Geoderma 115 (2003) 31 – 44

www.elsevier.com/locate/geoderma

Genetic characteristics and taxonomic classification

of Fimic Anthrosols in China
Min Zhang *, Li Ma, Wenqing Li, Baocheng Chen, Jiwen Jia
Shandong Agricultural University, Taian 271018, China

Abstract

The genetic and developmental characteristics of Fimic Anthrosols derived from several types of
parent soils in China, and the relationships between Fimic Anthrosols, different vegetable-cultivated
soils and parent soils were studied. As the degree of soil ripening increased, there were tendencies
toward increases in concentration of organic matter, many nutrient elements and the water-resistant
crumb-granular structure. Significant variations in the vertical distribution of the nutrients were found
in the soil profiles due to the soils being at different ripening stages. The typical characteristics of
these Fimic Anthrosols were great accumulation of organic matter, intensive enrichment of available
phosphorus and high intensity of microbial activity. Also evident were increasing tendencies toward
increases in the total and available content of Zn, Pb, Cu and other metal elements. Heavy metal
analyses and correlation relationships suggested that Zn, Pb and Cu are the main contaminant
elements in Fimic Anthrosols and in vegetable-cultivated soils with different ripening stages. The
thickness of the fimic epipedon, the contents of available P and organic matter can be regarded as the
diagnostic criteria for the classification of Fimic Anthrosols in Chinese Soil Taxonomy. Recognition
of the distinct of anthropedogenic fimic processes proved essential in the proper classification of
vegetable-cultivated soils. These investigations established a theoretical basis for the scientific and
quantitative classification of the Fimic Anthrosols.
D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

Keywords: Fimic Anthrosols; Vegetable-cultivated soils; Fimic epipedon; Soil genesis; Soil taxonomy

1. Introduction

Vegetable-cultivated soils are greatly influenced by long-term application of human

and animal wastes and other organic residues, intensive cultivation, frequent irrigation

* Corresponding author.

0016-7061/03/$ - see front matter D 2003 Published by Elsevier Science B.V.

doi:10.1016/S0016-7061(03)00073-9
32 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

and other human activities (Zhang and Gong, 1994). With the extensive passage of time,
the surface horizon becomes soft and fluffy, darkly colored, and contains higher amounts
of organic matter and available phosphorous, and qualifies as fimic epipedon. The
characteristics of fimic epipedons were significantly different from those of the original
parent soils (Gong, 1999; Zhang et al., 1999). These distinct anthropedogenic processes
have been recognized as soil ripening or fimic ripening processes. The soils with a fimic
epipedon, which formed under fimic ripening processes, were classified as Fimic
Anthrosols in Chinese Soil Taxonomy (Nanjing Institute of Soil Science, Soil Science
Taxonomic Classification Group, 1995). Each of these soils has been so transformed by
anthropedogenic processes that the original soil is no longer recognizable or survives
only as a buried soil (ISSS/ISIC/FAO, 1998).
Nutrient enrichment in the Fimic Anthrosols under long-term vegetable cultivation
was responsible particularly for the accumulation of high organic matter content,
intensive enrichment of available phosphorous and enhancement of soil bioactivities
(Shen, 1990; Zhang et al., 1999). As a result, most of fimic surface horizons are well
supplied with nutrients and have favorable physical properties (well structured, high
porosity, high water retention capacity). However, there is also a distinct and increasing
tendency of the total and available content of Zn, Pb, Cu and other trace metals to
increase. The levels of the metals may be sufficient to pose toxicity to crops, animals and
humans (Li and Wu, 1991; Zhang and Gong, 1996).
The genetic and developmental features of Fimic Anthrosols are correlated to some
extent with characteristics of their parent soils, such as the particle size distribution and
clay mineral composition (Zhang et al., 1999). However, with the extensive passage of
developmental time, the accumulation of organic matter, the enrichment of nutrient
elements (especially P), the progressively increasing thickness of the fimic epipedon and
the intensification of biological activity of the Fimic Anthrosols were significantly
different from their parent soils (Zhang and Gong, 1994). These features of fimic
epipedon were evidently different from the upper horizons of the parent soil types,
suggesting a genetic and evolutionary progression in degree of ripening from different
original soils (Zhang and Ma, 1997). These findings established a theoretical basis for the
importance and position of the Fimic Anthrosols in soil classification and soil taxonomy
(Gong, 1999).
The objectives of this study were (i) to investigate the genetic and developmental
characteristics of Fimic Anthrosols derived from various types of parent soils in China,
(ii) to evaluate the fertility evolution biological activities and pollution contamination
characteristics of vegetable-cultivated soils and (iii) to determine diagnostic criteria of
fimic epipedons and the taxonomic positions of studied soils in Chinese Soil Taxonomy.

2. Materials and methods

Thirty-seven soil profiles representing main types of Fimic Anthrosols derived from
various original parent soils in China were collected from Changsha, Nanjing, Taian,
Jinan, Beijing, Shanghai, Suzhou, Wuxi and other locations listed in Table 5. Samples of
the different vegetable-cultivated soils with different vegetable planting time and
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 33

corresponding original parent soils with grain crops were collected to compare the
different features between these soils. According to the field soil investigation and
chemical analyses, the soils with vegetable planting time over 30 years, 20 –30 years and
10 – 20 years were generally developed into Fimic Anthrosols, moderately ripening
vegetable soils and slightly ripening vegetable soils, respectively (Table 1). In all cases,
the soil was sampled based on the genetic horizons vertically to a depth that the
taxonomic critical control section required. Soil morphological properties were described
according to Soil Survey Staff guidelines (USDA-NRCS, 1984) and Soil Taxonomy
(USDA-NRCS, 1999).
Soil samples were air-dried and ground to pass through a 2-mm sieve. Particle
distribution was analyzed following a micropipette method (Miller and Miller, 1987).
Soil pH was measured with a pH meter in a 1:1 (w/v) ratio of soil and water. Organic
matter content was analyzed by the wet oxidation method (Walkley and Black, 1934).
Total N was determined by the Kjeldahl method as described by Bremner and Mulvaney
(1982). Available P content was determined by extracting the soil samples using 0.5 mol
l 1 NaHCO3 and analyzed by spectrophotometer. Numbers of microbes for decomposing
phosphorous compounds in soils were measured using a biomicroscope. The capacity to
decompose phosphorous compounds was determined by adding resistant phosphate as a
source (Morocco ground phosphate rock) to the soil and measuring soil-available P after
incubation for a certain period of time.
Total concentrations of nutrients and trace elements in the soils were analyzed
according to USEPA 3050A method (USEPA, 1990). Subsamples of the soils were air-
dried and ground to pass through a 0.1-mm plastic-nylon sieve. The 2.00-g soil samples
were digested in HNO3 and H2O2, and the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb, Fe and Mn were
analyzed using an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The available forms of the metals
were extracted by DTPA at pH 7.3 and determined using an atomic absorption
spectrophotometer.

Table 1
Concentrations of organic matter and available plant nutrients in various depth horizons of vegetable-cultivated
soils and corresponding grain crop soils
Soil type Horizon Thickness Organic matter Available N Available P Available K
(cm) (g kg 1) (g kg 1) (g kg 1) (g kg 1)
Fimic Anthrosols surface 22.1 F 2.7 51.6 F 17.2 115.6 F 34.3 155.8 F 75.4 151.2 F 101.8
(n = 18) subsurface 13.8 F 3.7 36.8 F 15.3 80.5 F 22.9 95.5 F 15.3 87.6 F 45.0
transitional 21.3 F 6.4 20.0 F 10.2 50.0 F 11.7 86.5 F 104.9 85.8 F 52.5
Moderately ripening surface 19.7 F 3.3 37.0 F 7.5 106.7 F 29.9 124.7 F 40.4 122.6 F 60.4
vegetable soils subsurface 13.8 F 3.7 26.8 F 7.8 71.4 F 21.3 54.0 F 22.3 87.5 F 38.7
(n = 6) transitional 28.3 F 9.2 15.2 F 8.7 42.3 F 14.4 31.4 F 21.6 72.1 F 26.3
Slightly ripening surface 21.4 F 4.6 34.4 F 9.6 104.9 F 27.4 92.4 F 47.4 108.4 F 36.0
vegetable soils subsurface 18.8 F 6.7 14.6 F 5.2 56.7 F 18.4 20.8 F 7.6 73.4 F 31.3
(n = 5) lower subsoil 25.6 F 10.1 9.2 F 7.5 33.4 F 9.2 11.3 F 5.8 62.5 F 29.1
Grain crop soils plowing 18.0 F 1.4 18.2 F 5.5 15.9 F 18.4 15.9 F 18.4 77.8 F 40.9
(CK) (n = 5) plow pan 12.0 F 1.6 12.5 F 7.3 5.1 F 6.5 5.1 F 6.5 65.0 F 28.6
lower subsoil 28.6 F 19.2 6.0 F 2.3 2.4 F 1.9 2.4 F 1.9 57.3 F 25.6
34 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Genesis and profile differentiation characteristics of the Fimic Anthrosols

The formation of fimic epipedon, including relevant genetic processes, is strongly

influenced by the human activity. Nevertheless, the characteristics of the Fimic Anthrosols
often show the close relationships with those of the original parent soils (Zhang and Gong,
1994; Zhang et al., 1999). The vegetable-cultivated soils are mainly distributed in the
suburban areas of the cities in China and are derived from various types of parent soils, in
which the clay and sand contents are significantly different (Figs. 1 and 2). For example,
the clay contents of all horizons of the soil profile of CF-17 were over 450 g kg 1, while
the clay contents of the soil profiles of CF-23 and CF-33 were below 200 g kg 1 (Fig. 2).
The different soil texture and permeability resulted in the different horizon features of the
Fimic Anthrosols. The very deep surface fimic epipedons were formed on the original
parent soils with light texture. This great depth of the epipedon would be due to the high
leaching rate of nutrients, dissolved organic matter and dispersible clays in these soils. The
dissolved soil materials such as dissolved organic matter could be transported to the deeper
horizons, where they precipitated and formed the distinct thick transitional ripening
horizons. The boundary between the artificial humus horizon and the transitional horizon
was not obvious. However, fimic epipedons formed on the originally clayey soils with
poor permeability were much shallower than those formed on the lighter textured parent

Fig. 1. Distribution of sand particles at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and localities
are given in Table 5).
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 35

Fig. 2. Distribution of clay particles at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and localities
are given in Table 5).

soils. There was no obvious transitional horizon, and the boundary between the artificial
humus horizon and the original subsoil layer was very clear.
The characteristics of the original parent soils not only influenced the horizonation
processes of the vegetable-cultivated soils but, to some extent, also influenced the soil pH,
texture and mineral composition of cultivated soils inherited from the parent soils. The soil
pH values of the Fimic Anthrosols derived from acid red soil were much lower than those
of the Fimic Anthrosols derived from calcareous parent soils. However, the soil pH levels
of all vegetable-cultivated soils were higher than those of the corresponding grain crop
soils (Fig. 3). The soil property related to soil pH was the increase of CaCO3 content in the
vegetable-cultivated soils. All the Fimic Anthrosols, except the soil derived from red soil
in Changsha, contained free CaCO3. All concentrations of CaCO3 in the surface and
subsurface horizon of the Fimic Anthrosols were higher than those of the corresponding
original grain crop soils (Fig. 4). The reason for the high CaCO3 content was the long-term
repeated application of the urban yard waste, coal cinders and ashes, composts and
excrements of animals and humans, which resulted in the rebasification and enrichment of
CaCO3.

3.2. Nutrient enrichment and variation characteristics of the soils

The accumulation of organic matter and the formation of the artificial humus horizon
were the most important characteristics of the vegetable-cultivated soils. The organic
36 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

Fig. 3. Soil pH changes at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and localities are given in
Table 5).

Fig. 4. Distribution of CaCO3 at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and localities are
given in Table 5).
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 37

matter contents of vegetable-cultivated soils were significantly higher than those of the
related grain crop soils. This was so, not only in the surface horizon but also in the
subsurface and transitional horizons (Fig. 5 and Table 1). The organic matter contents in
surface and subsurface horizons of most Fimic Anthrosols were greater than 20 g kg 1,
but the organic matter of surface horizons of most grain crop soils was less than it and
decreased sharply below the surface horizons. The statistical results of 18 Fimic Anthrosol
profiles, derived from various types of original parent soils, showed that the mean values
of organic matter content of 18 surface, subsurface and transitional horizons were
51.6 F 17.2, 36.8 F 15.3 and 20.1 F 10.2 g kg 1, respectively. By contrast, the mean
values of organic matter content of surface, plow pan and subsoil horizons of the five grain
crop soils were 18.2 F 5.5, 12.5 F 7.3 and 6.0 F 2.3 g kg 1 (Table 1). The densities of
earthworms in the vegetable-cultivated soils appeared to be higher than in grain crop soils,
which indicated a high intensity of bioactivities of the Fimic Anthrosols.
Another important genetic characteristic of the vegetable-cultivated soils was the
intensive enrichment of available nutrients, especially available phosphorus in various
horizons of the profiles. The distribution of available phosphorus of Fimic Anthrosols was
distinguished from those in the corresponding grain crop soils (Fig. 6). All available P
contents in the surface horizons (fimic epipedon) of five Fimic Anthrosols were greater
than 50 mg kg 1. These values were several multiples of those in the surface horizons of
grain crop soils (Table 1). The available P in surface horizons of fimic soil profile CF-31
derived from cinnamon soil of Jinan was 286.0 mg kg 1, which was 70 times that of the

Fig. 5. Distribution of organic matter at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and localities
are given in Table 5).
38 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

Fig. 6. Distribution of available phosphorus at various depth horizons in the soil profiles (profile numbers and
localities are given in Table 5).

corresponding grain crop soil. All contents of available P in the horizons below the surface
horizon were all significantly greater than in corresponding grain crop soils. All Fimic
Anthrosols showed the same characteristic of intensive accumulation of available P in the
upper horizons of the soil pedons. Available P contents in the 0 –40 cm soil layers of most
Fimic Anthrosols were greater than 100 mg kg 1, but obviously decreased in horizons
below 40-cm depth. The vertical distributions of available P in the profiles of different
Fimic Anthrosols varied considerably due to differences of soil texture and permeability
among different original parent soils. There was no transitional horizon in the profile of the
Fimic Anthrosol derived from the red soil in Changsha due to its clayey soil texture. In
most vegetable-cultivated soils, the boundary between the surface horizon and the subsoil
layer was abrupt, and the available P content decreased sharply below the surface horizon.
On the other hand, the available P contents decreased gradually with depth in the profiles
of CF-26, CF-31, CF-20 and CF-1 (Fig. 6). The trends for the distribution of available N
and K contents on the profiles of Fimic Anthrosols were similar, but not as obvious as that
for available P (Table 1).

3.3. Characteristics of microorganism for decomposing phosphorous compounds

The ranges and mean values of various microbial populations and intensity of their
actions in decomposing phosphorus compounds in the surface horizons of the vegetable-
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 39

cultivated soils at different ripening stages and in the corresponding grain crop soils are
reported in Table 2. Generally, bacteria were the dominant microbes among the total
microorganisms for decomposing phosphorus compounds in all studied soils. The
densities of actinomycetes were just one-tenth of the densities of bacteria, and the
densities of fungi were only one-thousandth of the bacteria. The mean densities of
bacteria, actinomyces and fungi and their intensities for decomposing phosphorus were
greater in the Fimic Anthrosols than in the other studied soils. In spite of the large
variability in the ranges, the mean densities of microbes and their P decomposition
intensities increased with the soil ripening stages, and these mean values in all vegetable-
cultivated soils were greater than in grain crop soils (Table 2).
The densities of microbes and their intensities for decomposing resistant phosphate
rock decreased with depth of sampling in the nine profiles of the studied Fimic
Anthrosols (Table 3). Although the densities of microbes and their metabolic intensities
in subsurface horizons were lower than that in the surface horizons, the mean densities
of the bacteria, actinomyces and fungi and their intensities of decomposing resistant
phosphate were still greater than in the surface horizon of the grain crop soils. The
intensities for decomposing resistant phosphate in the soils were closely related to the
densities of the microbes. These trends could explain why the available P contents in all
horizons of the vegetable-cultivated soils were much greater than in grain crop soils.
Clearly, Fimic Anthrosols have a highly intense of microbial activity for decomposing
phosphorus compounds.

3.4. Heavy metal accumulation and contamination characteristics of the soils

Vegetable-cultivated soils are mainly distributed in the suburban area of the cities, and
they have received various kinds and amounts of contaminants. The soils are unavoidably

Table 2
Number of microbes and intensity for decomposing phosphorous compounds in surface horizons of vegetable-
cultivated soils and corresponding grain crop soils
Soil type Item Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi Total microbes Intensity*
(million/ (million/ (thousand/ (million/ (available P [mg]/
100 g soil) 100 g soil) 100 g soil) 100 g soil) source P [g])
Fimic Anthrosols range 4.44 f 20.28 0.27 f 2.27 3 f 28 5.10 f 22.58 6.7 f 21.2
(n = 10) mean F S.D. 7.30 F 4.42 0.78 F 0.55 8.6 F 7.4 8.09 F 4.96 13.65 F 3.57
Moderately ripening range 4.60 f 6.75 0.22 f 0.78 2 f 12 4.82 f 7.54 7.2 f 16.0
vegetable soils mean F S.D. 5.45 F 0.94 0.43 F 0.25 5.3 F 4.7 5.88 F 1.19 11.8 F 3.6
(n = 3)
Slightly ripening range 2.40 f 5.74 0.15 f 0.62 2 f 10 2.55 f 6.37 4.7 f 15.8
vegetable soils mean F S.D. 4.34 F 1.42 0.39 F 0.19 5.3 F 3.4 4.74 F 1.61 11.2 F 4.6
(n = 3)
Grain crop soils range 3.87 f 5.05 0.20 f 0.60 2f6 4.07 f 5.64 6.3 f 11.5
(CK) (n = 4) mean F S.D. 4.31 F 0.68 0.38 F 0.15 4.3 F 1.8 4.69 F 0.76 8.37 F 2.21
* Intensity for decomposing phosphorous compounds was determined by adding resistant phosphate as a
source (ground phosphate rock) to the soil and measuring soil-available P after incubation for a certain period of
time. The resistant phosphate source in this experiment was Morocco ground phosphate rock.
40 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

Table 3
Number of microbes and intensity for decomposing phosphorous compounds in different horizons of the Fimic
Anthrosols
Horizon Item Bacteria Actinomycetes Fungi Total microbes Intensity*
(million/ (million/ (thousand/ (million/ (available P [mg]/
100 g soil) 100 g soil) 100 g soil) 100 g soil) source P [g])
Surface range 4.44 f 20.28 0.27 f 2.27 3 f 28 5.10 f 22.58 6.7 f 21.2
(n = 9) mean F S.D. 7.49 F 4.62 0.83 F 0.56 9.2 F 7.6 8.33 F 5.17 13.64 F 3.76
Subsurface range 1.49 f 12.65 0.1 f 1.72 1 f 15 1.59 f 14.39 2.5 f 19.7
(n = 9) mean F S.D. 4.80 F 3.15 0.57 F 0.48 5.6 F 4.7 5.38 F 3.63 9.57 F 5.53
Transitional range 0.30 f 8.09 0.03 f 1.22 1 f 17 0.33 f 9.33 2.0 f 17.2
(n = 9) mean F S.D. 2.74 F 2.19 0.26 F 0.34 3.0 F 4.99 3.00 F 2.52 5.06 F 4.56
* Intensity for decomposing phosphorous compounds was determined by adding resistant phosphate as a
source (ground phosphate rock) to the soil and measuring soil-available P after incubation for a certain period of
time. The resistant phosphate source in this experiment was Morocco ground phosphate rock.

contaminated by the application of the yard waste, biosolids and irrigated wastewater
(Sauerbeck, 1991). Among various contaminants, heavy metals were prominent, long
lasting and very difficult to degrade in the biological cycles (Davies, 1994; Zhang et al.,
1997).
Many vegetable-cultivated soils have a dark colored horizon containing coal dregs.
This horizon built up gradually due to the frequent application of urban yard waste.
Analytical data of yard waste samples from Shanghai showed that the total contents of
Zn, Cu and Pb were 822.1, 218.2 and 203.4 mg kg 1, respectively, and the coarse sand
content was more than 65% (Zhang and Gong, 1996). Therefore, long-term application
of yard waste in large amounts would increase the heavy metal content and the
coarseness of the texture. The sand content in all vegetable-cultivated soil was greater
than in corresponding grain crop soils (Fig. 1). On the contrary, the clay content in the
vegetable-cultivated soils was relatively lower than in corresponding grain crop soils
(Fig. 2).
There was also an evident increasing tendency of total and available contents of Zn,
Pb, Cu and other metal elements. The mean values of total contents of Cu, Zn, Mn and Pb
in the surface horizons of 19 vegetable-cultivated soils were considerably greater than in
the five grain crop soils (Fig. 7). The increases in Zn, Pb and Cu contents in surface
horizon of vegetable-cultivated soils were most striking, and the total contents of Zn, Pb
and Cu were significantly greater than in other studied soil types. The trends in the mean
concentrations of available Cu, Zn, Fe and Pb were similar, but the trend of available
content of Mn was the opposite (Fig. 8). The concentrations of available Zn, Pb and Cu in
the surface horizons of vegetable soils were more than the double of those in
corresponding grain crop soils. Correlation analyses indicate that significant positive
correlations exist among Zn, Pb and Cu, and between total and available contents of
elements, available P and available elemental contents (Table 4). There was no significant
relationship between total and available content of Zn, Pb, Cu, soil pH and CaCO3
contents. In contrast, total Fe, available Fe and available Mn were found to have
significant negative correlations with soil pH and CaCO3 contents. However, no
significant relationships existed between Fe or Mn contents and organic matter content.
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 41

Fig. 7. Comparison of mean values of total contents of Cu, Zn, Mn and Pb in the surface horizons of 19 vegetable-
cultivated soils with that of five grain crop soils (means followed by similar letter on the top of histograms of each
metal are not significantly different at p = 0.05 level of probability).

This suggests that Fe and Mn contents have no relationship with the ripening processes in
the Fimic Anthrosols (Table 4). Since the contents of total and available Zn, Pb and Mn
increased with the ripening degree, Zn, Pb and Cu could be considered as the main
contaminant elements in Fimic Anthrosols and in vegetable-cultivated soils with different
ripening stages.

Fig. 8. Comparison of mean values of available contents of Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn and Pb in the surface horizons of 19
vegetable-cultivated soils with that of five grain crop soils (means followed by similar letter on the top of
histograms of each metal are not significantly different at p = 0.05 level of probability).
42 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

Table 4
Correlations between the heavy metal contents, certain nonmetallic constituents and pH in surface horizons of 37
soil profiles
Organic matter Available P Soil pH CaCO3
Total Cu 0.455** 0.429** 0.102 0.269
Total Zn 0.644** 0.469** 0.121 0.155
Total Pb 0.624** 0.475** 0.116 0.284
Total Fe 0.069 0.061 0.568** 0.429**
Total Mn 0.015 0.053 0.004 0.025
Available Cu 0.419** 0.502** 0.043 0.256
Available Zn 0.617** 0.573** 0.143 0.072
Available Pb 0.647** 0.341* 0.132 0.240
Available Fe 0.207 0.487** 0.597** 0.366*
Available Mn 0.048 0.133 0.780** 0.491**
*, **Significant at the 0.05 and 0.01 probability levels, respectively.

3.5. Diagnostic criteria of fimic epipedon and taxonomic classification of Fimic

Anthrosols

Clearly, the most important genetic characteristics of Fimic Anthrosols are the
accumulation of organic matter and enrichment of available phosphorus in the surface,
subsurface and transitional horizons. Therefore, the thickness of the fimic epipedon
including fimic surface and subsurface horizons, the contents of available P and organic
matter are regarded as the diagnostic criteria for the classification of Fimic Anthrosols in
Chinese Soil Taxonomic Classification (Gong, 1999). These criteria clearly reflect the
genetic characteristics and the forming processes that the vegetable-cultivated soils
gradually undergo as they develop into Fimic Anthrosols.
According to our investigation and analytical data, 10 of 15 selected soil profiles,
which have been cultivated with vegetables for more than 20 years, have fimic surface
horizons and meet the diagnostic criteria of fimic epipedon and are classified as Fimic
Anthrosols great group. The subgroup of these 10 soil pedons are classified as Mottle
Fimic (Mot-Fim-), Calcaric Fimic (Car-Fim-), Acid Fimic (Aci-Fim-) and Typic Fimic
(Typ-Fim-) Orthic Anthrosols based on the additional genetic processes and character-
istics inherited from original parent soils (Table 5). The five corresponding grain crop
soils were also classified as different soil types distinguished at the soil order level in
Chinese Soil Taxonomy (Nanjing Institute of Soil Science, Soil Science Taxonomic
Classification Group, 1995). However, in the Chinese Soil Classification Draft of 1978
(Institute of Soil Science (CAS), 1978), the vegetable-cultivated fimic soils and the
corresponding grain crop soils were classified in the same soil great group. In comparing
the position and unit of Fimic Anthrosols in the US Soil Taxonomy system and the
legend of the Soil Map of the Word (FAO/UNESCO, 1988), the classification units of the
selected vegetable-cultivated soils in the Chinese Soil Taxonomy (Soil Science Taxo-
nomic Classification Group, 1995) were found to be much closer to the units used in
these two widely used soil classification systems than those in the former Chinese
Classification Draft of 1978. The recognition of the distinct of anthropedogenic fimic
processes requires that the vegetable-cultivated soils be classified properly. This taxo-
 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44 43

Table 5
Comparison of subgroup for the studied soils in Chinese Soil Taxonomy with other soil classification systems
Profile number Parent material Chinese Soil Chinese Soil Chinese Soil USDA- Soil Map
and locality (utilization) Classification Taxonomy Taxonomy SCS Soil of the
Draft (1978) first Proposal Revised Taxonomy World FAO/
(1991) Proposal (1975) Unesco
(1995) (1988)
CF-13 Changsha, quaternary red red soils Dystric mellow Aci-Fim-Orthic Humic Haplic
Huangtuling earth (vegetable soils Anthrosols Hapludults Alisols
soils)
CF-17 Changsha, quaternary red red soils Haplic red Typ-Alt-Udic Typic Haplic
Huangtuling earth (grain crop soils Ferrisols Hapludults Alisols
soils)
CF-1 Nanjing, Xiashu loess yellow- Calcaric mellow Car-Fim-Orthic Humic Haplic
Weigang (vegetable soils) brown soils soils Anthrosols Hapludalfs Luvisols
CF-34 Nanjing, Xiashu loess yellow- Haplic yellow- Typ-Fer-Udic Typic Ferric
Weigang (grain crop soils) brown soils brown soils Luvisols Ferrudalfs Luvisols
CF-26 Taian, gneiss sediment brown soils Haplic mellow Typ-Fim-Orthic Mollic Haplic
Wangzguang (vegetable soils) soils Anthrosols Hapludalfs Luvisols
CF-27 Taian, gneiss sediment brown soils Haplic brown Typ-Hap-Udic Typic Haplic
Yubeilou (grain crop soils) soils Luvisols Hapludalfs Luvisols
CF-31 Jinan, secondary loess carbonate Calcaric mellow Car-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Calcaric
Hongjialou (vegetable soils) cinnamon soils Anthrosols Cambisols
soils
CF-33 Jinan, secondary loess cinnamon Haplic cinnamon Typ-Hap-Ustic Typic Eutric
Shilihe (grain crop soils) soils soils Luvisols Eutrochrepts Cambisols
CF-20 Beijing, Yongding River Chao soils Calcaric mellow Car-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Calcaric
Shichun Alluvial deposit soils Anthrosols Fluvisols
(vegetable soils)
CF-23 Beijing, Yongding River Chao soils Haplic chao Typ-Och-Aquic Typic Eutric
Jushanchun Alluvial deposit soils Cambisols Ustifluvents Fluvisols
(grain crop soils)
CF-7 Wuxi, lake sediment Gleyed Dystric mellow Mot-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Dystic
Huangxiang (vegetable soils) paddy soils soils Anthrosols Gleyisols
CF-15 Changsha, Xiang River Chao soils Haplic mellow Typ-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Mollic
Juzizhou Alluvial deposit soils Anthrosols Fluvisols
(vegetable soils)
CF-2 Nanjing, Qinghuai River Chao soils Calcaric mellow Car-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Calcaric
Honghuaxiang Alluvial deposit soils Anthrosols Fluvisols
(vegetable soils)
CF-9 Shanghai, Huangpu River Chao soils Haplic mellow Typ-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Eutric
Pudong Alluvial deposit soils Anthrosols Fluvisols
(vegetable soils)
CF-29 Taian, Taishannai River Chao soils Calcaric mellow Car-Fim-Orthic Plaggepts Calcaric
Jiuzhen Alluvial deposit soils Anthrosols Fluvisols
(vegetable soils)

nomic classification of Fimic Anthrosols not only clearly reflects the special features of
the Chinese Soil Taxonomy but also reflects the close relatedness to the soil classification
systems of the USA and the World Soil Map. These considerations establish a theoretical
basis for the scientific and quantitative classification of the Fimic Anthrosols.
44 M. Zhang et al. / Geoderma 115 (2003) 31–44

Acknowledgements

Supported by Foundation for University Key Teacher by the Ministry of Education and
National Nature Foundation of China.

References

Bremner, J.M., Mulvaney, C.S., 1982. Nitrogen-total. In: Page, A.L., Miller, R.H., Keeney, D.R. (Eds.), Meth-
ods of Soil Analysis: Part 2, 2nd ed. Agronomy, vol. 9. American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI, USA,
pp. 595 – 624.
Davies, B.E., 1994. Trace elements in the human environment: problems and risks. Environ. Geochem. Health
16, 97 – 106.
FAO/UNESCO, 1988. The Soil Map of the World. Rome, Italy.
Gong, Z.T. (Ed.), 1999. Chinese Soil Taxonomy: Theories, Methods and Practices. Science Press, Beijing, China.
In Chinese.
Institute of Soil Science (CAS), 1978. The Soils in China. Science Press, Beijing, China. In Chinese.
ISSS/ISIC/FAO, 1998. World Reference Base for Soil Resources. Wageningen, Netherlands/Rome, Italy.
Li, J., Wu, Y.Y., 1991. Historical change of soil metal background values in selected area of China. Proc. Int.
Conf. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. Orlando, Florida, USA, pp. 57 – 58, 755 – 761.
Miller, W.P., Miller, D.M., 1987. A micropipette method for soil mechanical analysis. Commun. Soil Sci.
Plant Anal. 18, 1 – 15.
Sauerbeck, D.R., 1991. Plant, element and soil properties governing uptake and availabilities of heavy
metals derived from sewage sludge. Proc. Int. Conf. Water, Air and Soil Pollution. Orlando, Florida,
USA, pp. 52 – 53, 222 – 232.
Shen, H., 1990. Accumulation and transformation characteristics of nutrient elements of vegetable soils in
suburban area of Beijing. Acta Pedol. Sin. 33 (1), 85 – 93 (in Chinese, En. Ads.).
Soil Science Taxonomic Classification Group, Institute of Soil Science (CAS), 1995. Chinese Soil Taxonomy.
Agricultural Science and Technology Press, Beijing, China. Reversed Proposal, in Chinese.
USDA-NRCS, 1984. Procedures for collecting soil samples and methods of analysis for soil survey. Soil Survey
Invest. Rep., vol. 1. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, USA.
USDA-NRCS, 1999. Soil taxonomy: a basic system of soil classification for making and interpreting soil surveys.
USDA-NRCS Agriculture Handbook, 2nd ed. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, USA, p. 870.
USEPA (United State Environmental Protection Agency), 1990. Acid digestion of sediments, sludge, and soils.
USEPA SW-S846 Ch 3.2 Method 3050A. U.S. Govt. Printing Office, Washington, DC, USA.
Walkley, A., Black, I.A., 1934. An examination of the Degtjareff method for measuring soil organic matter and a
proposed modification of the chromic acid titration method. Soil Sci. 37, 29 – 38.
Zhang, M., Gong, Z.T., 1994. Characteristics and diagnostic criteria of fimic epipedon. In: Gong, Z.T. (Ed.), New
Progress of Chinese Soil Taxonomic Classification. Science Press, Beijing, China, pp. 128 – 133. In Chinese.
Zhang, M., Gong, Z.T., 1996. Content and distribution of some heavy metal elements in the vegetable cultivated
soils in China. Acta Pedol. Sin. 33 (1), 85 – 93 (in Chinese, En. Abs.).
Zhang, M., Ma, L., 1997. Enrichment and variation characteristics of nutrients in the vegetable cultivated soils.
J. Shandong Agric. Univ. 30, 128 – 133 (in Chinese, En. Abs., special issue).
Zhang, M., Alva, A.K., Li, Y.C., Calvert, D.V., 1997. Chemical association of Cu, Zn, Mn, and Pb in selected
sandy citrus soils. Soil Sci. 162, 181 – 188.
Zhang, M., Ma, L., Li, W.Q., Jia, J.W., Chen, B.C., 1999. Characteristics and sustainable utilization of vegetable
cultivated soil resources in China. J. Shandong Agric. Univ. 30 (4), 1 – 7 (in Chinese, En. Abs.).