Lecture

08 Single Degree of Freedom Forced Vibration

(Practical Application)

Chapter outline

This lecture deals with the response of the single degree of freedom damped systems
under the harmonic motion of base and the ideas of displacement transmissibility
and force transmissibility are introduced. The response of a damped system under
rotating unbalance is also introduced.

Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, the reader should be able to do the following:

• Find the response of viscously damped single degree of freedom systems
subjected to base excitation and rotating unbalance.

INTRODUCTION

There are many applications of the theory developed for harmonic excitation. These
include the problems of base excitation, excitation due to rotating unbalance, and
the modeling of vibration measurement devices

Harmonic Base Excitation

In base excitation problems, the forcing applied to a structure or machine is through
its foundation or support. Base excitation problems have many real-world
applications. These include the vibration of structures on foundations (such as in
earthquake engineering, where the loading is through the base), the response of
an automobile to road irregularities, and the interaction between a machine and
its support. We make the assumption here that the excitation is harmonic,
providing us with some of the key characteristics of base-excited systems.



Fig. 8.1 A schematic of a spring-mass-damper system for a base–excited system and its free–
body diagram

The design engineer needs to determine the displacement 𝑥(𝑡) as well as the force
exerted by the base on the system. Consider the idealized model in Fig. 8.1 of a
structure connected to a base. The structure and the base are connected with
stiffness and damping elements. We are interested in how the structure responds.
From the free-body diagram, Newton’s second law of motion can be written as

𝑚𝑥 = −𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑦 − 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑦

Or

𝑚𝑥 + 𝑐𝑥 + 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑐𝑦 + 𝑘𝑦

Note: We choose relative velocity and relative displacement as

𝑥 − 𝑦 
and 𝑥 − 𝑦 because it is the motion of mass 𝑚 that is of
interest, and how the damping and stiffness forces, 𝑐𝑥 and 𝑘𝑥,
respectively, are altered by the motion of the base through 𝑦 and ̇ 𝑦.

The base excitation is modeled by 𝑦 𝑡 = 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡 . Substituting, the resulting
equation of motion is

𝑥 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑥 + 𝜔56 𝑥 = 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝑌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝜔56 𝑌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡 8-1

To solve for the steady-state response, we proceed as we did for the general solution
of a damped system with harmonic excitation. To simplify the algebra, let the
right-hand side of Equation 8-1 be written as 𝐴9 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝐴6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡, where 𝐴9 =
2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝑌 and 𝐴6 = 𝜔56 𝑌. Assuming a steady-state response of the form

𝑥: 𝑡 = 𝐵9 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝐵6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡 8-2

and differentiating and substituting into Equation 8-1, we find

−𝜔26 𝐵9 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝐵6 + 𝜔56 𝐵9 cos 𝜔2 𝑡 +

−𝜔26 𝐵6 − 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝐵9 + 𝜔56 𝐵6 sin 𝜔2 𝑡 = 𝐴9 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑡 + 𝐴6 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡
Equating coefficients of cosine and sine terms, respectively, we have

−𝜔26 𝐵9 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝐵6 + 𝜔56 𝐵9 = 𝐴9 8-3

−𝜔26 𝐵6 − 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 𝐵9 + 𝜔56 𝐵6 = 𝐴6 8-4

Solving for 𝐵9 and 𝐵6 yields

−2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2A
𝐵9 = 𝑌
𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6

𝜔56 𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6

𝐵6 = 𝑌,
𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6

which can be substituted into Equation 8-2 to give the steady-state response.

Following the derivation of Equations 7-5 and 7-6, we write

−2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2A
𝑥: 𝑡 = 𝑌 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜔2 𝑡
𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6
𝜔56 𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6
+ 𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡
𝜔56 − 𝜔26 6 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝜔2 6

𝑥: 𝑡 = 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝜃 8-5

since the input displacement is given in terms of a sine function, that is,𝑦 𝑡 =
𝑌 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔2 𝑡, where

𝑋= 𝐵96 + 𝐵66

𝐵9
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛F9 −
𝐵6

The angle 𝜃 must be chosen so that it is in the correct quadrant. Carrying out the
algebra, we can find the ratio of the displacement amplitude to the base excitation
amplitude, 𝑋 𝑌,

9 6
𝑋 1 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6 8-6
=
𝑌 1 − 𝜔26 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6

This ratio is called the displacement transmissibility and is plotted in Fig. 8.2.
The corresponding phase lag is plotted in Fig. 8.3.



Fig. 8.2 Base excitation displacement transmissibility 𝑿 𝒀 as a function 𝝎𝒃 𝝎𝒏
for various values of 𝜻. For the frequency range 𝟎 ≤ 𝝎𝒃 𝝎𝒏 ≤ 𝟐, smaller
damping results in larger transmissibility values, that is, a larger response.

Fig. 8.3 Base excitation phase lag 𝜽 as a function 𝝎𝒃 𝝎𝒏 for various values of
𝜻.
It is instructive to compare this result with Equation 7-7 for the magnification
factor 𝛽. Here there is a second term in the numerator due to the base loading
that is carried through the damper. The 1 in the numerator is due to the loading
that is carried through the spring.

Fig.8.2 shows that 𝑋 = 𝑌 at 𝜔2 𝜔5 = 0 and 𝜔2 𝜔5 = 2. The curves intersect at

these two points, regardless of the value of 𝜁. A key phenomenon of base- excited
systems is that for the frequency ratio range 0 ≤ 𝜔2 𝜔5 ≤ 2, a decrease in
damping results in an increase in transmissibility, that is, less damping leads to a
larger response amplitude. On the other hand, for 𝜔2 𝜔5 > 2, smaller amplitudes
of response occur for smaller damping, which is counterintuitive.

It is important to isolate the vibration and motion of a vibrating machine from its
foundation, and vice versa. The term transmissibility is used as a measure of the
motion isolation achieved.

An effective strategy for vibration isolation so that 𝑋 ≪ 𝑌 is to operate far above
the natural frequency. For example, consider the design of sensitive equipment to
be used in a room exposed to vibration due to foot traffic. By making the natural
frequency of sensitive equipment low, one can make the equipment fairly immune
to vibration. In particular, if the equipment mass is high and the support stiffness
is low so that the combination gives a natural frequency below 2 Hz, then it will
be reasonably protected from most vibration generated by walking or dancing, since
these occur at frequencies above 20 Hz. If the ratio 𝜔2 𝜔5 = 10, then 𝑋 𝑌 =
0.0416 for 𝜁 = 0.2 , 𝑋 𝑌 = 0.101 for 𝜁 = 0.5 , and 𝑋 𝑌 = 0.140 for 𝜁 = 0.7.

The other situation is one in which we wish the displacement of the mass (of the
machine or suspended part) to track the input, that is, we seek 𝑋 = 𝑌. This can
be accomplished if the various components are made very stiff. The natural
frequencies are then very high compared to the input frequencies of expected
operation, meaning 𝜔2 𝜔5 ≪ 1. As a result, the desired tracking can be achieved
without the need for modifying the input function to compensate for lag or
overshoot.

Next, we consider the force transmitted by the base excitation to the system using
the equation 𝐹\]^5:_`\ 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑦 , which is the equal-and-opposite
force on the body. From Newton’s second law of motion, this force is equivalent
to −𝑚𝑥.

𝐹\]^5:_`\ 𝑡 = 𝑐 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑘 𝑥 − 𝑦 = −𝑚𝑥

Differentiating Equation 8-5 twice and substituting into the term leads to −𝑚𝑥
the expression for the transmitted force.

𝐹\]^5:_`\ 𝑡 = 𝑚𝜔26 𝑋 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝜃 = 𝐹a 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔2 𝑡 − 𝜃

also
 9 6
1 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6
𝑋=𝑌
1 − 𝜔26 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6

9 6
6 6
1 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6
𝐹a = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑋 = 𝑚𝜔2 𝑌
1 − 𝜔26 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6

Rewriting 𝑚𝜔26 𝑌 as 𝑘𝑌 𝜔2 𝜔5 6 the magnitude of the transmitted force is

9 6
𝜔2 6 1 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6
𝐹a = 𝑘𝑌
𝜔5 1 − 𝜔26 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6
9 6 8-7
𝐹a 𝜔2 6 1 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6
=
𝑘𝑌 𝜔5 1 − 𝜔26 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁 𝜔2 𝜔5 6

The ratio is a dimensionless parameter called the force transmissibility. It is the

ratio of the magnitude of the transmitted force to the magnitude of the stiffness
force imparted at the base. It represents the relative magnitude of force that is
transmitted from the base to the structure.

When Equation 8-7 is plotted in the same way as was Equation 8-6 in Fig. 8.2,
we find the same qualitative result. That is, for 𝜔2 𝜔5 < 2, less damping results
in larger transmitted forces, as expected. But for 𝜔2 𝜔5 > 2, less damping results
in smaller transmitted forces, again a counterintuitive result. For 𝜔2 𝜔5 > 2,
the transmitted force increases dramatically with frequency ratio.

Fig. 8.4 Variation of the force transmitted to the base as a function 𝝎𝒃 𝝎𝒏 for
various values of 𝜻.
Example: Machine-Induced Base Excitation

A machine imparts a motion of 𝑦 𝑡 = 0.5 sin 𝜔2 𝑡 cm to the floor. Estimate the
peak force that would be experienced by a 6000 kg compressor that needs to be
placed adjacent to the machine. The compressor is connected to the floor via a mat
that has stiffness 𝑘 = 80 000 N/m and damping 1000 𝑁 − 𝑠/𝑚.

Solution:

The peak force occurs at approximately 𝜔2 = 𝜔5 , thus simplifying the equation for
force transmissibility to

6 9 6
𝐹a 1 + 2𝜁
≅
𝑘𝑌 2𝜁 6

The magnitude of the transmitted force is then given by the simplified relation

𝑘𝑌
𝐹a ≅ 1 + 4𝜁 6 9 6

2𝜁

with 𝜁 given by

𝑐 1000
𝜁= = = 0.023

2 𝑘𝑚 2 8000×6000
and 𝑌 = 0.005 𝑚. The transmitted force is then

1000 0.005 6 9 6
𝐹a ≅ 1 + 4 0.023 = 8 705 𝑁
2 0.023

Note: Since 𝜁 is very small, the assumption that the peak force occurs at is
valid.

We note that the transmitted force is approximately 15 % of the weight of the
compressor, given by 6000 × 9.81 = 58 860 𝑁. If this peak force is too large, the
design of the compressor mat must be changed and the force recalculated.
Otherwise, it may be necessary to stiffen the floor upon which all machines sit.

Rotating Unbalance

Unbalanced centrifugal forces — forces that try to pull apart a rotating structure
— are due to imperfections in the manufacture of rotating machines. Imperfections
can be taken to be heavier spots at a location on the machine. Their size and
locations are a function of the distribution of imperfections. There may be a number
of mass variabilities distributed at different locations.

If there is an unbalanced mass, it can create unwanted stresses that will grow with
higher rotating speed, resulting in fatigue or cracking, and eventual failure. The
speed at which this occurs is called the burst speed. The design of rotors incorporates
a factor of safety of between 4 and 10 for the maximum safe speed. That is, the
allowable speed is between 1/10 and 1/4 of the burst speed.

The unbalanced force will distort the rotor and will eventually couple the rotor
motion to the stationary structure that supports it. The rotating device is coupled
to the stationary support structure via a bearing. The bearing heats up in the
process of transmitting the unbalanced force to the stationary structure.

A large and heavy rotor is relatively insensitive to unbalance due to its large
inertia. Light, high-speed rotors are more susceptible and typically need
rebalancing more often. While unbalance is generally a radial phenomenon, certain
rotors will couple this radial force into the axial direction (due to the way they are
mounted giving rise to thrust loads). Bearings not designed for thrust loads do not
tolerate axial forces well.

Roller-element bearings are the main casualty of unbalance. They have small axial
and radial clearances and unbalanced eccentricity presses the bearings through the
surrounding grease and oil against mating surfaces. Large stresses result due to the
small contact area. This leads to fatigue damage, cracking, and spalling. To avoid
this, compliant bearings are sometimes used.

The design of the support structure of the machine must account for its vibratory
motion. If the support structure is rigidly fixed to the foundation, then it will
vibrate less but have to withstand larger forces and stresses. On the other hand,
if the support structure is supported on a compliant or soft foundation, then it will
have to resist lower forces and stresses but oscillate more. We see the trade-off
here in the design, that is, making one adjustment for a positive benefit can result
in a negative effect as well.

If the oscillations become large, then the behavior becomes nonlinear and the system
can generate frequencies that were not in the original system. They too can cause
damage.

Excitation due to Rotating Unbalance

As discussed, for rotating machinery, such as turbines and generators,
imperfections in component geometry and irregularities in mass distribution create
dynamic rotating unbalances. These result in an effective harmonic load on the
structure at the frequency of the rotating component.

(a) Full system (b) Simplified model

Fig. 8.5 Rotating unbalance. The system has a total mass comprised of a block of
mass 𝒎 − 𝒎𝟎 and a rotating part of mass 𝒎𝟎 Figure (a) shows the rotating
machine and (b) the simplified model.

An example of this effect is an automobile tire that must be balanced to avoid

developing periodic forces. The balancing is performed on a special machine that
rotates the tire at high speed and determines the magnitude and location of any
“deficit mass.” At these locations, small lead masses of appropriate weights are
attached by a mechanic. This process is repeated until the tire is balanced (within
a tolerance). Tires require rebalancing because of uneven wear. Similar but much
more intricate considerations are part of internal combustion engine design.

To perform a simple analysis of an unbalanced machine based on our understanding
of harmonically loaded structures, we replace the imperfection by an eccentrically
rotating mass that has an equivalent effect. Thus, the unbalance in the idealized
model is due to a mass 𝑚l rotating at constant angular speed 𝜔] about a point at
some eccentricity 𝑒, as depicted in Fig. 8.5.

In general, the imbalance results in forces in all directions. Here we assume that
the machine is constrained to move only in the vertical 𝑥 direction. The force
exerted by the rotating mass can be determined using Newton’s second law of
motion, in the following way.

The position of the rotating mass with respect to the base is given by the angle
𝜔] 𝑡 and the position of the machine, idealized as a block in the model, is 𝑥(𝑡).
Therefore, the vertical component of the motion of the rotating mass is 𝑥] 𝑡 =
𝑥 𝑡 + 𝑒 sin 𝜔] 𝑡.

Fig. 8.6 Free body diagrams of the rotating mass and the block

Fig. 8.6 shows a free-body diagram of the block and the rotating mass. The
internal force holds the two bodies together as they move, and is equal in magnitude
and opposite in direction in the two diagrams.

Applying Newton’s second law of motion to each body in the vertical direction we
find

𝑑6 𝑥
−𝑇 sin 𝜔] 𝑡 = 𝑚l 6

𝑑𝑡
for the rotating mass and
𝑇 sin 𝜔] 𝑡 − 𝑐𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 − 𝑚l 𝑥

for the block. Combining both equations and eliminating 𝑇 sin 𝜔] 𝑡 we have

𝑑6
−𝑐𝑥 − 𝑘𝑥 = 𝑚 − 𝑚l 𝑥 + 𝑚l 6 𝑥 + 𝑒 sin 𝜔] 𝑡

𝑑𝑡
Simplifying the right-hand side, rearranging, and dividing by 𝑚 leads to

𝑚l 𝑒𝜔]6
𝑥 + 2𝜁𝜔5 𝑥 + 𝜔56 𝑥 = 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔] 𝑡

𝑚
This equation is identical to Equation 7-1 with 𝐴 = 𝑚l 𝑒𝜔]6 . Therefore, the steady-
state response is given by

𝑥: 𝑡 = 𝐴 sin 𝜔] 𝑡 − 𝜃 8-8
where

 𝑚l 𝑒𝜔]6 𝑚𝜔56
𝐴=
1 − 𝜔]6 𝜔56 6 + 2𝜁𝜔] 𝜔5 6

2𝜁 𝜔] 𝜔5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛F9 , 0 ≤ 𝜃 ≤ 𝜋
1 − 𝜔]6 𝜔56

The expression for can be simplified by setting 𝑚𝜔56 = 𝑘, but we leave it in this
form since we plot 𝐴 as a function of frequency ratio 𝜔] 𝜔5 .

Fig. 8.7 (a) Non dimensional magnitude and (b) phase lag vs. frequency ratio
for 𝜻 = 𝟎. 𝟏 − , 𝜻 = 𝟎. 𝟐 ⋯ , 𝜻 = 𝟎. 𝟑 ∙ − , 𝜻 = 𝟏. 𝟎 − − , 𝜻 = 𝟑. 𝟎 − − ,

From the magnitude plot in Fig. 8.7, for high speed machinery 𝜔] ≫ 𝜔5 . The
system experiences a resonance with large magnitude response during powering up
or down at approximately 𝜔] 𝜔5 = 1. This is true for all systems except those that
are highly damped. In a design the goal is for the rotating component to pass
through resonance quickly enough that for those brief moments the system vibrates
acceptably.