cycling, hiking, traveling, and
spending time with his family.
Lawrence B. Rosenfeld is Professor Emeritus of Communication at The Uni-

versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. His articles appear in journals in
communication, education, social work, sport psychology, and psychology,
and he is the author of books on small-group, interpersonal, and nonverbal
communication. Lawrence has received teaching and research awards from
the National Communication Association and in 2012 received the William
C. Friday Award for Excellence in Teaching. He is an artist and co-owner
of Live Gently Art.
Russell F. Proctor II is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Northern

Kentucky University. He won NKU’s Outstanding Professor Award in 1997
and has also received recognition for his teaching from the National Com-
munication Association, the Central States Communication Association,
and the Kentucky Communication Association. Russ joined the Interplay
team in the mid-1990s and was the lead author on this edition of the book.
He loves sports, music, movies, and traveling with family and friends.
Interplay
1
Interpersonal Process
LEARNING OBJECTIVES CHAPTER OUTLINE
1.1 Recognize the needs that communication Why We Communicate 4

satisfies. • Physical Needs 5
1.2 Explain the interpersonal communication • Identity Needs 6
process: its transactional nature, governing • Social Needs 7
principles, and characteristics. • Practical Needs 8
1.3 Identify characteristics of effective
communication and competent The Communication Process 9
communicators. • Early Models of Communication 9
1.4 Describe the advantages and drawbacks of • Insights from the Transactional Communication
various social media communication channels Model 10
in relation to face-to-face communication. • Communication Principles 13
• The Nature of Interpersonal
Communication 15
• Communication Misconceptions 17
FEATURES
Media Clip: Solitude and Connection: Communication Competence 19
Wild 6 • Principles of Communication Competence 19
Dark Side of Communication: • Characteristics of Competent
Loneliness and the Internet: Communication 21
A Delicate Balance 7
At Work: Communication and Career Social Media and Interpersonal
Advancement 9
Communication 23
Focus on Research: Tweeting: The • Characteristics of Social Media 23
Channel Affects the Message 12
• Social Media and Relational Quality 28
Media Clip: Pathologically Competent:
House of Cards 22 • Communicating Competently with Social
Media 29
Assessing Your Communication: Your
Use of Social Media 24
Focus on Research: Sidestepping CHECK YOUR UNDERSTANDING 33
Permanence: The Attraction of KEY TERMS 34
Snapchat 27
ACTIVITIES 34
Watch and Discuss: “Men Read
Mean Tweets to Female Sports
Reporters” 31
3
4 PART 1 F OU ND ATI ONS OF I NTE RPERS O N A L CO MMU N I CAT I O N
E
VERYONE COMMUNICATES. Students and professors, parents and children, em-
ployers and employees, friends, strangers, and enemies—all communicate. We
have been communicating with others from earliest childhood and will almost
certainly keep doing so until we die.
Why study an activity you’ve done your entire life? First, studying interper-
sonal communication will give you a new look at a familiar topic. For instance, you
may not have realized that you can’t not communicate or that more communica-
tion doesn’t always improve relationships—topics that you’ll read about in a few
pages. In this sense, exploring human communication is like studying anatomy or
botany—everyday objects and processes take on new meaning.
A second, more compelling reason is that we all could stand to be more effective
communicators. A nationwide survey identified “lack of effective communication”
as the leading cause of relational breakups, ahead of money, relatives or in-laws,
sexual problems, previous relationships, or children (National Communication As-
sociation, 1999). Ineffective communication is also a major problem in the work-
place, as 62 percent of surveyed executives indicated in another study (American
Management Association, 2012). Perhaps that’s why parents identify communica-
tion as the most important skill set their children need to succeed in life (Goo, 2015).
Pause now to make a mental list of communication problems you have en-
countered. You’ll probably see that no matter how successful your relationships are
at home, with friends, at school, and at work, there is plenty of room for improve-
ment in your everyday life. The information that follows will help you communi-
cate better with some of the people who matter most to you.
WHY WE COMMUNICATE
Research demonstrating the importance of communication has been
around longer than you might think. Frederick II, emperor of the Holy
Roman Empire from 1220 to 1250, carried out language deprivation ex-
periments. A medieval historian described a dramatically inhumane one:
He bade foster mothers and nurses to suckle the children, to bathe and
wash them, but in no way to prattle with them, for he wanted to learn
whether they would speak the Hebrew language, which was the oldest,
or Greek, or Latin, or Arabic, or perhaps the language of their parents, of
whom they had been born. But he labored in vain because all the children
died. For they could not live without the petting and joyful faces and
loving words of their foster mothers. (Ross & McLaughlin, 1949, p. 366)
Contemporary researchers have found less barbaric ways to investigate

the importance of communication. In one classic study of isolation, five par-
ticipants were paid to remain alone in a locked room. One lasted for 8 days.
Three held out for 2 days, one commenting, “Never again.” The fifth partici-
pant lasted only 2 hours (Schachter, 1959).
Real-life experiences also demonstrate our strong need for con-
tact. Reflecting on his seven years as a hostage in Lebanon, former news
CH A PT ER 1 I N T ERPERS O N A L PRO CES S 5
correspondent Terry Anderson said point-blank,

“I would rather have had the worst companion
than no companion at all” (Gawande, 2009).
You might claim that solitude would be a wel-
come relief at times. It’s true that all of us need
time by ourselves, often more than we get. On the
other hand, each of us has a point beyond which
solitude becomes painful. In other words, we all
need people. We all need to communicate.
PHYSICAL NEEDS
Communication is so important that its presence
or absence affects health. People who process a
negative experience by talking about it report
improved life satisfaction, as well as enhanced
mental and physical health, compared with those
who only think privately about it (Francis, 2003;
Sousa, 2002). Research conducted with police of- After spending a year alone in space, astronaut Scott Kelly de-
ficers found that being able to talk easily with col- scribed his biggest challenge: “I think the hardest part is being
isolated in a physical sense from people on the ground that are
leagues and supervisors about work-related trauma important to you.” How satisfied are you with the amount and
was linked to greater physical and mental health quality of personal contact in your life? What would be the
ideal amount of contact?
(Stephens & Long, 2000). And a broader study of
over 3,500 adults revealed that as little as 10 minutes of talking a day, face
to face or by phone, improves memory and boosts intellectual function
(Ybarra et al., 2008).
In extreme cases, communication can even become a matter of life
or death. As a Navy pilot, U.S. Senator John McCain was shot down
over North Vietnam and held as a prisoner of war (POW) for six years,
often in solitary confinement. POWs in his camp set up codes to send
messages by tapping on walls to laboriously spell out words. McCain de-
scribes the importance of maintaining contact with one another despite
serious risks:
The punishment for communicating could be severe, and a few POWs,
having been caught and beaten for their efforts, had their spirits broken
as their bodies were battered. Terrified of a return trip to the punish-
ment room, they would lie still in their cells when their comrades tried
to tap them up on the wall. Very few would remain uncommunicative for
long. To suffer all this alone was less tolerable than torture. Withdraw-
ing in silence from the fellowship of other Americans . . . was to us the
approach of death. (McCain, 1999, p. 12)
Communication isn’t a necessity just for prisoners of war. Evidence

gathered by a host of researchers (e.g., Holt-Lunstad et al., 2010; Parker-
Pope, 2010; Yang et al., 2016) has shown that interpersonal communica-
tion is vital among civilians as well. For example:
• A meta-analysis of nearly 150 studies involving a total of over
300,000 participants found that socially connected people—those
with strong networks of family and friends—live an average of
3.7 years longer than those who are socially isolated.
• People with strong relationships have sig-

Media Clip nificantly lower risks of coronary disease,
hypertension, and obesity than do people
with less social integration.
• Divorced, separated, or widowed people
are 5 to 10 times more likely to need
hospitalization for mental illnesses than
their married counterparts. Happily mar-
ried people also have lower incidences
of pneumonia, surgery, and cancer than
single people. (It’s important to note that
the quality of the relationship is more im-
portant than the institution of marriage
in these studies.)
Such research demonstrates the impor-
tance of meaningful personal relationships
and explains why social scientists con-
Solitude and Connection: Wild clude that communication is indispensable
for health. Not everyone needs the same
Striving to escape grief and a life plagued by per- amount of contact, and the quality of com-
sonal mistakes, Cheryl Strayed (Reese Witherspoon) munication is almost certainly as important
embarks on a solitary thousand-mile trek along the as the quantity. Nonetheless, the point re-
rugged Pacific Crest Trail. mains: Personal communication is essential
In the wilderness, Strayed spends much of her time for our well-being.
reflecting on the past and pondering her options for
the future. In her self-enforced solitude, she also dis- IDENTITY NEEDS
covers the value of human connection. She eagerly
Communication does more than enable us to
seeks out encounters with other hikers to alleviate
survive. It is the primary way we learn who
loneliness, satisfy practical needs for food and water,
we are (Harwood, 2005). As you’ll read in
and answer questions about her own identity. Both
Chapter 3, our sense of identity comes from
solitude and communication help her come to terms
the ways we interact with other people. Are
with who she is and who she wants to become.
we smart or stupid, attractive or ugly, skill-
Strayed’s journey illustrates many of the reasons ful or inept? The answers to these questions
we communicate. Not far into her adventure she ex- don’t come from looking in the mirror. The
claims to herself, “I like talking to people. Listening to reactions of others shape who we are.
people . . . that’s a hobby of mine I hadn’t even real- Deprived of communication with others,
ized I had.” we would have no sense of identity. Consider
In her wilderness quest, Strayed learns a lesson that the case of the famous “Wild Boy of Avey-
applies to us all: Solitude and reflection can prepare ron,” who spent his early childhood without
us to embark on healthier relationships. any apparent human contact. The boy was
discovered in January 1800 while digging
for vegetables in a French village garden. He
could not speak, and he showed no behaviors one would expect in a social
human. More significant than this absence of social skills was his lack of
any identity as a human being. As author Roger Shattuck (1980) put it,
“The boy had no human sense of being in the world. He had no sense of
himself as a person related to other persons” (p. 37). Only after the influ-
ence of a loving “mother” did the boy begin to behave as a human.
Contemporary accounts support the

essential role communication plays in shap- DARK SIDE OF COMMUNICATION
ing identity. In some cases, feral children—
those raised with limited or no human Loneliness and the Internet:
contact—have demonstrated communica- A Delicate Balance
tion patterns similar to those of animals
they grew up around (Newton, 2002). They It’s Friday night and you have no plans. You don’t
do not appear to have developed a sense of want to spend the evening by yourself, but it feels
themselves as humans before interacting like a chore to go out and socialize. Instead, you
with other people. Similarly, Dani’s Story decide to stay in and interact with others online—
(Lierow, 2011) tells of an abandoned child perhaps with friends, or maybe with strangers. Is
who was rescued by a loving family and that a good way to meet your social needs? The
taught to communicate. After considerable simple answer is “occasionally, but not regularly.”
time and investment, she was ultimately Research about online communication and
able to say of herself, “I pretty.” loneliness presents a mixed bag. Connecting with
Each of us enters the world with little or others online can help alleviate lonely feelings (Lee
no sense of identity. We gain an idea of who
et al., 2013), particularly for those who find it chal-
we are from the way others define us. As
lenging to get out and about (Cotten et al., 2013).
we explain in Chapter 3, the messages we
On the other hand, there’s a correlation between
receive in early childhood are the strongest
loneliness and what social scientists call a prefer-
identity shapers, but the influence of others
ence for online social interaction (Chung, 2013).
continues throughout life.
The cause-effect relationship isn’t always clear, but
research shows that lonely people prefer to interact
SOCIAL NEEDS with others online, which can lead to problematic
Some social scientists have argued that be- internet use, which can create a greater sense of
sides helping define who we are, communi- loneliness (Kim et al., 2009; Tokunaga, 2016).
cation is the principal way relationships are The key to healthy communication lies in a prin-
created. For example, Julie Yingling (1994) ciple we discuss frequently in this book: all things in
asserts that children “talk friendships into ex- moderation. When online communication comple-
istence.” The same can be said for adult rela- ments and reinforces in-person relationships, it
tionships: It’s impossible to imagine how they can be a wonderful tool for meeting social needs.
could exist without communication. These When it mostly or completely replaces face-to-face
relationships satisfy a variety of social needs, interaction, there may be cause for concern. The
such as giving and receiving affection, having Assessing Your Communication box on page 24
fun, helping others and being helped, and de- can help you determine whether your online and
veloping a sense of self-worth (Rubin et al., in-person communication are in balance.
1988). Because relationships with others
are vital, some theorists have gone so far as
to argue that communication is the primary goal of human existence. One
anthropologist (Goldschmidt, 1990) calls the drive for meeting social needs
through communication “the human career.”
There’s a strong link between the quality of communication and the
success of relationships. For example, children who grow up in strong
conversation-oriented families report having more satisfying same-sex
friendships and romantic relationships when they become adults (Koesten,
2004). Women in one study reported that “socializing” contributed more
to a satisfying life than virtually any other activity, including relaxing,
shopping, eating, exercise, television, or prayer (Kahneman et al., 2004).
Despite knowing that communication is crucial to social satisfaction,

evidence suggests that many people aren’t very successful at managing
their interpersonal relationships. For example, one-third of Americans say
they’ve never interacted with their neighbors, up from one-fifth who said
the same just a few decades ago (Poon, 2015). Research also shows that the
number of friendships is in decline. One survey (McPherson et al., 2006)
reported that in 1985, Americans had an average of 2.94 close friends.
Twenty years later, that number had dropped to 2.08. It’s worth noting
that in this same study, more-educated Americans reported having larger
and more diverse networks. In other words, higher education can enhance
your relational life as well as your intellect.
PRACTICAL NEEDS
Along with satisfying physical, identity, and social needs, communication is
essential in dealing with more practical matters. It’s the tool that lets us tell
the hairstylist to take just a little off the sides, direct the doctor to where
it hurts, and inform the plumber that the broken pipe needs attention now!
Beyond these obvious needs, a wealth of research demonstrates that
communication is an essential ingredient for success in virtually every
career. (See the At Work box on page 9.) On-the-job communication skills
can even make the difference between life and death for doctors, nurses,
and other medical practitioners. Researchers discovered that “communica-
tion failures” in hospitals and doctors’ offices were linked to more than
1,700 U.S. deaths in a recent five-year period (Bailey, 2016). Studies also
show a significant difference between the communication skills of physi-
cians who had no malpractice claims against them and doctors with previ-
ous claims (Carroll, 2015).
Communication is just as important outside of work. For example,
married couples who are effective communicators report happier relation-
ships than less skillful husbands and wives (Ridley et al., 2001)—a finding
that has been supported across cultures (Rehman & Holtzworth-Munroe,
2007). And the effects of work–family conflict—a common occurrence
that negatively affects marital satisfaction—can be mitigated with con-
structive communication (Carroll et al., 2013). In school, grade-point av-
erages of college students are related positively to their communication
competence (Hawken et al., 1991). In addition, school adjustment, drop-
out rate, and overall school achievement are highly related to students’
having strong, supportive relationships (Heard, 2007).
Psychologist Abraham Maslow (1968) suggests that human needs fall into
five categories, each of which must be satisfied before we concern ourselves
with the next one. As you read about each need, think about the ways
in which communication is often necessary to satisfy it. The most basic
needs are physical: sufficient air, water, food, and rest and the ability to
reproduce as a species. The second category of Maslow’s needs involves
safety: protection from threats to our well-being. Beyond physical and
safety concerns are the social needs described earlier. Next, Maslow sug-
gests that each of us has the need for self-esteem: the desire to believe that
@work Communication and Career Advancement
No matter the field, research supports what expe- Once you’re hired, the need for communication
rienced workers already know—that communica- skills is important in virtually every career. Engineers
tion skills are crucial in finding and succeeding in spend the bulk of their working lives speaking and
a job. A survey of business leaders rated abilities listening, mostly in one-on-one and small-group
in spoken and written communication as the most settings (Darling & Dannels, 2003). Accounting pro-
important skills for college graduates to possess fessionals spend 80 percent of their time on the job
(Supiano, 2013). In a later study with similar re- communicating with others, individually and in groups
sults, employers told college students that oral (Nellermoe et al., 1999). Oral and written communi-
communication skills, and particularly interper- cation skills are also vital in the computer industry, ac-
sonal communication, are essential for workplace cording to Silicon Valley employers (Stevens, 2005).
success (Coffelt et al., 2016). It’s no wonder that Writing in The Scientist magazine, a commentator
job ads ask for competence in “oral and written echoed this sentiment: “If I give any advice, it is that
communication” more than any other skill set—by you can never do enough training around your over-
a wide margin (Anderson & Gantz, 2013). all communication skills” (Richman, 2002).
we are worthwhile, valuable people. The final category of needs involves

self-actualization: the desire to develop our potential to the maximum, to
become the best person we can be.
THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

So far, we have talked about communication as if its meaning were per-
fectly clear. In fact, scholars have debated the definition of communica-
tion for years (Littlejohn, 2008). Despite their many disagreements, most
would concur that at its essence, communication is about using messages
to generate meanings (Korn et al., 2000). Notice how this basic defini-
tion holds true across a variety of contexts—public speaking, small groups,
mass media, and so forth. The goal of this section is to explain how mes-
sages and meanings are created in interpersonal communication and to
describe the many factors involved in this complex process.
EARLY MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

As the old saying goes, “A picture is worth a thousand words.” With
that principle in mind, social scientists of the 1950s created models of
the communication process. These early, simplistic models character-
ized communication as a one-way, linear event—something that a sender
“does” by encoding a message and delivering it to a passive receiver who
decodes it. This one-way process resembles an archer (the sender) shoot-
ing an arrow (the message) at a target (the receiver). For some examples of
communication, a linear model can be fitting. If you labor over a thank-you

note to get the tone just right before sending it, your message is primarily
a one-way effort.
Later models represented communication as more of a tennis game, in
which players hit balls (send messages) to receivers who then respond. This
feedback, or response to a previous message, can be verbal or nonverbal. A
back-and-forth chain of text messages seems to fit this description pretty well.
Yet those models fail to capture the complexity of the human beings
involved in the process. Over time, communication theorists developed
increasingly sophisticated versions in an attempt to depict all the factors
that affect human interaction.
INSIGHTS FROM THE TRANSACTIONAL

COMMUNICATION MODEL
No model can completely represent the process of communication, any
more than a map can capture everything about the neighborhood where
you live. Still, Figure 1.1 reflects a number of important characteristics of
transactional communication, the dynamic process in which communica-
tors create meaning together through interaction.
Sending and Receiving Are Usually Simultaneous

Some forms of communication, such as email, texting, voice messages, or
“snail mail” letters, are asynchronous: There’s a delay between when they
are sent and received. But in face-to-face interaction, it’s hard to distin-
guish sender and receiver. Consider a few examples:
• A teacher explaining a difficult concept to a student after class
• A parent lecturing a teenager about the family’s curfew rules
• A salesperson giving a customer information about a product
The impulse is to identify the teacher, parent, and salesperson as
senders, whereas the student, teenager, and customer are receivers. Now
imagine a confused look on the student’s face; the teenager interrupting
defensively; the customer blankly staring into the distance. It’s easy to see
Noise Noise Noise
Communicator Communicator
sends, sends,
receives, Channel(s) Messages Channel(s) receives,
assigns meaning assigns meaning
A's Environment B's Environment
FIGURE 1.1 Transactional

Communication Model Noise Noise Noise
that these verbal and nonverbal responses are messages being sent, even
while the other person is talking. Because it’s often impossible to distin-
guish sender from receiver, our communication model replaces these roles
with the more accurate term communicator. This term reflects the fact
that—at least in face-to-face situations—people are simultaneously send-
ers and receivers who exchange multiple messages.
Meanings Exist in and Among People

Messages, whether verbal or nonverbal, don’t have meanings in themselves.
Rather, meanings reside in the people who express and interpret them.
Imagine that a friend says, “I’m sorry,” after showing up several hours
late to a date. This expression might be a genuine apology, an insincere
statement designed to defuse your anger, or even a sarcastic jibe. It’s easy
to imagine that your friend might mean one thing and you might have a
different interpretation of it. The possibility of multiple interpretations
means that it is often necessary to negotiate a shared meaning in order
for satisfying communication to occur (the perception-checking skills de-
scribed in Chapter 4 can help with this).
Environment and Noise Affect Communication

Problems often arise because communicators occupy different environ-
ments (sometimes called contexts): fields of experience that help them
make sense of others’ behavior. In communication terminology, environ-
ment refers not only to a physical location but also to the personal experi-
ences and cultural background that participants bring to a conversation.
You can appreciate the influence of environments by considering your
beliefs about an important topic such as work, marriage, or government
policies. How might your beliefs be different if your personal history were
different?
Notice how the model in Figure 1.1 shows that the environments of A
and B overlap. This intersecting area represents the background that the
communicators have in common. If this overlap didn’t exist, communica-
tion would be difficult, if not impossible.
Whereas similar environments often facilitate communication, dif-
ferent backgrounds can make effective communication more challenging.
Consider just some of the factors that might contribute to different envi-
ronments, and to communication challenges as a result:
• A might belong to one ethnic group and B to another.
• A might be rich and B poor.
• A might be rushed and B have nowhere to go.
• A might have lived a long, eventful life, and B could be young and
inexperienced.
• A might be passionately concerned with the subject and B
indifferent to it.
Another factor in the environment that makes communication dif-
ficult is what communication scholars call noise: anything that interferes
with the transmission and reception of a message. Three types of noise
can disrupt communication. External noise includes factors outside the re-
ceiver that make it difficult to hear, as well as many other kinds of distrac-
tions. For instance, loud music in a bar or a jackhammer grinding in the
street might make it hard for you to pay attention to another person. Physi-
ological noise involves biological factors in the receiver that interfere with
accurate reception: hearing loss, illness, and so on. Psychological noise refers
to cognitive factors that make communication less effective. For instance,
a woman who is called “girl” may become so irritated that she has trouble
listening objectively to the rest of a speaker’s message.
Channels Make a Difference

Communication scholars use the term channel to describe the medium
through which messages are exchanged (Berger & Iyengar, 2013;
Ledbetter, 2014). Along with face-to-face interaction, we have the

option of using mediated communication: sending messages via tech-
nological channels such as phones, email, and the internet. The com-
munication channel being used can affect the way a receiver responds
to a message. For example, a string of texted emojis probably won’t have
the same effect as a handwritten expression of affection, and being fired
from a job in person would likely feel different from getting the bad
news in an email.
Most people intuitively recognize that the selection of a channel de-
pends in part on the kind of message they’re sending. One survey asked stu-
dents to identify which channel they would find best for delivering a variety
of messages (O’Sullivan, 2000). Most respondents said they would have
FOCUS ON RESEARCH
Tweeting: The Channel Affects the Message
In the years since Marshall McLuhan famously de- more egocentric than tweets from computers—that
clared that “the medium is the message,” scholars is, they included more first-person pronouns such as
have studied the impact of communication channels I, me, my, and mine. Tweets sent from mobile devices
on the messages they convey. Obviously it makes a were also more negative in their wording and content.
difference whether you send a message in person, In other words, a tweet with the phrase “I’m mad” is
by phone, or through social media. A research team more likely to be posted from a phone than a desk-
investigated an even more specific issue: Do Twit- top. The researchers speculated that mobile devices
ter messages created on mobile devices differ from encourage more spontaneous communication—for
those created on computers? better or for worse.
The short answer to that question is yes. In ana- As you’ll read in Chapter 3, wise communica-
lyzing some 235 million tweets over a 6-week period, tors consider pros and cons before making self-
the researchers were able to determine whether the disclosures. This research suggests that the medium
posts originated from mobile devices or from desk- you choose for sending a message may play an im-
top computers. They found that mobile tweets were portant role in that process.
Murthy, D., Bowman, S., Gross, A. J., & McGarry, M. (2015). Do we tweet differently from our mobile devices? A study of
language differences on mobile and web-based Twitter platforms. Journal of Communication, 65, 816–837.
little trouble sending positive messages face to face,

but that mediated channels had more appeal for
sending negative messages (see also Feaster, 2010).
You’ll read much more about social media channels
later in this chapter and throughout this book.
COMMUNICATION PRINCIPLES
Beyond communication models, several principles
explain the nature of communication.
Communication Is Transactional
As we saw in the transactional model, communica-
tors create meaning through their interaction with
one another. Perhaps the most important conse-
quence of communication’s transactional nature is
mutual influence. To put it simply, communication Like dancing, communication is a transactional process that
isn’t something we do to others; rather, it is an activ- you do with others, not to them. How would you describe
the nature of the communication transactions in your close
ity we do with them. relationships? In what ways is it similar to dancing with a
Communication is like dancing with a part- partner?
ner: No matter how skilled you are, success de-
pends on the other person’s behavior as well as
your own. In communication and in dancing, the partners must adapt to
and coordinate with each other. Further, relational communication—like
dancing—is a unique creation that arises from how the partners interact.
The way you dance probably varies from one partner to another because
of its cooperative, transactional nature. Likewise, the way you communi-
cate almost certainly varies with different partners. That’s why compe-
tent communicators score high in adaptability, as you’ll read later in this
chapter.
Psychologist Kenneth Gergen (1991) expresses the transactional nature
of communication well when he points out how our success depends on in-
teraction with others. As he says, “one cannot be ‘attractive’ without others
who are attracted, a ‘leader’ without others willing to follow, or a ‘loving
person’ without others to affirm with appreciation” (p. 158).
Communication Can Be Intentional

or Unintentional
Some communication is clearly deliberate: You probably plan your words
carefully before asking the boss for a raise or offering constructive criticism.
Some scholars (e.g., Motley, 1990) argue that only intentional messages like
these qualify as communication. However, others (e.g., Buck & VanLear,
2002) suggest that even unintentional behavior is communicative. Suppose,
for instance, that a friend overhears you muttering complaints to yourself.
Even though you didn’t intend for her to hear your remarks, they certainly
did carry a message. In addition to these slips of the tongue, we unintention-
ally send many nonverbal messages. You might not be aware of your sour
expression, impatient shifting, or sighs of boredom, but others read into
them nonetheless.
Even the seeming absence of a behavior has

communicative value. Recall times when you
sent a text or left a voice message and received
no reply. You probably assigned some meaning
to the nonresponse. Was the other person angry?
Indifferent? Too busy to reply? Whether your
hunch was correct, the point remains: All behav-
ior has communicative value. “Nothing” never
happens.
In Interplay we look at the communicative
value of both intentional and unintentional behav-
ior. This book takes the position that whatever you
do—whether you speak or remain silent, confront or
avoid, show emotion or keep a poker face—you pro-
vide information to others about your thoughts and
feelings. In this sense, we are like transmitters that
can’t be shut off. We cannot not communicate (Watzlawick et al., 1967).
Communication Is Irreversible
We sometimes wish that we could back up in time, erasing words or acts and
replacing them with better alternatives. Unfortunately, such reversal is im-
possible. Sometimes, further explanation can clear up confusion, or an apol-
ogy can mollify hurt feelings, but other times no amount of explanation can
change the impression you have created. It is no more possible to “unsend”
a message—including most digital messages—than to “unsqueeze” a tube
of toothpaste. Words said, messages sent, and deeds done are irretrievable.
Communication Is Unrepeatable
Because communication is an ongoing process, an event cannot be re-
peated. The friendly smile you gave a stranger last week may not succeed
with the person you encounter tomorrow. Even with the same person, it’s
impossible to recreate an event. Why? Because both you and the other
person have changed. You’ve both lived longer, and your feelings about
each other may have changed. What may seem like the same words and
behavior are different each time they are spoken or performed.
Communication Has a Content Dimension

and a Relational Dimension
Virtually all exchanges have content and relational dimensions. The content
dimension involves the information being explicitly discussed: “Please pass
the salt”; “Not now, I’m tired”; “You forgot to check your messages.” In addi-
tion to this sort of obvious content, all messages also have a relational dimen-
sion (Watzlawick et al., 1967) that expresses how you feel about the other
person: whether you like or dislike the other person, feel in control or subor-
dinate, feel comfortable or anxious, and so on. For instance, consider the vari-
ous relational messages you could communicate by simply saying “Thanks a
lot” in different ways. You can appreciate the importance of communication’s
relational dimension by looking at the photo on page 15. What does this
image convey about the relationship between the

two people?
Sometimes the content dimension of a message is
all that matters. For example, you may not care how
the barista feels about you as long as you get your
coffee. In a qualitative sense, however, the relational
dimension of a message is often more important than
the content under discussion. This point explains why
disputes over apparently trivial subjects become so
important. In such cases, we’re not really arguing over
whose turn it is to take out the trash or whether to stay
home or go out. Instead, we’re disputing the nature of
the relationship: who’s in control, and how important
are we to each other? Chapter 9 explores several key
relational issues in detail. For now, let’s turn to defin-
ing interpersonal communication.
Along with its content, all
communication conveys both
THE NATURE OF INTERPERSONAL verbal and nonverbal relational
messages. What relational
COMMUNICATION messages do you convey when
communicating about every-
As you just read, every exchange—even the most mundane—has a relational day matters?
dimension. Visualize a brief conversation you’ve recently had with a cashier.
Was it friendly or indifferent? Rushed or more leisurely? In every case, the
exchanged messages both created and reflected some sort of relationship. In
more meaningful relationships, communication is distinctive and nuanced—
more personal. It’s helpful, therefore, to view communication with others
on a continuum, ranging from impersonal to interpersonal (see Figure 1.2).
Many of our interactions in life are relatively impersonal, but more
meaningful communication characterizes our key relationships. As dis-
cussed in this book, interpersonal communication is interaction distin-
guished by the qualities of uniqueness, interdependence, self-disclosure,
and intrinsic rewards. Let’s explore each component of this definition.
Characteristics of Interpersonal Communication

Four features distinguish communication in highly interpersonal relation-
ships from less personal ones:
• The first is uniqueness. Whereas social rules and rituals govern im-
personal exchanges, the nature and history of particular relationships
shape interpersonal exchanges. For example, with one friend you
Highly Impersonal Highly Interpersonal FIGURE 1.2 Impersonal–

(e.g., scheduling appointment, (e.g., marriage proposal, Interpersonal Communication
answering phone survey) asking for forgiveness) Continuum
might exchange good-natured insults, whereas with another you are

careful never to offend. Consider how you communicate with those
closest to you and you’ll recognize that each relationship is defined by
its own specific language, customs, and pattern—what communica-
tion scholars call a relational culture (Farrell et al., 2014).
• The second feature that distinguishes interpersonal communication is
interdependence. Highly interpersonal communication exchanges reveal
that the fate of the partners is connected. In an impersonal relation-
ship, such as with a restaurant server you don’t know, you might be
able to brush off the other’s anger, affection, excitement, or depres-
sion. But in an interpersonal relationship, the other’s life affects you.
• The third feature is self-disclosure. In impersonal exchanges, we reveal
little about ourselves; but in interpersonal exchanges, we often share
important thoughts and feelings, usually reflecting our comfort with
one another. This doesn’t mean that all highly interpersonal relation-
ships are warm and caring or that all self-disclosure is positive. It’s
possible to reveal negative personal information: “I really hate when
you do that!” But note you’d probably say that only to someone with
whom you have an interpersonal relationship.
• The fourth feature has to do with the intrinsic rewards of interacting.
Communicators in relationships characterized by impersonal exchanges
seek extrinsic rewards—payoffs that have little to do with the people
involved. You listen to professors in class or talk to potential buyers of
your used car in order to reach goals that have little to do with develop-
ing personal relationships. By contrast, you spend time in highly inter-
personal relationships, such as relationships with friends and lovers,
because of the intrinsic rewards that come from your communication.
Just being with the other person is the reward. It doesn’t matter what
you talk about—developing the relationship is what’s important.
Relatively few of our interactions are highly interpersonal. The scar-
city of interpersonal communication, however, contributes to its value
(Mehl et al., 2010). Like precious and one-of-a-kind artwork, highly inter-
personal communication is special because it is rare. It’s even fairly scarce
in close relationships, where much of our daily communication is com-
fortably mundane (Alberts et al., 2005). Those special relationships, how-
ever, provide the best opportunities to communicate interpersonally—and
that’s why Chapter 10 focuses on them.
Masspersonal Communication
After reading the characteristics just outlined, you might be thinking about
interpersonal communication as a private rather than a public exchange. For
instance, many people would be reluctant to broadcast self-disclosures to an
audience, and a relationship might not feel unique if it’s shared with hun-
dreds of others. In this respect, it’s easy to regard interpersonal communica-
tion as something that happens only in private, one-on-one relationships.
But the emergence of social media has led to some changes in that
thinking. The fact is, when you post a message on a friend’s social net-
working page (“I heard about your new job—congratulations!”), that’s
PUBLIC
Newspaper YouTube video Tweet

Television Podcast
Blog
Billboard
Mass Facebook post
Communication Masspersonal
Communication
IMPERSONAL
PERSONAL
Jumbotron
Radio call-in proposal
Spam Directed tweet
Group email
Listserv Interpersonal
Communication
FIGURE 1.3 Examples
Tailored spam of Mass, Interpersonal, and
Facebook private
message Masspersonal Communication
Adapted from O’Sullivan & Carr, 2017.
PRIVATE
both personal and public. The message is meant for your friend, but others
view and evaluate it. You probably have those others in mind as you craft
the message—otherwise, you could have sent a private text or email. In the
same vein, many blog authors and tweeters interact with their followers,
creating a sense of community (Lee & Jang, 2013). Mediated messages that
are broadcast one-to-many are typically categorized as “mass communica-
tion,” but that label doesn’t capture the nature of some personal messages
aimed at large audiences.
As a way of clarifying the personal nature of some public messages,
communication scholars (O’Sullivan & Carr, 2017) suggest we need a new
label. Masspersonal communication characterizes interaction that crosses
boundaries between mass and interpersonal contexts. Figure 1.3 illustrates
some such intersections and the channels they use. It’s easy to see how
masspersonal communication can enhance a relationship’s uniqueness, in-
terdependence, self-disclosure, and intrinsic rewards.
COMMUNICATION MISCONCEPTIONS
Now that you’ve learned what communication is, it’s time to identify some
things it isn’t. Avoiding these common misconceptions (adapted from
McCroskey & Richmond, 1996) can save you a great deal of trouble in
your personal life.
Not All Communication Seeks Understanding

You might assume that the goal of all communication is to maximize
understanding between communicators. But although some understand-
ing is necessary to coordinate our interactions, there are some types of
communication in which understanding, as we usually conceive it, isn’t the

primary goal. Consider, for example, the following:
• Social rituals we enact every day. “How’s it going?” you ask. “Great,”
the other person replies, even if he or she isn’t actually feeling great.
The primary goal in exchanges like these is mutual acknowledg-
ment. The unstated message is “I consider you important enough to
notice.” There’s obviously no serious attempt to exchange information
( Burnard, 2003). An analysis of examples from Twitter shows how
this social ritual to “keep in touch” can take place digitally as well as
in person (Schandorf, 2013).
• Many attempts to influence others. Most television commercials are
aimed at persuading viewers to buy products, not helping viewers un-
derstand the content of the ad. In the same way, many of our attempts
at persuading others don’t involve a desire for understanding, just for
compliance with our wishes.
• Deliberate ambiguity and deception. When you decline an unwanted
invitation by saying “I can’t make it,” you probably want to create
the impression that the decision is really beyond your control. (If
your goal were to be perfectly clear, you might say, “I don’t want to
get together. In fact, I’d rather do almost anything than accept your
invitation.”) As we explain in detail in Chapter 3, people often lie or
hedge their remarks precisely because they want to obscure their true
thoughts and feelings.
More Communication Is Not Always Better

Whereas failure to communicate effectively and often enough can cer-
tainly cause problems, excessive communication also can be a mistake.
Sometimes it is simply unproductive, as when people go over the same
ground again and again.
There are times when talking too much actually aggravates a problem.
As McCroskey and Wheeless (1976) put it, “More and more negative com-
munication merely leads to more and more negative results” (p. 5). Even
when relationships aren’t troubled, less communication may be better than
more. One study found that coworkers who aren’t highly dependent on
one another perform better when they don’t spend a great deal of time
talking together (Barrick et al., 2007). There are even times when no in-
teraction is the best course. When two people are angry and hurt, they
may say things they don’t mean and will later regret. In such cases it’s prob-
ably best to spend time cooling off, thinking about what to say and how
to say it. Chapter 8 will help you decide when and how to share feelings.
Communication Will Not Solve All Problems

Sometimes even the best planned, best timed communication won’t solve
a problem. For example, imagine that you ask an instructor to explain why
you received a poor grade on a project you believe deserved top marks. The
professor clearly outlines the reasons why you received the low grade and
sticks to that position after listening thoughtfully to your protests. Has
communication solved the problem? Hardly.
Sometimes clear communication is even the cause of problems. Sup-

pose, for example, that a friend asks you for an honest opinion of an expen-
sive outfit he just bought. Your clear and sincere answer, “I think it makes
you look fat,” might do more harm than good. Deciding when and how to
self-disclose isn’t always easy. See Chapter 3 for suggestions.
Effective Communication Is Not a Natural Ability

Most people assume that communication is like breathing—that it’s some-
thing people can do without training. Although nearly everyone does
manage to function passably without much formal communication train-
ing, most people operate at a level of effectiveness far below their poten-
tial. In fact, communication skills are closer to an athletic ability. Even the
most inept of us can learn to be more effective with training and practice,
and even the most talented need to “keep in shape.” With this in mind, it’s
time to look at what’s involved in communicating more competently.
COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE
“What does it take to communicate better?” is probably the most impor-
tant question to ask as you read this book. Answering it has been one of the
leading challenges for communication scholars. Although we don’t have all
the answers, research has identified a great deal of important and useful
information about communication competence.
PRINCIPLES OF COMMUNICATION COMPETENCE

Most scholars agree that communication competence is the ability to
achieve goals in a manner both effective and appropriate (Spitzberg, 2000).
To understand these two dimensions, consider how you might handle ev-
eryday communication challenges such as declining an unwanted invitation
or asking a friend to stop an annoying behavior. In cases such as these, effec-
tive communication would get the results you want. Appropriate communi-
cation would do so in a way that, in most cases, enhances the relationship
in which it occurs.
You can appreciate the importance of both appropriateness and effec-
tiveness by imagining approaches that would satisfy one of these criteria
but not the other. Yelling at your restaurant server may get your meal to
come quickly, but you probably wouldn’t be welcome back (and you might
want to check your food before eating it). Likewise, saying “That’s fine” to
your roommate when things aren’t fine might maintain the relationship
but leave you frustrated. With the goal of encouraging a balance between On the TV show Hell’s Kitchen,
chef Gordon Ramsay gets the
effectiveness and appropriateness, the following paragraphs outline several job done—but often treats
important principles of communication competence. his staff poorly in the process.
On MasterChef Junior, he
demonstrates that he can be
There Is No Single “Ideal” or “Effective” Way to Communicate both effective and appropriate
Your own experience shows that a variety of communication styles can be as a cooking coach. Does your
communication competence
effective. Some very successful communicators are serious, whereas others change from situation to
use humor; some are gregarious, others are quieter; and some are more situation?
straightforward, while others hint diplomatically. Furthermore, a type

of communication that is competent in one setting might be a colossal
blunder in another, and what one person thinks is competent may seem
incompetent to another (Dunleavy & Martin, 2010). The joking insults
you routinely trade with a friend might offend a sensitive family member,
and Saturday night’s romantic approach would be out of place at work on
Monday morning. No list of rules or tips will guarantee your success as a
communicator.
Flexibility is especially important when members of different cultures
meet. Some communication skills seem to be universal (Ruben, 1989).
Every culture has rules that require speakers to behave appropriately, for
example. But the definition of appropriate communication in a given situa-
tion varies considerably from one culture to another (Arasaratnam, 2007).
Customs such as belching after a meal or appearing nude in public might
be appropriate in some parts of the world but outrageous in others. There
are also more subtle differences in competent communication. For exam-
ple, qualities such as self-disclosure and straight talk may be valued in
the United States but considered overly aggressive and insensitive in many
Asian cultures (Zhang, 2015). You’ll read more about the many dimen-
sions of intercultural competence in Chapter 2.
Competence Is Situational
Because competent behavior varies so much from one situation and person
to another, it’s a mistake to think that communication competence is a
trait that a person either possesses or lacks (Spitzberg, 1991). It’s more ac-
curate to talk about degrees or areas of competence.
You and the people you know are probably quite competent in some
areas and less so in others. For example, you might deal quite skillfully
with peers while feeling clumsy interacting with people much older or
younger, wealthier or poorer, or more or less attractive than yourself. In
fact, your competence may vary from situation to situation. It’s an over-
generalization to say, in a moment of distress, “I’m a terrible communica-
tor!” It’s more accurate to say, “I didn’t handle this situation very well, but
I’m better in others.”
Competence Can Be Learned

To some degree, biology is destiny when it comes to communication com-
petence (Teven et al., 2010). Research suggests that certain personality
traits predispose people toward particular competence skills (Hullman
et al., 2010). For instance, those who are agreeable and conscientious by
nature find it easier to be appropriate and harder to be (and become) as-
sertive and effective.
Fortunately, biology isn’t the only factor that shapes how we commu-
nicate. Communication competence is, to a great degree, a set of skills that
anyone can learn (Fortney et al., 2001). For instance, people with commu-
nication anxiety often benefit from interpersonal training sessions (Dwyer,
2000). Skills instruction has also been shown to help communicators in
a variety of professional fields (Brown et al., 2010; Hynes, 2012). Even
without systematic training, it’s possible to develop communication skills

through the processes of observation and trial and error. We learn from our
own successes and failures, as well as from observing other models—both
positive and negative. And, of course, it’s our hope that you will become
a more competent communicator as a result of putting the information in
this book to work.
CHARACTERISTICS OF COMPETENT
COMMUNICATION
Although competent communication varies from one situation to another,
scholars have identified several common denominators that characterize it
in most contexts.
A Large Repertoire of Skills

As you’ve already seen, good communicators don’t use the same approach
in every situation. They know that sometimes it’s best to be blunt and
sometimes tactful; that there is a time to speak up and a time to be quiet.
The chances of reaching your personal and relational goals increase with
the number of options you have about how to communicate (Pillet-Shore,
2011). For example, if you want to start a conversation with a stranger, you
might get the ball rolling simply by introducing yourself. In other cases,
seeking assistance might work well: “I’ve just moved here. What kind of
neighborhood is the Eastside?” A third strategy is to ask a question about
the situation: “I’ve never heard this band before. Do you know anything
about them?” You could also offer a sincere compliment and follow it up
with a question: “Great shoes! Where did you get them?” Just as a chef
draws from a wide range of herbs and spices, a competent communicator
can draw from a large array of potential behaviors.
Adaptability
To extend this metaphor, a chef must know when to use garlic, chili, or
sugar. Likewise, a competent communicator needs adaptability, selecting
appropriate responses for each situation—and for each recipient. Adapt-
ability is so important that competence researchers call it “the hallmark of
interpersonal communication skills” (Hullman, 2015). As an example, one
study (Stephens et al., 2009) found that professors negatively appraised
students who sent emails that included casual text language (such as “4”
instead of “for” or “RU” instead of “are you”). These students didn’t adapt
their message to an appropriate level of professional formality. Later in
this chapter, we’ll discuss how choosing the right channel for particular
messages and recipients is also an important component of communication
adaptability.
Adaptability becomes challenging when communicating massperson-
ally. When you post on social media, for instance, it’s likely you have mul-
tiple audiences in mind as you craft your message (Marder et al., 2016). If
you’ve edited an update before posting because you knew how some follow-
ers would react, you’ve practiced adaptability—and also self-presentation,
as described in Chapter 3.
Ability to Perform Skillfully

Once you have chosen the appropriate way to communicate, you have to
perform that behavior effectively (Barge & Little, 2008). In communica-
tion, as in other activities, practice is the key to
skillful performance. Much of the information
in Interplay will introduce you to new tools for
Media Clip communicating, and the activities at the end of
each chapter will help you practice them.
Empathy/Perspective Taking
We develop the most effective messages when
we understand and empathize with the other
person’s point of view (Nelson et al., 2017).
Empathy, or perspective taking (explained in
Chapter 4), is an essential skill partly because
others may not express their thoughts and feel-
ings clearly. And of course, it’s not enough just
to imagine another’s perspective; it’s vital to
communicate that understanding through verbal
and nonverbal responses (Kellas et al., 2013).
Pathologically Competent: Cognitive Complexity

House of Cards Cognitive complexity is the ability to construct
a variety of different frameworks for viewing
In the TV series House of Cards, career politician an issue. Imagine that a longtime friend never
Frank Underwood (Kevin Spacey) and his equally am- responded to a message from you, but you ex-
bitious wife Claire (Robin Wright) are ruthless in their pected a response. One possible explanation
pursuit of power. They make friends, curry favor, and
is that your friend is offended by something
you’ve done. Another possibility is that some-
use people to further their own positions.
thing has happened in another part of your
In terms of communication competence, Claire
friend’s life that is upsetting. Or perhaps noth-
and Frank are very effective in achieving their per-
ing at all is wrong, and you’re just being overly
sonal goals. They are strategic self-monitors, carefully
sensitive.
noting how others respond to them and adjusting
Researchers have found that a large
accordingly. But interpersonally, they regard other
number of constructs for interpreting the
people only as tools to achieve their selfish goals, behavior of others leads to greater “conversa-
or as enemies to be defeated. Not surprisingly, the tional sensitivity,” increasing the chances of
Underwoods have no close relationships. In an aside acting in ways that will produce satisfying re-
to the camera, Frank says: “For those of us climbing sults (Burleson, 2011; MacGeorge & Wilkum,
to the top of the food chain, there can be no mercy. 2012). Not surprisingly, research also shows a
There is but one rule: Hunt or be hunted.” connection between cognitive complexity and
Most of us would regard Frank and Claire’s heart- empathy (Joireman, 2004). The relationship
less obsession with power as pathological. We recog- makes sense: The more ways you have to un-
nize that to be fully competent communicators—and derstand others and interpret their behaviors,
healthy human beings—it’s necessary to be both ef- the greater the likelihood that you can see
fective and appropriate. and communicate about the world from their
perspective.
Self-Monitoring
Psychologists use the term self-monitoring to describe the process of paying
close attention to one’s own behavior and using these observations to shape
it. Self-monitors are able to consider their behavior from a detached view-
point, allowing for observations such as:
“I’m making a fool out of myself.”
“I’d better speak up now.”
“This approach is working well. I’ll keep it up.”
It’s no surprise that self-monitoring generally increases one’s effective-
ness as a communicator (Day et al., 2002). The President’s Council of Eco-
nomic Advisers maintains that greater “self-awareness, self-monitoring,
and self-control” will help students be more successful when they enter
the job market (Executive Office of the President, 2009, p. 10). The ability
to ask “How am I doing?”—and to change your behavior if the answer isn’t
positive—is a tremendous asset for communicators.
SOCIAL MEDIA AND INTERPERSONAL

COMMUNICATION
Until a few decades ago, face-to-face communication was essential to start-
ing and maintaining most, if not all, interpersonal relationships. Other
channels existed—primarily the telephone and postal c orrespondence—
but most interpersonal communication seemed to require physical
proximity.
Now things are different. Obviously, face-to-face communication
is still vitally important, but now technology also plays a key role in
starting and maintaining relationships. Social media is the term that
describes all the communication channels that allow community-
based input, interaction, content sharing, and collaboration. Defined
broadly, you’re using social media when you send text messages, post
a tweet, exchange emails and instant messages, or use social network-
ing sites such as Facebook and Instagram. The number of social media
technologies has exploded in the past few decades, giving communica-
tors today an array of choices that would have amazed someone from
a previous era.
Before reading about the characteristics of social media, take a moment
to analyze the role of digital communication in your life by completing the
assessment on page 24.
CHARACTERISTICS OF SOCIAL MEDIA

In many ways, mediated and face-to-face communication are similar. They
involve messages, channels, noise, and other elements of the transactional
model. Both are used to satisfy the physical, identity, social, and practical
needs outlined on pages 5–9.
A S S E S S I N G YO U R CO M M U N I C AT I O N
Your Use of Social Media

Respond to each of the 15 items below according to how closely it describes you, using a scale from 1 through 8,
with 1 = “not at all descriptive of me,” and 8 = “highly descriptive of me.”
_____ 1. I prefer online social interaction over face-to-face communication.
_____ 2. Online social interaction is more comfortable for me than face-to-face interaction.
_____ 3. I prefer communicating with people online rather than face to face.
_____ 4. I have used the internet to talk with others when I was feeling isolated.
_____ 5. I have used the internet to make myself feel better when I was down.
_____ 6. I have used the internet to make myself feel better when I’ve felt upset.
_____ 7. When I haven’t been online for some time, I become preoccupied with the thought of
going online.
_____ 8. I would feel lost if I were unable to go online.
_____ 9. I think obsessively about going online when I am offline.
_____ 10. I have difficulty controlling the amount of time I spend online.
_____ 11. I find it difficult to control my internet use.
_____ 12. When offline, I have a hard time trying to resist the urge to go online.
_____ 13. My internet use has made it difficult for me to manage my life.
_____ 14. I have missed social engagements or activities because of my internet use.
_____ 15. My internet use has created problems in my life.
Source: Caplan, S. E. (2010). Theory and measurement of generalized problematic Internet use: A two-step approach. Computers in Human Behavior, 26, 1089–1097.
For scoring information, see page 35 at the end of the chapter.
Despite these similarities, communication by social media differs

from the in-person variety in some important ways. Table 1.1 provides
an overview of differences by communication channel. It shows that each
channel has both advantages and drawbacks. You can boost your effec-
tiveness by choosing the channel that’s right for each situation. Should
you send a message via a text? Make a phone call? Wait for a chance to
talk in person? It depends on the nature of the message, the receiver, and
the situation.
Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
of the Fierce Beasts, for the water assuaged after nine years, and
the ravages of the man-eaters were confined to one place. Opium
has spread with frightful rapidity and heartrending results through the
provinces. Millions upon millions have been struck down by the
plague. To-day it is running like wild-fire. In its swift deadly course it
is spreading devastation everywhere, wrecking the minds and eating
away the strength and wealth of its victims. The ruin of the mind is
the most woeful of its many deleterious effects. The poison
enfeebles the will, saps the strength of the body, renders the
consumer incapable of performing his regular duties, and unfit for
travel from one place to another. It consumes his substance and
reduces the miserable wretch to poverty, barrenness and senility.
Unless something is soon done to arrest this awful scourge in its
devastating march, the Chinese people will be transformed into
satyrs and devils!”[20] Many thoughtful Chinese are apprehensive
that opium will finally extirpate the race. This is a severe indictment,
but there are plenty of leading men who will endorse it.
The Republican Government determined to stamp out the evil, and
none but the Chinese could have accomplished so great a reform so
rapidly: in many of the northern provinces there is no poppy grown.
But the Southern Government has not followed suit. No doubt the
question of revenue prevents it; for opium is one of the most
lucrative crops as regards taxation. Naturally there are times of great
scarcity, and then it is quite common for the people to sell their
children for food. A missionary told us of one child being sold for one
and a half dollars (about three shillings): this was a boy of three
years old. We saw two nice little girls on the road being taken to be
sold as slaves.
After leaving Küticul we found our coolies very troublesome, and
had to have recourse to the magistrate on two occasions, with a
good result. One day the men firmly refused to go more than an
absurdly short stage, and deposited us in the middle of a village. Our
head man stormed and raged, not another step would they budge.
Finally we made a compromise: we stayed there on the
understanding that they would do a hundred and five li next day,
about thirty-two miles. The magistrate later in the day had an
interview with Li and the head coolie, and emphasized the fact that
the agreement had got to be carried out, and the escort was
instructed to come early.
The spell worked! We started about six o’clock on a lovely misty
morning, the dew lying heavy on the grass, and our men walked with
a will for some hours. But like the mist, their zeal evaporated: after
lunch they said they must each have a dollar to go on. Li was in
despair at seeing his remonstrances unheeded. I sent him off to the
magistrate. He counselled giving them ten cents each, and ordered
them to start: there was nothing to be done save agree to it, as the
head coolie had disappeared, evidently feeling unable to cope with
the situation. The men grumbled, but set off, and by a quarter past
six we reached Ping-yi, a stiff twelve hours’ journey. We felt a little
sorry for the luggage coolies and wondered if the loads were not
rather heavy, but as they raced at the end of the stage to see who
would be in first, we felt our pity was misplaced. We stayed in
mission premises where a kind old caretaker was most solicitous for
our welfare. Yao could hardly be persuaded not to prepare our
evening meal, but we decided to prepare it for ourselves and sent
him off to the inn with Li.
This was our last night in Yünnan, and we had a wonderful
moonlight view over the valley, which, combined with a hard bed, led
me to spend much of the night beside the window, writing letters. It
was an unwonted pleasure to sleep upstairs and to have a view.
Next day in our escort we had a most friendly young policeman,
who was keen to help us pick flowers after assiduously dealing with
our luggage. We crossed several fine bridges and counted seven
varieties of roses, five varieties of azaleas, iris, Japanese anemones,
etc., etc. By midday we had climbed up to the dividing line between
the provinces of Yünnan and Kweichow: it was marked by a most
dilapidated archway leading into a little village. The usual tutelary
stone lions are on either side the pailou, but those facing into
Yünnan have dust and fishy scales carved on their backs, while
those facing into Kweichow have only scales. What is the meaning of
this symbolism? Dust stands for wind and scales for water, and truly
Yünnan has not only rain but also wind in full measure, while as for
Kweichow, we no sooner crossed the threshold than the sun
disappeared and down came the rain.
One day we asked a Kweichow man who had attached himself
uninvited to our company, when we might hope to see the sunshine!
He took a long time to answer the question, and appeared to have
been giving Li an exhaustive discourse on the nature of sunshine.
However, the summary of the discourse was that under the old
Imperial regime things were fixed, and you could count upon them—
but under a Republic you could be sure of nothing!
Chapter IV
The Province of Kweichow
“Methinks there’s a genius

Roams in the mountains.
...
But dark is the forest
Where now is my dwelling,
Never the light of day
Reaches its shadow.
Thither a perilous
Pathway meanders.
Lonely I stand
On the lonelier hill-top,
Cloudland beneath me
And cloudland around me.
Softly the wind bloweth,
Softly the rain falls,
Joy like a mist blots
The thoughts of my home out.”
—(Ch’ü Yüan: Fourth Century b.c.)

Translated by Cranmer Byng.
Chapter IV
The Province of Kweichow
Not only is there a gateway leading out of Yünnan, but also one of
a quite different character leading into Kweichow, and situated at the
other end of the little frontier village. It is a solid stone gateway in a
stone wall.
We passed
along a short
bit of level
street at a
height of
6,200 feet
before we
came to the
wall, and
then we
plunged
down a steep
rocky path,
with a
wonderful
view of deep
valleys
surrounded
by abrupt
and jagged
mountains.
We found
A HAYSTACK.
that day
seven new
varieties of
roses, all very sweet-scented, also rhododendrons, azaleas and
irises. At our halting-place for the night (5,300 feet) we climbed a
little hill crowned with a Buddhist temple, and looked down on trees,
which formed a floor of delicate white blossom as light as
snowflakes, trees quite unknown to me, and no one there seemed
able to give us even a Chinese name for them. It is very difficult to
get information, and we had not the time for making collections.
I tried to learn about them when I came home, and found that
there is in existence a large folio of manuscript of descriptions and
specimens of plants collected by French fathers in this province; but
as no one visits Kweichow there was no demand for such a work,
and there is no hope of it being published. The collection is at the
Edinburgh Botanical Gardens. It was the same with other things: the
mountains often had the strangest forms, and I made careful
drawings of their outlines. Photos were usually out of the question,
as the mountains were too close; they rose up like walls all round us,
and the light was always in the wrong quarter. On my return home I
went cheerfully to learned societies with confident hope of slaking
my thirst for knowledge, but alas! No books on such an unknown
part, the very name of course unknown. When my drawings had
been duly inspected, the remark made was, “I must compliment you
on your sketches, I have never seen mountains like that!” Was there
a touch of irony in the remark?
Truly Kweichow is a wonderful country and beautiful in the
extreme, as the late Dr. Morrison (adviser to the Chinese
Government) told me when I went to get his advice before starting.
“You could not have chosen a more interesting part to travel in,” he
said, “nor a more beautiful one”; and he had travelled in almost every
part of China. It is full of different aboriginal races of whom very little
is known, its flora is remarkably rich and varied, and its geology a
continual surprise.
The second day across the border we crossed a small plain from
which rise a series of round low mounds, like pudding-basins, from
the flat ricefields—an extraordinary contrast to the lofty, jagged
mountains from which we had just descended. In the midst of it all
was a curious tumbled heap of lava-like appearance, looking as if it
had been ejected from the earth by some colossal earthworms. Sir
Alexander Hosie says[21] that there is a parallel row of these mounds
about ten miles to the south: they run east and west. In the ricefields
I saw a brilliant kingfisher, hanging poised in mid-air in search of
prey, while a heron stalked away at our approach.
The rain grew more and more persistent, and the roads were
muddy and slippery to the last degree. Even the sure-footed Chinese
kept tumbling down, and it was almost less trying to walk than to be
bumped down in our chairs. As we advanced into the province the
culture of the opium poppy (papaver somniferum) increased till it was
as much as ninety-nine per cent. of the crops, and the appearance of
the inhabitants showed only too plainly its disastrous effects. In
some of the villages the children were naked, although it was still
cold weather, being only the beginning of April. In the markets the
goods were of the meanest and cheapest description, and the
people looked abject. They rushed out to beg from us. The main
industry of the district was evidently the making of coal balls. The
coal lies actually on the surface, and has only to be scraped
together, mixed with a little earth and water, and then dried: it burns
quite well. Some of the coal is used for fertilizing the ground, being
reduced to ash by being burnt in pits with stones piled on it. Lime
also is used for the poppy fields. Sometimes the coal holes by the
wayside are a couple of yards in diameter. The coir palm is to be
seen in every village, and loquats and walnut trees are cultivated for
their fruit.
We struggled along through a thick mist one day, and one after
another went down like ninepins on the slippery path. One of my
bearers cut his ankle, and was thankful for the doctor’s attentions.
Suddenly I heard an ominous roaring sound, and looked in vain for
the cause. It proved to be produced by a big stream, which
disappeared into a hole in the earth; this appears to be quite a
common phenomenon, and later on we saw one bubble out of the
ground in the same strange fashion.
Another shape of hill attracted my attention, and as I tried to
reproduce it accurately on paper it became obvious that this was one
of the Chinese mountain forms with which one has been familiar
from childhood in their pictures, and which one had supposed to be a
work of imagination. As they always hold in their canons of art that
“form” is quite subsidiary to “spirit,” I imagined that it was not inability
to imitate form accurately, but a deliberate intention of ignoring it in
order to express some more important truth that was the cause of
their drawing, what seemed to me, such unnatural mountains. But
here one discovered that these forms are natural in China, and it is
after all only our ignorance that makes us so misjudge them.
There were hedges by the roadside all bursting into leaf and
blossom, and I never saw such a wealth of ferns of many kinds.
There was material for a whole volume on ferns alone. Lofty trees of
catalpa bungei with their purple blossom, and Boehmeria nivea grew
by the roadside, and rhea grass in the village gardens.
We generally started the day in a damp mist, and were happy
when it cleared away, even though there was no sunshine. We
scanned the hedges for roses, and felt quite aggrieved if we failed to
find fresh varieties every single day. A lovely blush rose filled us with
delight, but pink moss-roses were only seen on one occasion. We
decided that nowhere else could a greater variety of roses be found:
we counted twenty-three varieties before we left the province, and
felt sure we should have found many more had we stayed longer, for
they were hardly in full bloom by the end of April. One day I picked
up a broken branch on the road, thrown away by some passer-by no
doubt because it had no blossoms on it, but the bright green leaves
were a lovely violet on the under side, and I searched in vain to find
a bush of it growing, in order to see what the flowers were like.
Then, too, the birds were reminiscent of home—magpies, larks,
woodpeckers, wagtails, and even the aggravating cuckoo. But there
was one elusive little fellow, known to all dwellers in Kweichow,
though no one could tell me his name: he had a long shrill note with
a short tut-tut-tut at the end. We both watched for him daily, as he
seemed to haunt our path continually, but never could we catch a
sight of him, so dexterously did he hide himself. Occasionally we
thought we saw him, but it was so momentary a glimpse that we
were never sure; the bird we saw looked about the size and shape
and colour of a linnet.
The fourth day in Kweichow we came to a splendid three-arch
bridge in a fertile valley, and spent the night in a very different village
from most—Kuan Tzu Yao. A number of fine new houses were in
course of construction, built largely of stone; amongst others, a post
office next door to our inn. The postal system in China is really
wonderful, even in this backward province, and we had a most
charming surprise at the first post town we entered. Our interpreter
went to the post office, and was surprised at being asked if he were
travelling with English ladies. On admitting this, he was asked to
inform us that if we were in need of money we could draw as much
as was necessary at any office we came to, by order of the postal
commissioner at Kwei Yang. The reason for this delightful
arrangement was that the English Commissioner at Taiyuanfu,
whose advice we had asked about transmitting money, said he
would write to his Chinese colleague and ask him to help us if we got
into difficulties, because of the prevalent highway robberies. This
gentleman was ill at the time the letter reached him, but he
telegraphed to Taiyuanfu as soon as he was fit, that he would do
what he could—and this was his splendid way of meeting the
difficulty. No finer testimony could be wanted of the way the Chinese
trust our people.
The postal system is a fine piece of organization: it reaches to the
utmost bounds of the empire, and although the mails are mainly
carried by runners on foot, they travel very rapidly. The stages are
not long, and there is no delay when the bags are handed from one
runner to the next. For instance, we were told that on this particular
road, what we did in seventeen days the mails would do in four, and
we did an average of eighteen miles a day. We had postal maps
given us of the provinces we were going to visit. On them are
marked all the postal stations, with the distances from one to
another; the line of route; the various grades of offices; the limit of
the district; daily or bi-daily day and night service; daily, bi-daily or tri-
daily service; less frequent ones; postal connexion by boat;
telegraphic connexion; rural box offices, etc. The names of the main
towns are in both Chinese and English, the others only in Chinese.
On the whole, letters travel wonderfully safely. The old postal system
was quite hopeless, and in the interior the missionaries used to
organize their own. Even Peking used to be closed to the rest of the
world yearly for several months. I remember six months when we
had no letters from my sister in Shansi, due to a misunderstanding at
a transmitting station, and there was no telegraphic communication
in those days. Now the old Chinese system has practically died out.
We had another proof of the thoughtfulness of the Chinese
commissioner later. Having heard from one of the missionaries that
we were going into the Miao country before coming to the capital, he
sent up all our letters, a tremendous boon after being weeks without
any. The postal service is under international control, having been
originated in 1896 and built up by Sir Robert Hart in connexion with
the customs: in each province there is a commissioner; nearly all are
Europeans.
As we got further into the province the vegetation grew more and
more luxuriant. The banks were carpeted with lycopodium and
primula and the hedges were full of roses, white and yellow jasmine,
hawthorn, clematis montana, Akebia lobata—a very curious creeper
with wine-coloured blossom, both male and female. The brilliant
yellow-blossomed cassia forms a most impenetrable hedge, with
upstanding thorns, like nails, all along its tough stems. We tied water
jars into our chairs, so as to keep the flowers fresh, and by the end
of the day the chairs were perfect bowers, our men vying with one
another to get us the choicest blossoms. Perhaps the most beautiful
of any was the large white, sweet-scented rhododendron, the
Hymenocallis. This is rare; we only found it once.
The scenery was very grand; long ranges of jagged mountains
and precipitous cliffs, but the road was not in the least dangerous
from that point of view. It was extremely slippery and a heavy mist
lay over everything in the early hours of most days: our men kept
tumbling down. The only one who seemed always steady was Yao,
and he constituted himself my guardian on slippery days, holding my
elbow with a relentless grip, which certainly prevented my tumbling
down and gave me confidence.
At Kuan Tzu Yao we found a nice clean new inn, courtyard behind
courtyard, and each raised a step or two above the last: ours was
the innermost, and we felt unusually secluded. The next night our
immediate neighbours were two fine water buffaloes with their
calves. They are the most valuable domestic animals throughout this
country, as they plough the ricefields quite happily when they are
under water. These two were taken out to work in the early morning,
and we were amused to see a little tatterdemalion bringing them
back in a perfect fury to fetch their calves, which had been left in the
shed. The buffaloes seem to be generally left in the care of boys,
who manage them with much skill, and love to disport themselves on
their broad backs, often lying negligently at ease along them, looking
as much at home as if they were an integral part of the creature.
They are sluggish animals, coming originally from the Philippines.
Leaving Tu Tien our men seemed possessed of a sudden energy,
and went at a great rate, doing nearly seven miles in two hours.
Sometimes we thought we were lacking in humanity to give them
such heavy loads; but then again our scruples seemed foolish in the
light of certain experiences. For instance, one man carried two heavy
suit-cases and a chair, another two large carved window-frames and
a bed, but it didn’t prevent them taking a steep bank at a run, or
having a race at the end of a thirty-mile stage to see who would be in
first. The Chinese coolie is really an amusing creature, and even if
he is clad in rags he finds life a cheerful business. I used to try and
count the patches on the coat of one of my coolies, and never made
them less than forty-six between the neck and waistband, not
including those on the sleeves!
Then the incidents of travel have a humorous side, even on a wet
day in a dangerous neighbourhood. Instead of having our light
midday meal as usual by the roadside near the village, where the
men get theirs, one is obliged to have it in the chairs, placed side by
side in the main street of a busy town. Our escort draws an
imaginary cordon round us, and no one dares approach within two
yards as long as they mount guard. It was a thrilling sight for the
assembled crowd to watch the barbarians wielding knives and forks,
instead of the dear, familiar chopsticks. I must say they behaved
beautifully.
When I sat down to sketch a lovely river scene outside a village
gateway, though many came to look on they did not jostle. These
entrance gates are often quite imposing and of infinite variety. Just
inside was a fine litter of pigs, with a most important-looking sow,
and it was amusing to watch their antics. On a doorstep, extended at
full length lay a large hairy black pig. Its face wore a beatific
expression, with half-closed eyes of rapt enjoyment, while a woman
vigorously groomed it with her brush.
The mountains of Kweichow give shelter to many wild animals,
and even tigers, as well as leopards, are to be found, which cause
great havoc in some of the villages. One story we heard throws an
interesting light on the way the natives look at them. A tiger had
been doing so much damage that the peasantry determined to have
a battue, having tracked it to a certain hill, from which they thought it
would be impossible for it to escape. They formed a cordon round
the hill and gradually drove it to the top. The tiger, in search of
refuge, looked into a shrine, and its pursuers saw this: they
exclaimed, “It is certainly the God of the Hill”; so they turned tail and
fled. Naturally, the tiger seeing this took the opportunity of attacking
them in the rear, and several were badly mauled.[22]
Some of the mountains are very barren, others wonderfully
cultivated, on terraces right up to the very top, and in rocky hollows
only about a foot in diameter, with a mere handful of soil in them.
How the scanty population can do such a vast amount of cultivation
was a mystery we could never solve. One day we started from an
altitude of eighteen hundred feet and climbed over a pass of forty-
eight hundred, whence there was a wonderful panoramic view; our
road could be seen for many miles, winding along the mountainside
above a narrow valley; then diving down into it and up the opposite
side. Our men said the last part of that day’s march, ten li (three
miles), would be on the level, which sounded pleasant news. In point
of fact we dropped nine hundred feet. A fine entrance gate led into
Lang Tai Fung. Just outside the wall were the ruins of an old temple
with a handsome stone carved bridge in front of it, enclosed within a
wall. The inn was a good one, and the weather having suddenly
turned cold we were glad of a brazier. The town seemed much more
prosperous than most. There were large cotton looms, where
weaving was going on in the open air, as well as in a disused temple.
Handsome carved window-frames delighted me so much that I
determined to have some made for the women’s institute at
Taiyuanfu. They were about a yard square in size with a good deal of
carving, so the sum named (twenty dollars including carriage to
Anshun, about fifty-five miles distant) did not seem excessive! It took
us three days to get to Anshun, and the windows arrived within the
fortnight stipulated. We picked them up later, and they formed rather
a large item of our luggage, requiring an extra coolie.
As we neared Anshun the road was less mountainous and the
villages better built. Many of the houses are of grey stone, some built
with mortar, some without. There was a fine waterfall, a hundred and
sixty feet in depth, into the Rhinoceros Pool, near the town of Chen
Lun, and above it a five-span bridge of noble proportions. A busy
market was going on in the town; and a funeral, with the usual paper
horses and servants for burning at the grave, formed an additional
interest to the gay crowd. There were a number of picturesque
tribeswomen, looking as usual very sulky, and not mixing with the
Chinese. From afar we saw the lofty turrets of a Roman Catholic
Church, so we went to see what it was like. The architecture and
fittings were entirely Western, and we had no sooner entered the
church than the fine-looking old French priest came forward and
greeted us. He invited us into his room and we had an interesting,
long talk. He had been thirty-two years in China, but only two in this
district, and seemed very discouraged. I asked about the numbers of
converts, and he said there were about sixteen hundred, but added
dejectedly that they were not at all satisfactory. How hard it must be
to go on working under such circumstances, and with no hope of
return to his own country.
“Work without hope draws nectar in a sieve,

And hope without an object cannot live.”
Generally missionaries seem a wonderfully hopeful set of people,

even under very adverse circumstances, and we came to a most
cheerful group at Anshunfu, where we had a few days of welcome
rest in their hospitable house.
Anshun is a very pretty town, with its shady trees, its winding
waterways and handsome stone balustrades along them. On a
picturesque bridge were shrines, which made a subject to delight an
artist’s eye: indeed it was a continual trial to me to have so little time
for drawing when there was such a wealth of material. Facing the
house where we stayed was a temple transformed into a
government school, and it had an ornamental wall such as I had not
seen elsewhere. There were panels at intervals, about three and a
half feet from the ground, of various sizes, with open stucco work,
looking like designs from Æsop’s fables. They lent a great charm to
the garden, in which the wall seemed to be only of decorative value.
Throughout China the human figure and animals are used in all sorts
of architectural ways which would never occur to us. Anshun is
situated in a small plain, and a fine road leads to it with pailous
(memorial arches) at intervals. We walked across the fields one day
and climbed a neighbouring hill, surmounted by the usual temple;
from it there was a magnificent view of all the country round. A lurid
thunderstorm heightened the effect. There were oleanders in full
bloom in the courtyard, and the priests were polite and friendly,
bringing tea to us, while we waited for the storm to clear away.
“Lonely I stand
On the loneliest hill top.”
Page 98
There is a hospital at Anshun built by the Arthington Fund, but as

there is only one doctor attached to it, and he was away on furlough,
the place was closed. As it is the only hospital for hundreds of miles,
indeed there is only one other hospital in the province, for
11,300,000 people, this seemed a dreadful pity. The coming of my
doctor was quite an event, especially for a lady who badly needed
her advice. In the whole province there are only these two European
hospitals, as far as I heard, and no Chinese ones.
We made Anshunfu our starting-point for a trip into the
unfrequented mountains, where aboriginal tribes are to be found in
great numbers. No census can be taken of them, and it is only by
years of unremitting toil, in the face of continual danger, that
missionaries have succeeded in making friends with them. Mr.
Slichter, of the C.I.M., was our guide, and as soon as we left the city
we struck up a pathway into the hills to the north of it. After several
hours’ travelling we came to a river, which until recent years was the
boundary, beyond which no foreigner was allowed to go because of
the acute hostility felt by the tribes-people against all strangers. It
was a rapid, swirling river, lying in a deep narrow gorge, and we
were ferried across.
We climbed up a long hot ascent on the further side, and reached
a Keh-lao village,[23] where a fair was going on. The contrast was
extraordinary, quite as great as if we had gone from one European
country into another. It was only with difficulty, and because he was
known, that Mr. Slichter could persuade some one to boil water for
us, and then it was only very little, whereas in any Chinese village
you could get as much as you wanted. We spent about twelve hours
reaching our destination—a village perched up on a steep hill-side.
Seeing us from afar, a laughing group of Miao boys and girls came
running down the path to greet us, looking a most picturesque group
in their red, white and blue clothes.
In another chapter I shall try and give a detailed account of these
people, so will for the present only say a little about the country.
From the top of the crag on which the village of Ten-ten is situated
there may be counted fourteen ranges stretching away into the far
distance, and in such hollows as are practicable for agriculture,
wheat, poppy, rice and hemp are grown. There are most curious
trees, which we saw for the first time, called Rhus vernicifera, from
which varnish is obtained. They are plentiful in the district, and
itinerant tappers come round from time to time to hire their services
to the owners, for the varnish is a valuable crop, but must be
carefully handled. It is most poisonous, and people even lose their
lives by handling it carelessly. We found Mrs. Slichter at Ten-ten; she
had been seriously ill as the result of using a branch of the tree for a
walking-stick. The varnish causes terrible pains in the head, loss of
sight for several days, and an eruption of the hands rendering them
useless for a time.
The first Miao church was built at Ten-ten, and would hardly be
recognized as such, I fear, by the orthodox: it looked like a cross
between a goods shed and a hall, with a ladder at each end leading
to a couple of rooms to accommodate visitors. The only clerical
detail was a pulpit, but close beside it was a cooking-stove, and in
vain I protested that our meals were not to be prepared while service
was going on. The people seemed to find it quite natural, and when
Yao was not too concerned in his cooking he lent an interested ear
to what was being said. One thing was clear, and that was that the
congregation was thoroughly in earnest, and gave undivided
attention to the service. It meant so much to them and especially to
the women, who took part in the prayer-meeting quite simply and
fervently. On the Sunday morning we were about one hundred
people, who attended a baptismal service, which was performed in a
dammed-up stream in the ricefields. It was extraordinarily
picturesque to see the Miao in their short full-kilted skirts, trooping
down the zigzag path to the spot, where twenty-five received
baptism. They have names given them, as many, if not most of them,
have none.
After spending a few days at Ten-ten we continued our journey
northwards, but were somewhat tried by the difficulty of getting any
guide. One of the tribes-people took us a certain distance across the
mountains, but the path was not only steep and rough, but the lanes
were so narrow and thorny that we thought our chairs would be torn
to pieces, and our clothes to ribbons: the thorns and brambles
overhanging the path made it difficult to get the chairs along. We
found it decidedly preferable to walk, and enjoyed the glorious
scenery up hill and down dale, the air laden with the scent of roses
and sweetbrier, and the hill-sides carpeted with mauve-coloured
orchids and primulas.
We soon lost our way, and there was no one to be seen in all the
wide landscape to set us right. We wandered on for hours till we
came to a tiny hamlet, where we found a pottery in full swing. With
much persuasion and the promise of a good tip, we barely
succeeded in coaxing a boy to show us the way to the village of I-
mei, where we proposed spending the night. We set off again in
more cheerful mood, but alas! for our hopes: after about two hours
the lad admitted that he didn’t know the way. We wandered on down
a tiny valley, watered by a charming stream, where countless
wagtails and other little birds beguiled us by their chatter. As we
emerged from the valley into some fields the lad suggested this must
be I-mei, but when we asked some women at work in the fields they
said “Oh no! it is far away.” They went on to tell us that if we
succeeded in reaching it that night, we should probably find no
accommodation. There was a comfortable-looking farm-house within
sight, and they thought we might get put up there, so we sent to
inquire. They were friendly folk, who were willing to vacate a room
for us and to lodge the rest of the party somewhere; so we were
quite pleased to have this new experience. I had never slept in a
Chinese farm-house before, and in point of fact we did not get a
great deal of sleep, as the partitions were thin and there was plenty
of animal life, both large and small, to share the building, all living on
the most intimate terms with the owners. A cat was very put out
about it, and hurried to and fro in our room in the middle of the night.
We tried to shoo her away, and then heard a reproachful voice from
the other side of the partition calling gently “Mimi, Mimi!” upon which
the pussy-cat quickly sidled away to her master.
Next day we were up betimes, and our host said his white-haired
brother would act as our guide. These two old gentlemen still wore
attenuated queues, almost the only ones we saw on the journey. We
found the whole family kind and interested in their visitors. I feel sure
no other Europeans had ever visited the little valley. We gave the
lady a piece of soap, evidently quite a novelty to her: it seems
strange to have to explain the use of such a thing. But this province
has curious natural resources in the way of soap. One tree, the
Sapindus mukorossi, has round fruit, which have only to be shaken
in water to make it quite soapy, and the pods of the Gleditschia
sinensis are to be found for sale in most of the markets: they are
used in washing clothes. European firms have started the soap
industry in China, and there is certainly a good opening for the trade.
We had a long climb up a lovely mountain pass, well named in
Chinese “Climbing to the Heavens,” and came across magnolia and
other delicious shrubs. After a stage of about fourteen miles we
reached the town of Pingüan, and stayed there till next day, as it was
such a pleasant, clean-looking place. Our room had varnished walls
—quite a novelty—and small panes of glass among the paper ones.
We had a larger crowd of interested spectators than usual, but at
intervals Yao came out like a whirlwind and scattered the chaff. Our
hostess brought us a bunch of camellias and peonies as an excuse
for consulting the doctor about her cough!
We left Pingüan early next morning, and facing the gateway by
which we went out was a typical bit of landscape—in the foreground
a bridge leading to a little poppy-covered plain, out of the centre of
which rose a steep rock crowned with a pagoda and a temple. At the
foot of the rock were several shrines. It seemed impossible for the
Chinese to miss making use of any such natural feature of the
landscape for a religious purpose in past days; though now the
shrines are so neglected, except under the stress of plague, famine
or rapine, which incites the worshippers to devotion. The crops in
this district were entirely opium poppy.
At our next halting-place, Ch’a-tien, we had to put up with
miserable quarters: our tiny room looked on to the street, so that we
had a large and interested audience all the time; they lined up on the
window-sill across the road, a good point of vantage, while the small
fry discovered quite a unique point of observation. There was a
hiatus at the bottom of the woodwork of the wall about a yard long
and six inches deep, so by lying with their faces flat on the ground
and close to the opening they could get a fair view of our doings. The
row of bright eyes and gleaming teeth was quite uncanny. Our
thermometer registered 66°, so we felt it rather stuffy with every
breath of air excluded.
During the day we had passed most attractive newly-built houses
in lath and plaster. They had small oval windows in the gable ends
with simple but effective designs in them. The contrast was very
striking with the other villages in this district, where the inhabitants
wore the filthiest-looking rags I have ever seen, and had a most
degraded look.
At the entrance to every village is at least one little shrine, which
generally has a god and goddess sitting side by side in it; but in this
neighbourhood we noticed a good many shrines without images.
They had inscriptions instead, such as “The only true God, from
ancient to present times.” They looked very neglected as a rule, and
hardly ever did we see a newly-erected one.
Our next inn at Ch’a Tsang had a highly decorated wall about
eighteen feet high, facing the chief guest-rooms. There was a large
parti-coloured mosaic made out of broken crockery at the top, below
which were two hares rampant in stucco, supporting a shield
between them; they were flanked by ornamental plants in pots. It
was interesting to find so elaborate a decoration in so humble an inn,
but that is one of the charming surprises on the road, even in the by-
ways of China.
Ta-ting was our next important stopping-place, as word had been
sent to the mission there, requesting them to summon as many
tribes-people as possible to meet us. It is the centre of work among
them, and there is a flourishing boys’ school and also a training
school for evangelists. The whole school had turned out in our
honour, and made a gay show on the hill-side, waving boughs of
crimson rhododendrons, which contrasted with their bright blue
gowns. They had come by a winding road two or three miles outside
the city wall, headed by one of the ladies on horseback: the welcome
was as picturesque as it was cordial, and they had learned an
English greeting for us, which they gave in great style, as soon as
we got out of our chairs. Then they turned back, and we brought up
the rear of their procession in single file, passing through a fine
gateway before we reached the entrance to the city.
Ta-ting is a Chinese town, although it is in the centre of a district
full of tribes-people, with whom they have always been in conflict. A
mission station was opened there many years ago especially for
work amongst the aborigines, and at the present time is manned by
four German ladies, of whom two were on furlough at the time of our
visit. When the order came from the Chinese Government that all
Germans were to leave the country, as China was joining the Allies,
the magistrate of Ta-ting begged that these ladies be allowed to
remain, as there had been so much less trouble with the tribesmen
since they had come under their influence. This request was
granted, and I take this opportunity of stating my firm conviction that
the direct result of mission work is to bring these warring races into
friendly relations with one another and with the Chinese. The
Chinese despise them on account of their illiteracy and low morality,
and both these objections are changed by Christian teaching.
We spent a few days very happily at Ta-ting, but it was long
enough to see how isolated a life the missionaries must lead, and
under most trying climatic conditions. The city lies in a hollow
surrounded by mountains at an altitude of 5,100 feet, continually
shrouded in mist. The sun is only visible one day in four all the year
round, and then perhaps only for a few minutes. We did not see the
complete outline of the mountains while we were there, and we were
constantly reminded of Scotch mists, rolling up for a few moments
and then obliterating everything again. This was the only place
where we heard so dismal a report of the weather.
Some Chinese ladies came to call on us and brought us charming
embroidered spectacle-cases and puffed rice as gifts, but practically
all our time was devoted to studying the aborigines and hearing
about them. They were extraordinarily friendly, and one old hunch-
back, who came from a village more than thirty miles away, had
brought two fine fowls as gifts to the ladies and ourselves. I
presented her with a woollen jacket, as the people suffer much from
the cold, and when she next came to service on a broiling August
day she was still wearing it with great pride!
I should like to have spent months making studies of these people,
and tried in vain to make notes of all the details possible of such

Interplay The Process of Interpersonal Communication 14Th Edition Ronald B Adler Full Chapter

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Interplay: The Process of Interpersonal

Communication 14th Edition Ronald B.

New York • Oxford

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

For titles covered by Section 112 of the US Higher Education

You must not circulate this work in any other form

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Adler, Ronald B. (Ronald Brian), 1946– author. |

PART 1 FOUNDATIONS OF INTERPERSONAL

CREATING AND RESPONDING TO

PART 3 DIMENSIONS OF INTERPERSONAL

2 Culture and Interpersonal Communication 37

FEATURES Interpersonal and Intercultural Dimensions

Developing Intercultural Communication

3 Interpersonal Communication and the Self 69

FEATURES Presenting the Self 77

4 Perceiving Others 103

PART 2 CREATING AND RESPONDING TO MESSAGES

6 Nonverbal Communication 165

Characteristics of Nonverbal Communication 167

FOCUS ON RESEARCH: Nonverbal Concealing/Deceiving 175

7 Listening: Receiving and Responding 195

The Challenge of Listening 202

10 Communication in Close Relationships: Friends,

MEDIA CLIP: Voluntary Families: Communication in Romantic Relationships 311

11 Managing Conflict 323

Conflict Management in Practice 344

12 Communication Climate 353

How Communication Climates Develop 355

AT WORK: Taking the High Road:

NEW IN THIS EDITION

• Watch and Discuss is a new feature in this edition. These thumbnail

• Chapter 1 includes two new topics: masspersonal communication—

DIGITAL AND PRINT ANCILLARY

website, in the course cartridges for your learning management system,

Manual includes teaching strategies, course outlines, plentiful in-

Julie Allee Chantele S. Carr Daniel Johnson

Marie Arcidiacono Audrey Deterding Shyla Lefever

Craig Parmley Narissra Punyanunt-Carter Heidi Schara

Karri Pearson Leighann Rechtin Lindsay Timmerman

Interplay continues to benefit from the contributions of these colleagues

Marcanne Andersen Darlene J. Geiger Tim Moreland

Angie M. S. Anderson Debra Gonsher Mark Morman

Aurora Auter Em Griffin Kelly Morrison

Nancy Bandiera Lowell Habel Johance F. Murray

Sharon Beal Gail Hankins Noreen Mysyk

Renee Strom Judith Vogel Michael Wittig

Dennis Sutton Emanuelle Wessels Gordon Young

Our thanks to Rachel Reznik (Elmhurst College) and Jessica Kratzer

ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Lawrence B. Rosenfeld is Professor Emeritus of Communication at The Uni-

Russell F. Proctor II is Professor Emeritus of Communication at ­Northern

1.1 Recognize the needs that communication Why We Communicate 4

Contemporary researchers have found less barbaric ways to investigate

correspondent Terry Anderson said point-blank,

Communication isn’t a necessity just for prisoners of war. Evidence

• People with strong relationships have sig-

Contemporary accounts support the

Despite knowing that communication is crucial to social satisfaction,

@work Communication and Career Advancement

we are worthwhile, valuable people. The final category of needs involves

THE COMMUNICATION PROCESS

EARLY MODELS OF COMMUNICATION

FEATURES Interpersonal and Intercultural Dimensions

Russell F. Proctor II is Professor Emeritus of Communication at Northern

• People with strong relationships have sig-