Anthropometrics is the comparative study of the

measurements and capabilities of the human body. It derives from the Greek words ‘anthropos’ (meaning human),
and ‘metron’ (meaning measure).Anthropometry influences a wide range of industries, processes, services and
products and has a considerable importance in optimising the design of buildings. Human dimensions and
capabilities are paramount in determining a building’s dimensions and overall design. The underlying principle of
anthropometrics is that building designs should adapt to suit the human body, rather than people having to adapt
to suit the buildings.

It play an important role in industrial design, clothing design, hallways, for handicaps & for elderly. It varies among
different races, ages, professionals & sexual group. Anthropometrics variable are linear measures ( linear
measures are defined by landmarks skeletal-anotomical & virtual landmarks) such as:

Heights – distance from landmarks with subject standing/seated

Diameter- distance between bilateral landmarks

Lengths- distance between 2 different landmarks

Curve measures- namely arcs distances on body surface between 2 landmarks

Girths- such as closed all-around measures on body surfaces, positioned at least1 landmark or at a defined height.

IMPORTANCE OF Anthropometric data

The use of anthropometrics in building design aims to ensure that every person is as comfortable as possible. In
practical terms, this means that the dimensions must be appropriate, ceilings high enough, doorways and hallways
wide enough, and so on. In recent times, it has come to have particular significance for workplace design, and the
relationship between desk, chair, keyboard and computer display.

The building regulations provide a range of standard requirements and approved solutions for designers to help
develop suitable designs. However, it is important to consider the specific purpose and requirements of end users.
Attempts to apply standardised dimensions may not reflect the true need of the space requirements.

Older people, children, people with mobility issues, wheelchair users and so on may have specific requirements. In
particular, good accessibility and easy manoeuvrability around the building must be considered when designing
stairs, lifts, ramps and other features. See Accessibility in the built environment for more information.

Anthropometry may also impact on space requirements for furniture and fittings. For example, a bathroom must
have enough space to comfortably fit a bath and sink; a bedroom must have enough space to comfortably fit an
average-sized bed; an office building must have enough space to fit desks, air-conditioning units, communal areas,
meeting rooms, and so on. Anthropometric data is regularly updated to reflect changes in the population.

Standards

Architectural standards are published documents that establish specifications and procedures designed to ensure
the reliability of the materials, products, methods, and/or services related to architecture. They address a range of
issues, including but not limited to various protocols that help ensure a building/project’s functionality and
compatibility, facilitate interoperability and ensures client’s safety and public health.

Need of standards

Architects and designers need to know the dimension for minimum space requirements for people moving around
in. These requirements produce strong fixed impressions from which other dimensions of spaces are derived.
Standards provide a concise source of core information needed to form a framework for the detailed planning of
any building project. These provide the necessary information for design in an orderly, brief and coherent form,
which otherwise they would have to collect together laboriously. It saves designers from having to carry out all of
the basic investigations, thereby enabling them to devote themselves to the important creative aspect of the task.

Uses of standards

 To assist in developing building programs and establishing preliminary space allocations.

 To analyze specific client needs and to quantify them.
 To study general and specific functional relationships.
 To assist in the preparations of preliminary architectural designs

There are two basic areas of anthropometry:

• Structural Anthropometry (often called as Static Anthropometry) deals with simple - dimensions of the
stationary human being. e.g. Weight, stature and the lengths, breadths, depths and circumferences of particular
body structures. It is the measurement of body sizes at rest and when using devices such as chairs, tables, beds,
mobility devices, and so on.

• Functional Anthropometry (Dynamic Anthropometry) deals with compound Measurements of the moving
human being. E.g. Reach and the angular ranges of various joints. It is the measurement of abilities related to the
completion of tasks, such as reaching, manoeuvring and motion, and other aspects of space and equipment use.

This includes:

Reach – extent that limbs can get to (design using 5 th percentile data)

Clearance – space allowed for a body part/whole body (design using 95 thPercentile data)

Adjustability – 90% accommodation of the user population

STANDING HEIGHT (STATURE)

Standing height is the primary indicator by which one selects general test subjects to evaluate various designs
when there is no specific aspect of the design pertaining to an individual body component. The dimension is
pertinent for adjusting head clearances. [ Table 1]

PERCENTILE

5TH 50TH 90TH

ADULTS
MALES 63.6 IN 68.3 IN 72.8 IN
FEMALES 59.0 IN 62.9 IN 67.1 IN

OVERHEAD REACH (STANDING)

This dimension is pertinent to locating controls that are overhead. It should be used in conjunction with stature
because, although a short person must be able to reach a control, it should not be so low that it becomes an
obtsruction for the taller person. Use this dimension for evaluating the accessibilty of objects on high shelves.
[Table 2]

PERCENTILE

5TH 50TH 90TH

ADULTS
 MALE 82.0 IN 88.0 IN 94.0 IN
FEMALE 73.0 IN 79.0 IN 86.0 IN

In architectural design, anthropometrics is used to determine the size of objects & spaces in relation to the human
body. The phrase “human scale” refers objects of a certain anthropometric proportion that is immediately related
to the body so that objects & spaces can be effectively & comfortably used by humans

. Ex: designing/positioning the height of a kiosk display (touch screen) in an airport.

Solutions: design multiple sizes (furniture – S, M, L)

Adjustability-user modifies the fit-add cost & complexity

Satisficing- good enough, acceptable rather than optimized; designing for Smaller ones because larger users can
always bend

Methods of using anthropometrics in architecture

 Comfort level For every person to be as comfortable as possible in a building, the dimensions of the
rooms have to fit the dimensions of the people inside them. That involves making sure that ceilings are
high enough, doorways and hallways are wide enough and rooms are large enough to accommodate the
people inside them. To do this, architects must take into account average heights and widths of the
company’s employees, then go an extra couple of inches up and out to make sure that everyone can walk
through the building with ease.
 Space requirements - using human sizes to estimate the approximate amount of space that is required
for various furniture in the living spaces. For example, when. Designing bedroom spaces, you have to
verify that there is enough room for a bed, a Set of dressers and a nightstand to fit inside the room. To
make sure that there is Enough room in residential areas, you have to think about all of the necessary
Elements like seating, dressers, counters and sinks of residential sing.
 Building& variations - Along with accommodating room sizes and furniture space, you also have to plan
for the purposes the building serves. If you are designing a hospital, You have to verify that there is
enough space in the hallways for gurneys and people alongside it to walk quickly and comfortably. Also, if
the building is a public area, ADA-compliant handicapped ramps and bathrooms must be included into the
design. There should also be enough space for the elderly to be able to get around; elevators should also
be in the design for both the elderly and the handicapped.
 Difficulties - using anthropometry in architectural design are that you have to incorporate a lot of
different elements. According to The Hindu, “The size of human body varies based on age, sex, race and
even socio-economic factors. Any direct attempt to apply the standardised dimensions may not reflect the
true need of the space requirements. At the same time, very minute details on human dimensions may be
useful only for the likes of fashion designers, make-up artists, hairdressers and so on and not for
architects and interior designers.” Architects must think about human dimensions while an individual is in
motion and participating in different activities.

VARIABILITY IN BODY SHAPES AND SIZES

- Even to the least observant person one thing must be abudantly clear about dimensions there is wide
variation between members of a population.
- With such variability it should be readily apparent that anthropometric data need to be used very
carefully if they are to be of value.
- Just much larger or smaller than average a particular dimension depends on the importance and function
of the future being designed.
 e.g. (1) a cockpit joystick is useless if it is placed outside the user ‘s reach and so the reach dimension in this
case would need to be related to the reach of the smallest member of a particular user population.

e.g (2) as a long adjustable chairs are available a desk does not need to be larger enough to accommodate all
user’s heights and so could possibly be designed to accommodate. Save 90 to 95 %.

The wide distribution of body dimensions and shapes which maybe encountered in a population can often be due
to slight genetic differences. However, other more readily observable variables can affect body dimensions and
their variability and these include: age, sex,culture,occupation, and historical trends.

AGE the change in body dimensions from birth to maturity is well known and, indeed, the increases occur
consistently although sometimes irregularly. For heights, as for most other body lenghts, full growth is attained for
all practical purposes by the age of 20 in males and 17 in females. Some “shrinkage” of older people has also been
noted, which is mainly due to biological changes that take place as a part of the normal ageing process – flattening
of discs between the vertebrae, general thinning of the weight-bearing cartilages, and so on.

SEX – with the increasing observance of sexual equality in the workplace, designing for differences in body
dimensions between sexes will become an important aspect of ergonomist’s task. In this respect, males are
generally larger than females for most body dimensions, and the extent of the diffference varies from one
dimension to another. Women, however, are larger than men in the four dimensions of chest depth, hip breadth,
hip circumference and thigh circumference.

CULTURE- the importance of national and cultural differences in anthropometry has been realized for some time,
but until recently there has been realized for some time, but until recently there has been little concerted effort to
implement the relevant data in the production of new plant and machinery. The variability in anthropometric
dimensions due to national and cultural differences may not all be as dramatic as the difference in some culture.

OCCUPATION- differences in body size and proportion among occupational groups are common and are fairly well
known. E.g. many body dimensions of a manual laborer are on average larger than those of an academician.
However, such differnces may also be related to age,diet, exercise or many other factors, as well as the result of
selection criteria designated by specific occupations. Whatever the reasons for the differences,however,
anthropometric variability in different occcupations must be realized so that appropriate environments can be
designed for the occupation and before anthropometric data obtained from members of one occupation can be
used to design the environments of another.

SECUSTORICAL) TRENDS Many people have obseved that the equipment used in earlier years would too small for
effective use today. Such observations imply that the average size of the population increases over time, perhaps
because of better diet and living conditions. if true,the results would have important implications for the design of
an environment that is to survive for some time. If we are getting taller ,for example, then the design might need
to take account of the statures of future generations as well as present-day users.

Approaches in using Anthropometric Data

 "Procrustus" that no attempt to accommodate the user has been made, and the user must adapt to the
product, however it happened to be designed, Incidentally, this term comes from Greek Mythology,
where Procrustes was fitted to a bed by sawing off his head and feet.
 Ego-design approach - the designer uses his or her own body as a reference Now every designer does this
to some extent for convenience, but it should serve only as a starting reference point.
 Design for the mean find the average eye height, and the majority of users will be accommodated. False
assumption as the diagram indicates, a majority of people are excluded by relying on the mean, with only
a few falling into the sweet spot in the center, good idea.
  Designing for one end of the spectrum (small) or the other (tall)-For example, if you design a door to
accommodate the tallest users, then by definition, those of shorter stature will fit as well, as clearance is a
one-ended variable. But in our case, the appropriate height of a kiosk display is a two-ended issue there is
a hypothetical "too high" as well as a "too low, can work in some cases.
 Design for adjustability - the product can accommodate a range of users, typically through a mechanical
solution. For example, a tilting, height adjustable screen, or multiple interaction stations set at different
eye heights. Of course adjustability in the physical world adds cost and complexity, and can lead to
unreliable products, so is not always an available solution, more workable approach.
 Design for More Types - In practice this typically means defining a population and then fitting for a
reasonable range within that population. Traditionally that range spans from the smallest fifth percentile
to the largest 95th percentile. This includes a very broad range of users, but purposely excludes the most
extreme 10% of the population (the largest 5% and smallest 5%) - the long tail, where a small number of
outlier users can account for a significant design change: most common solution. Design for All the
product can fit the entire range of an anthropometric characteristic. This is technically possible as humans
are not infinitely variable in any dimension; ideal solution.

[Figure 1]

Examples of Anthropometric data include:

 How far people can reach

 How much space a person needs
 How much force a person can exert
 The height and/or width of a person
 Length of arms/legs
 Size of a person’s feet
 Size of a person’s hand

Anthropometric Equipment and Instruments

Anthropometric Tools

Anthropometric tools are instruments for the measurement of different parts of the body as muscle, bones, and
adipose tissue or body fat. Sometimes the terminology of anthropometric equipment types can be confusing.
We’ve done our best to clarify terminology here.

 Anthropometer An anthropometer is tool comprised of rods that can be configured for many body
measurements. Or Anthropometer may reference a small or large bone anthropometer. An
anthropometer is a tool to measure the lengths of the human body An anthropometer is a tool to
measure the lengths of the human body.

[Figure 2]
  Small Bone Anthropometer (Small bone caliper, small sliding caliper ) A small bone anthropometer is a
sliding caliper usually between 140-200mm used to measure width of small bones, such as wrist, knee,
elbow, ankle.

[Figure 3]

 Large Bone Anthropometer (Large bone caliper, large sliding caliper) A large bone anthropometer is a
sliding caliper usually with a range of 600mm used to measure large bones, such as shoulder width and
chest depth. Chest depth can also be measured by a breadth caliper

[Figure 4]

 Breadth Caliper (Spreading caliper, chest depth caliper) A breadth caliper measures the anterior-posterior
chest depth, shoulder, and pelvis, usually has a range of 50cm / 20 inch

[Figure 5]

 Segmometer (Knee height caliper, flexible segmometer, rigid segmometeer, sliding broad- blade caliper) A
segmometer measures knee height and other bone lengths, such as forearm. It can also be used to locate
the midpoint of upper arm for body test . A segmometer is usually has a 3m range and is the size of a
standard handheld tape measure for easy transport.

[Figure 6]

 Knee Height Caliper (Segmometer, rigid segmometer, sliding broad-blade caliper) A knee height caliper is
a rigid sliding caliper with long jaws used to measure the distance from the bottom of the foot to the
 knee. That measurement can be used to calculate height of persons not able to stand. Also see
segmometer, which is more compact.

[Figure 7]

 Anthropometry Kit (Complete anthropometry kit) An anthropometry kit is a collection of calipers and
measurement instruments for complete anthropometric evaluation. It usually includes a small bone and
large bone anthropometer, a stadiometer, anthropometric tape measure, segmometer, and transport
case. A complete kit usuallly includes a skinfold caliper as well.

[Figure 8]

 Anthropometric Tape Measure Has a thin (6mm wide), flat, flexible steel blade with blank space before
the zero (6-8cm), and uses the metric system, about 2 meters in length. To measure wrist, ankle, waist.
Also for locating midpoint of upper arm for body fat testing.

[Figure 9]

 Skinfold Caliper - Body fat caliper. A caliper with jaws that measure thickness of skinfolds, usually with a
range of 60-100mm. Measure skinfold thickness at multiple sites on the body in order to calculate body
fat percentage.

[Figure 10]

 Stadiometer- Height Meter. A straight vertical meter usually 200-300cm in length. Used to measure
height of a person standing up.
 [Figure 11]

 Anthropometric Bench - An anthropometric bench is a wood bench used for anthropometric evaluations
by having subjects in ideal, comfortable, and consistent positions. Normally it has the size of the standards
for anthropometric evaluation: 50x40x30 centimeters

[Figure 12]

 Dermographic Markers / Pencils - Dermographic Markers are made specifically for marking the skin
during the measuring of anthropometric measurement and for easy removal.

[Figure 13]

 Biocondylar calipers: bone diameter is a nickel plated caliper for making a variety of body measurements,
bone breadth and limb girth. It includes a vinyl carrying case.

[Figure 14]

Although the majority of the instruments appear straight forward to use, a high level of training is
required to achieve high validity and accuracy of measurements.

Who Developed Anthropometry: Alphonse Bertillon (1853-1914)

Alphonse Bertillon was the son of the physician and founder of the Society of Anthropology of Paris, Louis-Adolphe
Bertillon. Although the process of obtaining human measurements had originated in ancient civilizations, Alphonse
Bertillon is credited as the father of anthropometrics based on his classification system known as the
“anthropometric system” or “judicial anthropometry”. Alphonse Bertillon began his career working for the Paris
police force in the criminal records department. It was here that Bertillon recognized the recurring problem that it
was becoming increasingly more difficult to identify repeat offenders, as the criminal records were stored
alphabetically and many criminals were devising aliases in order to avoid deportation and harsher sentences. To
address this issue, Bertillon devised a new classification system based on anthropomorphic measurements with
the assumptions that bone density is fixed past the age of 20 years, and human dimensions are intrinsically highly
variable. Bertillon obtained measurements of height, breadth, foot size, length and width of the head, length of
the middle finger, and the length of the left forearm, as well as other morphological and distinguishing
characteristics of criminals in custody (as shown below). He then classified each individual as small, medium, or
large, and added frontal and profile photography to each file. Such photography is still currently used today in the
form of a “mug shot”. After convincing the Paris criminology department to implement Bertillon’s system, this
method of classification was used to quickly and easily identify unknown individuals and repeat offenders. The use
of this anthropometric system was subsequently termed “Bertillonage” and spread rapidly throughout the world
during the late 1800s and early 1900s.

The History of Anthropometry

Ancient Anthrometric Measurements

The ancient civilizations of Rome, Greece, and Egypt primarily used anthropometric measurements for cultural
purposes (e.g., artwork) to represent beauty, power, and other desirable attributes of the human form. Symmetry
was particularly desirable, and units of measurement often consisted of the “width of a human hand” or length of
a human foot”.

Anthropomorphic Measurements During the Renaissance

Artists during the renaissance applied anthropometric measurements to artistic works by applying human
proportions. One of the most famous examples, is the works of the famous artist Leonardo da Vinci (depicted
below with the famous Vitruvian Man), who obtained measurements of the human body by analyzing cadavers.
Other artists relied on live models and historical achieves to obtain accurate anthropometric measurements.

Twentieth Century Anthropometrics

In the twentieth century, a subdiscipline of anthropometrics, known as “morphometrics” was established to

describe variations in size and shape of humans within distinct populations. This method involves the application of
multivariate statistics to analyze various biological landmarks to obtain characteristic shapes, ratios, or angles.
Today, the use of computers has resulted in the evolution of morphometrics into the field of geometric
morphometrics which uses powerful computational modeling to analyze various characteristics. Today, one of the
most common applications of geometric morphometrics is in the evaluation of bone density.

Stature was commonly used as an anthropometric measurement of human health as early as the eighteenth
century for military, slavery, and other productive purposes; however, while these early assessments were
generally based on eugenic theories, it was not until the twentieth century that environmental and social
conditions were correlated with human anthropometric measurements. In particular, it was found that North
American immigrants exhibited a shorter stature compared to the subsequent generations born in the Americas.
This observation lead to the use of anthropometrics to assess nutrition and other socioeconomic factors,
particularly during growth and development. Today, nutrition, infection, pollution, hypoxia, and various forms of
psychosocial stress are known to be associated with altered growth patterns. Although a taller stature is an
accurate indicator of increased wealth, weight is an indicator of a poor socioeconomic status in modern
populations. Moreover, since nutrition has such a strong correlation with body size, anthropometrics has also been
used to identify the impact of disease epidemics and times of famine in historical records. Similarly, major events
in human history, such as the industrial revolution, the invention of refrigeration, sanitation, vaccination, and other
medical advancements are also associated with changes in the anthropometric traits of human populations.

The historical use of anthropometry has been applied to a wide range of applications, including:

While some of these anthropomorphic applications have been used to gather scientific and epidemiological data,
they have also been applied to support eugenic and racist social agendas.

Paleoanthropology

The application of anthropomorphic techniques to the field of paleoanthropology has proven to be an extremely
valuable scientific method for studying human evolution through fossil remains. In particular, craniometry has
been used to measure various skull and facial characteristics to evaluate prehistoric fossils. Such measurements
have been critical in the study of human evolution, as craniometrics have allowed physical anthropologists to
quantify the gradual changes in pre-human skull size and shape as an adaptation to an increased brain volume.
Furthermore, both craniomorphic and other anthropomorphic measurements have been essential for the current
theories regarding the evolution of bipedalism and the large brain size in humans.

Experimental Psychology

In the late 1800’s, there was a movement towards the application of anthropometry to the field of psychology.
While some physical anthropometric measurements were used, such as body size, height, arm length, etc.,
psychologists began to assess these attributes in association with other human measurements, including sight
(e.g., color, distance, and clarity), touch (e.g., sensitivity, weight, and pain), movement (e.g., rate and reaction
time), memory, and mental fatigue.

Forensic Anthropometry

Originating with Bertillon’s anthropometric classification system applied to the field of criminology, forensic
anthropometry involves the application of anthropometrics to the identification of human remains. The goal of
forensic anthropometrics is to establish the age at the time of death, stature, body type (somatotype), sex, and any
other distinguishing characteristics based on physical and skeletal measurements to identify the deceased
individual. In particular, forensic anthropometry employs somatometry and osteometry to establish age, sex,
stature, and ethnicity to establish a positive identification.

Anthropometric Somatotypes

Anthropometric measurements can be used to describe particular human physiques, known as somatotypes. There
are three main somatotypes as illustrated below (endomorph, ectomorph, and mesomorph), although some
individuals may represent a hybrid of two somatotypes.

Endomorph

An endomorph refers to humans whose tissues are predominantly derived from the endoderm, exhibited by a soft,
round shape, large digestive viscera, fat accumulation, large trunk, and tapering extremities. The degree of
endomorphy is calculated based on the measurement of triceps, subscapular, and suprailiac skinfold thickness
corrected for height as an indication of the amount of fat in the body. To ensure validity, these measurements are
typically combined with at least one other measurement of percent body fat, such as underwater measurements.

Ectomorph

Ectomorph refers to humans whose tissues are derived primarily from the ectoderm, exhibited by a linear body
shape, large surface area, thin muscles and subcutaneous tissue, and moderately developed digestive viscera.
Ectomorphy is calculated by obtaining height and mass measurements and assessing the level of linearity. In the
Heath-Carter method, a cubic relationship known as the cf Ponderal Index iMesomor

Mesomorph

A mesomorph refers to humans whose tissues are derived primarily from the mesoderm, exhibited by increased
muscle, bone, and connective tissue. Such individuals typically have a hard physique and rectangular shape,
intermediate between the endo- and ectomorph. Mesomorphy is calculated based on bone diameter and muscle
circumference of two upper and two lower limbs, corrected for skinfold thickness, and compared with the
individual’s height as an indication of musculoskeletal development.

Heath-Carter Anthropometric Somatotype

The various somatotypes can be calculated using the Heath-Carter protocol to obtain direct measurements of
human body size, structure, and composition.

Size measurements involve:

 Head height, length, and width

 Head shape
 Sitting and standing height (provides an indication of the trunk height and lower limb relationship)
 Androgyny index (relative width of the shoulder and pelvis; typically a good indicator of sexual
dimorphism after puberty)

Structural measurements include:

 Height
 Weight
 Body mass index

Human composition measurements are based on the fact that the human body is composed of:

 Fat
 Muscle
 Bone
 Connective tissue
 Nervous tissue (e.g., the brain)
 Organs (e.g., heart, liver, etc.)
 Skin
Typically, calculations of body composition assume that the skin, muscle, bone, and other tissues
constitute lean body mass and the percentage of body fat differs between males and females
(Approx. 28% vs. 40.5% for males and females, respectively).

Current Applications of Anthropometry

While physical anthropologists and criminologists continue to use anthropometric measurements in the study of
human evolution through the comparison of novel fossil remains to archived specimens and forensics,
respectively, current applications have extended to:

 Industrial design and architecture (e.g., vehicle seating and cockpits)

 Clothing (e.g., military uniforms)
 Ergonomics (e.g., seating)
 Medicine (e.g., nutrition, aging, obesity, sports science, and diabetes)
 In these industries, anthropometric data is invaluable to the optimization of various products and
observing the changes which occur in response to various lifestyle, genetic, and ethic factors.

Significance of landmarks and planes

Anthropologists have expressed Crew of measurements for describing the Morphology of man. These
measurements are based on anatomical landmarks and Have been in use for long time. Anthropometry may seem
to be simple but taking accurate measurement requires rigorous training and strict adherence to
specified .Techniques, The anthropometric sites and descriptions are the basic standard Specifications for any
study. In anthropometry landmarks are very important. Anthropometric description is always in reference to the
anatomical position as the Body can assume a variety of postures. The precise location of the landmarks and
Position of various reference points for the rationale of taking body measurements Can be best understood by first
getting familiar with different planes and axis of The body. Anthropometric measurements are taken according to
certain laid down standard Procedures. This helps in reducing any variation while taking measurement and Also
the values of variables are comparable with other studies. The oldest classical Standard procedure for taking
measurement was given by Martin and Saller in 1959. Later during the last quarter of the 20Th century many
recommendations were given Regarding techniques of taking measurements. The most important protocol was
Suggested by Tanner, Jurman and Heirnaux under the aegis of International Biological Programme/Human
Adaptability section (IBP/HA) in1969. This is widely used in Innumerable studies all over the world.

There are certain positions in the human body which hold importance while taking Measurements. Frankfort
horizontal plane is one of them. Frankfort Horizontal Plane was established in 1984 at the World Congress on
Anthropology in Frankfurt,

Germany. This plane is used to orient a human skull or head such that the plane Is horizontal. Eye-ear plane,
Franlifort horizontal plane is its other names. It is a Horizontal plane which is characterized in profile by a line
which is the lowest point On the margin of the orbit of the eye (lower margin of the left orbit) and the highest
Point on the margin or the auditory meatus (External auditory canal).

The head of the subject should rest without any strain in the eye-ear plane or F-H Plane i.e. tragion and right
orbitale must lie in the same plane. All those concerning mid sagittal plane should be taken on the right side of
the Body because it is easier to work with instruments with right hand. Some recommended all measurements
except those involving, the mid-sagittal Plane should be taken on left side of the body in order to avoid any
occupational Exaggeration or deformity. Let us get familiar with planes/axis considered while taking
measurements. Sagittal plane or antero-posterior plane- is the plane which is parallel to the vertical Plane and
divides the whole body into two parts, right and left. This plane which Divides the body precisely into left and right
halves’ is called mid-sagittal plane .

Mid-Sagittal plane is vertical plane which passes through the body in such a way that It is parallel to the median
plane. Median plane is a plane which passes longitudinally Through the middle of the body from front to back in
such a way that it divides the Body into right and left halves. This figure shows the different planes of human body.

[Figure 15]
Frontal Anthropometry plane: The plane which is at right angle to the sagittal plane and body into front and rear
parts is the frontal plane.

Transverse plane: This plane is at right angles to the sagittal and transverse planes Dividing the body into upper
and lower art.

A little about the various axis considered while taking measurements.

Lateral axis: Any resulting line which comes from the intersection of frontal and

Transverse plane is called lateral axis.

Longitudinal axis: The intersection of frontal and sagittal planes represents Longitudinal axis.

Sagittal axis: The intersection of sagittal and transverse planes represents the sagittal Axis or antero-posterior, For
each measurement taken certain precautions need to be followed which would Be mentioned after each
measurement in the following units.

Standard positions

[Figure 16]

The subject is oriented to a standing position with head and eyes directed forward, Upper limbs hanging by the
sides with the palms forward, thumbs pointing the sides with fingers pointing directly downward, and the feet
together with The toes pointing directly forward. Positions while taking somatometric measurements

Standing position

[Figure 17]
Sitting position

[Figure 18]

Applications of anthropometry

Anthropometry characterizes the classic and conventional tool of physical anthropology. It deals with the
measurement of man. The number and type of measurement is clearly dependent on the nature of the problem.
Human growth and development under the umbrella of physical anthropology have improved upon their
techniques to meet the challenges of medical research through anthropometry. Variations in anthropometric
dimensions among different population groups attributed to genetic basis occur in body proportions and
distribution of fat patterning. Fat patterning, several circumferences, gross fat content, ratio of stature and weight
are important criterion of health and nutritional status. These mentioned parameter play a vital role in monitoring
the growth status of children and youth which serve as a pointer to nutritional and health conditions of social
inequalities in society. The anthropometric changes have been witnessed overtime reflecting the secular trends
which divulge the increase or decrease in size, maturity etc.Anthropometric data is of immense importance ill
public health. Identification growth retardation in children by using indicators like height, weight And arm
circumference would categorize individuals at high risk of morbidity and Mortality. We all are also familiar that any
aspect of our physiological function is Reliant on morphology and it is evaluated by measurements which is
anthropometry In man. Anthropometry contributes significant role for studies of chronic diseases Endemic to
developed countries including cardio-vascular disease, cancer, diabetes And obesity. Anthropometry has a role to
play in ascertaining the protein-energy Content of the patient viz-a viz his normal range, monitoring the alterations
and its Rate in protein-energy balance over a given span of time and also project complexities Due to malnutrition
(obesity or undernutrition), resulting in the occurrence of some Morbid event. Measurement of height, weight and
other dimensions give an idea Of child’s growth; the distance curve and velocity curve provide vital information
Regarding the rate of human growth and development and final size attained. Adult Stature can also be predicted
using skeletal age, parental height and growth velocity Proceeding few years. Body size, frame, fat patterning and
body composition; all Indicators of health are considered as long term pointer of life patterns, hence as An over all
measures of health and disease risk. The collective results of measured Body with weight, girtns, circumferences
and skinfold thickness can ascertain the Amount and rate of change over time in protein energy content of the
individual. And Comparing the patients’ measurement with that of healthy reference group facilitates In
determining his threat of complication. Intermittent anthropometric measurement During the course of nutrition
support programme offers valuable information of Changes in body composition. Anthropometric measurements
together with standard Nutritional assessment indices endeavor to foretell complications of malnutrition. You
must have observed that in any sports event individuals with similar body Physique outclass. When analyzed for
somatotype distribution on somatochart, They tend to crowd together narrowly in a particular area of the
somatochart; which Implies that certain somatotype is preferred in particular sport. Once the role of Physical
structure to sports performance was substantiated, Olympics or World games Were the places used to hunt for
suitable physique. Hence, probables most suitable For any given sport can be identified and encouraged, though
physique is not the Only factor for success. Physique as we have earlier learnt can be best studied using
Anthropometric measurements. Anthropometric techniques aids in recognizing the Age changes in physical
structures’ and its association with functional features and Motor abilities; and the longitudinal studies facilitates
in sorting out the individual Variations in these features. These studies also help in understanding the individual
Trends in development of physique over the years, opening path for talent search. Increased muscularity
determined by somatotyping has greater susceptibility to Premature coronary heart disease. Waist-Hip ratio is
found to be a good indicator of stroke and ischemic heart disease. Same way diabetes, psychological problems,
hypertension have shown their predictability using anthropometric measures Anthropometry has a role to play in
cancer too. Since diet constitutes to be an important risk for cancer, anthropometry can help evaluate nutritional
status of an individual. Body measure of a child is also a good predictor of his/her nutritional status. Nutritional
anthropometry based on height, weight, skinfold thickness and upper arm circumference is an easy, safe and
effective method of screening the children for their growth with a comment on their nutritional status. Have you
ever observed that certain specific disease cause problems to specific type of physique? The reason could be that
the physique could be predisposed to certain diseases. Adiposity and muscularity are important determinants of
coronary artery disease. Similarly blood pressure, blood lipids, cancer etc. have shown relationship with human
physique. Predisposition to various metabolic disorders can be adjudged using anthropometric measurements.
These measurements enjoy creditability in epidemiological studies especially concerning cardiovascular risk
estimation. Studies of blood pressure versus triceps skinfold and subscapular skinfold has revealed that risk of
higher blood pressure is better ascertained with central adiposity. Anthropometric measures like stature, relative
weight, muscularity, frame size, various weight !height indices, waist-hip ratio, skinfold thickness at various site
and the overall distribution of subcutaneous fat, body mass index are reliable indicators for risk of developing
metabolic disorders and various diseases. Anthropometric methods have provided predictive and diagnostic
information of several chromosomal abnormalities, e.g. tuniers syndrome. They have not only offered
discriminatory factors and typical character of these anomalies but also an understanding of the contributors of
various chromosomes to growth. Physical fitness is crucial for upholding a reasonable level of health and physical
activity is necessary to keep our body function properly. To maintain good health a good physical performance is
an advantageous quality designated to be a positive health criterion while a low physical performance is taken as
health risk factor. Anthropometric techniques are used to measure habitual physical activity patterns in individuals
as well as population groups. Anthropometric data indicating variation in different ethnic populations as well as
socio-economic groups have been beneficial to orthopedic and plastic surgeons as well as forensic scientists.
Anthropometry techniques facilitate forensic anthropologist in identification of suspect be it in estimation of
stature or gender or age determination. The interest in measuring the human body dates back to ancient times.
With the passage of time sophisticated instruments have come into existence. The body measurements hold
significant positions. Body measurements are valuable in studying different groups. The variations in them divulge
information and point towards factors responsible for such change. Comparison between the body measurements
of normal and abnormal group reveals the differences and the effect of the abnormality of the body.Human body
measurements have huge relevance in vast arena as all the gadgets which we use apply these measurements to
make it user friendly. Anthropometry plays a significant role in automobile industry in designing comfortable seats
for passengers and drivers. Keeping in view the human arm and leg dimensions into considerations, the control
panel for operational purpose is designed. Similarly, airplanes, space shuttles, fighter jets and other automobiles
are designed using anthropometry taking the dimensions of the user. Likewise, the dimensions of head and face
facilitates in the designing of helmets, oxygen masks, and respirators and other body dimensions are utilized for
designing clothing, gloves for firefighters, military personnel and industry worker, prosthetic limbs, medical and
surgical devices, scuba diving gear and many other including the garment and shoe industry which heavily depends
on anthropometry for fitting and functional purpose. Left

Hander have been benefited by anthropometry specially for designing scissors, pens, Peelers, guitar, golf sticks,
watches and many more things. Anthropometry Skeletal frame of human body has immense capacity of not only
carrying but additional weight of articles used everyday. Our sturdy bones and joints Have the ability to support
huge amount of soft tissues while a frail skeletal frame Has constraint in putting on soft tissues. Various measures
like width of the joints Aids in estimating the skeletal frame size. Apart from this humerus bicondylar, femur
Bicondylar, shoulder and hip width, chest breadth, chest depth, wrist breadth and Ankle breadth too are good
measures of skeletal breadth. Obesity a global epidemic Is determined using anthropometric measurements like
height weight relation, waist, Hip ratio and waist circumference.

ERGONOMICS

The word Ergonomic derives from the Greek word ergon, meaning work, and nomo, meaning natural laws.
Ergonomics describes the scientific study of the efficiency of man in his working environment. This relation of
interaction between humans and other elements of a system can apply to theories, principles, data and methods
of design. These interactions are all done for the purpose of optimizing a human’s well-being and overall system
performance. The main goal of ergonomics is to strive for the most efficient and comfortable working environment
to work within and around.

The name ergonomics officially proposed at a 1949 meeting of the British Admiralty (July 12), by Prof. Hugh
Murrell. The name ‘Ergonomics’ officially accepted in 1950. The name Ergonomics was derived from the Greek
words: Ergon – work; Nomos – natural law.

The first use of the word appeared in 1949, when a group of people decided to form a new society, whose
name was the ‘Ergonomics Research Society’. They focused on the development and discovery of
knowledge that concerns the characteristics of human beings that are applicable to the design of systems
and devices. These discoveries are done to find the most ergonomic way of design. The society emerged
during World War II, as a result of the wok and experience from many specialists who were involved in the
current manned systems of that time. These systems included those operating on the Earth’s surface,
underwater, and in space. Their research is very important for situations where humans are typically not
in a comfortable or familiar environment, such as outer space or under the sea, and so the ergonomics
behind the design of a space can become extremely useful tools.

The skill of reaching an ergonomic environment is very important to achieve human resourcefulness and
usefulness. Ergonomists, who are the practitioners of ergonomics, those who study work and how work is
done and how to work better, try to achieve this goal through design. When designing an object, it should
suit most needs of the user, both structurally and aesthetically.

When designing a home environment, for example, an architect needs to take into account the most
comfortable and efficient ways of working around a space, but still maintain an interesting design to the
area. In a kitchen, for example, there needs to be enough space to move around freely, but still be able to
reach to different cabinets, drawers and utilities with ease and frequency. An ergonomic innovation for
kitchen space is the kitchen work triangle, where the three major working functions of a kitchen, which
are the refrigerator, the sink and the stove, are in close proximity to each other but not close enough to
make someone feel contained and uncomfortable, so they are able to work efficiently in the space.
 Importance of ergonomics
Ergonomics is an important part of research in the product development process. Its purpose is to
increase the safety, comfort and performance of a product or an environment, such as an office.

Ergonomics uses anthropometrical data to determine the optimum size, shape and form of a product, and
make it easier for people to use.

Ergonomists can help you to identify which user characteristics you should take into account during your
design process. This is important when you consider how much individuals vary in terms of:

 Body size
 Body shape
 Strengths
 Mobility
 Sensory sensitivity
 Mental ability
 Experience
 Training
 Culture
 Emotions

When you apply ergonomic methods early in the design process, they can often identify opportunities for
innovation. Find out more about the user-centred design process.

History of ergonomics

Alphonse Chapanis (March 17, 1917 – October 4, 2002) was an American pioneer in the field of industrial design,
and is widely considered one of the fathers of ergonomics or human factors – the science of ensuring that design
takes account of human characteristics.

Christensen (1987) points out that the importance of a “good fit” between humans and tools was probably realized
early in the development of the species. Australopithecus Prometheus selected pebble tools and made scoops
from antelope bones in a clear display of selecting/creating objects to make tasks easier to accomplish. It seems
that the history of ergonomics goes back as far as humans do.

In the work environment, the selection and creation of tools, machines, and work processes continued. Over
centuries, the effectiveness of hammers, axes and plows improved. With the Industrial Revolution, machines such
as the spinning jenny (a machine that produced yarn to make cloth) and rolling mills (a method of flattening iron
ore into flat sheets) were developed to improve work processes. This is the same motivation behind much of
ergonomics today.

The association between occupations and musculoskeletal injuries was documented centuries ago. Bernardino
Ramazinni (1633-1714) wrote about work-related complaints (that he saw in his medical practice) in the 1713
supplement to his 1700 publication, “De Morbis Artificum (Diseases of Workers).”
Wojciech Jastrzebowski created the word ergonomics in 1857 in a philosophical narrative, “based upon the truths
drawn from the Science of Nature” (Jastrzebowski, 1857).

In the early 1900’s, the production of industry was still largely dependent on human power/motion and ergonomic
concepts were developing to improve worker productivity. Scientific Management, a method that improved
worker efficiency by improving the job process, became popular.

Frederick W. Taylor was a pioneer of this approach and evaluated jobs to determine the “One Best Way” they
could be performed. At Bethlehem Steel, Taylor dramatically increased worker production and wages in a
shoveling task by matching the shovel with the type of material that was being moved (ashes, coal or ore).

Frank and Lillian Gilbreth made jobs more efficient and less fatiguing through time motion analysis and
standardizing tools, materials and the job process. By applying this approach, the number of motions in bricklaying
was reduced from 18 to 4.5 allowing bricklayers to increase their pace of laying bricks from 120 to 350 bricks per
hour.

World War II prompted greater interest in human-machine interaction as the efficiency of sophisticated military
equipment (i.e., airplanes) could be compromised by bad or confusing design. Design concepts of fitting the
machine to the size of the soldier and logical/understandable control buttons evolved.

After World War II, the focus of concern expanded to include worker safety as well as productivity. Research began
in a variety of areas such as:

Muscle force required to perform manual tasks

Compressive low back disk force when lifting

Cardiovascular response when performing heavy labor

Perceived maximum load that can be carried, pushed or pulled

Areas of knowledge that involved human behavior and attributes (i.e., decision making process, organization
design, human perception relative to design) became known as cognitive ergonomics or human factors. Areas of
knowledge that involved physical aspects of the workplace and human abilities such as force required to lift,
vibration and reaches became known as industrial ergonomics or ergonomics.

The broad group focus and name duality continues at this time. Contributors to ergonomics/human factors
concepts include industrial engineers, industrial psychologists, occupational medicine physicians, industrial
hygienists, and safety engineers. Professions that use ergonomics/human factors information include architects,
occupational therapists, physical therapists, occupational medicine nurses, and insurance loss control specialists.
Advantages of Ergonomics

Ergonomics overall helps us in minimizing our overall expenditure and enhancing the productivity level. Besides, it
curtails the chances of accidents and unfavorable situations at workplaces. Besides, it also improves the quality of
output because the workers are healthy and fit to work to their maximum capabilities. The employees are more
engaged in their work without getting distracted. Most importantly ergonomics adds to the company’s goodwill.
When our workers are satisfied with the working conditions they spread a good word about the organization which
is a very important factor to invite investments and more competent manpower.

Other Uses

Ergonomics is not confined to workplaces only but it can be extended to our homes as well. It is considered in the
manufacture of home essentials to allow our bodies to acquire the maximum level of comfort while we’re sitting
on a sofa or using a laptop in bed. All these things are referred to as home ergonomics. For the purpose of home
ergonomics, ergonomic furniture is available to minimize backache and painful body conditions. In addition,
ergonomic kitchen tools are also there to make sure that we don’t meet injuries while working in the kitchen.
While growing plants in a garden, snow shovels, and Motus tools are specially designed considering ergonomics
that we can use to ensure a comfortable and environment-friendly gardening experience. Things like shoulder
bags, shoes, and similar personal belongings are also designed as per ergonomics standards.

Categories of ergonomics

There are three broad areas of ergonomics:

Physical ergonomics looks at how human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical
characteristics relate to physical activity. This includes:

 Working postures
 Manual handling
 Repetitive movements
 Musculoskeletal disorders
 Workplace layout and environment

Psychological ergonomics studies mental processes (eg perception, cognition, memory, reasoning and
emotion) and how people interact with products, systems and environments. This includes:
 Mental workload
 Decision-making
 Human-computer interaction
 Human reliability
 Attitudes
 Stress
 Motivation
 Pleasure
 Cultural differences

Organizational ergonomics is about optimising the organizational structures, policies and processes of socio-
technical systems. This includes:
  Communication
 Work design
 Staff resource management
 Working time patterns
 Co-operative work
 Quality management
 Organizational culture

To ensure that you keep your end users’ needs in focus at all times, you should make ergonomists an integral part
of your design development team.

Relation of Ergonomics in Architecture

 With the goal of lessening humans adaptation process to the environment & due to global warming,
designs are being:

Ecological – ex. Healthy and built from natural materials

Sustainable – ex. Independent of water & energy supplies & not polluting the Environment

Ergonomics consideration – ex. Adequate to meet the needs of people, according to their preferences & tradition,
therefore creating the feeling of well-being

Economical – ex. Cheaper than the existing building techniques

The Three F’s of Ergonomics are

 Function
 Furniture/fixture
 Flow

Five Aspects of Ergonomics:

 Safety – Medicine bottles, the print on them could be larger so that a sick person who may have bad
vision (due to sinuses, etc.) can more easily see the dosage and label. Ergonomics could design the print
style, color & size of labels for optimal viewing.. In a workspace Ergonomics can help reduce costs by
improving safety. This would decrease the money paid out in workers’ compensation. For example, over
five million workers sustain overextension injuries per year. Through ergonomics, workplaces can be
designed so that workers do not have to overextend themselves and the manufacturing industry could
save billions in workers’ compensation.
 Comfort – Alarm clock display, some display are harshly bright, drawing one’s eye to the light when
surroundings are dark. Ergonomic principles could redesign this based on contrast principles.
 Ease of use – Street signs, in a strange area, many times it is difficult to spot street signs. This could be
addressed with the principles of visual detection in ergonomics.
 Productivity/Performance – HD TV, the sound on HD TV is much lower than regular TV so when you
switched from HD to regular, the volume increases dramatically. Ergonomics recognize that this difference
in loudness hurts human ears & this could be solved by evening out decibel levels.
 Aesthetics – Signs in workplace, signage should be made consistent throughout the workplace to not only
be aesthetically pleasing, but also so that information is easily accessible.
 Workplace/Office Ergonomics may also take the reactive/proactive approach when applying ergonomics
in the office. With a Proactive ergonomics program, this is the method of seeking areas that can be
rehabilitated and fixing these ergonomic issues before they become a bigger problem. Problems may be
fixed through ergonomic equipment design or task design. With a Reactive ergonomics program, this is
when something needs to be fixed, and corrective action is taken. Ergonomic Equipment design changes
the actual, physical devices used by people. Ergonomic task design changes what people do with the
equipment. Environmental design changes the environment in which a person works, but not the physical
equipment they use.

Ergonomics Domains of Specialization

According to the International Ergonomics Association, there are three broad domains of ergonomics: physical,
cognitive, and organizational.

 Physical Ergonomics

Physical ergonomics is concerned with human anatomical, anthropometric, physiological and biomechanical
characteristics as they relate to physical activity.

This is the ergonomics domain we are most concerned with in the workplace, and most of the content on this site
is very much focused on workplace ergonomics.

Workplace Ergonomics

The science of fitting workplace conditions and job demands to the capabilities of the working population.
Ergonomics is an approach or solution to deal with a number of problems—among them are work-related
musculoskeletal disorders.

At its core, workplace ergonomics is really about building a better workplace. When jobs are designed to match the
capabilities of people, it results in better work being produced and a better experience for the person doing it.

Through that lens, ergonomics creates value on several fronts. It’s good for your people and good for your
business.

Benefits of Ergonomics

 Lower costs
 Higher productivity
 Better product quality
 Improved employee engagement
 Better safety culture

The ergonomics improvement process systematically identifies ergonomic hazards and puts in place
engineering and administrative control measures to quantifiably reduce risk factors.

Ergonomics Process

Asess Risk: Conducting an ergonomic assessment is a foundational element of the ergonomics process. Your
ergonomic improvement efforts will never get off the ground without being able to effectively assess jobs in your
workplace for musculoskeletal disorder (MSD) risk factors.
 Plan Improvements: The core goal of the ergonomics process is to make changes to your workplace that
reduce risk. Making changes at scale requires a significant planning effort that includes prioritizing jobs to
be improved, identifying effective improvement ideas, and cost-justifying the improvement projects

Measure Progress: Measurement is an important component of any successful continuous improvement

process. High performing ergonomics programs are constantly measured using both leading and lagging
indicators.

Scale Solutions: By establishing a common set of tools to train your workforce, assess risk, plan
improvements, measure progress, and design new work processes, you’ll be able to scale ergonomics best
practices throughout your organization.

 Cognitive Ergonomics is concerned with mental processes, such as perception, memory, reasoning, and
motor response, as they affect interactions among humans and other elements of a system.

 Organizational Ergonomics is concerned with the optimization of sociotechnical systems, including their
organizational structures, policies, and processes.

 Environmental ergonomics human interaction with environment

Principles of Ergonomics
1. Work in Neutral Postures
Your posture provides a good starting point for evaluating the tasks that you do. The best positions in
which to work are those that keep the body “in neutral.”
- Maintain the “S-curve” of the spine Your spinal column is shaped more or less like an “S.”
- It is important to maintain the natural S-curve of the back, whether sitting or standing. The most
important part of this “S” is in the lower back, which means that it is good to keep a slight “sway back,”
When standing, putting one foot up on a footrest helps to keep the spinal column in proper alignment.
- Working for long periods with your back in a “C-curve” can place strain on your back. Good lumbar
support is often helpful to maintain the proper curve in the small of your back.
- The “Inverted V-curve” creates an even greater strain on your back. Even without lifting a load, bending
over like this creates a great deal of pressure on the spine.
- One common improvement is to use a lifter or tilter. Or there may be other ways of making
improvements depending upon the situation.
- Keep the neck aligned
The neck bones are part of the spinal column and thus are subject to the same requirements of
maintaining the S-curve. Prolonged twisted and bent postures of the neck can be as stressful as its
equivalent for the lower back. The best way to make changes is usually to adjust equipment so that your
neck is in its neutral posture.
- Keeps elbows at sides
The neutral posture for your arms is to keep you elbows at your sides and your shoulders relaxed. This is
pretty obvious once you think about it, but we don’t always do it.
- Keep Wrists in Neutral
There are several good ways to think about wrist posture. One way is to keep the hand in the same plane
as the forearm, as this person is doing here by using a wrist rest along with the computer mouse.

2. Excessive Force Excessive force on your joints can create a potential for fatigue and injury. In practical
terms, the action item is for you to identify specific instances of excessive force and think of ways to make
improvements.
- For example, pulling a heavy cart might create excessive force for your back. To make improvements it
might help to make sure the floor is in good repair, that the wheels on the cart are sufficiently large, and
that there are good grips on the cart. Or a power tugger might be needed.
3. Everything in Easy Reach
The next principle deals with keeping things within easy reach. In many ways, this principle is redundant
with posture, but it helps to evaluate a task from this specific perspective.
- Reach Envelope
One concept is to think about the “reach envelope.” This is the semi-circle that your arms make as you
reach out. Things that you use frequently should ideally be within the reach envelope of your full arm.
Things that you use extremely frequently should be within the reach envelope of your forearms.

- Standard measurement usually based on the 50th percentile in anthropometric data

- Minimum allowable usually based on the 5th percentile in anthropometric data
- Maximum allowable – usually based on the 95th percentile in anthropometric Data
4. Work at Proper Heights
Working at the right height is also a way to make things easier.
- Do most work at elbow height
A good rule of thumb is that most work should be done at about elbow height, whether sitting or
standing.
A real common example is working with a computer keyboard. But, there are many other types of tasks
where the rule applies.
-Exceptions to the Rule
There are exceptions to this rule, however. Heavier work is often best done lower than elbow height.
Precision work or visually intense work is often best done at heights above the elbow.

5. Reduce Excessive Motions

The next principle to think about is the number of motions you make throughout a day, whether with
your fingers, your wrists, your arms, or your back.

- One of the simplest ways to reduce manual repetitions is to use power tools whenever possible.
- Another approach is to change layouts of equipment to eliminate motions. In the example here, the box is
moved closer and tilted, so that you can slide the products in, rather than having to pick them up each
time.
6. Minimize Fatigue and Static Load
Holding the same position for a period of time is known as static load. It creates fatigue and discomfort
and can interfere with work.
- A good example of static load that everyone has experienced is writer’s cramp. You do not need to hold
onto a pencil very hard, just for long periods. Your muscles tire after a time and begin to hurt.

7. Minimize Pressure Points Another thing to watch out for is excessive pressure points, sometimes called
"contact stress."
- A good example of this is squeezing hard onto a tool, like a pair of pliers. Adding a cushioned grip and
contouring the handles to fit your hand makes this problem better.
8. Provide Clearance Having enough clearance is a concept that is easy to relate to
- Work areas need to be set up so that you have sufficient room for your head, your knees, and your feet.
You obviously don’t want to have to bump into things all the time, or have to work in contorted postures,
or reach because there is no space for your knees or feet.
9. Move, Exercise, and Stretch To be healthy the human body needs to be exercised and stretched.
 - You should not conclude after reading all the preceding information about reducing repetition, force, and
awkward postures, that you’re best off just lying around pushing buttons. Muscles need to be loaded and
your heart rate needs periodic elevation.
10. Maintain a Comfortable Environment
This principle is more or less a catch-all that can mean different things depending upon the nature of the
types of operations that you do.
- Lighting and Glare ,One common problem is lighting.
In the computerized office, lighting has become a big issue, because the highly polished computer screen
reflects every stray bit of light a
11. Enhance clarity & understanding – provide labels & signage
12. Improve work organization – consider frequency of item usage; ex. Operating rooms/office cubicles.

Ergonomic Safety Principles

Ergonomic principles of safety refer to making sure that the products and methods a worker uses are a correct
match to the worker’s specific job and personal capabilities. The importance of ensuring that a worker and the
conditions and demands of their job setting are a good fit has a tremendous impact on both workers and the
companies that employ them. Generally, when ergonomic principles and practices are followed there is:

 A reduced risk of illnesses and injuries

 Higher productivity levels
 A greater sense of satisfaction among the employees

Ergonomic Risk Factors

Often when people hear the term ergonomics they think of an office setting with an ergonomic chair and computer
keyboard. However, ergonomic risk factors exist in many different types of workplaces, as well as in homes and
home offices. Examples of risk factors include jobs that require:

 Repetitive, forceful or prolonged use of the fingers, wrist or hands

 Excessive, repetitive or constant stress on any part of the body
 Sitting in one position for long periods of time
 Heavy lifting
 Frequent lifting
 Carrying, pulling or pushing heavy objects
 Prolonged positions requiring postures that are uncomfortable or awkward
 Working in areas with constant vibrations

Common Injuries
The resulting injuries develop over time and are known as repetitive stress injuries or cumulative stress
disorders that result in injuries to the worker’s musculoskeletal system often resulting in chronic painful
conditions including:
 Back pain
 Neck pain
 Pain between the shoulders
 Muscle strains
 Weakness in an arm, hand or fingers
 A tingling sensation in an arm, hand or fingers
 Loss of feeling in an arm, hand or fingers
 Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
 Tennis elbow
 Eye strain

Ergonomics, in practice, is found to be applied over the field of working environment and deals with
various aspects such as:

Anatomical factors in workplace layout, including the placement of machines/equipment and components
to suit human body measurements and design of seats etc. In order to help accurate perception of various
display panels and presentation of all types of instrument dials to deal with layout of the work place.

The design of wheels and control levers in order to suit human mental and physical characteristics.
Climatic conditions such as lighting and noise at the workplace. Adaptation of the designs of
machines/equipment, tools and work place layout to suit human beings was under taken by work study
engineers. But these engineers relied mostly on their intuition and practical knowledge in that field.
The other sources of information were human experience of fatigue plus stress felt by his subjects. All this
was a generalistic approach which has been discarded in current ergonomic practice. Current ergonomic
practice is emphasis on a systematic research into all human aspects of the system under investigation.

Studies were conducted in the areas of air craft, military space vehicle systems and electronics initially.
Presently the design of various systems such as, automobile, production equipment, transportation
systems, consumer products, architectural design, computers, housing, town and country planning public
Utilities and agriculture equipment etc. are being studied to determine their ergonomic suitability.
Likewise service system have also been investigated.

Ergonomics is profitably applied in following three areas:

1. Design of Man-Machine Systems:
A man-machine system is a system where one or more workmen/ human beings work in relation with one
or more machines, devices or equipment. Thus a worker drilling a hole in a job or a person using a
hammer to drive a nail in a wooden job (an article being manufactured is an example of a man- machine
system as far as ergonomics is concerned.Such systems could be productive systems as well as service
systems such as a post office or fire fighting system or a dispensary etc. Ergonomics is applied to adapt
such systems so as to provide maximum job satisfaction and comfort and minimum physiological and
mental load to the operator of the system.

2. Design of Consumer Goods and Service Systems:

Ergonomics is applicable in the design of consumer goods starting from design of tooth brush and other
items such as dinning set; sofa set; kitchen ware, house hold fittings table and shoes etc. Similarly
protective equipment such as safety goggles, adverse weather and space clothing, gloves, crash helmets,
fire fighting and industrial hazard protection and appliances etc. should also be economically sound.

3. Design of Working Environment:

While designing a proper working environment for work force/workers at work, the various factors
related with ergonomics such as human endurance of illumination, pollution, noise heating and
ventilation should be taken into consideration. This aspect should be taken into consideration at each
stage right design up to real utilization or actual service.
 The field of this applicable unlimited. All factors concerned with environments such as design of work
benches, public transport, road systems, town and country planning, personnel, neighbourhood, as well
as airports etc. should be subjected to ergonomic analysis.

Common Areas Were Ergonomics Is Used

Ergonomics can be applied to all areas of human activity that even go beyond strictly professional circles.
Nonetheless, there are some sectors that benefit particularly from the contributions of ergonomics, these
are:
 Safety in transport: every remarkable incident or accident (automobile, train, plane, etc.) leads
to a battery of analysis, diagnostic and technological or organizational response processes that
end up improving safety conditions and the comfort of drivers, cabin crew and passengers.
 Competition on the Internet (especially in e-commerce) creates a crazy race for the ergonomics
and design of sites and applications.
 The challenges of sustainable development are a major vector of the benefits brought by
ergonomics in terms of working conditions.

A Process for Protecting Workers

Employers are responsible for providing a safe and healthful workplace for their workers. In the
workplace, the number and severity of MSDs resulting from physical overexertion, and their associated
costs, can be substantially reduced by applying ergonomic principles.

Implementing an ergonomic process is effective in reducing the risk of developing MSDs in high-risk
industries as diverse as construction, food processing, firefighting, office jobs, healthcare, transportation
and warehousing. The following are important elements of an ergonomic process:

 Provide Management Support – A strong commitment by management is critical to the overall

success of an ergonomic process. Management should define clear goals and objectives for the
ergonomic process, discuss them with their workers, assign responsibilities to designated staff
members, and communicate clearly with the workforce.
 Involve Workers – A participatory ergonomic approach, where workers are directly involved in
worksite assessments, solution development and implementation is the essence of a successful
ergonomic process. Workers can:
- and provide important information about hazards in their workplaces.
- in the ergonomic process by voicing their concerns and suggestions for reducing exposure to risk factors
and by evaluating the changes made as a result of an ergonomic assessment.
 Provide Training – Training is an important element in the ergonomic process. It ensures that
workers are aware of ergonomics and its benefits, become informed about ergonomics related
concerns in the workplace, and understand the importance of reporting early symptoms of
MSDs.
 Identify Problems – An important step in the ergonomic process is to identify and assess
ergonomic problems in the workplace before they result in MSDs.
 Encourage Early Reporting of MSD Symptoms – Early reporting can accelerate the job
assessment and improvement process, helping to prevent or reduce the progression of
symptoms, the development of serious injuries, and subsequent lost-time claims.
 Implement Solutions to Control Hazards – There are many possible solutions that can be
implemented to reduce, control or eliminate workplace MSDs.
 Evaluate Progress – Established evaluation and corrective action procedures are required to
periodically assess the effectiveness of the ergonomic process and to ensure its continuous
improvement and long-term success. As an ergonomic process is first developing, assessments
should include determining whether goals set for the ergonomic process have been met and
determining the success of the implemented ergonomic solutions.