Exploratory drilling techniques

DR BS Choudhary
ISM-dhanbad
Exploration
Introduction

 Drilling is the first unit operation in mining or excavation process.

 The evaluation of drilling started, with the keenness to find the resources present
inside the earth, which lead to the discovery of methods like fire setting and wet
wedged to fragment the rock. But with the sickle of time, these methods lost its
vitalness because of its unproductive results
 Exploration drilling is an important step before development drilling should take
place. Exploration drilling is essential for obtaining actual temperature measurements,
rock samples, and retrieving fluid samples for chemical analysis.
 The data collected from the geologic and geophysical surveys are used to formulate
probable definitions and realizations of the geologic structure that may contain oil
and/or gas.

B.S.Choudhary
Basically we have three principles of drilling
There are different mechanisms that have been
Percussive, rotary, and rotary percussive
devised within a span of the past 60 years to
transfer the mechanical energy produced by the
prime mover to the rock or ground being drilled.
These mechanisms are known as; top-hammer,
down-the-hole (DTH), or in-the-hole (ITH), and
rotary. Each one has its merits, limitations and
field of applications.

Rotary-percussive methods. These are the most

frequently used in all types of rocks, the top hammer as
well as the down-the-hole hammer.
Rotary methods. These are subdivided into two groups,
depending upon if the penetration is carried out by
crushing, with tricones or by-cut with drag bits.
The first system is used in medium to hard rocks, and the
B.S.Choudhary
second in soft rocks.
Rock properties that affect drilling

 Hardness: Hardness is considered to be the resistance of a surface layer to be penetrated by

another body of harder consistency. In rock, it is a function of the hardness and composition of its
mineral grains. the porosity, degree of humidity, etc. The hardness of rocks is the principal type
of resistance that must be overcome during drilling. because once the bit has penetrated. the
rest of the operation is easier.
 Strength: Mechanical strength of a rock is the property of opposing destruction by an external
force. either static or dynamic. The rocks give maximum resistance to compression. normally, as
the tensile strength is not more than 10 or 15% of the compressive strength. This is due to the
fragility of rocks to the large quantity of local defects and irregularities that exist and to the
small cohesion between the particles of which they are constituted.
The rock strength fundamentally depends on its mineralogical composition. Among the integrating
minerals, quartz is the most solid with a strength that goes over 500 MPa, while that of the
ferromagnesian silicates and the aluminosilicates vary between 200 and 500 Mpa and that of calcite
from 10 to 20 MPa. Therefore, the higher the quartz content, the more the strength increases.
 Elasticity: The majority of rock minerals have an elastic-fragile
behaviour, which obeys the Law of Hooke, and are destroyed when the
strains exceed the limit of elasticity. Depending upon the nature of
deformation, as function of the stresses produced by static charges,
three groups of rocks are taken into consideration: 1) The elastic-
fragile or those which obey the Law of Hooke, 2) The plastic fragile,
that have plastic deformation before destruction, 3) The highly plastic
or very porous, in which the elastic deformation is insignificant.
The elastic properties of rocks are characterized by the elasticity
module 'E' and the Poisson coefficient 'v'. The elasticity module is the
proportionality factor between the normal stress in the rock and the
relative correspondent deformation, its value in most rocks varies
between 0.03 x 104 MPa and 1.7 x 104 MPa basically depending upon
the mineralogical composition, porosity, type of deformation and
magnitude of the applied force.

Curves of stress deformation for different types of rocks.

 Plasticity: This begins when the stresses exceed the limit of elasticity. In the case of an ideally
plastic body, that deformation is developed with an invariable stress. Real rocks are deformed and
consolidated at the same time: in order to increase the plastic deformation it is necessary to
increase the effort. The plasticity depends upon the mineral composition of the rocks and
diminishes with an increase in quartz content, feldspar and other hard minerals. The humid clays
and some homogeneous rocks have plastic properties. The plasticity of the stony rocks (granites,
schistoses, crystallines and sandstones) becomes noticeable especially at high temperatures.
 Abrasiveness: Abrasiveness is the capacity of the rocks to wear away the contact surface of
another body that is harder, in the rubbing or abrasive process during movement. The factors that
enhance abrasive capacities of rocks are the following:
 The hardness of the grains of the rock.:The rocks that contain quartz grains are highly
abrasive.
 The shape of the grains: Those that are angular are more abrasive than the round ones.
 The size of the grains.
 The porosity of the rock: It gives rough contact surfaces with local stress concentrations.
 The heterogeneity: Polymineral rocks, although these are equally hard, are more abrasive
because theyleave rough surfaces with hard grains as, for example,quartz grains in a granite.
 Texture: The texture of a rock refers to the structure of the grains of
minerals that constitute it. The size of the grains are an indication, as well
as their shape, porosity etc. All these aspects have significate influence on
drilling performance. When the grains have a lenticular shape, as in a
schist, drilling is more difficult than when they are round, as in a
sandstone.
The type of material that makes up the rock matrix and unites the mineral grains also has an important
influence.As to porosity, those rocks that have low density and, consequently, are more porous, have low
crushing strength and are easier to drill.

 Structure: The structural properties of the rock masses, such as schistosity.

bedding planes, joints, and faults. As well as their dip and strike affect the
alignment of the blastholes, the drilling performance and the stability of
the blasthole walls.
 One of the earliest diamond
drilling machines is the
steam-powered rig shown here in
1908, recovering
cores for assessment of shallow
coal deposits.

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 From about 1900, shallow “dry
borings” for geotechnical
exploration utilized a 3-man crew
with a simple A-frame, such as
that shown here, along with a gas
powered engine. This could be
set up and broken down by hand,
in confined spaces.

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 A-frame rigs
• A-frame rigs are still
utilized world wide for
drilling exploratory
borings and advancing
large diameter
caissons.

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 Mud rotary drilling rigs
are typically used for
deeper applications,
such as holes more
than
50 or 100 feet deep,
below the water table

Mud rotary drilling employs a dense drilling

fluid under its own hydrostatic pressure to
support the walls of an open borehole

• The drilling fluid is usually comprised of bentonite,

butBSsome
Choudhary drillers will use soap or a variety of other 12

agents.
 Rotary rigs with their masts
extended. A water truck usually
accompanies the rig, to
provide the drilling fluid.

The biggest headache is loss of

circulation, most common in
limestone or adjacent to broken rock
along

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 Truck-mounted drill rigs
• Generally used on semi-level
ground, if easy site access
• Quick set-up
• Rate of advance depends on
height of mast & drill strings
• Large normal force can be
employed

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 Tracked Rigs
• A number of manufacturers offer
tracked rigs of varying size
• These can be extremely useful
when working on sift or sloping
ground

Smaller tracked rigs can be

operated remotely, using radio
controls

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 ‘Swamp hog’ all terrain
vehicles use oversize
floatation tires inflated ~ 4 psi
tire pressure to
allow access on soft, mucky
ground

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 Portable ‘skid rig’ placed on a
fat-bottom barge

problem is anchoring the craft

to resist drilling induced

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 This view shows a custom
remote drilling rig powered
by remote-source offsite
hydraulics.
It is working on a 30 degree
slope 500+ feet above the
nearest bench.

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 Helicopter Assist
• Under conditions of
extreme remoteness,
helicopters can
sometimes provide
vertical lift of lighter skid
rigs
• This shows drilling pad
set up for exploring path
of the Tetsuo Harano
Tunnels on Interstate H-3
through the Koolau
Range in Oahu, Hawaii.
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 Specialty Rigs
• Some operators have
built their own rigs, which
allow them to work on
steep or constricted work
sites
• Most of these ’remote
rigs’ employ hydraulic
fluid, which can be
transmitted to the drill rig
by hoses laid out from
pumps towed behind
vehicles, as much as 200
feet away.

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Auger drilling

 Auger drilling is done with a helical screw which is driven

into the ground with rotation; the earth is lifted up the
borehole by the blade of the screw.
 Hollow stem auger drilling is used for softer ground such as
swamps where the hole will not stay open by itself for
environmental drilling, geotechnical drilling, soil
engineering and geochemistry reconnaissance work in
exploration for mineral deposits.
 Solid flight augers/bucket augers are used in harder
ground construction drilling.
 In some cases, mine shafts are dug with auger drills. Small
augers can be mounted on the back of a utility truck, with
large augers used for sinking piles for bridge foundations.
 Auger drilling is restricted to generally soft unconsolidated
material or weak weathered rock. It is cheap and fast.
Percussion rotary air blast drilling (RAB)

 RAB drilling is used most frequently in the mineral

exploration industry. (This tool is also known as a Down-
the-hole drill.)
 The drill uses a pneumatic reciprocating piston-driven
"hammer" to energetically drive a heavy drill bit into the
rock.
 The drill bit is hollow, solid steel and has ~20 mm thick
tungsten rods protruding from the steel matrix as
"buttons". The tungsten buttons are the cutting face of
the bit.
 The cuttings are blown up the outside of the rods and
collected at surface. Air or a combination of air and foam
lift the cuttings.
 RAB produces lower quality samples because the cuttings
are blown up the outside of the rods and can be
contaminated from contact with other rocks.
 Air core drilling

 Air core drilling and related methods use hardened steel or

tungsten blades to bore a hole into unconsolidated ground. The
drill bit has three blades arranged around the bit head, which
cut the unconsolidated ground. The rods are hollow and contain
an inner tube which sits inside the hollow outer rod barrel. The
drill cuttings are removed by injection of compressed air into
the hole via the annular area between the innertube and the
drill rod. The cuttings are then blown back to surface up the
inner tube where they pass through the sample separating
system and are collected if needed. Drilling continues with the
addition of rods to the top of the drill string. Air core drilling
can occasionally produce small chunks of cored rock.
 This method of drilling is used to drill the weathered regolith, as
the drill rig and steel or tungsten blades cannot penetrate fresh
rock. Where possible, air core drilling is preferred over RAB
drilling as it provides a more representative sample. Air core
drilling can achieve depths approaching 300 meters in good
conditions. As the cuttings are removed inside the rods and are
less prone to contamination compared to conventional drilling
where the cuttings pass to the surface via outside return
between the outside of the drill rod and the walls of the hole.
This method is more costly and slower than RAB.
Cable tool drilling
 Cable tool rigs are a traditional way of drilling water wells. The majority of large
diameter water supply wells, especially deep wells completed in bedrock aquifers,
were completed using this drilling method. Although this drilling method has largely
been supplanted in recent years by other, faster drilling techniques, it is still the
most practicable drilling method for large diameter, deep bedrock wells, and in
widespread use for small rural water supply wells. The impact of the drill bit
fractures the rock and in many shale rock situations increases the water flow into a
well over rotary.
 Also known as ballistic well drilling and sometimes called "spudders", these rigs raise
and drop a drill string with a heavy carbide tipped drilling bit that chisels through
the rock by finely pulverizing the subsurface materials. The drill string is composed
of the upper drill rods, a set of "jars" (inter-locking "sliders" that help transmit
additional energy to the drill bit and assist in removing the bit if it is stuck) and the
drill bit. During the drilling process, the drill string is periodically removed from the
borehole and a bailer is lowered to collect the drill cuttings (rock fragments, soil,
etc.). The bailer is a bucket-like tool with a trapdoor in the base. If the borehole is
dry, water is added so that the drill cuttings will flow into the bailer. When lifted,
the trapdoor closes and the cuttings are then raised and removed. Since the drill
string must be raised and lowered to advance the boring, the casing (larger diameter
outer piping) is typically used to hold back upper soil materials and stabilize the
borehole.
Reverse circulation (RC) drilling

RC drilling is similar to air core drilling, in that the drill cuttings are
returned to surface inside the rods. The drilling mechanism is a pneumatic
reciprocating piston known as a "hammer" driving a tungsten-steel drill bit.
RC drilling utilises much larger rigs and machinery and depths of up to 500
metres are routinely achieved. RC drilling ideally produces dry rock chips,
as large air compressors dry the rock out ahead of the advancing drill bit.
RC drilling is slower and costlier but achieves better penetration than RAB
or air core drilling; it is cheaper than diamond coring and is thus preferred
for most mineral exploration work.
The most commonly used RC drill bits are 5-8 inches (13–20 cm) in
diameter.
Odex drilling
 As much as 90% of the land surface of the earth is covered
with loose, unconsolidated material such as soil, clay, silt,
sand, gravel and boulders, which varies in depth from a few
centimetres to hundreds of meters.
 Drilling through this so-called overburden is often
problematic, due to the tendency of the earth to cave in
behind the drill bit. This makes it difficult to retrieve the
drill string after the hole has been drilled. In practice, the
bore hole is often lost before a casing tube can be inserted
to support it.
 Other problems are caused by cavities or porous ground,
which interfere with the circulation of the flushing medium
and prevent the drill cuttings from being flushed out of the
hole.
 In places where overburden strata are mixed, or when their
drillability is unknown, it is difficult for the driller to decide
what tools to use in order to get the best overall results
without risking the loss of equipment in the hole.
 ODEX equipment enables to drill and case deep holes simultaneously in all types of formation,
even those with large boulders. Casing diameters from 89 mm (ODEX 76) to 273 mm (ODEX 240)
can be used.
 The method is based on a pilot bit and eccentric reamer, which together drill a hole slightly
larger than the external diameter of the casing tube. This enables the casing tube to follow the
drill bit down the hole.
 When using ODEX, part of the impact energy is diverted to the casing tube via a shoulder on
the guide device, which in turn impacts a special casing shoe at the lower end of the casing.
 ODEX 76 for top hammers operates with impact and rotation transmitted through extension
rods. To drive the casing down the hole, this shank adapter is used to transfer part of the
impact energy from the rock drill to the casing tube.
 In both DTH and top hammer drilling the casing is driven down into the hole without rotation.
When the casing enters the bedrock, drilling is stopped briefly, and reverse rotation applied
carefully, which causes the reamer to turn in, thus reducing the overall diameter of the drill bit
assembly. When this has been accomplished, the entire drill string can be pulled up through the
inside of the casing tubes, leaving the latter embedded in the bedrock. Drilling can then be
continued into the bedrock using a conventional drill string.
 To improve flushing, the ODEX guide device has back-ward pointing flushing holes.
 In difficult conditions, a foaming additive can be added to the compressed air to further
improve flushing performance.
Diamond core drilling
 Diamond core drilling (exploration diamond drilling) utilizes an annular diamond-
impregnated drill bit attached to the end of hollow drill rods to cut a cylindrical core
of solid rock.
 The diamonds used are fine to microfine industrial grade diamonds. They are set
within a matrix of varying hardness, from brass to high-grade steel. Matrix hardness,
diamond size and dosing can be varied according to the rock which must be cut. Holes
within the bit allow water to be delivered to the cutting face. This provides three
essential functions — lubrication, cooling, and removal of drill cuttings from the hole.
 Diamond drilling is much slower than reverse circulation (RC) drilling due to the
hardness of the ground being drilled. Drilling of 1200 to 1800 metres is common and
at these depths, ground is mainly hard rock. Diamond rigs need to drill slowly to
lengthen the life of drill bits and rods, which are very expensive.
 Core samples are retrieved via the use of a "lifter tube", a hollow tube lowered inside
the rod string by a winch cable until it stops inside the core barrel. As the core is
drilled, the core barrel slides over the core as it is cut. An "overshot" attached to the
end of the winch cable is lowered inside the rod string and locks on to the "backend",
located on the top end of the core barrel. The winch is retracted, pulling the core
barrel to the surface. The core does not drop out of the inside of the core barrel
when lifted because either a split ring core lifter or basket retainer allow the core to
move into, but not back out of the tube.
 A medium hard stratum is drilled by Double Tube Core
Barrel using a diamond bit.
 The main object of core drilling is to obtain a core sample
of a formation for laboratory to determine its content and
characteristics. If a portion of sample is lost or its surface is
eroded the analysis may not necessarily be accurate.
Therefore, to ensure reliability of the analysis, as much of
the sample as possible must be recovered in a condition
that is representative of the formation by using a T2 series.
 The T2 Series are thin wall double tube core barrel, used
for surface exploration, especially in mining applications.
Due to their thin kerf, these core barrels provide rapid
penetration with proper core protection. Available in
diameters 46, 56, 66, 76, 86, 101mm
Table for the core size available in X-Series

X-SERIES HOLE DIAMETER (mm) CORE DIAMETER (mm)

ZX 199 165
UX 174 140
SX 145 113
PX 120 92
HX 99 76
NX 75 54
BX 60 40
AX 47 28
EX 38 21
RX 29.5 17.5
Wire line core barrel (tube in tube system)
 Directional drilling
Direction drilling refers to a drilling practice where the well is
deviated from the vertical inclination to a specific direction

When the reservoir is located in an inaccessible area, for

example on bad terrain or below a mountain, then directional
drilling will really help to reach the reservoir easier and at a
lower cost.

Directional drilling allows locating several wells in one well site,

thus the road construction cost, water supply cost, and steam
gathering system cost is combined.

Directional drilling enables the intersection of several vertical

BS Choudhary structures in one well. 44
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 • The rocks through which the hole is drilled can influence the direction.
Any rock which is layered (especially thin alternating soft and hard
layers) or has a fissility (breaks preferentially along closely spaced
parallel planes) will cause deviation if the hole is at an angle to the
layering or fissility.
• If this layering or fissility has a constant attitude in the drill area, the
direction of the hole deviation can be predictable and therefore useful in
planning drill setups that will naturally deviate toward the desired
target.
• If the layering is folded, the direction of deviation may change as the
angle between the hole and the folded layering changes.

BS Choudhary 47
 • The physics of drilling can create forces which can amplify the rate of deviation. Worn and
loose drill rod threads, non-rigid core barrels, and inappropriate bit design or cutting
characteristics have long been known to contribute to crooked holes.
• Alternately, using rigid core barrels, well designed and properly placed stabilizers and
suitable bits diminish the influence of rock imposed deviatory forces.
• The driller can influence the rate of deviation by using improper drilling forces.
• Large directional deviations can be caused by buckled drill rod trains brought about by
excessive force on the bit.
• The desire for rapid hole advance often leads to poor drilling practices, but advance rates
that are too slow may also produce more than necessary deviation. It is not unusual for each
drilling shift to have their own specific deviation rate on a borehole- one crew consistently
producing higher deviations.

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Core storage

 A core sample is a cylindrical section of (usually)

a naturally occurring substance. Most core
samples are obtained by drilling with special
drills into the substance, for example sediment
or rock, with a hollow steel tube called a core
drill. The hole made for the core sample is called
the "core bowling". A variety of core samplers
exist to sample different media under different
conditions. More continue to be invented on a
regular basis. In the coring process, the sample is
pushed more or less intact into the tube.
Removed from the tube in the laboratory, it is
inspected and analyzed by different techniques
and equipment depending on the type of data
desired.
 Coring has come to be recognized as an important source of data, and more attention and care is being put
on preventing damage to the core during various stages of it transportation and analysis. The usual way to
do this is to freeze the core completely using liquid nitrogen, which is cheaply sourced. In some cases,
special polymers are also used to preserve and seat/cushion the core from damage.
 Equally, a core sample which cannot be related to its context (where it was before it became a core
sample) has lost much of its benefit. The identification of the borehole, and the position and orientation
("way up") of the core in the borehole is critical, even if the borehole is in a tree trunk -
dendrochronologists always try to include a bark surface in their samples so that the date of most-recent
growth of the tree can be unambiguously determined.
 If these data become separated from core samples, it is generally impossible to regain that data. The cost
of a coring operation can vary from a few currency units (for a hand-caught core from a soft soil section) to
tens of millions of currency units (for sidewall cores from a remote-area offshore borehole many kilometres
deep). Inadequate recording of such basic data has ruined the utility of both types of core.
 Different disciplines have different local conventions of recording these data, and the user should
familiarize themselves with their area's conventions. For example, in the oil industry, orientation of the
core is typically recorded by marking the core with two longitudinal colour streaks, with the red one on the
right when the core is being retrieved and marked at surface. Cores cut for mineral mining may have their
own, different, conventions. Civil engineering or soil studies may have their own, different, conventions as
their materials are often not competent enough to make permanent marks on.
 It is becoming increasingly common to retain core samples in cylindrical packaging which forms part of
the core-cutting equipment, and to make the marks of record on these "inner barrels" in the field prior
to further processing and analysis in the laboratory. Sometimes core is shipped form the field to the
laboratory in as long a length as it comes out of the ground; other times it is cut into standard lengths
(5m or 1m or 3 ft) for shipping, then reassembled in the laboratory. Some of the "inner barrel" systems
are capable of being reversed on the core sample, so that in the laboratory the sample goes "wrong way
up" when the core is reassembled. This can complicate interpretation.
 Goniometers are used to measure angles of fractures and other features in a core sample relative to its
standard orientation.
 If the borehole has petrophysical measurements made of the wall rocks, and these measurements are
repeated along the length of the core then the two data sets correlated, one will almost universally find
that the depth "of record" for a particular piece of core differs between the two methods of
measurement. Which set of measurements to believe then becomes a matter of policy for the client (in
an industrial setting) or of great controversy (in a context without an overriding authority. Recording
that there are discrepancies, for whatever reason, retains the possibility of correcting an incorrect
decision at a later date ; destroying the "incorrect" depth data makes it impossible to correct a mistake
later. Any system for retaining and archiving data and core samples needs to be designed so that
dissenting opinion like this can be retained.
 If core samples from a campaign are competent, it is common practice to "slab" them - cut the sample
into two or more samples longitudinally - quite early in laboratory processing so that one set of samples
can be archived early in the analysis sequence as a protection against errors in processing. "Slabbing"
the core into a 2/3 and a 1/3 set is common. It is also common for one set to be retained by the main
customer while the second set goes to the government (who often impose a condition for such donation
as a condition of exploration/ exploitation licensing). "Slabbing" also has the benefit of preparing a flat,
smooth surface for examination and testing of profile permeability, which is very much easier to work
with than the typically rough, curved surface of core samples when they're fresh from the coring
equipment. Photography of raw and "slabbed" core surfaces is routine, often under both natural and
ultra-violet light.