Student Notes & Flipped Videos

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 Student Notes & Flipped Videos
Description: Find 8 sets of notes that correspond to 8 of my
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 Intro to Motivation Notes
Motivation is….

Sources of motivation
● biological factors -
● emotional factors -
● cognitive factors -
● social factors -

Motivation Concepts

Instinct:

Problems with this theory (especially with humans)?:

What are needs and drives?

Incentives
→ Incentive theory:

● Value of an incentive is influenced by both biological and cognitive factors

remember…incentives PULL us into action

Theories of Motivation

Evolutionary Theory

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Drives
→ Drive-reduction theory: (Take your time with this one. Your explanation should be lengthy, and
really think about what it is you are writing so that you understand it).

remember…drives PUSH us to satisfy our needs

Optimum Arousal
→ Arousal theories:

● Your level of arousal can be measured by electrical activity in your brain, heart rate or muscle
tension
● People perform best when arousal is moderate
● Generally people try to increase arousal when to low or decrease when too high– level is
different for all people

Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:

Definitions of each level: Example of each level:

theory is a bit arbitrary – the order is not universally fixed, as there will always be exceptions

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Cognitive Dissonance
 Hunger Motivation Notes
What triggers hunger:
1. Stomach contractions -
2. Body chemistry -
3. Hypothalamus -

Lateral Hypothalamus: Ventromedial Hypothalamus:

So how does it all work?..... Set Point Theory:

→ What is it?...

→ How do we maintain our set point?...

● Keep in mind… Not all researchers believe in idea of a set point

The Psychology of Hunger

● External incentives -

● Taste preference -

● Many other items as well can influence “hunger” – eating by the “clock,” social eating,
stress/depression eating patterns, other eating cues like holidays or when watching TV or
movie

Eating Disorders (now called “Feeding and Eating Disorders” in the DSM-V)
1. Anorexia nervosa -

2. Bulimia nervosa -

3. Binge eating disorder -

→ Cultures who put more emphasis on looks/appearance have higher incidences of eating
disorders

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 Sex Motivation Notes
Sex is an unusual drive…because sex is not necessary for individual survival

Scientific study of sex

● 1st major study – 1950, Alfred Kinsey interviewed over 17,000 people concerning their sexual
behavior

● 1970s – Masters and Johnson brought sex into the laboratory – studied sex by directly
observing and recording physiological patterns of people engaging in sexual activity
Sexual response cycle – sequence of human sexual responding

1. excitement phase -

2. plateau phase -

3. orgasm phase -

4. resolution phase -

Psychology of sex
Sexual cues – much of sexual motivation comes from the brain
● What individuals find sexually arousing is dependent on many stimuli, including conditioned
stimuli

Sexual scripts – socially learned programs of sexual interpretation and responsiveness

● Derived from individual cultures…media often influential

Sexual orientation: refers to the direction or object of one’s sexual interests

● Most psychologists today view sexual orientation as neither willfully chosen nor willfully
changed
● Causes…variety of scientific theories
○ Brain differences -

○ Genetic influences -

○ Prenatal hormonal influences (not adult hormones) -

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 Achievement Motivation Notes
Attitude towards “work”…
● Job -
● Career -
● Calling -
Flow =

Industrial/Organizational Psychology -

1. Personnel Psychology -

2. Organizational Psychology -

Achievement motivation (need for achievement) -

Those with high achievement motivation Those with low achievement motivation
tend to choose challenging tasks…yet tend to be motivated primarily by a desire
tasks that can be completely successfully to avoid failure

How to measure achievement motivation…

Thematic Apperception Test (TAT):

When is achievement motivation learned?

● Tends to be learned in early childhood, especially from parents
● More general cultural influences also affect level of achievement motivation

What kinds of things motivate us?

Intrinsic motivation:

Extrinsic motivation:

Motives in conflict - As there are many different motives and many responses possible, sometimes
these motives come into conflict
4 basic types of motivational conflict:
1. approach-approach conflict –

2. avoidance-avoidance conflict –

3. approach-avoidance conflict –

4. multiple approach-avoidance conflict –

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 Theories of Emotion Notes
Emotions: feelings that generally have both physiological and cognitive elements and that
influence behavior

Theories of Emotion
1. James-Lange Theory

Stimulus

2. Cannon-Bard Theory

Stimulus

3. Schachter-Singer (Two Factor) Theory

Stimulus

(environmental cues)

Must cognition precede emotion?

● Zajonc – argues that emotional reactions can be quicker than our interpretations of a
situation…so we feel before we think
○ Research on neurological processes support this idea – some neural pathways
involved in emotion bypass the cortical areas involved in thinking

● Lazarus – argues that while our brain does process a lot unconsciously, even
instantaneously felt emotions require some sort of cognitive appraisal of the situation –
otherwise, how do we KNOW what we are responding to
○ Appraisal may be effortless and may not be conscious of it, but it is still
happening

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Two dimensions of Emotion
→ Valence (positive/negative) vs. arousal (high/low)

High Arousal

Negative Positive
Valence Valence

Low Arousal

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 Expressing Emotion Notes
How do we express emotions?
Cultural universals
• Paul Ekman –

à Emotional “facial” universals =

Cultural differences
• Huge differences across cultures in both the context and intensity of the emotional displays

• Some emotional differences between men and women have a biological basis…but many
gender differences also depend upon the culture

• Different cultures teach the sexes different display rules…actually, most research has not shown
one sex to be more emotionally expressive than the other…it has more to do with the culture
itself and the rules of that culture

How good are we at detecting deception?

Most of us are poor lie detectors…mainly because social interactions take place in familiar
settings, where we pay little attention to nonverbal skills

Signs that can indicate “deception”…

1.

2.

3.

4.

Polygraphs =

How they work? They measure your level of arousal while being asked critical questions, irrelevant
questions and control questions – all of which are mixed up during interrogation

How accurate are they?

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 Experiencing Emotion Notes
How are emotions processed?
Unconsciously
• Linked to implicit memory & ….
•

Consciously
• Linked to explicit memory
•
•

Biological structures/systems involved in the experience of emotions…

Limbic system – amygdala :

Reticular formation:

Cerebral cortex:

Autonomic nervous system:

Hormones: Serotonin, epinephrine & norepinephrine are some of the most important in dealing
with emotions

How do we experience specific emotions?

Izard – 10 basic emotions =

Fear
•

• Biology of fear

Anger
• What makes us angry?

• Is anger good or bad?

• Catharsis hypothesis –

Happiness
• People who are happy perceive the world as safer, make decisions more easily, are
more cooperative and live happier, more satisfied lives
• Feel-good, do-good phenomenon –

• Adaption-level phenomenon –

What makes a person happy?

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 Stress Notes
Stress = Stressor =

4 components of the Stress response system (describe and draw a quick pic/image for each one)

Stress is NOT just

another emotion…

Types of Stressors
1. Catastrophic events –

2. Life changes/strains –

3. Chronic stressors –

4. Daily hassles –

The Physical Stress Response

• Fight-or-flight response –

• Han Seyle – General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) – a three-stage pattern of responses

triggered by the effort to adapt to any stressor
Stage 1 = Stage 2 = Stage 3 =

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Stress and the Immune System
Any stressor can affect one’s health and resources, including the immune system
• The human immune response, which evolved to responds to short-term stressors, may react to
chronic stressors by breaking down and turning on itself

• HOW?? When dealing with chronic stressors, there is no physical enemy to battle (like a cold
virus), the bodily responses become maladaptive, and the body becomes more vulnerable
to infection and injury

How to cope with stress

The methods may be…
• cognitive

• emotional

• Behavioral

• physical

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 Psychoanalytic Perspective Notes
Sigmund Freud
à Parts of the mind conscious
Iceberg
Analogy:

Preconscious

Unconscious

Unconscious influences….

Psychosexual stages of development

Oral: pleasure center is mouth…biting, sucking, chewing

Anal: pleasure focus is bowels/bladder and coping with control

Phallic: pleasure zone is genitals and cope with incestuous feelings

• Oedipus complex – boys unconscious sexual desire for mom and jealous/hatred for
dad…fear punishment if dad found out

• Identification – cope with threatening feelings by identifying with same sex parent

Latency: dormant sexual feelings

Genital: sexual feelings toward others

à Can become fixated at stages…pleasure-seeking energies become locked into that stage

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Personality structure
Three aspects of personality

EGO

ID SUPEREGO

Defense mechanisms: used by the ego to protect itself against anxiety caused by the conflict
between the id and superego

DEFINITION EXAMPLE

REPRESSION

REGRESSION

REACTION FORMATION

PROJECTION

RATIONALIZATION

DISPLACEMENT

SUBLIMATION

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Neo-Freudians

Alfred Adler
• Inferiority complex

Karen Horney
• Childhood anxiety caused by a sense of helplessness

• Balanced out male-dominance in Freud’s theory

Carl Jung
• Unconscious contains two parts…
• Personal unconscious

• Collective unconscious

• Archetypes -- universal, symbolic images that appear in myths, art, stories and
dreams

How does the Psychodynamic perspective assess personality?

Projective Tests
Thematic Apperception Test

Rorschach Inkblot Test

Problems with projective tests???

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 Trait Theory Notes
General understanding of Trait theorists is that we have
sustaining traits about our personality that can be analyzed,
and they determine our behavior throughout our lives.

Gordon Allport
à Described personality in terms of fundamental traits, or characteristic patterns of behavior or
dispositions to feel or act in a certain way
Identified 3 main types of traits
Cardinal trait – characteristic or feature so important that a person is identified by it

Central trait – traits that make us predictable in most situations

Secondary trait – least important of the 3, but conveys our preferences to items such
as music or food

Raymond Cattell
à Using statistics (factor analysis) identified 16 Personality Factors (16PF) that he believed made
up the building blocks of each individual’s personality
Everyone has the same 16 characteristics

Eysenck and Eysenck

à 2 basic dimensions of personality (a continuum)

Extraversion vs. introversion

Emotional stability vs. instability

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The Big Five
Set of slightly expanded factors and currently the best approximation of basic trait dimensions (a
continuum) List someone you think of that would be a
“prototype” for each Big Five trait.
Emotional Stability

Extraversion

Openness

Agreeableness

Conscientiousness

Personality Inventories
Used to assess traits…questionnaires on which people respond to a wide variety of items, covering
feelings and behaviors
Most used and researched inventory – MMPI-2:

• Developed to identify “abnormal” personality tendencies (this is important info)

• Scored objectively

Is our personality consistent or does it change depending on the situation?

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 Humanist Perspective Notes
Emphasizes individuals’ control their behavior...a much more positive outlook on human nature
(than that of the Psychoanalytic Perspective)

Abraham Maslow
• Felt people were motivated by a hierarchy of needs

• Ultimately, believed that people are striving for self-actualization

• Believed this need exists in everyone, but is often thwarted by the environment

• Developed these ideas by studying healthy, creative people

Carl Rogers
• Shared Maslow’s belief that people are naturally good and directed toward
growth/development and personal fulfillment
• Central feature of personality = self-concept

• For growth, a person must have:

Genuineness

Acceptance

• Felt many people have conditions of worth placed upon them

• Must offer/have unconditional positive regard

Empathy

Criticisms of humanistic perspective

• Concepts vague and subjective
• Individualism can lead to self-indulgence, selfishness and corruption
• Fails to recognize the human capacity for evil

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 Social Cognitive Perspective & Self Notes
Believe we learning behaviors from
conditioning/observing/modeling and emphasize the
importance of mental processing – focuses on how we and
our environment interact

Albert Bandura
• Reciprocal determinism – personality is shaped by interaction of personal factors, our
environment and our behaviors

3 ways individuals and environments interact:

1. Different people choose different environments.
2. Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events.
3. Our personalities help create situations to which we react.

• Self-efficacy: a person’s belief about his/her skills and ability to perform certain behaviors
One’s self-efficacy has a powerful effect on his/her behavior…yet it is not considered a
trait…WHY??

Personal control
External locus of control – perception that chance our outside forces determine fate

Internal locus of control – perception that one controls own destiny/fate

Which is better psychologically?

Seligman – learned helplessness = Hopelessness and passive resignation is learned when one is
unable to avoid repeated traumatic events from which one cannot or feels cannot escape
• Feel NO sense of control over situation…and often transfer this feeling over to other
situations

Optimism
Good to have a positive outlook…but need a sense of reality too as excessive optimism can be
detrimental to a person

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Criticism of social-cognitive perspective
Focuses too much on the situation/environment that it fails to recognize a person’s inner traits

Assessing the Self

• Self = organizer of our thoughts, feelings, and actions
à Most important item in personality according to humanistic psychologists
• Self-esteem is beneficial

• Self-serving bias = our readiness to perceive ourselves favorably

à People accept more responsibility for good deeds than for bad
à Most people see themselves as better than average

Culture and the idea of self

Individualism vs. collectivism
Individualists – more emphasis on independent self
Self defined by personal values, personal goals and personal attributes

Collectivists – more emphasis on collective self

Self defined by connections with family and friends with goals of the group having higher priority
than individual goals

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