Week#1

“The Alchemist, in search of the Philosopher’s Stone,
discovers Phosphorus, and prays for the successful

conclusion of his operation” (Joseph Wright, 18th
century, oil on canvas)
Introduction to the Chemical

World
Engineering Chemistry (CHEM111)
Fall 2022-2023
1/
Instructor: Assist. Prof. Pelin TÖREN ÖZGÜN / Materials Science & Engineering Department
Moodle (OTUZEM)
Under profile section in your account via web-link :
Link:
2/
Course book: Petrucci R.H. et al., ‘’General Chemistry: Principles and
Modern Applications’’, 11th ed., Pearson, Canada, 2017. (Free PDF is available in
our library)
!Course syllabus is available on Moodle (OTUZEM).!
!Attention!: Attendance is 5% of this course and the wet signatures will
be gathered within the first 15 mins of each session.
Previous code of this course is CHEM101 (CHEM111 is the new code).
2ndry material
but we will
follow the
main course
book
3/
Syllabus on Moodle
(TÜBITAK publishing in Turkish also)
Chemistry
Image credit: pathstone.com
❑ Chemical : (adj.) relating to chemistry, or the interaction of the substances

as studied in chemistry. Or (noun) compound or substance….
❑ Chemistry: the branch of science that deals with the substances….. It is the
science that seeks to understand the properties of matter by studying the
structure of particles that compose it.
❑ Chemistry is sometimes called as „Central Science“ since it relates to so

many areas of human endeavor….
❑ and Chemistry: study of matter and its change that undergoes…….
5/
Alchemy &
Alchemists
“The Alchemist, in search of the Philosopher’s Stone,

discovers Phosphorus, and prays for the successful
conclusion of his operation” (Joseph Wright, 18th
century, oil on canvas).
❑ Alchemy: ancient branch of natural philosophy.

❑ The History of Alchemy. Ancient Civilisations: circa 2000BC: The
first people to experiment with science were the Egyptians and
Babylonians, who applied their skills in a practical manner,
Alchemist, Thomas Wijck, without considering the theory of the processes involved.
Oil on Panel, 17thCentury. ❑ Philosopher‘s stone is a mythic alchemical substance capable
of turning base metals such as mercury (Hg) into gold (Au) or
silver (Ag).
6/
The flame Nebula that lies ~ 1,400 light
years from our earth.
Image credit: nasa.gov
Chapter 1: Matter – Its Properties

and Measurement
Fall 2022-2023
7/
It all started with „thinking“…
Greek Philosopher Aristotle (BC 384-
●
322)
●Aristotle assumed 4 fundamental
substances….. : Air, earth, water, fire..
(so-called simple bodies)
●He believed that all other materials
are combinations of those four
substances.
Illustration of Aristotle
Image Credit: dreamstime.com
The Very Early concept of „Periodic
●
Table“
8/
The Scientific Method
●The Scientific Method originated in the 17th Century: Galileo,

Francis Bacon, Robert Boyle, Isaac Newton and more
contributors…………….
●The scientific method is the process of objectively
establishing facts through testing and experimentation.
The basic process involves making an observation, forming a
hypothesis, making a prediction, conducting an experiment and
finally analyzing the results.
9/
The Scientific Method
●Chemistry requires a systematic approach to the subject !
●Modern chemical knowledge ---- „why“ + „how to“ --- requires scientific approach !
●Theory ----- set of certain principles….
Set principles
Explanation w/ limited evidence
10 /
Some Terms
● Matter is anything that occupies space and displays the
properties of mass and inertia + takes up space…. So, matter
is particulate !!!!!
●Mass is the quantity of matter in a physical body. It is
also a measure of the body's inertia, the resistance
to acceleration (change of velocity) when a net force is
applied. (remember F = m.a – Newton’s 2nd Law, “mass
(m) is the proportionality constant….)
●Every human being is a collection of matter. We all occupy
space, and we describe our mass in terms of weight, a related
property. All the objects that we see around us consist of
matter. The gases of the atmosphere, even though they are Image credit: adobestock
invisible, are matter: they occupy space and have mass.
● What about “Sunlight” ???

●Sunlight is not matter, no mass; rather, it is a
form of energy ! Electromagnetic radiation ! 11 /
The Properties of Matter
●Properties: we can use to distinguish from one sample matter from other. …...structure of
the particles determines the properties of matter !
●(1) Physcial and (2) Chemical properties
Source: Chemistry Libre Texts 12 /

The Properties of Matter (Cont‘d)
Physical Properties: A physical property is
●
a characteristic of a substance that can be Malleability!

observed or measured without changing
the identity of the substance. Physical
properties of matter include color,
hardness (the resistance to the plastic
deformation), malleability (properties of
metal to undergo plastic deformation Image credit: techiescientist
under stress), solubility (max. amount of

substance dissolves in a solvent @specific
T&P), electrical conductivity, density, Solubility!
melting point and boiling point.
●Chemical Properties: A chemical property
Flammability!
describes the ability of a substance to Image credit: thoughtco
undergo a specific chemical change.
Chemical properties describe the
characteristic ability of a substance to react
to form new substances; they include its
flammability (the ease when its ignited)
and susceptibility to corrosion.
Corrosion! 13 /
Image credit: wikipedia
Classification of Matter
❑ Non-Uniform
Compositions &
Properties
❑ Uniform ❑ Composition&
Compositions Physical
& Properties Properties Vary
Image credit: chemtalk
States of Matter
❑Solid
❑Liquid
❑Gas
❑Plasma
Helium‘s orange glow in its plasma state, no definite shape or

volume anymore……
image credit: wikipedia
Measurement of Matter
(SI Metric Units)
❑Chemistry is a quantitative science. (For instance: Mass --- The
quantitity of an object)
❑The scientific system of measurement is called the Système
Internationale d’Unités (International System of Units) and is
abbreviated SI.
Fundamental SI Units
Mass & Density
❑Density is the ratio of mass to volume ----- a DERIVED UNIT !

Fundamental SI Units
Temperature 373.15 K !
❑ The degree or intensity of

heat present in a
substance or object,
especially as expressed
according to a
comparative scale and
shown by
a thermometer or
perceived by touch.
❑ The SI temperature 273.15 K !
scale, called the Kelvin
scale, assigns a value
of zero to the lowest
possible temperature.
Uncertanities in Scientific
Measurements
❑Systematic errors : instrumental errors….
❑Random errors : errors related with the
experimentar‘s skills
❑Precision: the degree of reproducibility
❑Accuracy: how close the measured value to the
accepted, actual value
Significant Figures
Zeros to the right of last
non-zero number are
significant.
To separate the whole number

part and the fractional part…
Image credit: mathisfun
❑ All nonzero digits are significant. Zeros to the left of first

❑ Zeros are also significant, but with two important non-zero number are not
exceptions for quantities less than one. significant.
❑ Any zeros (1) preceding the decimal point, or (2) following
the decimal point and preceding the first nonzero digit, are
not significant.
❑ The case of terminal zeros that precede the decimal point
in quantities greater than one is ambiguous.
❑ Rounding off numerical results. For ex./ 15.45 -------- 15.5
Image credit: University of Nottingham
Chapter 2: Atoms & Atomic Theory
Fall 2022-2023
21 /
Early Chemical Discoveries
Contributors of the Contemporary Chemistry
1. Conservation of Mass
Antoine-Laurent de
Lavoisier (1743-1794)
2. Law of Constant Composition (‘’Law of Definite Mihail

Vasilyevich
Proportions’’ or sometimes called ‘’Proust’s Law’’) Lomonosov
(1711-1765)
Pure compound always contain the same elements with the same mass
H2O proportion ! NO ATOMS YET
Joseph Louis Proust

(1754-1826) 22 /
Early Chemical Discoveries /
Dalton’s Atomic Theory
1. Each chemical element is composed of
minute, indivisible particles called atoms. Atoms
can be neither created nor destroyed during a
chemical change. (assumption 1 : Then, Total
Mass Remains Unchanged : Conservation of
Mass !)
2. All atoms of an element are alike in mass
Image credit: Sciencepediablog
(weight) and other properties,
1805 but the atoms of one element are different from
John Dalton those of all other elements. (assumption 2)
Dalton hypothesized that 3. In each of their compounds, different
the law of conservation of elements combine in a simple numerical ratio,
mass and the law of definite for example, one atom of A to one of B (AB), or
proportions could be one atom of A to two of B (AB2). For ex./ CO2
explained using the idea of (3:8 mass ratio), H2O (1:9 mass ratio etc…).
atoms. (assumption 3)
assumptions 2 + 3 : Law of Constant
Compositions !
23 /
3. ‘’Law of Multiple Proportions’’
Thanks to Dalton !
In chemistry, the law of multiple proportions can be defined as if two
elements form more than one compound between them, the mass ratios of the second
element that combine with a fixed mass of the first element will always be the ratios of
small whole numbers. Sometimes, this law is referred to as Dalton's Law (or Dalton's
Law of multiple proportions) because it is named after John Dalton, the chemist who
expressed it first.
Mini Box
Water (H2O)
Hydrogen
Peroxide (H2O2)
(Bleach)
Carbon monoxide (CO)

(high concentrations are Carbon dioxide (CO2)
toxic) 24 /
Early Chemical Discoveries
continued…
Conservation of Mass Provided

strong
evidence for
Law of Constant Composition (‘’Law of
Definite Proportions’’ or sometimes called
the Atomic
‘’Proust’s Law’’) Theory as
we are
knowing
‘’Law of Multiple Proportions’’ today.
25 /
Atomic Theory of the Universe
~2,500 years ago, a philosopher had thought….
Democritus ▪ If you take a piece of matter and

(~460 BC – 370 BC) divide it and continue to divide it you
Era: Pre-Socratic philosophy will eventually come to a point where
you could not divide it any more. This
fundamental or basic unit was what
Democritus called an atomos.
(means indivisible..)
▪ Initial theoretical ideas about the

existence of the atom….
▪ He called this the theory of the

universe: All matter consists of
atoms, which are bits of matter too
small to be seen. There is an empty
Image credit: Popular Science
Türkiye
Abdera space between atoms. Atoms are
completely solid. Atoms have no
internal structure. Each atom (of a
different substance) is different in
size, weight and shape.
26 /
Discovery of es
-
Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube At the start of the 20th

century, scientists
discovered the existence
of the electron. They
knew it possessed a mass
and an electrical charge,
and they had determined
the charge-to-mass ratio,
Sir Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940) e/m. In 1909, Robert
Millikan and Harvey
Fletcher developed an
Invisible cathode rays are negative ! experiment to determine
the fundamental
charge of the electron.
This was achieved by
▪ Cathode rays subsequently measuring the charge of
became known as electrons, a oil drops in a known
electric field. If all
term first proposed by George electrons have the same
Stoney in 1874. charge, then the
measured charge on the
▪ He introduced e- as oil drops must be
‘’fundamental unit multiples of the same
fundamental constant.
quantity of electricity’’
George Johnstone Stoney (1826-1911) 27 /
Electric Charge of Single e-
▪ Milikan’s Oil Drop
▪ Experimented btw 1908-1914
▪ Mass of the oil droplet is determined from its terminal velocity. Robert A. Milikan
▪ X-Rays passed through the chamber to ionize the air inside. 1868-1953
▪ Charge (q) x Electric Field (E)= Mass of oil drop (m) x Gravitational Force (g)
▪ q = ne (each of whole number multiples of a small charge)
Charge of an e- = 1.6 x 10-19 Coulomb (C)
Fundamental unit of charge !
• Once the electron was seen to be a fundamental particle of matter found in all
atoms, atomic physicists began to speculate on how these particles were
incorporated into atoms.
• The commonly accepted model was that proposed by J. J. Thomson.
How Milikan calculated the ‘’q’’ ?
FE where;
q: fundamental unit of
charge (C)
Oil d: plate spacing (m)
droplet V : Voltage (V)
FE = FG
r: Radius of the oil (m)
Gravitational Force (FG)
Electrostatic Force (FE) ρ: density (kg/m3)
FG FG = FB + FD Source: Lancaster University
Buoyancy Force (FB)
Drag (FD)
FE = qE
X-Rays and Radioactivity
▪ In 1895, Wilhelm Roentgen (1845–1923)
noticed that when cathode-ray tubes were
operating, certain materials outside the
tubes glowed or fluoresced.
▪ Antoine Henri Becquerel (1852–1908)
associated X-rays with fluorescence and wondered
if naturally fluorescent materials produce X-rays.
Cathode Ray ▪ Becquerel had discovered radioactivity.
research had Ernest Rutherford (1871–1937) identified two
many important types of radiation from radioactive materials,
spin-offs !!! alpha and beta. Alpha particles carry two
fundamental units of positive charge and have
Where does the "X" in "X-ray" essentially the same mass as helium atoms. In fact,
come from? The answer is that a alpha particles are identical to ions. Beta particles
German physicist, Wilhelm are negatively charged particles produced by
Roentgen, discovered a new form changes occurring within the nuclei of radioactive
of radiation in 1895. He called it X- atoms and have the same properties as electrons. A
third form of radiation, which is not affected by
radiation because he didn't know
electric or magnetic fields, was discovered in 1900
what it was. Yes, it's as simple as by Paul Villard. This radiation, called gamma
that.
rays.
Radioactivity
Radioactivity is the phenomenon of the spontaneous disintegration of
unstable atomic nuclei to atomic nuclei to form more energetically stable
atomic nuclei.
(image credit)
Nuclear Atom
Ernest Rutherford (1871-1937)
❑ Studies on the
scattering of particles
by thin metal foils led
to the concept of the
nuclear atom—a
tiny, but massive,
positively charged
nucleus surrounded
by lightweight,
negatively charged
electrons.
❑ A more complete
description of the
nucleus was made
possible by the
discovery of protons
and neutrons.
Protons & Neutrons
Atomic Models in a Nutshell
Late 1920s
*
1805 1911
Modern Atom Theory
Dalton Rutherford
(Quantum Theory of Atoms)
Heisenberg Schrödinger
~460-370 BC 1904
*
1913
Democritus JJ Thomson Bohr
Einstein
Bohr Dirac Pauli
Quantized energy levels orbitals
Ancient 1932
Greek, The Plum Chadwick
pre-Socratic Pudding Model He experimentally
Philosopher ! demonstrated the 34 /
existence of neutrons !
Atomic structure / Fundamental
concepts
An atom is the smallest unit of a matter, which forms a chemical
●
element. (or smallest recognized division of a chemical element !)

●An element is a pure substance that consist only of atoms with
same proton number in their nuclei. Elements cannot be broken
down to simpler substances under any chemical reaction. !! So
they are different than chemical compounds !!
Illustration of a Helium atom
1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m or 100 pm

35 /
Atomic Structure / Fundamental
Concepts
massproton/neutron= ~ 1.67 x 10-27 kg
●
masselectron= ~ 9.11 x 10-31 kg

●
Atomic Number or Proton Number (Z): number of

●
protons (p) in the nucleus.

Atomic Mass: sum of masses of protons and
●
neutrons of a single atom.

Mass Number (A) (i.e., atomic mass number or
●
nucleon number): sum of numbers of protons (p) and

neutrons (n) of a single atom.
Number of neutrons in the nucleus = N
●
A≈Z+N
36 /
Chemical Elements
Each element has a name and a distinctive symbol.

●
Pb
Chemical symbols are 1 or 2 letter abbreviations.
●
The first (!but never 2nd!) letter is capitalized : Silicon (Si)

●
Some elements known since ancient times have symbols based on their Latin
●
names, such as Fe for iron (Ferrum) and Pb for Lead (Plumbum). U

The element sodium has the symbol Na, based on the Latin Natrium for sodium
●
carbonate. Potassium has the symbol K, based on the Latin Kalium for potassium
carbonate. The symbol for tungsten W is based on the German Wolfram.
Fe
●Elements beyond Uranium (U) do not occur naturally and must be synthesized
in particle accelerators.
37 /
Mini Flashback
„All atoms of an element are alike in

mass“
? Assumption 2 : same mass ???
Not always…
Here is why…..
• In 1912, J. J. Thomson measured the mass-to-charge ratios of positive ions formed from neon
atoms. From these ratios he deduced that about 91% of the atoms had one mass and that the
remaining atoms were about 10% heavier. All neon atoms have 10 protons in their nuclei, and
most have 10 neutrons as well. A very few neon atoms, however, have 11 neutrons and some
have 12.
• Contrary to what Dalton thought, we
now know that atoms of an element do
not necessarily all have the same mass. 38 /
Isotopes
The number of protons of a given element is same for all its atoms. However, the
●
number of neutrons (N) may vary.

Atoms of an element with two or more different atomic masses are called as
●
Isotopes. (or Atoms that have the same atomic number (Z) but different mass numbers
(A) are called isotopes)
Theoretically, all elements have isotopes !

●
Image credit: energyeducation 39 /

Natural Abundance
❑Natural abundance: The

abundance of isotopes of a
chemical element as naturally
found on our planet.
❑ For instance: Of all Ne atoms on
Earth, 90.51% are The
percentages of and are 0.27% and
9.22%, respectively. These
Relative abundance of elements in the Earth's upper crust.
percentages— 90.51%, 0.27%, Not shown: noble gases, Tc(43), Pm(61), and all elements
9.22%—are the percent after Bi(83), except Th(90) and U(92).
Image credit: wikipedia
isotopic abundances of the

three neon isotopes.
40 /
Atomic Mass or Atomic Weight
●Atomic mass is the average of the atomic masses of an element‘s naturally occuring
isotopes.
Unified Atomic mass unit (u) is used to compute the atomic mass of an element.
●
1 u = 1/12 * (atomic mass of 12C isotope)

●
Most abundant ! together with 13C isotope of

Carbon element on earth ! That’s why !
41 /
Ions
• When atoms lose or gain electrons, for example, in the

course of a chemical reaction, the species formed are
called ions and carry net charges.
• Because an electron is negatively charged, adding
electrons to an electrically neutral atom produces a
negatively charged ion. Removing electrons
results in a positively charged ion.
42 /
Ex. 2-3, Pg. #46
43 /
Isotopic Mass
❑Isotopic Mass refers to the average Mini Flashback

mass of all the isotopes of a specific
element.
❑By international agreement, one type
of atom has been chosen and
assigned a specific mass. This
standard is an atom of the isotope
carbon-12, which is assigned a
mass of exactly 12 atomic mass
units, that is, 12 u. Next, the masses
of other atoms relative to carbon-12
are determined with a mass
spectrometer.
44 /
Atomic Mass Interval
Atomic Mass + Abundances, pg.50-51
Atomic Mass + Abundances, pg.50-51
Periodic Table
❑The Periodic
Table: the
classification
system of
elements.
(1834-1907)
Source: rocklinusd
Periodic Table
In the old IUPAC
(International Union of
Pure and Applied
Chemistry) system the
letters A and B were
designated to the left (A)
and right (B) part of the
table, while in the CAS
(Chemical Abstracts
Service) system the
letters A and B are
designated to main
group elements (A) and
transition elements (B).
The old IUPAC system
❑ s, p, d, f ----unified by valence electrons (oribitals)…
was frequently used in
Europe, while the CAS is
most common in
America.
Features of Periodic Table (Cont‘d)
Group 17: Halogens ----- The salt formers !
❑Groups = Columns = have similar properties..

❑Periods = Rows = Have the same number of e- shells
Periodic Table
Periodic Table
Noble
Alkali Metals (inert) gas,
(shiny, soft, highly low
reactive metals @ chemical
standard T&P reactivity
Periodic Table (Cont‘d)
❑ Metalloids: behave btw metal-nonmetal

❑ Rare Earth Metals
❑ Lathanides: just before transition metals (57-71
atomic number)
❑ Actinides: 89-103, radioactive
❑ Main Group Elements The main group includes the elements
(except hydrogen, which is sometimes not included) in groups 1 and
2 (s-block), and groups 13 to 18 (p-block). are the most abundant
elements on Earth, in the Solar System, and in the universe.
Periodic Table (Cont‘d)
Summary of Periodic Table Properties of
Elements
Moving Left → Right
•Atomic Radius Decreases
•Ionization Energy Increases
•Electron Affinity Generally Increases
(except Noble Gas Electron Affinity Near
Zero)
•Electronegativity Increases
Moving Top → Bottom
•Atomic Radius Increases
•Ionization Energy Decreases
•Electron Affinity Generally Decreases
Moving Down a Group
•Electronegativity Decreases
Electronegativity vs Electron Affinity
❑ Electronegativity is a chemical property that describes the
tendency of an atom or a functional group to attract electrons toward
itself.
❑ Electron affinity refers to the amount of energy that is liberated
whenever a molecule or a neutral atom tends to acquire an electron from the
other elements.
Periodic Table / What‘s wrong with H ?
❑ Alkali metals (1A) are

solid @ room T except
H. H is gas @ room T.
Mole, Avogadro Number
Prof. Friedrich
Wilhelm
Ostwald
(1853-1932)
Image credit:
TheFamousPeople
Atomic weight of a compound specified on the basis of

●
mass per mole of the material. Amedeo

Avogadro
●The base unit of amount of a substance, that posseses (1776-1856)
Image credit:
6.022 x 1023 atoms or molecules (Avogadro number), is wikipedia
called as „mole“.
1 u/atom (or molecule) = 1 g/mol
●
Atomic weight of Fe:

● Minibox
~55.85 u/atom = ~55.85 g/mol
●
6.023 x 1023 atoms or molecules = 1 mole
AVOGADRO'S NUMBER
A principle stated in 1811 by the Italian chemist Amadeo
Avogadro (1776-1856) that equal volumes of gases at the
same temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules regardless of their chemical nature and physical
properties. This number (Avogadro's number) is 6.023 X 1023.
57 /
For further study
❑ Related Chapters in the course book: 1-2, Summaries @

the end of each chapters give a good overlook of the
important points.
❑ Corresponding Chapters in the 2ndry Material: 1-2.
58 /

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“The Alchemist, in search of the Philosopher’s Stone,

discovers Phosphorus, and prays for the successful

Introduction to the Chemical

(TÜBITAK publishing in Turkish also)

Image credit: pathstone.com

❑ Chemical : (adj.) relating to chemistry, or the interaction of the substances

❑ Chemistry is sometimes called as „Central Science“ since it relates to so

“The Alchemist, in search of the Philosopher’s Stone,

❑ Alchemy: ancient branch of natural philosophy.

Chapter 1: Matter – Its Properties

●The Scientific Method originated in the 17th Century: Galileo,

●Theory ----- set of certain principles….

● What about “Sunlight” ???

Source: Chemistry Libre Texts 12 /

a characteristic of a substance that can be Malleability!

under stress), solubility (max. amount of

Helium‘s orange glow in its plasma state, no definite shape or

❑Density is the ratio of mass to volume ----- a DERIVED UNIT !

❑ The degree or intensity of

To separate the whole number

❑ All nonzero digits are significant. Zeros to the left of first

Chapter 2: Atoms & Atomic Theory

Engineering Chemistry (CHEM111)

2. Law of Constant Composition (‘’Law of Definite Mihail

Joseph Louis Proust

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Conservation of Mass Provided

Democritus ▪ If you take a piece of matter and

▪ Initial theoretical ideas about the

▪ He called this the theory of the

Thomson’s Cathode Ray Tube At the start of the 20th

Fundamental unit of charge !

Bohr Dirac Pauli

Quantized energy levels orbitals

element. (or smallest recognized division of a chemical element !)

Illustration of a Helium atom

1 Angstrom (Å) = 10-10 m or 100 pm

masselectron= ~ 9.11 x 10-31 kg

Atomic Number or Proton Number (Z): number of

protons (p) in the nucleus.

neutrons of a single atom.

nucleon number): sum of numbers of protons (p) and

Each element has a name and a distinctive symbol.

The first (!but never 2nd!) letter is capitalized : Silicon (Si)

names, such as Fe for iron (Ferrum) and Pb for Lead (Plumbum). U

„All atoms of an element are alike in

number of neutrons (N) may vary.

Theoretically, all elements have isotopes !

Image credit: energyeducation 39 /

❑Natural abundance: The

isotopic abundances of the

1 u = 1/12 * (atomic mass of 12C isotope)

Most abundant ! together with 13C isotope of

• When atoms lose or gain electrons, for example, in the

❑Isotopic Mass refers to the average Mini Flashback

Group 17: Halogens ----- The salt formers !

❑Groups = Columns = have similar properties..

❑ Metalloids: behave btw metal-nonmetal

❑ Alkali metals (1A) are

Atomic weight of a compound specified on the basis of

mass per mole of the material. Amedeo

Atomic weight of Fe: