Technological University of the Philippines

Ayala Boulevard, Ermita, Manila

College of Engineering
Electrical Engineering

ASSIGNMENT NO.: 1

ACEE5-M
Electronic Circuits: Devices and Analysis

Submitted By:
Alvarez, Anthony Joseph F.
BSEE 2-A

Date Submitted:
October 13,2022

INSTRUCTOR:
Engr. Cheerjoy M. Curitana, RME, REE

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 1

Name: Alvarez, Anthony Joseph F. Instructor: Engr. Cheerjoy M. Curitana
Course/Year/Section: BSEE – 2A Date: October 13.2022

DIODE CIRCUITS
What is Diode?
- A diode is a two-terminal electronic component that conducts electricity primarily in
one direction. It has high resistance on one end and low resistance on the other end. In this
article, let us understand in detail about what is diode and diode symbol. Diodes are used to
protect circuits by limiting the voltage and to also transform AC into DC. Semiconductors like
silicon and germanium are used to make the most of the diodes. Even though they transmit
current in a single direction, the way with which they transmit differs. There are different kinds
of diodes, and each type has its own applications.

A standard diode symbol is represented as above. In the above diagram, we can see that there
are two terminals that are known as anode and cathode. The arrowhead is the anode that
represents the direction of the conventional current flow in the forward biased condition. The
other end is the cathode.

DIODE CIRCUITS ANALYSIS

The load line analysis is the first option you have, however it is one that we don't advise. And in
order to do so, you physically take the diode that you'll be utilizing in the circuit into a lab, apply
a voltage to it, and measure the current flowing through it. As the voltage is raised, a graph is
made to precisely depict the current flowing across the diode at a certain voltage. This graph is
then used in the actual circuit to solve problems and rearrange components. Additionally, 1)
obtaining the data is extremely difficult, and 2) using it afterwards is still quite difficult. You
know, it might be essential or probably won't be depending on what you're doing.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 2

The option is actually to create a mathematical model. With the help of this mathematical
model, you can see that a lot of other things are there after the voltage drop across the diode
on the left side of the equation. R is the resistance of the resistor that is connected in series
with the diode, and VS is the source voltage across the diode. Then there is your IS, which is the
current flowing through the resistor and diode. However, you also see another VD, or second
voltage drop, on the right side of the equation.

Diodes make circuit analysis more difficult because they have a nonlinear current–voltage
characteristic. In other words, a diode doesn’t have a single numerical value that captures the
mathematical relationship between current and voltage.
With a resistor, this single numerical value is the resistance, and consequently when we plot a
resistor’s relationship between current and voltage, we obtain a straight line. With a typical
silicon diode, on the other hand, a plot of the nonlinear I–V relationship looks like the
exponential curve shown below.

DIODE MODELS

 For circuit analysis and calculation of different parameters of diodes, mathematic expressions
are formed called diode models in electronics.
 As we know V-I curve of a diode is not linear for the understanding of practical behavior of diode
simple circuits model of diode needed.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 3

  In today’s post, we will discuss the diode models for ideal and practical diode and compare them
with the detailed.

DIODE BIAS CONNECTION

Diode Forward-Bias
 In the given figure, the circuit denoted as (a) shown the forward biasing of a diode.
 In this circuit, you can see that anode of the diode is connected with the positive terminal of the
battery and negative terminal of a battery with the cathode of the diode.
 The resistance between anode and battery is used to limit the current to save value.

 (IF) is the forward current flowing through cathode to anode and VF is the forward voltage drop
across the diode is equal to the potential barrier of a diode.
Diode Reverse-Bias Connection
 In the above figure, the circuit denoted as (b) shows the reverse-biased connection of diode.
 In this circuit positive terminal of a battery is connected with the cathode of diode and negative
terminal is connected with the anode.
 The reverse-biased current is very less and can be neglected and there is no need of limiting
resistance in reverse biasing.
 In-circuit you can see that all Vbise or applied voltage is shown across the diode.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 4

IDEAL DIODE MODEL
 In the given figure, the two circuits are shown first discuss the forward biasing ideal diode
model and second in reverse biasing ideal diode model.

 You can see in forward biased condition diode is behave like a closed switch and reveres
biased like an open switch.
 In ideal condition the potential barrier, dynamic resistance in forward biasing and reverse
current is ignored.
 This model is inadequate for troubleshooting when you are trying to define if the diode is
functioning correctly.
 in given figure V-I characteristics of an ideal diode is shown.

 As the dynamic resistance and potential barrier are ignored so the voltage across the diode is
zero in forward biasing.
 In forward bias, the curve of an ideal diode is shown on the vertical Y-axis in blue color.
VF =0
 The value of forward current (IF) across the diode can be found by using the value of limiting
resistance and biased voltage using Ohm’s Law.
IF =VBIAS /RLIMIT
 As reverses current is ignored in an ideal diode and its value supposed to be ‘0’. It is shown in
the V-I curve on negative axis.
IR=0A
 The value of reverse voltage is equal to the biased voltage.

COMPLETE DIODE MODEL

 Now we discuss the complete model of diode that has potential barriers and dynamic
forward resistance.
 With these 2 parameters, this complete model also has high value interior reverse
resistance.
 In this model, the reason of reverse resistance inclusion is that this resistance provides a
path for the reverse current movement.
 In the given figure, two circuits are shown for a complete model of a diode. The circuit
denoted as (a) shown the complete model for forward bias and circuit denoted as
(b) describe the reverse-biased complete model.
 In forward bias, condition diode is like a closed switch having a potential barrier (VB)
and less value forward dynamic resistance.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 5

  While in reverse biased condition diode is operating like open circuit switch and has
reverse interior resistance in parallel.
 In reverse biasing potential barrier is not included as it does not have any effect in this
biasing.
 The V-I curve for a complete model of a diode is shown in a given figure.
 During forward biasing as a potential barrier and dynamic resistance is included so there
is (VF) forward voltage across diode exits.
 The voltage (VF) will be equal to the sum of potential barrier voltage and the voltage
drop across dynamic resistance. This voltage is shown on the positive X-axis in the curve.
 The graph in forward bias is like a slop due to increment in a voltage drop across the
dynamic resistance with the increase in current.
 The given below mathematical expression is for a complete model of a silicon diode.
 VF = 0.7 V + IFr’d
 IF = (VBIAS – 0.7 V)/(RLIMIT + r’d)
 During reverse biasing reverse current IR taken into consideration and shown on the
negative X-axis of the curve.
 On this curve breakdown region of the diode is not shown as it does not save the
operation region for some diodes.
 Due to the complex calculations completer model is not suitable for troubleshooting of
diode.
 The complete model can be used when the computer is used to solve complicated
calculations.

AC EQUIVALENT CIRCUITS OF SEMICONDUCTOR DIODE:

- Junction Capacitances – The depletion region of a pn-junction is a layer depleted of
charge carriers situated between two blocks of low resistance material. Because this is the
description of a capacitor, the depletion region clearly has a capacitance. The depletion layer
capacitance (Cpn) may be calculated from the equation for a parallel-plate capacitor if the
junction dimensions are known. Typically, Cpn is 4 pF for a low-current diode. he depletion
layer capacitance is essentially the capacitance of a reverse-biased pn-junction, [Fig. 2-18(a)].
Consider the forward-biased junction in Fig. 2-18(b). If the applied voltage is suddenly reversed,
forward current IF ceases immediately leaving some majority charge carriers in the depletion
region. These charge carriers must flow back out of the depletion region, which is widened
when the junction is reverse biased. The result is that, when a forward-biased junction is
suddenly reversed, a reverse current flows which is large initially and slowly decreases to the
level of the reverse saturation current. The effect may be likened to the discharging of a
capacitor, and so it is represented by a capacitance known as the diffusion capacitance (Cd).

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 6

OTHER DIODE TYPES:
1. SOLAR CELL
Semiconductor solar cells use light from the
sun to generate electricity. They go through
the same manufacturing and processing
steps as computer memory chips. The main
component of solar cells is silicon, which
absorbs the photons that the sun's beams
emit. The method was first identified in
1839. To connect each solar cell to the next,
silicon wafers are doped, and electrical
connections are installed. The final silicon
disks are coated with an anti-reflective
material. Sunlight loss is prevented by this
covering. After that, the solar cells are enclosed and mounted in an aluminum frame. To
achieve quality control throughout time, the process needs to be continuously monitored. They
go through a final test after the production process is finished to determine their effectiveness
under typical situations.
Solar cells provide more energy than other conventional sources with an additional advantage
of being light weight and cost effective. Developing cheaper alternatives to solar cells such as
amorphous silicon and polycrystalline silicon are also in the pipeline. Current research reveals
that in order to increase the amount of sunlight effectively used and focusing it, prismatic
lenses and layers of different materials could also be used.
2. PHOTODIODE
It is a form of light sensor that converts light energy into electrical energy (voltage or current).
Photodiode is a type of semi conducting device with PN junction. Between the p (positive) and
n (negative) layers, an intrinsic layer is present. The photo diode accepts light energy as input to
generate electric current. It is also called as Photodetector, Photo Sensor or Light Detector.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 7

Photodiode operates in reverse bias condition i.e., the p – side of the photodiode is connected
with negative terminal of battery (or the power supply) and n – side to the positive terminal of
battery. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium, Indium Gallium Arsenide
Phosphide and Indium gallium arsenide. Internally, a photodiode has optical filters, built in lens
and a surface area. When surface area of photodiode increases, it results in less response time.
Few photo diodes will look like Light Emitting Diode (LED). It has two terminals as shown below.
The smaller terminal acts as cathode and longer terminal acts as anode.

WORKING OF A PHOTODIODE

Generally, when a light is made to illuminate the PN junction, covalent bonds are ionized. This
generates hole and electron pairs. Photocurrents are produced due to generation of electron-hole
pairs. Electron hole pairs are formed when photons of energy more than 1.1eV hits the diode.
When the photon enters the depletion region of diode, it hits the atom with high energy. This
results in release of electron from atom structure. After the electron release, free electrons and
hole are produced.

3. LIGHT-EMITTING DIODE
- LEDs are a type of semiconductor called "Light Emitting Diode". White LEDs, which have
achieved practical realization through the use of high-brightness blue LEDs developed in 1993
based on Gallium Nitride, are attracting increased attention as a 4th type of light source.

How do LEDs Emit Light?

LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) are semiconductor light

sources that combine a P-type semiconductor (larger
hole concentration) with an N-type semiconductor

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 8

(larger electron concentration). Applying a sufficient forward voltage will cause the electrons
and holes to recombine at the P-N junction, releasing energy in the form of light.
Compared with conventional light sources that first convert electrical energy into heat, and then
into light, LEDs (Light Emitting Diodes) convert electrical energy directly into light, delivering
efficient light generation with little-wasted electricity.

Wavelength and Color

4. SCHOTTKY BARRIER DIODE

- The Schottky diode or Schottky Barrier diode is used in a variety of circuits where its
parameters and performance enable it to provide enhanced performance over other types of
diode. The Schottky diode was one of the first types of diode ever made where it was used in
the form of the Cat's Whisker rectifier for crystal radio sets in the early 1900s. Now the diode
has been developed and considerably more advanced forms are used in many areas of
electronic circuit design where its properties can be used to great effect. The Schottky diode
offers many important features including very low forward voltage drop, very fast recovery
times and the like. As a result the diode is used in many different types of electronic circuit
design from RF detector diodes to power rectification. and much more.

5. ZENER DIODE
A Zener diode not only allows current to flow from anode to cathode but also, in the reverse direction
on reaching the Zener voltage. Due to this functionality, Zener diodes are the most commonly used
semiconductor diodes. In this article, let us learn the function of Zener diodes along with its
construction, operation and more.  Zener Diode, also known as a breakdown diode, is a heavily
doped semiconductor device that is designed to operate in the reverse direction. When the voltage
across the terminals of a Zener diode is reversed and the potential reaches the Zener Voltage (knee
voltage), the junction breaks down and the current flows in the reverse direction. This effect is
known as the Zener Effect.

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 9

REFERENCES:
https://byjus.com/physics/diodes/

https://www.theengineeringknowledge.com/diode-models/

https://www.eeeguide.com/ac-equivalent-circuit-of-semiconductor-diode/

https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/chemistry/solar-cell

https://www.electronicshub.org/photodiode-working-characteristics-applications/

https://www.rohm.com/electronics-basics/leds/what-are-leds

https://www.electronics-notes.com/articles/electronic_components/diode/schottky-barrier-

diode.php

https://byjus.com/physics/zener-diode/#zener-diode-definition

ACEE5-M – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS: DEVICES AND ANALYSIS 10