Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology (2019)

CHEMICAL ENGINEERING
PROBLEMS IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
CHEMICAL ENGINEERING PROBLEMS
IN BIOTECHNOLOGY
Nseabasi Ikput
ARCLER
P r e s s
www.arclerpress.com
Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology
Nseabasi Ikput
Arcler Press
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ABOUT THE AUTHOR
Nseabasi Ikput, M.Sc., BEng, is a UK-based Chemical Process Engineer

whose authenticity, dedication, and aptitude have all earned her the reputation
as a seasoned industry leader. Over the course of nearly two decades, she has
gained extensive engineering experience. Nseabasi’s affinity for her field
began at 14 years of age, when she first visited her father at work. She has
had a relentless passion for discovery and lifelong learning ever since.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
List of Figures...............................................................................................xiii
Preface..........................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemical Engineering Computing..................................... 1

1.1. Mathematical Formulations of Equations of State................................. 5
1.2. Vapor-Liquid Equilibrium..................................................................... 7
1.3. Chemical Reaction Equilibrium........................................................... 7
1.4. Mass Balances With Recycle Stream.................................................... 7
1.5. Simulation of Mass Transfer Equipment................................................ 8
1.6. Process Simulation............................................................................... 8
1.7. Chemical Reactors............................................................................... 8
1.8. Transport Procession One Dimension.................................................. 8
Practice Questions...................................................................................... 9
References................................................................................................ 10
Chapter 2 Chemical Engineering Fundamentals........................................................ 11

2.1. Clarifying Complex Chemical Processes With
Quantum Computers....................................................................... 14
2.2. Mass Production And Networking...................................................... 15
References................................................................................................ 19
Chapter 3 Organic Chemistry: Biological Emphasis.................................................. 21

References................................................................................................ 28
Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Microbiology................................................................. 29

References................................................................................................ 35
Chapter 5 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics................................................... 37

References................................................................................................ 44
Chapter 6 Structure and Properties of Materials....................................................... 45
References................................................................................................ 52
Chapter 7 Separation Processes................................................................................ 53

References................................................................................................ 61
Chapter 8 Introduction to Biochemistry................................................................... 63

References................................................................................................ 71
Chapter 9 Biochemical Engineering.......................................................................... 73

References................................................................................................ 82
Chapter 10 Electrical Circuits..................................................................................... 83

10.1. Laws of Circuit Analysis and Synthesis............................................. 84
10.2. Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL).......................................................... 84
10.3. Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)........................................................... 85
10.4. Thevenin’s Theorem......................................................................... 85
10.5. Norton Theorem.............................................................................. 87
10.6. DC Transient.................................................................................... 89
10.7. Static Electric And Magnetic Fields.................................................. 89
10.8. Filters............................................................................................... 90
10.9. Capacitor......................................................................................... 90
10.10. Inductor......................................................................................... 91
References................................................................................................ 93
Chapter 11 Electromechanical Systems...................................................................... 95

References.............................................................................................. 103
Chapter 12 Process Dynamics and Control............................................................... 105

12.1. Sylvester’s Theorem........................................................................ 108
12.2. Integer-Order Continuous Models of Fractional Order Systems...... 113
12.3. Controller Understanding.............................................................. 113
12.4. Analog Understandings.................................................................. 114
References.............................................................................................. 115
Chapter 13 Introduction to Biochemical Methods.................................................... 117

13.1. Standard Interpretation.................................................................. 120
viii
References.............................................................................................. 125
Chapter 14 Chemical Analysis of Homogeneous Systems......................................... 127

References.............................................................................................. 134
Chapter 15 Methods in Quantitative Chemical Analysis........................................... 135

15.1. Components of a Calibration Program........................................... 137
15.2. Traceability.................................................................................... 137
15.3. Precision Versus Accuracy.............................................................. 138
15.4. Precision Proportion...................................................................... 138
15.5. Regularity of Calibration................................................................ 138
15.6. Recall Solution.............................................................................. 139
15.7. Paperwork...................................................................................... 140
15.8. Recap............................................................................................ 140
References.............................................................................................. 145
Chapter 16 Chemical Engineering Design Principles................................................ 147

16.1. Introduction................................................................................... 148
16.2. Chemical Process Synthesis........................................................... 149
16.3. Principles of The Process Conceptualization.................................. 150
References.............................................................................................. 156
Chapter 17 Material Science and Material Selection................................................ 157

References.............................................................................................. 163
Chapter 18 Chemical Process Engineering................................................................ 165

References.............................................................................................. 171
Chapter 19 Bioprocess Engineering.......................................................................... 173

References.............................................................................................. 179
Chapter 20 Environmental Chemistry and Remediation........................................... 181

20.1. Green Chemistry............................................................................ 182
20.2. Benefits of Chemical Energy.......................................................... 185
20.3. Negative Aspects of Chemical Energy............................................ 187
20.4. Listing of Benefits of Chemical Energy........................................... 188
20.5. Checklist of Downsides of Chemical Energy.................................. 190
20.6. Major Current Environmental Problems......................................... 192
ix
References.............................................................................................. 194
Chapter 21 Chemical Reaction Engineering.............................................................. 195
Chapter 22 Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer........................................................ 203

22.1. Phases of Matter............................................................................ 208
References.............................................................................................. 210
Chapter 23 Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Methods.................................. 211

23.1. Mean and Variance........................................................................ 214
23.2. Binomial Probability-Mass Function.............................................. 215
23.3. Normal Distribution....................................................................... 215
References.............................................................................................. 218
Chapter 24 Process Control, Instrumentation, and Safety........................................ 219

24.1. Feedback Control System Characteristics....................................... 223
24.2. Benefits of Advanced Control......................................................... 224
References.............................................................................................. 227
Chapter 25 Chemometrics........................................................................................ 229

25.1. Instrumental Chemical Analysis..................................................... 232
25.2. Optical Methods............................................................................ 232
25.3. Electrochemistry Methods.............................................................. 233
25.4. Chromatography Methods.............................................................. 234
25.5. High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC)........................ 235
25.6. Thin Layer Chromatography........................................................... 235
25.7. Ion Exchange Chromatography...................................................... 235
25.8. Operating Line............................................................................... 235
References.............................................................................................. 237
Chapter 26 Process Modeling and Simulation........................................................... 239

26.1. Process Control.............................................................................. 243
References.............................................................................................. 246
Chapter 27 Polymer Technology............................................................................... 247

27.1. Crystalline Polymers...................................................................... 250
x
27.2. Addition Polymerization................................................................ 251
27.3. Bulk Polymerization...................................................................... 251
27.4. Soluble Polymerization.................................................................. 252
27.5. Emulsion Polymerization............................................................... 252
27.6. Suspension Polymerization............................................................ 252
27.7. Regular Double-Strand Polymers................................................... 254
Reference............................................................................................... 256
Index...................................................................................................... 257
xi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 9.1. Mass transfer of component A between media B and E with no

concentration jump at the interface.
Figure 9.2. Mass transfer of part A in between media B as well as E with a focus
dive at the user interface.
Figure 10.1: Electric Circuit.
Figure 10.2. Illustration of Kirchhoffs Circuit Law : Determination of Number
of Nodes, Branches, Lopes and Meshes in a Circuit.
Figure 11.1. 2 Input AND Gate- AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives
a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
Figure 11.2. OR Gate -The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high
output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high.
Figure 11.3. XOR Gate-The ‘Exclusive-OR’ gate is a circuit which will give a
high output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high.
Figure 11.4 . The NOT Gate -The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produces
an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter.
Figure 11.5 . 2 Input NAND Gate - This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to
an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high
if any of the inputs are low.
Figure 11.6 . 2 Input NOR Gate- This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an
OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any
of the inputs are high.
Figure 11.7 . XNOR gate-The ‘Exclusive-NOR’ gate circuit does the opposite
to the EOR gate. It will give a low output if either, but not both, of its two inputs
are high.
Figure 16.1 . Symbols for Drawing Process Flow Diagrams. Bhattacharyya, D.,
et al (2012) Diagram for Understanding Chemical Processes.
Figure 16.2 . Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment.
Figure 16.3. Temperature and Pressure effect on Conversion for Methanol from
Syngas.
Figure 20.1. Illustration of the Definition of Green Chemistry.
xiii
Figure 21.1. Chemical reaction process.
Figure 24.1. Block diagram for feed-forward and feedback control.
xiv
PREFACE
Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology is the engineering activity

that is concerned with the exploitation of engineering problems in the wider
scope. The goal is to identify different problems in the field of Chemical
Engineering Biotechnology which set as a distinct branch of the engineering
profession. In the most situation, engineers are normally faced with many
questions: What information is needed to solve a problem, what is the best way
to obtain it, and the best formulas and methods to solve the problems?
The purpose of this book is to identify most problems in areas which chemical
engineers experience
Chapter 1 introduce the readers to the engineering computing and programming
methods using the common engineering computing software programs,
program design, analysis and development and computer application in
chemical engineering. Chapter 2 aimed at challenging and training the reader
to understand complex chemical processes. Chapter 3 addressed the aspects of
life sciences covering the principles of organic chemistry, nomenclature of the
biological processes and reaction in biological systems. Chapter 4 introduce
the readers to the ecological relationship between microorganisms and human
disease and response to microbial invasion. Chapter 5 introduced the reader
to the principles of thermodynamics and the application of thermodynamics
to phase equilibria and reaction equilibria. Chapter 6 introduced the readers
to the behavior of materials under various conditions and environments about
the atomic and molecular structure and bonding. The chapter cover the effects
of microstructure on microscopic properties, microstructure development and
materials processing. Chapter 7 will introduce the readers to the fundamentals
and modeling techniques of a variety of separation processes in chemical
industry. Chapter 8 will cover the chemistry of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids, and lipids. Chapter 9 will cover the biomechanical engineering processes
such as fermentation, agitation, and mass transfer about chemical engineering,
biochemistry, and microbiology. Chapter 10 will introduce readers to the
basic principles of electrical circuits and the basic laws such as Thevenin’s,
Kirchhoff’s and Norton’s laws about the analysis of electrical circuits. Chapter
11 will include discussions about the basic principles of electromechanical
systems and include the basic principles of electric machines and motors.
Chapter 12 will introduce the readers to the principals of control methods.
The chapter will cover topics dealing with modeling for control, linear ordinary
differential equations.
Chapter 13 will cover the basics of chromatography (paper, thin layer, column,
and electrophoresis. Chapter 14 will introduce the readers to ideal mixtures,
integral quantities, differential quantities, thermodynamics of open and closed
systems. Chapter 15 will cover the basic principles of errors and statistics,
calibration methods, general chemistry concepts, activity and ph measurements.
Chapter 16 will introduce the readers to the principles of chemical process design
with specific focus on synthesis, integration and system level understanding.
Chapter 17 will cover the concepts of material balances chemical engineering
profession, mathematical methods in biochemical and chemical engineering.
Chapter 18 cover topics in the principles of energy conversion, chemical
reaction, engineering, process design and biochemical engineering. Chapter
19 introduce the readers to the topics under bioprocess development as an
interdisciplinary challenge. Chapter 20 will introduce the readers to the
chemistry of air, water and soil with a specific focus on the health effects of
human-made chemical products and environmental by-products. Chapter 21
cover the topics such as introduction to chemical reactions, homogeneous and
heterogeneous reactions. Chapter 22 covers the advanced principles of heat
transfer and fluid mechanics and laboratory processes in fluid mechanics and
heat transfer. Chapter 23 will be a continuation of the above chapters that
introduced the discussion of ordinary differential calculus and calculations.
Chapter 24 The chapter will introduce the readers to the principles of
chemical process systems, modern control systems, advanced process control,
computational techniques in control engineering. Chapter 25 introduce the
reader to instrumental analysis in chemistry, calibration techniques in chemical
and biotechnology engineering. Chapter 26 introduced the readers to process
and operations modeling, random variables and probability distributions, model
design. Chapter 27 will discuss the topics such as nomenclature and fundamental
concepts of polymers and polymerization, polymer stereochemistry, crystalline,
copolymers and viscoelasticity and polymer processing
xvi
CHAPTER
1
INTRODUCTION TO CHEMICAL
ENGINEERING COMPUTING
The chapter will introduce the readers to the engineering computing and
programming methods using the common engineering computing software
programs, program design, analysis, and development, and computer
application in chemical engineering. The chapter will have practice questions
at the end to test the readers understanding and for purposes of practice.
With the evolution of computers age, its advancements also nourished
the field of engineering and one of them is chemical engineering. The
computer technology improvised chemical engineering in applications
such as designing and managing different chemical processes, simplifying
complex mathematical calculations and construction new drawings that
previously used to done manually by the chemical engineers and it took a lot
of time which result decreasing the overall output and efficiency of industry.
The essential development in the project of Human Genome Project is
also one of the major development, not only in chemical engineering but
also in genomics and genetic engineering as well. The modern chemical
engineering principles are also developing to produce advanced and efficient
DNA catalogs in large quantities and helping the mankind.
The computers in chemical organizations are nowadays using latest
computing techniques in managing different operations in plants and set
new circumstances to ensure optimal operation. The chemical engineer
utilizes applications to construct new models for design and reactor analysis
and using the laboratory data as well as physical parameters such as estimate
the performance of reactor in the industry, chemical thermodynamics and
2 Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology
to solve problems which most frequently appears during the manufacturing

process.
By the development of different software, chemical engineering has
greatly improved by minimizing the concerns in the designing of new plans,
detailed analysis, and economics for pilot plants and plant modifications.
The chemical engineers can now design the whole manufacturing process
with the help of simulation software which can predict the desired output
which was previously limited by a certain number of factors.
Furthermore, Chemical engineers now develop economic and financial
ways of using energy and materials by using much more sophisticated
mathematical models with advanced computers. Chemical engineers use
software and techniques to reduce the use of raw materials for producing
more usable products, which includes petrochemicals, plastics, and
medicine which are set on a large-scale manufacturing. Also, they are
involved in research and waste management. Chemical engineers use super-
computers to execute plant operations and complex chemical processes.
They use Computational Fluid Dynamics to run flow systems and advanced
heat transfer problems. Mostly used mathematical software techniques
are Matlab, polymath, Wolfram Mathematica to eradicate the problems of
complex differential equations for unique solutions. There is much software
used these days for the calculation and optimum results than the past. One
of the most human-friendly software is CAD (Computer-aided Design).
This computing technique assists in the analysis, creation, modification, and
optimization of a design. The typical tools, which this software provides,
include mass properties of calculations, tolerance analysis, Finite-element
modeling and graphical visualization of the current chemical process through
various models. Similarly, ‘Flowsheet’ is another computer application
for chemical engineering. Flowsheeting is defined as the use of computer
aids to perform complex and long calculations of mass and heat balance as
well as costing and sizing for the chemical process. Hence, it can be said
that Flowsheeting is an essential document in process and design. It also
shows the arrangement of the equipment, which are selected to carry out the
process, the stream flow-rates and stream connections. It is also known as
diagrammatic model of the flow process. This will include instrumentation,
piping, and equipment design. One of the most advanced computer application
is automation. The days of operating and managing the industries by hand
are gone many years ago with the evolution of automation. In every small
and large-scale industry, the techniques of automation have been used to
eradicate small problem in the finishing of the final product. Automation has
Introduction to Chemical Engineering Computing 3
been growing with a great pace constantly with respect to its sophistication
and applicability. It the fundamental step in every organization to increase
its efficiency, productivity, effectiveness, and ensures safety. Therefore, all
the chemical engineers in operation department, production managers are
highly encouraged to use Automation to boost up the overall efficiency. This
technique is applied with the help of PLC systems, which are the computer-
based controller, and operates on a different set of logic, which is obtained
from different boilers and other Instruments and is fed in Controller, which
further decreased the operation need to perform a certain process. The
integration of fundamental Automation process includes manufacturing
in Industry, batch Control and in Automated Systems of Chemical Plants.
Similarly, there is other frequently used software in different manufacturing
and process industry and one of them is Chemical. It is an integrated
animated and simulation-based suite of the process in chemical industries. It
is a powerful and flexible chemical process simulation environment, which
is programmed in C++ language. There are various advantages of Chemical
such as daily chemical process and automated generated flowsheet of the
system hence product quality is increased. It helps to design new equipment
and processes, to handle increasing fuel and already feedstock costs. It also
provides good economic and compares by studying alternative processes,
reducing engineering staff (keeps financial situation of industry in the
healthy state). It helps in keeping all engineering functions united in the
single application software. The applications of Chemical are Distillations
and extractions both batch and continuous in tower designing, chemical
reactions, in electrolytic processes, Safety analysis, economic analysis
in manufacturing, etc. The industries which are using Chemical includes
Fertilizer, Pharmaceuticals, Oil exploration and refining, processing
of equipment manufacturers, and construction of the plant, Academic
university programmers. Another Chemical Engineering computing
software is Aspen Plus, which is the original Process Simulation software
developed by Aspen Tech in 1990’s. Aspen Plus is a model application used
in chemical industries for the process development and design-modeling
tool for simulation, monitoring for the polymer, chemical, specialty
chemical, metals, and minerals, and coal power industries. Aspen HYSYS,
unlike Aspen Plus, is purely used as a process and modeling tool for design,
steady-state simulation, performance monitoring, business planning and
efficiency, for oil & gas industries and petroleum refining industries. Aspen
HYSYS is a model, which is used only in refineries for the process like CIP
and distillation. For the simulation and calculation of reactors in industries,
Batch reactors are the computer simulation-based computer application for

the instruments including boilers, process design, etc. Batch Reactor is a
simulator designed for chemical reactors, which are running in batch mode.
It was built for chemists, technicians, and process engineers who need a
robust tool to reduce overall response to environmental, production cost or
safety regulations and thus, reducing the time to market of new products.
It helps in accelerating the projects from laboratory to pilot and full-scale
plants. Similarly, it also helps in reducing the cost through efficiency of
operating conditions.
Over the years, chemical engineers have adopted the modern use of
computing and programming methods in solving technical engineering
problems. Therefore, serving much time and money through this medium.
Student must have hands-on practical experience in navigating through
different problem-solving methods presently used by chemical engineers and
have an in-depth knowledge on the right application of these programs to
specific engineering problems. Quotes “Computers have revolutionized the
way chemical engineers design and analyze processes, whether designing
large units to make polyethylene or small microreactors used to detect
biological agents” Finlayson, (2006). Despite this revolution, students, and
engineers should carefully check through calculations to ensure no errors as
computer programs do not work properly when some parameters are given.
In this book section, an overview of the fundamental of chemical
engineering calculation using computing and programming methods will
be discussed. This will be focused on three major approaches namely; The
problems that chemical engineers may need to solve; Comparison of the
types of computer programs that can be used and illustration of the best for
certain application; Description on accurately checking work for errors and
corrections.
Focus will be made on four computer programs: Excel®, MATLAB®,
Aspen Plus®, Comsol Multiphysics®. There are numerous other programs
you can access through other researchers, the details may be different but
approach will be similar.
One of the aims of a chemical engineer is to design a chemical plant and
this is likely impossible to achieve without solving equations of state.
Equations of state aid in the finding of the specific volume of a gaseous
mixture of chemicals at specific pressure and temperature. By calculating
and knowing the specific volume and size, the cost of the plant can be
determined including the diameter of distillation towers and chemical reactor
as well as the horsepower of compressors and pumps and the diameter of the
pipes. These are vital information to have on hand when designing a plant.
Furthermore, in calculating enthalpy and vapor-liquid properties of
mixtures, specific volume must first be determined and it’s important to
calculate enthalpy when making materials balances to ensure reduction in
energy usage to help the environment. Algebraic equations must be solved
when attempting an equation of state.
1.1. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS OF EQUA-

TIONS OF STATE
The ideal equation of state is a combination of pressure, temperature, and
specific volume.
V
v=
or where n ,
where p is the absolute pressure, v is the volume, n is the number of moles,
R is the gas constant, and T is the absolute temperature. The unit of R must
correspond to the units chosen for the other variables. This equation is
correct when pressure is low otherwise numerous chemical processes must
have to take place at high pressure. Ammonia gas takes place at pressure of
220 atmospheres. Ideal gas equation of state is not a suitable fit for such high
pressures. More so, other equation of state has been developed to address
chemical processes at high pressures.
The known equation of state for substances in the gas phase is the ideal-
gas equation of state. Therefore, this equation foresees the P-V-T behavior
of a gas precisely within some suitably particular region Firstly, ideal gas
law was first the Vander Waals equation of state;
where b is the excluded volume; and a is the International force between

two molecules.
The Redlich–Kwong equation of state is a modification of Van der Waals
equation of state
,
 R 2Tc2  T 1
 c 
where a = 0.42748 α , b = 0.08664
 p 
T =
and r Tc ,
α=
Tr0.5
In the above equation: Tc is the critical temperature (absolute term); Pc is the
critical pressure; Tr is the reduced temperature (absolute temperature divid-
ed by critical temperature); and α is the Redlich-Kwong equation of state.
The Redlich equation of state was modified further by Soave to give Redlich-
Kwong-Soave equation of state (RK-Soave in Aspen plus) and it is com-
monly used in process simulators.
The parameter α is given by a different formula
α = [1 + m(1 − Tr )] ;
0.5 2
m = 0.480 + 1.574 ω – 0.176 ω .

2
The ω parameter is the acentric factor as defined ω = –

(1 + log P )
vp , r
(1+logPvp,r)Tr=0.7, where Pvp,r is the reduced pressure of a saturated vapor,

Tr = 0.7
estimated at a reduced temperature of 0.7. Acentric factors for numerous

fluid is demonstrated and mentioned by Reid et al. Where acentric factor is
unavailable, equation of Edmister can be used to estimate ω, where Tbr is
the reduced normal boiling point and Pc is the critical pressure in k Pa. An
alternative correlation is given by Lee and Kesler.
The Peng Robinson equation has a similar equation compared to RK-
Soave
,
R Tc2
2
a (T ) = 0.45724 α (T )
Pc ,
α 0.5 = 1 + m (1 − Tr0.5 ),
m = 0.37464 + 1.54226 ω – 0.269 ω 2 .
Excel and MATLAB are used to solve equations aimed at finding specific
volumes. Equations are expressed in an algebraic form and either use Goal-
Seek or solve to solve with excel.
1.2. VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

A refinery tower normally known as distillation tower is used in separating
mixture of chemical into two or more streams, each is relatively a pure stream
of one of the chemicals. A physical process that governs such separation
is called vapor-liquid equilibrium. Problems in this state can be solved by
Excel or MATLAB as it’s all set in algebraic equation.
1.3. CHEMICAL REACTION EQUILIBRIUM

Hydrogen is made when water-gas shift reacts with fuel cells. Chemical
equilibrium is achieved in reactor when reaction is fast. For instance,
hydrogen, and nitrogen reactions form ammonia, which are used to make
fertilizer that helps to increase food production for the world. Chemical
reaction equilibrium must be known first in order to analyze a process;
secondly the reaction rate is determined to decide the volume of the reactor.
If chemicals that react are mixed in a vessel. The reaction is represented as
A+B ⇒ C+D
If the reaction is reversible
C+D ⇒ A+B
A+B ⇔ C+D
Excel, MATLAB and Aspen Plus are used to solve multiple non-linear
equation especially when dealing with reactions at equilibrium.
1.4. MASS BALANCES WITH RECYCLE STREAM

When designing and running a chemical plant, mass balance is used in
deciding which processes are cost-effective. Mass flows of a chemical
process including the input flows and output flows, the economic viability
of the process by adding up the selling price of the products and subtracting
the cost of the raw materials and waste treatment.
Mass balance helps to find the energy costs in the process provided the
enthalpy of each stream is calculated. Most processes involve a recycle
stream and excel is used to solve mass balances with recycle streams. When
energy balances affect the mass balances, they are best-solved using process
simulator such as Aspen Plus.
1.5. SIMULATION OF MASS TRANSFER

EQUIPMENT
There are two key points to remember when modeling mass transfer
equipment: (1) thermodynamics is important; and (2) convergence is
difficult. Experimental data must be compared with thermodynamic
predictions. Aspen Plus is used to solve a variety of distillation problems
either with plate-to-plate method (Radfrac) and shortcut method
1.6. PROCESS SIMULATION

This is used to determine the size of equipment in a chemical plant; the
amount of energy needed, the overall yield, the magnitude of the waste
stream. The result of the process simulation depends on thermodynamics
& transport processes, the mathematical models are hard to solve without a
computer, the use of Aspen plus is used in process simulators.
1.7. CHEMICAL REACTORS

Many reactors require a catalyst to speed up the reaction. One of the features
that set chemical Engineers apart is being able to handle chemical reactions
that require converting of one or more chemicals into other chemicals that
are more valuable. Equation for different reactors must be developed plug
flow, batch, and CSTR. MATLAB is used to differentiate other equations
and reactions and reactor problems in plug flow reactor.
1.8. TRANSPORT PROCESSION ONE DIMENSION

Chemical processes involve the transport and transfer of momentum, energy,
and mass. Momentum transfer is another word for fluid flow and most
chemical processes involve pumps and compressors and perhaps centrifuges
and cyclone separators. Energy transfer is used for heat reacting system.
Equations governing energy transfer, mass transfer and fluid flow have
the same similarities, e.g., heat conduction, steady, and transient, reaction
and diffusion in a catalyst pellet, flow in pipes and between flat plates of
Newtonian or Non-Newtonian fluids.
Femi lab is used to solve waver, stokes equation in many situations, e.g.,
entry flow into a pipe and transient start-up of pipe flow. Most examples are
for laminar flow in two dimensions. One model was turbulent flow into a
pipe, the other was for a complicated 3-dimensional geometry.
Convective diffusion equation in two and three dimensions. Chemical

reaction and mass transfer are the core phenomena in defining chemical
engineering. Problems of heat conduction and convection, mass diffusion
and convection are solved by Femi lab.
PRACTICE QUESTIONS
Q. Where batch reactor is used?
Q. When AspenTech was developed?
Q. What is Chemcad?
Q. How automation had change the industrial processes?
Q. What is CAD and its applications?
REFERENCES
1. Finlayson, B. (2006) (First Edn) An Introduction to Chemical
Engineering Computing. 7- 175
2. Gray, J. R. D. In Equations of State in Engineering Research, Advances
in Chemistry Ser. 182, 1977, American Chemical Society: Washington,
D.C., p. 253
3. Hougen, O.; Watson, K. M.; Ragatz, R. A. Chemical Process Principles,
Part 11, John Wiley, 1959.
4. Keil, W.; Mackins, W.; YOB, H.; Werther, J. Scientific Computing in
Chemical Engineering 1996.
5. Lee, B. I.; Kesler, M. G. AIChEJ, 1975; 21, 510, 1040
6. Peng, D. Y.; Robinson, D. B. Ind. Eng. Chem. Pundam., 1976; 15, 59.
7. Raman, R. (1985) Chemical Process Computations. Elsevier Applied
Science Publishers
8. Robinson, D. B.; Peng, D. Y.; Ng, H. J. In Phase Equilibrium and Fluid
Properties in the Chemical Industry, Acs Symp. Ser. 60, American
Chemical Society, Washing Dc, 1977; P.200.
9. Schank, Roger (1994). How Students Learn – Educational Software
and the Future of Education. Sponsored by Searle Center for Teaching
Excellence, April 21, 1994. https://www.journals.elsevier.com/
computers-and-chemical-engineering http://cache.org/computers-in-
chemical-engineering-education
CHAPTER
2
FUNDAMENTALS
The chapter will aim at challenging and training the reader to understand
complex chemical processes. The chapter will include discussions of
material balances that involve physical equilibria and chemical reactions,
gas behavior, energy balances. The chapter will introduce various laws such
as Raoult’s law and the laws of vapor pressure such as Grahams, Charles,
Boyles, and combined gas pressure law.
After the Industrial revolution, industries were struggling to establish
its process units and to cope with this demand, different engineering fields
came into existence in which chemical engineering was one of them. At the
beginning of 19th century, every organization setup its own Research and
Development departments to solve its daily process problems for desired
finishing of required product and that resulted in optimal output, thus
increase overall efficient of the industry.
With the advent of chemistry, two centuries ago, with the realization
that everything is matter, helped us to understand various complex chemical
processes from very basic chemical processes of nature to chemical
reactions take place in different industries. But, no matter how complex it is,
it is further simplified by dividing into different elementary processes. Also
with the invention of computer, as discussed earlier in the previous chapter,
advance control schemes have been developed in which different complex
chemical processes which relay on mathematical equations and models are
solved. By using different control techniques, the process models are just
inserted and the results are obtained within seconds of time. Furthermore,
different control algorithms are design, to get more efficient results and to
reduce the processing time of chemical processes, helps in increasing the
overall output of the system. Some algorithms are designed in such a way
that they predict the output result of chemical reaction when using unknown
compounds and creating simulation of different flow processes of industries.
A large number of molecules in a small container of gas does not create
any problems, as study of behavior of a gas are much simpler than expected.
Only by knowing the few properties of a gas, other properties can be derived
from it. The properties are pressure, density, internal energy, temperature,
viscosity, diffusivity, and heat conductivity, these properties are interrelated
to each other. So, it can be said that only by knowing two parameters, i.e.,
density and temperature or temperature and pressure, all other parameters
can be fixed. For example, if the temperature of Carbon dioxide gas is known,
it will have one viscosity, one internal energy and only one pressure. These
kinds of calculations are the goal of kinetic theory and statistical mechanics
and having predefined complex model equations, the desired results can
be easily calculated more efficiently. In discussing the properties of gases,
the properties of equilibrium and non-equilibrium systems are different.
The equilibrium behaviors of a gas are much sophisticated to observe and
analyze, since any change that will occurs on the molecular level must be
compensated by the change of any other property to keep the system in its
equilibrium state.
Since the properties of all the gas are similar, a gas equation known as
ideal gas equation is available and all the gases show small deviation from
such equation.
Mathematically, the equation is written as:
PV ∞ RT
In this equation, P is the pressure, V is the volume and R is called Gas
constant, T is the temperature.
Raoult’s Law is also known as Law of vapor pressure from the branch
of thermodynamics and it is defined as partial vapor pressure of an ideal
solution is equal to the vapor pressure of it individual components multiplied
with the mole fraction of given mixture. Similarly, it is also stated as relative
lowering of the vapor pressure of a solution having a nonvolatile solute
which is equal to the mole fraction of that given solute of the solution.
Its mathematical formula is given as:
pi = p*ixi
Chemical Engineering Fundamentals 13
In the given formula, pi is the partial pressure of the component in the

gaseous mixture i and pi* is the vapor pressure of the individual component
i and xi is the mole fraction of its element in i in the given solution.
Boyle’s law also known as Mariotte’s Law or Boyle-Mariotte’s Law is
such a gas law that explains how much pressure of the gas will increase in
correspondence with the decrease of volume in a container. In other words,
the absolute pressure which is exerted on an ideal gas of given mass is
inversely related to the volume if the amount of gas and temperature of a
closed container remains unchanged.
Mathematically, this law can be written as
P ∞ 1/V or PV=K
In the above mathematical formula, P is the pressure of the gas and V is
the volume and K is Constant.
Also, in comparing the matter in two different sets of conditions, the
Law can be stated as:
P1V1 = P2V2
Graham’s Law of effusion or diffusion is defined as the rate of
diffusion/effusion of a gas equals to the inversely proportional to the square
root of its mass particles,
Mathematically, this law can be written as
Rate1 M2
= ,
Rate2 M1
In the above mathematical formula, Rate1 and Rate2 are the rate of
effusion of first and second gases respectively where M1 and M2 are the
molar masses of them.
Also, if the molecular mass of one gas is four times higher than the
other, it will escape easily through the plugs or from the small holes in the
vessel at half rate as compared to the other gas.
Charles’ Law is also one of the experimental laws that states that
describes the behavior of how a gas will behave when it is heated. In other
words, when pressure of the gas is kept constant, the volume and temperature
of the gases will increase when it is heated.
V ∞ T or V/T=k
where V and T are the volume and temperature of the gas and K is the
constant.
Furthermore, when comparing the same gas in two different sets of

conditions, it is written as:
V2 T2
= = orV1T2 V2T1
V1 T1
The combined Gas Law is basically another gas law that combines
further three different gas laws, i.e., Charles’ Law, Boyles’ Law and Gay-
Lussac’s Law. It is stated as the product of pressure and volume and the
temperature of a container remains constant and mathematically combines
the three gas laws and is given as:
PV/T = K
where P, V & T are the pressure, volume, and temperature of the gas and K
is the constant.
Similarly, after combining the three laws in two different sets of
conditions, it is defined as
PV PV
1 1
= 2 2
T1 T2
Chemical engineering problems has met the approval of a genetic
algorithm approach in conducting multi-objective optimization problems.
A multiple of new operators is used to enhance the computational effort and
algorithm performance.
To prevent genetic drift, an elitism operator is used to insure the
circulation of the best result of each objective function. The algorithm is
applied to a batch free-radical styrene polymerization process for maximize
the monomer conversion rate and reduce concentration of initiator residue
in the product. The algorithm is robust, handling satisfactorily multi-modal
and multidimensional problems.
2.1. CLARIFYING COMPLEX CHEMICAL

PROCESSES WITH QUANTUM COMPUTERS
Over the years, specialist wants a more technological revolution from
quantum computers, which allows for problem-solving too complex for
classical supercomputers. Area of application include data encryption and
decryption, special problems in the field of physics, quantum chemistry
and materials research. In other words, concrete questions computers can
answer are vague from the expert’s point of view. Computers available
today calculate the behavior of simple molecules accurately.
2.2. MASS PRODUCTION AND NETWORKING

Researchers highlight the fact that quantum computers do not have the ability
the ability to handle all tasks, so they work as a supplement to classical
computers instead of replacing them. A typical example is associated to
the nitrogenize reaction, quantum computers calculates how electrons are
distributed within a specific molecular structure. Notwithstanding, classical
computers are required to inform quantum computers which structures are
important and should be calculated.
The three phase catalytic hydrogenation reactors are viable reactors
which has complex behavior because of interaction amongst gas, solid, and
liquid phases as well with the kinetic, mass, and heat transfer mechanisms.
The distribution parameter model is nonlinear, and it is based on mass and
energy conservation principles. This consists of balance equations for the
gas and liquid phases and the system of partial differential equations are
generated. In a possible controller design, detailed nonlinear mathematical
models are not suitable; a simple linear mathematical model of the process
is preferably determined. Plat data is used to validate these mathematical
models. There are a few properties of gases that need attention, pressure,
density, temperature, internal energy, viscosity, heat conductivity and
diffusivity. Some other properties are by the application of electric and
magnetic fields, which has minor interest. It is useful to distinguish the
equilibrium properties and the nonequilibrium transport properties. A system
in equilibrium has no changes unless some external action is performed
on it and its behavior is steady with time with no change, even when the
molecules are in ceaseless motion.
Major fundamental of chemical engineering consist of thermodynamics;
which is the science of energy. One fundamental laws of nature are the
conservation of energy principle. This means that energy can neither be
created nor destroyed but it can change from one form to another. A study
of systems is defined as study of the quantity of matter in a space. Real
surfaces that separates a system from its surroundings is called boundary.
It can be fixed or movable. Studies shows that systems can be considered
open or closed depending whether a fixed mass or fixed volume in space
is chosen. The amount of mass in a close system is fixed and cannot cross
it boundary. In this case, heat energy or work can cross the boundary and
the close system volume could not be fixed. When energy is not allowed
to cross the boundary of a system, it is considered an isolation system. A
system is in equilibrium when there is no change with time and it properties
can be measured. Equilibrium consists of different types, which are thermal,
mechanical, phase, and chemical equilibrium. A system does not satisfy
thermodynamic equilibrium until all the conditions of various types are
satisfied. When an entire system has the same temperature that implies that
the system is in thermal equilibrium. If there is no change in pressure in
a system at any time, the system is said to be in mechanical equilibrium.
Most times, system involves two phases, which are; phase and chemical
equilibrium. Phase equilibrium is defined when a mass of each phase reaches
an equilibrium and not deviate, it is defined as a Phase equilibrium while
chemical equilibrium is when there is no chemical reaction in the system.
When an equation relates the pressure, temperature, and specific volume
of a substance it is called equation of state. This can also be demonstrated
by the relationship between properties of a substance at equilibrium state.
Equation of states could be simple and complex. The simplest equation
of state for substances in the gas phase is the ideal-gas equation of state.
It demonstrates the P-V-T behavior of a gas. Often, gas and vapor are
commonly used simultaneously.
The vapor phase of a substance is called a gas when it is above
critical temperature, otherwise called a gas that is not far from a state of
condensation. In 1662, Robert Boyles, an Englishman, a pressure of a gases
is inversely proportional to their volume. In 1802, J. Charles and J. Gay-
Lussac, Frenchmen determined experimentally at low pressure the volume
of a gas is proportional to its temperature.
T 
That is p= R= 
v
or pv = RT (2.1)
where the constant of proportionality R is called the gas constant. p is the
absolute pressure, T is the absolute temperature and v is the specific volume.
where Kelvin scale of the temperature scale is related to the Celsius scale by
T(K) = T(°C) + 273.15
The Rankine scale is related to the Fahrenheit scale by
T(R) = T(°F) + 459.67
The temperature scales in the two-unit systems are related by
T(R) = 1.8 T(K)

T(°F) = 1.8 T(°C) + 32
The Eq. (2.1) is called the ideal-gas equation of state and a gas that
obeys this relation is called an ideal gas.
The gas constant value is different for each gas and is determined from
R = RU/M (kJ/ kg ⋅ K or kPa ⋅ m3/kg.K)
where Ru is the universal gas constant and M is the molar mass (molecular
weight) of a gas.
The Ru is the same for all substances and its values is
The molar mass M is the mass of one mole (gram-mole, gmol) of a

substance in grams or mass of one kmol (kilogram-mole, kgmol) in
kilograms. It is the mass of 1 Ibmol in Ibm. Molar mass of a substance has
the same numerical value in both unit systems
For instance, a molar mass of oxygen is 32, this simply implies that mass
of 1 kmol of nitrogen is 32kg or the mass of 1 Ibmol of nitrogen is 32 Ibm.
That is, M = 32 kg/kmol = 32 Ibm/Ibmol. The mass of a system is equal to
the product of its molar mass M and a mole number N.
m = MN (kg)
The value of R and M for several substances are in Table A-1.
The idea-gas equation of state can be written in several different forms
v = mv → PV = mRT
mR = (MN)R = NRu → PV = NRuT
An ideal-gas is an imaginary substance that obeys this relation pv = RT.
Experimentally, the ideal-gas relation gives close approximate to the P-v-T
behavior of real gases at low densities. The density of a gas decreases at low
pressures and high temperatures, and the gas behaves like an ideal gas under
these conditions.
Let’s consider the following example.

Example 2–1 Mass of Air in a Room
Problem: Determine the mass of the air in a room whose dimensions are
2 m x 3 m x 4 m at 50 kPa and 15°C.
Solution: The mass of air in a room is to be determined.
Analysis: A sketch of the room is given air at specified conditions can be
treated as an ideal gas. From Table A-1, the gas constant of air is R 0.287kPa
⋅ m3/kg.K ((Note the units are (kJ/ kg ⋅ K or kPa ⋅ m3/kg.K)) because the
pressure in the problem is given in kPa, and the absolute temperature is
T=15°C+273=286K.
The volume of the room; V=(2m)(3m)(4m)=24m3
The mass of air in the room is determined from the ideal gas relation to
be
The conversion of energy principle can be defined as the net change in

the total energy of the system during a process is equal to the difference in
between the total energy entering and the total energy leaving the system
during that process.
(Total energy entering the system) – (Total energy leaving the system) =
(Change in the total energy of the system).
E in − E out =
∆Esystem
The equation above is called energy balance and can be applied to

any system going through a process. When using this equation to solve
engineering problems, adequate understanding of different forms of energy
and it transfer forms must be adhered to.
When a gas such as ammonia is highly soluble in water, a linear
relationship of the Henry’s law which only dilutes gas-liquid solutions does
not apply, and the mole fraction of a gas dissolved in the liquid is expressed
as a function of the partial pressure of the gas in the gas phase and the
temperature. The relations are expressed by Raoult’s law as
Pi,gas side = yi,gas side . Ptotal = yi,liquid . Pi,gas(T)
Where Pi,sat (T) is the saturation pressure of the species i at the interface
temperature and Ptotal is the total pressure on the gas phase side.
REFERENCES
1. Boyles’ Law, Charles’ Law, Roult’s Law from Wikipedia.
2. https://phys.org/news/2017–07-clarifiying-complex-chemical-
quantum.html.
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/gas-state-of-matter/Behaviour-
and-properties.
4. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/305111153_Advanced_
control_of_a_complex_chemical_process.
5. h t t p s : / / w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a r t i c l e / p i i /
S0098135403000553.
CHAPTER
3
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY:
BIOLOGICAL EMPHASIS
The chapter will address the aspects of life sciences. The chapter will cover
the principles of organic chemistry, nomenclature of the biological processes
and reaction in biological systems. The chapter will borrow the principles
and knowledge of chemical processes to explain the biological processes.
The chapter will introduce the readers to laboratory tasks in performing
selected experiments that introduce the students to the fundamental
techniques applied in organic chemistry and to familiarize the readers with
the properties of organic compounds. The chapter will cover the concept of
analytical spectroscopy.
The life science is such a branch of science that gives brief concept
and understanding of processes and structures of living organisms. There
are four principles that make life sciences such as homeostasis, genetics,
the cells theory and evolution. This field of science has strong root in
the field of chemistry, which has helped the mankind to learn the basics
of elementary analysis of different species and different kinds of matters,
their atomic numbers, atomic masses and their isotopes. Furthermore, it
explained biological processes which possess different chemical reactions
and bonds which includes their intermolecular and intramolecular forces,
the types of bonds, i.e., ionic, covalent, and metallic bond as well as the
concepts of electronegativity. It further illustrates how chemistry of life
makes everything possible, also all the living organisms are made up of
atoms which follows the rules of chemistry. It helped us to learn the key
properties of atoms, how they affect the life sciences and their results in
biological consequences. The life sciences are essential in improving the
standards and qualities of different aspects of our life.
Organic chemistry is a sub branch of chemistry which deals with the
properties, chemical reactions and structures of all the organic compounds
which contains carbon atom. For the study of this field of chemistry
includes many parameters such as chemical and physical properties of those
compound with their chemical composition and similar methods for their
chemical reactivity.
The study also includes to examine the compound in its pure form as
well as its reactions with nature and its fabrications with other elements of
periodic table. The organic chemistry also helps to create such compounds
which further utilize in different other field of life such as to create different
types of polymers, drugs, petroleum products and focused study of specific
compounds both theoretically and laboratory analysis. Moreover, there
is diverse range of chemical reactions in organic chemistry including
hydrocarbons (the compounds of carbon and hydrogen), the composition
of myriad with main atom of carbon, elements including sulphur, oxygen,
nitrogen, phosphorus, and the radio elements of the group halogens, In term
of periodic table the elements of group 1 and 2 and metalloids. Also, the
modern organic chemistry contains its analysis with lanthanides and transition
elements (chromium, copper, zinc, palladium, nickel, cobalt, and titanium).
There is enormous range of applications of organic compounds and their
constituency in many commercial products which includes petrochemicals,
pharmaceuticals, and different products made from them such as solvents
and lubricants, fuels, and plastics. Hence the study of organic chemistry is
one of the essential components of universe as possess fundaments concepts
of other fields such as biochemistry, polymer chemistry and many important
aspects of material sciences.
Biological processes and their reactions are necessary to study living
of organisms. It possess many types of complex chemical reactions
which required essential elements, persistence, and transformation, i.e.,
the process of metabolism and homeostasis. These types of processes run
by different means such as protein modifications, substrate molecule and
interaction with a protein. The examples of biological processes include
structural organizations of cells which is basic unit of life, metabolism
which is conversion of energy in further cellular components (anabolism)
and (catabolism) decomposition of organic matter as human beings require
Organic Chemistry: Biological Emphasis 23
energy to maintain internal structural organization of cells. The process of

growth is another example of biological process, in which anabolism is at
higher rate than catabolism. Another example of this process is response to
a stimuli, it can be any form of response, from complex chemical reaction to
contraction of cellular organism. To produce new cells also include in this
process, to produce new organism with either asexually or sexually with
parent organisms. The interaction between different organisms, in this type,
one organism has observable effect on another specie. The other biological
process are cellular differentiation, fertilization fermentation, germination,
hybridization, tropism, etc.
The properties of organic compound contain Qualitative and quantitative
features in which the properties of qualitative features which are consistency,
odor, color, and solubility whereas the properties of quantitative include index
of refraction, melting point and boiling point. In term of melting and boiling
point, many of the organic compound boil as well as melt in comparison
with inorganic compound, they only melts and do not possess the qualities
of boiling. These two basic features gives the information regarding the
purity and identification of an organic matter. The boiling and melting point
also relate with the molecular weight and polarity of the molecules. In the
group of organic compounds, it also contains sublime compound, which
upon heating, directly evaporate rather than melting and are symmetrical,
i.e., para-dichlorobenzene. Over the temperature of 300 degree Celsius,
most of the organic compound are instable with a few exceptions. One of
the important property of organic compound is solubility, since they are
hydrophobic, they are not soluble in aqueous solution, but soluble in organic
solvent. There are many exceptions which are soluble in water as well, for
example, the compounds containing hydrogen bonding (alcohols, amines,
and carboxylic acids). The solubility of organic compounds depend upon the
purity of solvent and functional group present in the given solution. There are
various solid state properties of organic compounds, from organic polymers
to crystalline nature and thermal, electrical, and mechanical properties,
for example, electro optical properties, in case of piezoelectricity organic
compounds are the main constituents and various electrical conductivity
instruments. In the past, they had been also used in material and polymer
sciences.
Spectroscopy is defined as that field of science which deals with the
measurement in radiation intensity with respect to its wavelength. There are
many instruments to measure the spectroscopy such as spectral analyzers,
spectrophotometers, and spectrometers. Spectroscopy is very essential in
advance sciences as it is used in analytical chemistry and physics, since

every atom and molecule possess special spectra, this technique is used
in identification of atoms and molecule with quality of information. Its
concept is also explained by Max Planck in black body radiation and Albert
Einstein famous theory of photoelectric effect also based in it. Nowadays,
most of telescope have spectrograph which is used to physical properties of
space objects as well as different chemical compositions of matter. Many
techniques and methods are deployed for spectroscopy such as imparting
radiation energy, radiated pressure waves, electromagnetic radiations, etc.
The solubility of healthy proteins in liquid services of neutral salts has
developed one basis for their category as well as characterizations. Therefore,
solubility of one course of healthy proteins, the globulins, is boosted by the
enhancement of percentages of salt and lowered in extra focused services
of electrolytes. Albumins, on the various other hand, are reasonably soluble
in water, yet their solubility, additionally, is reduced in completely focused
options of salts. The rise in solubility of specific healthy proteins on the
enhancement of neutral salts was uncovered. This residential property was
ultimately utilized effectively splitting up in between healthy proteins,
however, it was not till 1905 that an extensive research of the solubility of
globulins in weaken salt options was reported.
There have considering that been several various other payments to this
detailed chemistry of the healthy proteins. The academic description of the
impacts of electrolytes after healthy proteins waited for, of requirement, the
advancement of an ample concept of solid electrolytes. Physical Chemistry
of Protein X which relied on the “level of dissociation,” and also, as a result,
after the variety of fragments existing, ignored the electric communication
of ions. Distinctions in the result of various salts, specifically of those of
various valence kinds, on healthy protein actions were examined. That
explained in the complying with terms the solubility of globulins in salt
services. “Remedy of globulin by a neutral salt is because of pressures put
in by its cost-free ions. Ions with equivalent valences, whether favorable or
unfavorable, are similarly effective, and the performances of ions of various
valences are straight symmetrical to the squares of their valences.” This
declaration is currently identified as a summary of the concept of the ionic
toughness which was later on created. In researching blends of electrolyte
options the last located the adhering to empirical connection. “In water
down remedies, the task coefficient of a provided solid electrolyte coincides
in all options of the exact same ionic stamina.” The ionic stamina does not
describe distinctions in habits in between salts of the exact same valence

kind shown up in extra focused options. The discrepancies from the optimal
gas regulations showed by remedies of solid electrolytes have actually been
explained in regard to the “task coefficients” of the salts. These formulas
have been located to be in close contract with the speculative monitoring for
lots of courses of solid electrolytes. Both coming before documents in this
collection have handled the solubility of hemoglobin in focused remedies of
various electrolytes under differing problems and in potassium phosphate
barriers of differing focus as well as pH. In this paper we take into consideration
the solubility of the exact same healthy protein in remedies of chlorides and
sulfates of extensively differing consent, distribution, particularly in thin
down remedies where their solvent result could be examined. Eco-friendly
hemoglobin utilized was prepared as for feasible in the salt service where
solubility was later figured out. The crystals were positioned in protected
containers, the preferred electrolyte remedy included, the mix filled with
carbon monoxide gas, and afterwards drunk delicately at 25” in a continuous
temperature level bathroom up until stability was gotten to; usually 4 or
5 hrs were needed. The remedies were filteringed system at continuous
temperature level and the filtrates examined. The crystals were gone back to
their containers and also even more electrolyte option included. Most of the
factors on the salt sulfate contour were acquired by duplicated cleaning with
a service of a provided focus till continuous solubility was gotten to. The
very same treatment was made use of in examining solubility in chlorides,
yet the solubility is so high in focused chloride options that it was not
feasible to get filtrates of consistent salt web content, however, real balance
was gotten to because the factors all rest on a smooth contour. In identifying
solubility in the remainder of the electrolytes 2 containers of crystals were
made use of as well as the salt focus was initially enhanced from stability to
stability and also lastly lowered in the succeeding equilibrations. That the
earlier as well as later factors all rest on the very same smooth contour and
that the factors in the much more focused services inspect those gotten in the
previous collection of experiments show that real balance was gotten to. The
quantity of hemoglobin liquefied was established, as previously, by nitrogen
evaluations on the filtrates.
The sulfate options were examined for salt by heat-coagulating the
healthy protein without the enhancement of more salt, cleaning the precipitate
salt-free, and very carefully vaporizing, drying out, carefully stirring up, and
also evaluating the filtrate. The magnesium sulfate decisions were inspected
by changing a couple of examples to barium sulfate as well as considering

therefore. The ammonium sulfate focus was, nonetheless, established by
heat-coagulating the healthy protein in the existence of a minor quantity of
phosphate barrier, cleaning the healthy protein salt-free, as well as distilling
over the ammonia in the filtrate.
The chloride resolutions were made in accordance with the Wilson
alteration of the Van Slyke. The pH of all saturated services was figured out
with the hydrogen electrode asap after filtering system. The hemoglobin as
well as the electrolyte remedies were readjusted as virtually as feasible to pH
6.6 prior to the experiment started, as well as where essential tiny amounts
of acid or antacids were contributed to the electrolyte options throughout the
experiment. The pH worth as identified lie essentially in between 6.5 as well
as 6.8 in the variety of minimal solubility.
Task Coefficients of Hemoglobin in Solutions of Chlorides and also
Sulfates In a heterogeneous stability where a service is filled with a strong
element, at consistent temperature level and also stress, the task of the
compound in the strong stage should coincide as that in the fluid stage.
This is independent of other elements in the remedy. The enhancement of
electrolytes to a saturated remedy of hemoglobin does not alter the task
of the hemoglobin although it transforms the solubility, or the focus. The
proportion of the solubility of a material at no electrolyte focus, X0, to the
solubility in a remedy of offered electrolyte focus, S, is the task coefficient,
y, of the compound because service.
The solubility of hemoglobin in focused options of multivalent
electrolytes could be effectively defined, as was seen in Research studies
VIII (ll), by the straight formula for the solubility of nonelectrolytes as well
as healthy proteins in focused salt remedies log S = p – K,’/ x (4) where X
is once more the solubility as well as P the ionic stamina. p is the obstruct
continuous as well as is the theoretical solubility in the lack of salt, called
theoretical considering that, naturally, hemoglobin is a globulin whose
solubility passes through an optimum with boosting salt consent, supply p
is however a hassle-free consistent differing with the temperature level and
the amphoteric residential properties of the healthy protein. Ii,’ is a salting
out consistent attribute of the healthy protein independent of the temperature
level and of the pH when an offered electrolyte is used yet differing with
the electrolyte. Evaluate the ion of the constants K,’ as well as 3 pays for
an ample characterization of the rainfall of a healthy protein in focused
remedies of electrolytes. In examining the solubility of carboxyhemoglobin
in phosphate barriers of differing ionic toughness and pH. It was located

that at the factor of minimal solubility the healthy protein acted as though
it were made up not just of the neutral particle, however, of favorably as
well as adversely billed particles too. It was additionally located that the pH
of minimal solubility differed with the salt concentration. The size of the
impact of electrolytes on the acid and standard dissociation constants was
such that the percentage of credited uncharged particles at pH 6.6 was about
consistent, although a little better in the really weaken options of phosphate.
Therefore, although the incline of the solubility contour at pH 6.6 in
weaken services was such that the Debye-Hiickel formula did not show
up to use, if one taken into consideration the neutral particle alone, it was
discovered to act as though A in Formula 1 were 1.5, the worth utilized in
defining the phosphate barriers themselves.
The variant in the dissociation constants was such that if the solubility had
been figured out at pH 6.7 instead of 6.6 the healthy protein would certainly
have included an around continuous percentage of credited uncharged
fragments. The pH of the saturated services of hemoglobin in sulfates as
well as chlorides was not so properly managed as in the phosphate barriers.
The factors exist generally on smooth contours, nevertheless, and also
the variant in pH is not enough, evidently, to take the healthy protein much
from the pH of minimal solubility. A satisfying photo of the variant of
task coefficients could be gotten from a research of variant of solubility at
roughly pH 6.6.
REFERENCES
1. http://books.openedition.org/cdf/3336?lang=en.
2. http://www.freebookcentre.net/chemistry-books-download/Basic-
Principles-of-Organic-Chemistry.html.
3. http://www.massey.ac.nz/massey/research/library/find-information/
subject-guides/life-sciences/life-sciences_home.cfm.
4. h t t p : / / w w w. s c i e n c e d i r e c t . c o m / s c i e n c e / a r t i c l e / p i i /
S0301479716305928.
5. https://www.frontiersin.org/research-topics/5464/visualization-and-
control-of-biological-processes.
CHAPTER
4
FUNDAMENTALS OF
MICROBIOLOGY
The chapter will introduce the readers to the ecological relationship between
microorganisms and human disease and response to microbial invasion. The
chapter will further cover the concepts of cell structure and phylogeny of
archaea, bacteria, and eukaryotic microorganisms’ growth, metabolism, and
ecological roles relating to diseases. The chapter will cover the symbiotic
relationship between microorganisms, gene expression, genomics, and
genetic exchange.
The ecological relationship is defined as it is such a kind of relationship

which is present between living organisms of an ecosystem. Microorganism
are present everywhere in this ecosystem and they are microscopic and
small species. There are different types of microorganisms, some can cause
dangerous diseases, since they are small, but they still can cause death
as well. Also, not all microorganism is fatal, some of them are just free
living in our environment. Therefore, vast knowledge of microorganism
in terms of their effect and their usefulness is necessary to defend them.
Microorganism are divided into seven types of categories which as follows:
archaea, protozoa, fungi, algae, multicellular animal parasites (helminths),
bacteria, and viruses.
These 7 types of microorganisms, each type has its own cellular
composition, the reproduction system and morphology. Other than the
harmful effects, some of them has beneficial effect on mankind as well
such as in decomposition of organic material, maintaining human health,
producing oxygen and source of nutrients for plants. Many microorganisms
have adverse effects and are called pathogen. They have capabilities not
only to affect some specific part of the body but the whole nervous system as
well. Some of the harmful disease caused by the microorganism are malaria
cholera, rabies, mumps, etc. These microbial effects also caused the growth
and living of plants and animals as well.
The whole human body is immune to number of different kind of
organisms. Some of them can cause infectious diseases whenever the body
is exposed to certain conditions and some of the bacteria helps human
body in digestion and human play positive role for the human body, the
resident bacteria can also cause different diseases whenever human body is
exposed to environment for example, in case of injury, the skin protecting
from harmful bacteria is removed and in such a way bacteria can overpass
the protecting skin and membrane and successfully enters the body, it can
further weakened the immune system, thus the overall protection against the
disease deceases considerably and can result in harmful effects.
Most of the diseases caused to human body are eubacteria by bacteria,
whereas archaea do not possess immense effects. A great of diseases are also
caused by fungi and virus, but virus is not considered as microorganism but
it is still a harmful pathogen.
In living organism, a basic structural and biological unit is called Cell. It
is the smallest unit of human body and possess the features, i.e., reproduction
and is known as building block of life. Its structural composition is in such a
way that its cytoplasm is covered by cell membrane which possess molecules
such as nucleic acids and proteins. Cells have different functions from
carrying specific information and transmitting such information to latest
production of cells. The cells are divided into two basic types, eukaryotic
and prokaryotic. Eukaryotic is such time of cells which possess nucleus
whereas Prokaryotic do not possess nucleus.
The Archaea comes in the domain of unicellular organisms and
are prokaryotes, as described earlier, they have no nucleus and no other
membranes as well. Previously, Archaea were classified in terms of bacteria,
but with help of recent research, this concept is outdated, its cells have such
specific and unique proteins that separate it from bacteria and eukaryote.
The Archaea are classified as phyla and this classification is still difficult in
the modern times as up till now, no analysis is valuable on laboratory scale
and they have only been detected in terms of their nucleic acids which are
present in the environment. Their shape and size are similar to bacteria,
but have such similarity to bacteria is not enough, research shows their
Fundamentals of Microbiology 31
properties are more similar to eukaryotes. The Eukaryotes are discussed

further in this chapter later.
Bacteria comes in the range of prokaryotic organisms and were among
the first living organism on earth. Moreover, almost all forms of bacteria
have been identified in laboratories and half of them can be grown as well.
The study of bacteria in the branch of microbiology is called Bacteriology.
Bacteria possess vast diversity in terms of sizes and shapes, they are about
0.5 micrometers in length and 1/10th of the size of eukaryotic cells. Moreover,
bacteria has intracellular structure which is surrounded by cell membrane
and this membrane contains the contents of the cell and acts as a wall to the
other body.
The eukaryote are multicellular and unicellular organisms and possess
nucleus. The most important element in eukaryotes which differentiate itself
from other cells is that they contains membrane organelles, i.e., the nucleus,
which have genetic material known as nuclear membrane. The other
components contained by the organelle of eukaryote are the Golgi apparatus
and the mitochondria. The eukaryote cells have such a reproduction that they
can be reproduce by sexually, i.e., meiosis and asexually mitosis. In mitosis,
one cell replicates itself into two further identical cells and in meiosis,
haploid daughter cells are produced which is followed by cell division of
DNA replication.
From many of the characteristics of microorganism, one is cell growth.
There are many chemical and physical factors involve in this case. For the
chemical requirement of microorganism, they should have water and other
parameters such as many minerals and gases such as oxygen. Since carbon
is present in all forms of microorganisms, whether they are lipids, proteins,
fats, etc. Other elements that influence the growth are Nitrogen that is used
by protein, RNA, and DNA. Also phosphorus is important constituent in the
growth of nucleic acid and in the production of phospholipids. Moreover,
for cellular respiration, oxygen is used by bacteria. Other chemical element
are iron, zinc, copper, etc. Now for the physical quantities, certain factors
affect the growth of microorganisms, i.e., temperature, as enzymes activity
are purely temperature dependent. Furthermore, microorganism are
classified into three groups regarding their temperature dependency which
are psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic.
Similarly, the genetics information in viruses and bacteria is also
present in DNA. For genetically determined traits, replication of genome is
important and genome expression involve transfer of message from DNA to
RNA and further transcription of mRNA into proteins. The determinants of

genetics depend in is genotype. The process of mutation causes changes in
its genotype that can be resulted from different type of physical or chemical
treatments.
The exploration of prescription antibiotics in the last century is just one of
one of the most considerable accomplishments of contemporary medication.
Methane is of rate of interest to researchers and also culture for several
factors: It is just one of one of the most essential nonrenewable fuel
sources, a considerable greenhouse gas, in addition to a plentiful all-natural
hydrocarbon and also substratum for bacteria. Because of its high activation
power, it could just be utilized by a couple of specific teams of archaea and
also germs.
Cardiovascular methane-oxidizing germs have actually been understood
for 110 years (1 ), it was just at the turn of the last century that microorganisms
doing anaerobic oxidation of methane (AOM) wased initially determined.
These microorganisms pair AOM to sulfate decrease and also come from
unique clades within the methanogens (phylum Euryarchaeota), bacteria
that usually create methane under anoxic problems.
Up until a year back, sulfate, a significant component of salt water,
was the just recognized electron acceptor for anaerobic oxidation of
methane. A selection of various other eco essential oxidized substances—
most especially Fe3+, Mn4+, nitrate (NO3 −) as well as nitrite (NO2 −)
are thermodynamically much more desirable electron acceptors compared
to sulfate. The absence of recognized methanotrophs with the ability of
combining AOM to steel oxide decrease specifically stands for a basic void
in our understanding of the characteristics of AOM in the atmosphere.
Purposeful, guided movement, plainly identified from Brownian activity
and also diffusion, is a distinct biosignature that makes no presumptions
regarding the chemical make-up of the microorganisms under research. For
both movement and also morphology, straight tiny monitoring stays among
the very best approaches for identifying prokaryotes, the non-nucleated and
also tiniest microorganisms in the world
Microorganisms that show up unclear under still pictures, particularly
when below settled, are plainly to life under time-lapse imaging, with
activity unique in trajectory as well as speed from Brownian activity as well
We could make use of the resolution limitation of the microscopic
lenses to approximate a ceiling for the diffusivity to make use of in the
diffusion formula. The observed dimension could be made use of when the
bits are big sufficient to acquire settled photos. Solid currents or disturbance
could produce uncertainty and also will certainly weaken price quotes of
diffusivity, making imaging in a reasonably quiescent atmosphere such as a
tiny container crucial.
Quickly, living microorganisms step (a) 10s to thousands of times much
more quickly compared to Brownian activity as well as (b) meaningfully,
towards or far from stimulations. With the exemption of infections, all
microorganisms in the world have actually been originally recognized
as living by aesthetic monitoring (tiny or macroscopic imaging). If
microorganisms in an example are non motile, as an example in a biofilm,
imaging information might match chemical information and also supply
essential info sustaining the debate of extant life.
As simple as imaging could appear, it is testing to carry out precede
or from another location in earthbound settings. Various other imaging
innovations consisting of interferometry, scanning near-field optical
microscopy, as well as electron microscopy methods ought to likewise be
created for spaceflight applications’
Theory; The underlying theory of this job is that motile germs are a
fundamental attribute of all-natural water environments, also severe ones;
not all residents could trust activity to finish their biography, yet some
portion of the neighborhood will certainly have progressed the capability
to accomplish guided movement by means of swimming. Otherwise
swimming at the time of sitting imaging, a regulated change in some facet of
the ecological problems (temperature level, oxygen, nutrients) could boost
or generate mobility in sufficient microorganisms to allow discovery.
Purposeful, guided activity, plainly differentiated from Brownian
movement as well as diffusion, is a distinct biosignature that makes no
presumptions concerning the chemical structure of the microorganisms
under research study. Microorganisms that show up unclear under still
photos, particularly when below settled, are plainly to life under time-lapse
imaging, with movement distinctive in trajectory as well as speed from
Brownian activity.
With the exemption of infections, all microorganisms in the world have
actually been originally recognized as living by aesthetic monitoring (tiny
or macroscopic imaging). If microorganisms in an example are nonmotile,
as an example in a biofilm, imaging information might match chemical
information and supply essential info sustaining the disagreement of extant

life. Otherwise swimming at the time of sitting imaging, a regulated change
in some element of the ecological problems (temperature level, oxygen,
nutrients) could promote or generate mobility in sufficient microorganisms
to allow discovery.
REFERENCES
1. http://needtoknow.nas.edu/id/infection/microbes-and-humans/
2. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/boundless-microbiology/chapter/
microbes-and-the-world/
3. https://cspwproject.wordpress.com/genetic-exchange
4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK7908/
CHAPTER
5
THERMODYNAMICS
The chapter will introduce the reader to the principles of thermodynamics
and the application of thermodynamics to phase equilibria and reaction
equilibria. The chapter will cover the laws covered in thermodynamics
such as Joule’s and Carnot’s laws. The chapter will contain illustrative
calculations to guide the readers. The chapter will cover properties of pure
materials, the p-h chart, gaseous, liquid mixtures, chemical potentials in gas
and condensed phases, solvent-solvent mixtures, liquid-liquid equilibria and
molecular basis of thermodynamics.
The chemical thermodynamics is defined as the relationship between work

and heat as a result of a chemical reaction or as a result of the physical
change which is within the limitation of laws of thermodynamics.
Therefore, the chemical thermodynamics not only involves the properties
of thermodynamics, but also different mathematical equations are applied
to study the chemical process and spontaneous reactions resulted with such
calculations. The branch of thermodynamics is constituents of four law
of thermodynamics with physical parameters, i.e., entropy, energy, and
temperature that defines a thermodynamics system at equilibrium.
The four laws are defined as:
• Zeroth Law of thermodynamics: for two systems present at
thermal equilibrium with the third system, then as a result,
they are at thermal equilibrium with each other and this law of
thermodynamics helps us to define the study of temperature.
• First law of thermodynamics: Whenever energy enters or leave

from the system, in terms of heat or work, the internal energy
of the system changes accordingly with law of conversation of
energy.
∆USYSTEM = Q
• Second law of thermodynamics: for a thermodynamics process, all
the sum of entropies of systems increases.
δQ = T dS
• Third law of thermodynamics: when the temperature of a system
approaches to absolute zero, in the entropy of the entire system ap-
proaches to a constant value.
S = kB ln Ω
Now, this chapter will further discuss for phase equilibria so first we
have to understand the terminology Phase which is defined as it is portion of
such systems which depicts chemical and physical characteristics uniformly,
in way that it can be separated from the whole system, for example, for
a gaseous state, it possess only one phase and for liquid state have two
immiscible liquids, have two phases and moreover for solid state, different
solid state have different phase characteristics, i.e., ZnO & SiO2 count the
number of phases as two. Phase equilibria is defined as such an equilibrium
phase which have the lowest energy.
Mathematically, it is given as:
∆G=∆H–T∆S
Similarly, chemical equilibrium is such a terminology in a chemical
reaction in which products and reactants are present in such huge
concentration that no further amount can change with time and forward and
reverse reaction are taking place at same pace, their reaction rate not equal
to zero.
By using the idea discussed first law of thermodynamics, we will
illustrate Joules’ law, which states that the temperature of a gas shows no
variation when a gas expands in a container/chamber without doing any
external work and without any heat exchanges as well. Since this law was
designed for ideal gases but air also shows the properties of ideal gas over
a number of conditions. This law is purely based on taking into account of
internal energy of a gas. As gas neither did any external work dw = 0, nor
did any heat exchanges (going in or out of chamber) dq = 0, so by using
the first law of thermodynamics, it is given as du = 0. To conclude this law,
the kinetic energy of the molecules of the gas is at constant energy if the
Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics 39
temperature of the gas does not change. Hence, the total internal energy
of a gas must remain unchanged during these conditions and also potential
energy the molecules of the gas must remain constant (when volume of gas
expands as well). So, if the temperature is kept constant, the internal energy
of a gas remains constant.
This chapter will further discuss the Carnot’s’ Law and this law is
derived from 2nd law of thermodynamics. The principle of this law provides a
limiting function to maximum efficiencies that a heat engine can obtain. The
law purely depends upon the difference between the cold and hot reservoirs
of temperature. This law states that all heat engines are less efficient than
a Carnot engine using the same two reservoirs. Also, Carnot engines
operating between two reservoirs of heat are equally efficient irrespective to
the working substance utilized.
Mathematically, it is given as:
Tc
ηmax = ηcarnot = 1 – TH
In the above equation, Tc is the temperature for cold reservoir and TH
is the temperature for hot reservoir and the efficiency is defined as ratio of
work done the engine to the heat drawn out of the hot reservoir.
A substance that is composed of fix chemical composition is called
pure substance. It can be of a single element, compound or a homogenous
mixture. A pure substance can exist in three phases, i.e., solid, liquid or
gas. Furthermore, this chapter will discuss various terminologies of
thermodynamics. A p-h chart is Pressure and enthalpy chart that shows
pressure and enthalpy of various refrigerant at different conditions.
In this figure, pressure is at y-axis measured pounds per inch and enthalpy
in x-axis measured in BTU/LB. The U-figure shows change the change of
state of a liquid. Moreover, three regions are shown in the Figure which are
liquid region, vapor region and liquid vapor mixed region.
The properties of a gaseous mixture depend upon the properties of its
individual components of the mixture. When two or more gases are mixed,
the properties of individual molecules are not affected by the presence of
other same or different molecule. However, there prediction in the behavior
is made by the P-V-T equation and is given as
p V = mm Rm T
WHERE p = absolute pressure of the mixture (N/m2, lb/ft2), V = volume

of the mixture (m3, ft3) mm = mass of the mixture (kg, lb), Rm = the individual
gas constant for the mixture (J/kg K, ft lb/slugs oR), T = absolute temperature
in the mixture (oK, oR). The mass of a gas mixture can be expressed as:
mm = m1 + m2 + … + mn
where, m1 + m2 + … + mn = the mass of each gas component in the mixture.
The individual gas constant of a gas mixture can be calculated as:

Rm = (R1 m1 + R2 m2 + … + Rn mn)/ (m1 + m2 + … + mn )
The density of a gas mixture can be calculated as:
ρm = (ρ1 v1 + ρ2 v2 + … + ρn vn)/ (v1 + v2 + … + vn )
where ρm = density of the gas mixture (kg/m3, lb/ft3), ρ1.. ρn = density of each
of the components (kg/m3, lb/ft3), v1 + v2 + … + vn = volume share of each
of the components (m3, ft3), v1 + v2 + … + vn = volume share of each of the
components (m3, ft3).
The flexible modulus as well as transverse bend stamina of pure, thick
alumina samplings were established as a feature of grain dimension (1 to
250 μ) as well as temperature level (30° to 1500°C). The flexible modulus
was basically independent of grain dimension over the temperature level
variety covered. The transverse bend stamina for penalty—grain—sized
alumina was considerably above that for bigger-grain-sized alumina over
the whole temperature level array, although, at the greatest temperature
levels, the price of decline of stamina with temperature level was best for
the grained product. Penalty-grained alumina (1 to 2P) showed significant

yielding as well as nonlinear tons deflection actions at 1000°C as well as
over. At 1500°C, the 1- to 2-μ samplings curved to the limitation of the
device without fracturing (around 7% outer-fiber pressure).
The result of 16 pure steels on the artificial insemination development of
a kind of tooth decays creating Streptococcus mutants was examined under
both cardio and anaerobic problems. Cobalt as well as copper were regularly
observed to be repressive. With much less uniformity nickel, titanium, iron,
and vanadium additionally displayed capacity to hinder development of the
microorganism. Bacteriostatic evidently rests after the visibility of a rust
procedure.
The bacteriostatic representative is of unsure identification as well
as might be a deterioration item or a procedure additional to the incident
of rust. Focus of steels after 6 days of electrochemical dissolution in the
development tool were gauged through electron microprobe evaluation as
well as compared to the quantity of restraint which resulted. Limit focus
over which development did not take place were determined. As gauged
by limit focus, broad irregularity in between steels exists in the capability
to prevent the development, with cobalt being especially efficient at little
focus.
This indicates a level of sensitivity for the microorganism that is various
for various steels. The limit focus ranged cardiovascular and also anaerobic
problems. Streptococcus mutans showed up a lot more immune to the results
of the steels under anaerobic problems even though little distinction.
Outright response prices for a very long time the objective of academic
chemistry has been to anticipate, from initial concepts, the outright prices
of chain reactions, i.e., to determine the Dumber of particles responding
each 2nd, understanding the physical homes of the particles as well as the
regulations regulating their habits.
To do this it is essential to recognize not just the occasions that happen
in the response itself however likewise those which preceding it, along
with the pressures in charge of security of both catalysts and items. Such
in-depth understanding is not necessary to make up the adjustment from
the preliminary to the last state of a thermodynamic balance; essential
regulations of thermodynamics were effectively exercised with no in-depth
understanding of atomic framework.
It is difficult, nevertheless, for these legislations alone to offer any type

of idea to the size of time that will certainly be called for, under specified
problems, for balance to be achieved. They explain the measurable
connection in between the price of the forward instructions and the price
of the backwards instructions of a response when the proportion of these
response prices ends up being continuous and consequently amounts to the
stability constant.
They additionally define the connection in between the balance
continuous intro and the family member focus of recalls as well as overtures,
the temperature level, as well as the stress. Just recently have the equivalent
legislations or price procedures been developed. The triggered facility is an
intermediate particle, with a lifetime of the order of 10–13 sec.
The price raises regarding 12% each level, unlike the rise in kinetic power
of the system which, for gas particles at average temperature levels, totals
up to just regarding percent each level, inning accordance with the kinetic
concept of gases, Arrhenius thought about that at consistent temperature
level the variety of energetic particles Ma should be symmetrical to the
variety of non-active particles.
To represent the huge result of temperature level on the price of sucrose
hydrolysis, Arrhenius considered it essential to present the brand-new
theory of a triggered state. This principle, although ultimately customized
and made extra accurate, stays in modern-day price concept.
When developed, it breaks down with a global regularity ketch, which
coincides for all responses. In this expression T is the outright temperature
level, h is Planck’s continuous and also k is the Boltzmann continuous, i.e.,
RIN, the gas consistent with each particle.
The possibility that the development of the turned-on facility will
certainly bring about response is designated by the transmission coefficient 1
(which is commonly equivalent to 1). Therefore, in any kind of response, the
details price consistent is made up based on a quasi-equilibrium in between
the regular and the triggered state (assigned by the consistent Kt) as well as
the regularity of decay of the triggered complicated times the likelihood that
the turned on.
Among biological reactions, including complicated physiological
processes, the range in temperature over which the rate conforms to the
Arrhenius equation is especially limited, the retaliate range depending
upon not only the specific process but often also upon the specific chemical
environment.
At relatively low temperatures, familiarly between 35” and 40°C, the

rates of biological reactions go through a maximum, or “optimum,” with
rise in temperature because of a reversible and an irreversible inactivation
of one or more protein catalysts upon which the process depends. The rate
of the inactivating reaction itself often conforms to the Arrhenius equation.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.engproguides.com/phdiagram.html
2. https://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/gas-mixture-properties-d_586.
html
CHAPTER
6
STRUCTURE AND PROPERTIES
OF MATERIALS
The chapter will introduce the readers to the behavior of materials under
various conditions and environments about the atomic and molecular
structure and bonding. The chapter will cover the material types such
as metals, polymers, ceramics, semiconductors, atomic, and electronic
structure, lattice structures, crystal geometry and defects, thermodynamic
properties of materials, and electrical and optical properties.
Atoms are not only the foundation of chemistry but also the building block of
universe. Atom is the basic unit of all the matters. In case of matters, atoms
are tightly packed whereas atoms are in case of gaseous matters, atoms are
freely moving in container. The advance research of physics and chemistry
have sub-atomic particles, i.e., nucleons and quacks. Irrespective to the sub-
atomic particles, an atom is composed of three basic components which are
electrons, protons, and neutrons. The electrons are the smallest particles and
have negative charge whereas protons possess positive charge and neutrons
have no charge on them. Protons and neutrons reside in nucleus. The number
of protons in an atom are fixed and addition and removal of an electron create
a special atom known as an ion. The combination of two or more atoms
connected by chemical bond produces a molecule. There two basic types
of molecules, homonuclear and heteronuclear. The homonuclear are those
molecules which are made of same elements, for example, oxygen (O2) and
the heteronuclear molecules are those which are composed of more than one
chemical element, water (H2O) is the example of heteronuclear molecule.
Just like atoms, molecules are joined together by two types of bonds, ionic
bond and covalent bond. An ionic bond is such type of chemical bond which
is produced because of electrostatic attraction which is produced when
oppositely charged atoms come in contact. Cations are produced when an
atom loses one or more electrons and anion are produced when atom gains
one or more electrons. This transfer of electrons is known as electrovalence.
In simple words, in an ionic bond, transfer of electrons takes place
from metal atom to non-metal atom to complete its outer most shell and
full valence. A covalent bond is such type of bond which is produced due to
sharing of electron pairs between two or more atoms. The sharing pairs of
electrons are known as shared pairs or bonding pairs. The attractive forces
and balancing force that is established as a result of these sharing pair of
electrons is the covalent bonding between the atoms. Another type of bonding
that is produced by metallic atoms is metallic bond and it is such type of
bonding which is resulted due to electrostatic attraction of conduction of
electrons and atoms induced with positive charge. Metallic bonds result in
different properties of metals such as their conductivity, ductility, strength,
thermal resistivity and, opacity.
It is such type of bond that metals exhibit as a pure substance as well, for
example, atom of mercury Hg2. In a three group of elements, one is metals
and are such type of elements that are positively charged ions (cations) and
establish metallic bonding between its atoms. Metals have such an atomic
structure that they possess positive ions covered by cluster of delocalized
electrons. In periodic table, a diagonal line from boron to polonium gives
the information regarding the metals. The structure of metals atoms consists
of three types, body-centered cubic (bcc), face-centered cubic (fcc), and
hexagonal close-packed (hcp). Metals in general have high electrical
conductivity and density with high thermal conductivity. The electrical
properties of atom is created due to the fact that they outermost shell electrons
are delocalized. Metals also possess great mechanical properties as they are
ductile for their ability for plastic deformation. Polymers are those type of
molecules which are composed of macromolecules or large molecules and
contains many repeated subunits. Polymers range from synthetic polymers
(polystyrene) to biopolymer such as proteins. They are composed of
repeated units of molecules of lower molecular mass and repeated structure
of covalent bond. Ceramics are such inorganic compounds that can be
composed metalloids and non-metallic atoms and held together by ionic or
covalent bond. The structure of ceramics can be of semi-crystalline structure
to pure crystalline or amorphous depending upon the properties of required
ceramic.
Structure and Properties of Materials 47
It was located that whilst Perspex recouped virtually when the anxiety
was eliminated, rubbers and also polythene revealed postponed recuperation,
and also copper, as well as lead, revealed irrecoverable circulation.
The sensation of postponed healing is gone over regarding the concept
of mechanical leisure as well as memory impacts in the product. Exhaustion
examinations to failing of small bovine bone samplings were performed at 5
anxiety amplitudes (65–108 MN/m2) as well as 4 temperature level degrees
(21–45°C). The resulting connections in between exhaustion life and stress
and anxiety amplitude, bone temperature level, and also bone thickness
have actually been reported. In today research, the bone samplings were
classified right into 4 microstructure teams based upon the degree of second
Harversian improvement.
A substantial connection (P < 0 · 001) in between thickness as well as
mini-framework team was revealed with key bone samplings usually being
even more thick compared to second Haversian samplings.
Examples of fully grown bovine cortical bone, with a Haversian mini-
framework, were acquired from the posterior location of the mid-femoral
diaphysis. A nano imprint method was made use of to gauge the neighborhood
Youthful’s modulus. The circulation of the bone mineral web content was
gotten by backscattered electron imaging making use of a scanning electron
microscopic lenses.
An unique compression gadget utilizing mini extrasensory methods
was established to evaluate regional stress. Digital photo connection was
executed on the mini-framework imaged by optical microscopy throughout
compression examinations.
A favorable relationship (P < 0 · 01) in between exhaustion life and
also thickness was disclosed within each architectural team. Additionally,
an adverse relationship (P < 0 · 001) in between tiredness life as well as
the level of Haversian improvement was revealed after ideal changes for
thickness distinctions.
These informations recommend that Haversian makeover of key bovine
bone decreases exhaustion resistance not just by reducing bone thickness,
however, additionally by producing a naturally weak framework. The
mechanical residential or commercial properties of cortical bone have
actually been thoroughly researched at the macro-architectural range.
Nevertheless, expertise of the macroscopic mechanical buildings is not
adequate to forecast regional sensations, such as damages or bone makeover,
both which depend on regional mechanical habits. The goal of this research
study is to evaluate the mechanical residential or commercial properties of
cortical bone at numerous size ranges, with focus on the mini-framework of
Haversian systems.
A technique of figuring out the stress-strain relationship of products
when anxieties are looked for times of the order of 20 split seconds is
explained. The device utilized was an adjustment of the Hopkinson stress
bar, and detonators were made use of to generate big short-term anxieties.
Slim samplings of rubbers, plastics as well as steels were examined, and
also the compressions created were as high as 20% with the softer products.
They contain vast mechanical properties, i.e., strength of materials
(hardness, elasticity, compressive strength and tensile strength). Some
ceramics are semiconductors from the periodic table group of II–VI. They
are called semi-metals and exhibits conductivity when certain conditions are
met. Their conductive properties can be altered with the addition of impurities.
They can pass current in one direction and are excellent devices when used
for switching, shows sensitivity to light & heat and variable resistance.
Since a great number of atoms shows the properties of semiconductors but
mostly used in electronics are atoms of silicon, germanium, and compounds
of gallium. They are great source of light (the excited electrons emits light
instead of heat to get relaxed).
This research study showed that the regional Youthful’s modulus and also
pressure were heterogeneous at the range of an osteon. For both buildings,
the proportion in between the optimum as well as minimum worths was
roughly 2.
Thus, regional pressures could not be defined just in regards to the bone
mineral material, as the Haversian canal and also osteonal microstructure
have a significant impact on these buildings. To conclude, the microstructure
has to be taken into consideration in assessing the regional stress as well as
stress and anxiety areas of cortical bone.
Hydrophobicity and also moving actions of water beads were explored
on different hydrophobic pillar-like and also groove frameworks prepared
on a silicon wafer by dicing and also ultimately layer with fluoroalkylsilane.
The leading hydro phobicity setting was altered from Wenzel’s setting
to Cassie’s setting at a smaller sized roughness compared to that anticipated
from the computation based upon the sinusoidal surface area by Johnson as
well as Dettre. The impact of water breach on the microstructure because of
droplet weight was exposed to be an essential element controlling the water-

gliding angle externally. In a contrast of the moving actions of water beads
over pillar-like and groove frameworks, it was shown that a correct style
of the surface area relative to form and also level of the three-phase line is
extra efficient compared to the boost of getting in touch with angles simply
by lowering the strong-water call location.
Ferroelectric crystals are identified by their crooked or polar frameworks.
In an electrical area, ions go through crooked variation as well as cause
a little modification in crystal measurement, which is symmetrical to the
used field. Such electric-field-induced pressure (or piezoelectricity) has
actually located considerable applications in actuators as well as sensors.
Nevertheless, the result is typically really tiny as well as hence restricts its
efficiency.
This big electro-strain comes from an uncommon relatively easy to fix
domain name changing (most notably the changing of non-180° domain
names) where the recovering pressure is supplied by a basic symmetry-
conforming home of factor problems. This system supplies a basic technique
to attain big electro-strain result in a large range of ferroelectric systems and
the result could result in unique applications in ultra-large stroke and also
nonlinear actuators.
The capability to produce normal spatial plans of bits is a crucial
technical and also essential element of colloidal scientific research. We
revealed that colloidal bits constrained to a few-micrometer-thick layer of
a nematic fluid crystal kind two-dimensional crystal frameworks that are
bound by topological problems. Standard crystalline frameworks were
observed, depending upon the buying of the fluid crystal around the bit.
Colloids causing quadrupolar order take shape right into weakly bound
two-dimensional purchased framework, where the bit communication is
moderated by the sharing of local topological issues. Colloids generating
dipolar order are highly bound right into antiferroelectric-like two-
dimensional crystallites of dipolar colloidal chains. Self-assembly by
topological problems can be put on various other systems with comparable
proportion. The duty of problems as important entities in semiconductor
products is examined. Early tryouts semiconductors were obstructed by the
severe level of sensitivity of the digital residential or commercial properties
to minute focus of contaminations.
Semiconductors were considered as a family member of solids with

irreproducible homes. Scientific initiatives conquered this trick and also
transformed the art of contamination doping right into today’s extremely
valuable and also reproducible modern technology that is utilized to regulate
exactly electric conductivity, structure, and also minority-carrier lifetimes
over large range. Indigenous problems such as openings as well as self-
interstitials regulate fundamental procedures, primary self- and also dopant
diffusion. The architectural residential properties of misplacements as well
as greater dimensional problems have actually been examined with atomic
resolution, however, a complete academic understanding of their digital
residential or commercial properties is insufficient.
Responses in between flaws within the host latticework’s are
progressively much better recognized and also are utilized for gettering and
also electric passivation of undesirable contaminations. Metastable issues
such as DX facilities as well as the EL2-related arsenic antisite are quickly
talked about. The current growth of isotopically managed semiconductors
has actually developed brand-new study chances in this area.
Carbon nanotubes are forecasted to be metal or semiconducting relying
on their size as well as the helicity of the plan of graphitic rings in their
walls.
Checking tunneling microscopy (STM) provides the prospective to
penetrate this forecast, as it could deal with all at once both atomic framework
as well as the digital thickness of states. Previous STM researches of multi-
walled nanotubes and also single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) have actually
given indicators of varying frameworks as well as diameter-dependent
digital residential or commercial properties, yet have actually not disclosed
any kind of specific partnership in between framework and also digital
residential or commercial properties. Right here we report STM dimensions
of the atomic framework as well as digital buildings of SWNTs. We have the
ability to solve the hexagonal-ring framework of the wall surfaces, as well
as reveal that the digital buildings do undoubtedly rely on size as well as
helicity. We discover that the SWNT examples display several frameworks,
without anyone varieties controlling.
This chapter will further discuss the optical properties of materials
which is the interaction of a material with the electromagnetic radiations.
The spectrum of these radiation expands in vast variety from γ-rays 10–12
m in wavelength to x-rays and finally ends at radio waves with wavelength
of 105. The interaction of light with material leads to different phenomenon.
The energy carrying packets known are photons are absorbed by the matter
and this energy is emitted by the material in terms of light. At any instance
of light interaction with a material, the total intensity of the incident light
striking a surface is equal to sum of the absorbed, reflected, and transmitted
intensities.
I0 = IA + IR +IT
where the intensity ‘I’ is defined as the number of photons impinging
on a surface per unit area per unit time. Microstructures are defined as
such structures that are studied at very small scale. These structures are
revealed with the help of a microscope with magnification up to 25x.
The microstructure helps us to develop different physical properties such
as strength, ductility, hardness, toughness, corrosion resistance and wear
resistance. To study the microstructural features of a matter, material property
and morphological must be considered. One of the most useful techniques to
classify morphological features is Image Processing and describes various
features such as inclusion morphology, crystal orientations and volume
fraction. Nowadays different synthetic microstructures are made with the
help of computer-aided simulation and these synthetic microstructures help
to given specific features to a material.
REFERENCES
1. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/112108150/pdf/Web_Pages/WEBP_M17.
pdf
2. https://depts.washington.edu/matseed/mse_resources/Webpage/
Ceramics/ceramics.htm
3. https://www.journals.elsevier.com/journal-of-molecular-structure/
4. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780444827944
5. https://www2.chemistry.msu.edu/faculty/reusch/virttxtjml/intro3.htm
CHAPTER
7
SEPARATION PROCESSES
The chapter will introduce the readers to the fundamentals and modeling
techniques of a variety of separation processes in chemical industry.
The chapter will cover various computational approaches for binary and
multicomponent separations and the factors affecting efficiency, capacity,
and energy requirements in separation processes.
The chapter will introduce the readers to the fundamentals and modeling
techniques of a variety of separation processes in chemical industry. The
chapter will cover various computational approaches for binary and
multicomponent separations and the factors affecting efficiency, capacity,
and energy requirements in separation processes.
Chemical engineering consists of industrial processes which raw
materials are separated into useful products. Chemical engineers involve
in the development designing and engineering of complete process as well
as the equipment usage. They must ensure the choice of raw materials are
chosen properly, plants are operated efficiently, safely, and economically
and ensure that customers are satisfied with their required products.
The field of a chemical engineer is difficult to define as it requires varieties
and numerous complex processes and these steps are called operations.
Each operation share the same approach and also use the same scientific
methods., e.g., solid and fluid separations, heat transfer, distillations, size
reduction, drying, and evaporation. Unit operations primarily oversees the
physical steps of preparing the reactants, which includes separating and
purifying the products, recycling unconverted reactants and controlling the
energy transfer into or out of the chemical reactor. The chemical aspect is
called reaction kinetics. Hence, there is specific SI unit system that is used
in separation processes. The use of mass, time, length, temperature, and
mole are important during the separation process. Fluid behavior plays a
significant role in the study of unit operation purposefully for the flow of
heat and separation processes depending on mass transfer and diffusion.
Distillation is considered the essential in the unit operation over-
extraction, absorption, and desorption. Binary distillation has one component
in a binary mixture with more volatility than the other and its concentration
in vapor phase is greater than light phase.
Distillation is a separation method where component of a solution are
separated, this factor is dependent on the distributing substances between
the gas and light phase. New substances are thereby introduced by a method
called gas absorption or desorption. Let’s consider a simple analysis of salt
and water solution. During heating, water completely vaporizes from the
solution while salt remains. This is the case of evaporation.
Liquid-liquid extraction is a separation method that involves two
immiscible liquid phase.
Every chemical product s made by series of three different types of
processes which are purification, synthesis, and separation process. One
of the mostly used chemical process for separation process of a chemical
industry are distillation, adsorption, absorption membrane processes,
crystallization stripping, and extraction. This chapter will give brief
introduction of separation processes that are applied in chemical industries
with terminologies as well. The separation process is defined as a process
that is used by number of different industries to exact particular solute or a
mixture that can be separately used for a number of the process or to produce
a specific mixture. It can also divide the whole mixture into its constituent
elements. Mostly, the elements and compounds are in their impure form
and different separation processes are applied on them to make their use
possible.
One of the most commonly used separation process is distillation. This
process is mostly used for a mixture that can be vaporized and also for
separating certain components from a mixture on the basis of their boiling
point. The liquid and solid are heated and vapors are generated from them
and then further condensed to produce liquid products.
Among all the separation processes, crystallization is oldest and widely
used separation process in chemical industries and laboratories. It is still
Separation Processes 55
very popular then other separation process because it contain vast other
function as well such as separation, solidification, in determination of
molecular structure, purification, and concentration. Furthermore, a great
amount of energy is saved in the crystallization as much lower amount of
heat is used to crystallize the production then vaporization of products which
makes crystallization on of the effective means of separation process. In this
process, the desired solute can be recovered from the solution by cooling,
evaporation, heating, or with the addition of non-solvent to a mixture.
Similarly, adsorption is a separating technique, in this method,
microporous solids (adsorbents) which have more attraction properties
for a particular solute (adsorbates) in a solution. This separation process is
basically a cyclic process between adsorption and desorption. Moreover,
desorption weakens the bonding between adsorbent and the adsorbates.
The description can be increased by increasing the temperature of solution,
reduction in the pressure, addition of other components that can be adsorbed
as well.
Membrane is another separation technique which is used in different
chemical industries which involves breaking of two bulk phases physically
by a third phase known as membrane. The feed separation takes place in
two phases, i.e., the retentate and permeate. The membrane control the
transportation of material between two phases as well as with the operating
condition, specific types of component or species are allowed to pass through
the membrane in preference to other. So, the permeate phase contains the
required specifies in this separation process and retentate phase contains
none of them. In membrane separation process, different techniques are used
such as dialysis, ultrafiltration, and microfiltration.
Just like Adsorption separation process, absorption, and stripping is
another separation process used in industries. In this process, gas phase is
soluble phase and transfer of components takes place from gas phase to
liquid phase whereas, stripping is the opposite to absorption process in which
components are transferred to liquid phase to gas phase. Furthermore, there
are two types of absorption process, separation on the basis of reversible
chemical reaction, in terms of irreversible reaction and on the base of
physical solution. In this absorption process, areas are generated which are
in contact with gas phase and liquid phase.
In the vast techniques of separation process, extraction is also one of
the oldest and widely used technique and in which separation takes place
between two immiscible liquids. In this extraction, one of the solvent phase
takes out the solute of other solvent phase and this separation is followed
by raffinate cleanup and solvent recovery. The designing of this separation
process is very important as there are number of different purification
methods of by raffinate cleanup and solvent phases. So the selection of
solvent is very important.
With the help of computer technology and computer-aided animations, the
separation process of different industries such as chemical and petrochemical
are dramatically improved. The reactors and boilers are monitored with the
help of computer and different automated mixing and extraction processes.
The automated technology not only surpasses the traditional methods of
separation but also resulted in the betterment of efficiency with saving the
overall energy requirements in the separation process. The separation process
is already very much improved and more than one technology is available
for a specific mixture. But these separation techniques still needed to be
required improvement in terms of usage of energy and raw material, overall
efficiency, and cost of the whole process. Similarly, the changing demands
and new needs of customers are also changing with time. For example, for the
production an industrial gas, oxygen can be produced from air, since oxygen
is less expensive than organic compounds but still its methods of production
are expensive as they are greatly used in separation process. Furthermore,
the demands of purity of different chemical and different gases have greatly
increases with the passage of time so the chemical industries need new ways
to produce matter in highly pure forms with cheap production methods
especially for argon-hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. Also, the demands of
specified mixtures are also increased and to produce them a great amount of
energy is utilized.
However, the chemical industries will also greatly benefit for the
methods of removal of acid gases such as CO2, COS, H2S, SO2, etc., which
are produced in process streams. One method that can be used to save energy
in separation process of distillation is heating cascade which means that heat
realized from one boiler can by other boilers.
There are many modern methods are being discovered with the help of
modem chemistry which will not only eradicate the problems during the
separation process but also will improve the purity of final product in terms
of their functionality and composition
Considering that biomass is the only carbon-based eco-friendly gas, its
application comes to be an increasing number of essential for environment
defense. Amongst the thermochemical conversion modern technologies

(i.e., burning, gasification, as well as pyrolysis), burning is the only tested
modern technology for warm as well as power manufacturing. Biomass
burning systems are offered in the dimension array from a couple of kW as
much as greater than 100 MW. The performance for warmth manufacturing
is substantially high and also warmth from biomass is financially possible.
Business power manufacturing is based upon heavy steam cycles.
The particular price and also performance of heavy steam plants is
intriguing at huge range applications. For this reason co-combustion of
biomass with coal is encouraging, as it integrates high performance with
affordable transportation ranges for the biomass. Nonetheless, biomass
burning is associated with substantial contaminant development as well
as therefore has to be boosted. To create actions for exhaust decrease, the
particular gas residential properties have to be taken into consideration. It
is revealed that toxin development happens as a result of two factors: (1)
Insufficient burning could result in high discharges of unburnt toxins such
as Carbon Monoxide, residue, as well as PAH. Although enhancements to
decrease these exhausts have actually been accomplished by maximized
heating system style consisting of modeling, there is still an appropriate
possibility of additional optimization. (2) Contaminants such as NOX and
also bits are created as an outcome of gas components such as N, K, Cl, Ca,
Na, Mg, P, as well as S. For this reason biomass heaters display fairly high
discharges of NOX as well as submicron fragments.
Air hosting as well as gas hosting have actually been established as main
procedures for NOX decrease that use a possibility of 50% to 80% decrease.
Main actions for bit decrease are not yet securely understood. Nonetheless,
a brand-new strategy with thoroughly lowered main air exists that could
cause brand-new heater styles with lowered bit discharges. In addition,
aiding initiatives for maximized plant procedure are should assure reduced
exhausts and also high performance under real-world problems.
A lot of these plants launched much less compared to 15 years back.
The vehicle drivers, procedures, systems, scale-up techniques as well as
companion partnerships for this quick intrusion of a brand-new procedure
magnified method are discussed in this paper.
Business vehicle drivers are (a) affordable (success): variable price,
capital investment as well as power demand decrease. In all instances these
are lowered by 20% or even more, when compared with the traditional
set up of an activator adhered to by purification. (b) Ecological (world):
reduced exhausts to the atmosphere. In all situations CO2 and also diffusive
discharges are lowered as well as (c) social (individuals): renovations on
securely, wellness as well as culture effect are gotten by reduced responsive
web content, reduced escape level of sensitivity as well as reduced room
line of work.
These commercial responsive purification systems consist of uniform as
well as heterogeneous catalyzed, permanent as well as relatively easy to fix
responses, covering big varieties of responses, significantly hydrogenations,
hydrodesulfurization, esterification’s as well as etherification. Numerous
industrial techniques for loading heterogeneous driver in columns are
currently offered.
The systems consist of among others: several driver systems, gas and
also fluid inner reuse website traffic over these stimulant systems, splitting
up, mass circulation, as well as enthalpy exchange. These are incorporated
efficiently in a solitary vessel, a particular function of procedure climax. The
scale-up techniques used from pilot plants to business range are strength as
well as modeling.
Modern technology companies CDTECH and also Sulzer Chemtech
have actually utilized these scale-up techniques effectively. Obstacles viewed
as well as genuine have actually additionally been gotten rid of by these
business. Chemical production business have actually likewise created their
very own certain responsive purifications by their very own R&D. These
businesses, both by themselves and also in consortia, additionally established
heuristic procedure synthesis regulations and also professional software
program to recognize the good looks as well as technological usefulness of
responsive purification. Heuristic regulations and also specialist software
program will certainly exist and also sustained by instances.
Academic study likewise created style techniques to determine the
expediency of responsive purification, to establish the feed areas, to choose
packaging kinds, to series columns ideally and generated approaches to
create, optimize and also manage the columns with constant state and also
vibrant simulation versions.
The fast industrial range application of responsive purification by co-

operation of companions in study, scale-up, layout as well as dependable
procedure could likewise be considered as a version for fast execution of
various other procedure climax methods in the chemical sector.
About 80% of the present world energy demand comes from fossil fuels.
Unlike using fossil fuels, using hydrogen as an energy source produces water
as the only byproduct. Use of hydrogen as an energy source could help to
address issues related to energy security including global climate change
and local air pollution. Moreover, hydrogen is abundantly available in the
universe and possess the highest energy content per unit of weight compared
to any of the known fuels.
Consequently, demand for hydrogen energy and production has been
growing in the recent years. Membrane separation process is an attractive
alternative compared to mature technologies such as pressure swing
adsorption and cryogenic distillation. This paper reports different types of
membranes used for hydrogen separation from hydrogen-rich mixtures.
The study has found that much of the current research has been focused
on nonpolymeric materials such as metal, molecular sieving carbon,
zeolites, and ceramics. High purity of hydrogen is obtainable through
dense metallic membranes and especially palladium and its alloys, which
are highly selective to hydrogen. Thin membranes would not only reduce
the cost of materials but also increase the hydrogen flux. Metal alloys or
composite metal membranes have been used for hydrogen purification.
However, metallic membranes are sensitive to some gases such as carbon
monoxide and hydrogen sulfide. Therefore, ceramic membranes, inert to
poisonous gases, are desirable. Inorganic microporous membranes offer
many advantages over thin-film palladium membranes. More importantly,
in microporous membranes, the flux is directly proportional to the pressure,
whereas in palladium membranes, it is proportional to the square root of
the pressure. The paper also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of
different hydrogen separation membranes.
Also, the paper reports performance of selected membranes in terms of
hydrogen selectivity and permeability. In spite of being an energy-intensive
process, distillation remains the most important separation method in the
chemical process industry. Especially for the separation of mixtures with
three or more components, the total energy requirement and the capital cost
are very high.
In this respect, dividing wall columns (DWCs) represent a very promising

technology allowing a significant energy requirement reduction. This article
reviews current industrial applications of DWCs and related research
activities, including column configuration, design, modeling, and control
issues. Furthermore, the application of DWCs for azeotropic, extractive, and
reactive distillation is highlighted.
REFERENCES
1. https://www.nap.edu/read/6388/chapter/4#15.
2. https://www.omicsonline.org/proceedings/design-of-separation-
processes-from-the-empirical-methods-to-the-computeraided-
strategies-50985.html.
3. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/285660093_Factors_
affecting_efficiency_of_separation.
CHAPTER
8
INTRODUCTION TO
BIOCHEMISTRY
The chapter will cover the chemistry of proteins, carbohydrates, nucleic
acids, and lipids. The chapter will introduce the readers to enzyme kinetics,
intermediary energetic, biochemical energetic and regulation processes. The
chapter will cover the modern methods used in biochemistry.
This chapter will discuss biochemistry and various factors and biological
terms that can be helpful for further explanation of the various process that
will be discussed in this book later. Biochemistry is defined as it is the branch
of science that deals with the study of chemistry that is taking place within
the body living organisms. This field has influenced the complexity of human
life to a great extent by describing various processes that are happening
in the human bodies such as controlling the flow of information signals
and chemical energy by metabolism. Nowadays, the theories discovered by
this field are utilized by different fields from botany to genetic engineering
and further research have been used to study the biological molecules
and processes that are occurring in living cells with the understanding of
different organs and tissues.
The primary focus of biochemistry is to deal with the processes at the
molecular level and communication of different types of cells with each
other. It also contains a vast range of study of various components such as
microbiology, forensics, genetics, and medicine and plant science.
Proteins are large or macromolecules that live in all types of living
organisms. They take part in all types of chemical processes which are
necessary for life and are valuable because of their applications. They are
made up of amino acid that is joined to make long chains and their size of
the molecule is much large then the molecule of sugar and salt. Also, similar
proteins have similar amino acids and they perform a vast variety of function
that is essential including DNA replication, responding to stimuli, catalyzing
metabolic reactions and transporting molecules. A protein molecule exists
for a fixed time span and then degraded with the recycling process, their
lifespan can be from minutes to years depending upon the type of specie.
The molecules of proteins are joined together by peptide bond and possess
a specific gene code. Moreover, many proteins are enzymes and take part in
different types of chemical reaction and metabolism. They play important
role in immune responses, cell signaling, cell adhesion, and recycling of
cell.
The solubility of healthy proteins in liquid remedies of neutral salts has
actually developed one basis for their category as well as characterizations.
Hence solubility of one course of healthy proteins, the globulins, is boosted
by the enhancement of percentages of salt as well as reduced in much more
focused services of electrolytes. Albumins, on the other hand, are reasonably
soluble in water, however, their solubility, likewise, is lowered inadequately
focused options of specific salts. The boost in solubility of particular healthy
proteins on the enhancement of neutral salts was uncovered. This building
was ultimately utilized essentially splitting up in between healthy proteins,
however, it was not up until 1905 that an extensive research study of the
solubility of globulins in thin down salt services was reported.
There have actually because been several various other payments to this
detailed chemistry of the healthy proteins. The academic description of the
results of electrolytes after healthy proteins waited for, of need, the growth
of an appropriate concept of solid electrolytes.
X which relied on the “level of dissociation,” and also, consequently,
after the variety of fragments existing, ignored the electric communication
of ions. Distinctions in the impact of various salts, specifically of those of
various valence kinds, on healthy protein habits, were researched, that defined
in the adhering to terms the solubility of globulins in salt services. “Service
of globulin by a neutral salt results from pressures put in by its totally free
ions. Ions with equivalent valencies, whether favorable or unfavorable, are
similarly reliable, as well as the effectiveness of ions of various valencies are
straight symmetrical to the squares of their valencies.” This declaration is
currently acknowledged as a summary of the concept of the ionic toughness
Introduction to Biochemistry 65
which was later on created. In researching blends of electrolyte services the

last discovered the adhering to the empirical connection.
In water down remedies, the task coefficient of a provided solid electrolyte
coincides in all options of the exact same ionic toughness. The ionic stamina
does not describe distinctions in actions in between salts of the exact same
valence kind materialized in extra focused remedies. The inconsistencies
from the perfect gas regulations displayed by options of solid electrolytes
have actually been explained in regards to the “task coefficients” of the salts.
These formulas have actually been located to be in close contract with
the speculative monitoring’s for lots of courses of solid electrolytes. Both
coming before documents in this collection have actually managed the
solubility of hemoglobin in focused remedies of various electrolytes under
differing problems as well as in potassium phosphate barriers of different
focus as well as pH.
In this chapter, we take into consideration the solubility of the very
same healthy protein in options of chlorides and also sulfates of commonly
differing consent, supply, specifically in thin down remedies where their
solvent result could be checked out.
Environment-friendly 49 hemoglobin utilized was prepared regarding
feasible in the salt service where solubility was later identified. The crystals
were positioned in protected containers, the preferred electrolyte service
included, the blend filled with carbon monoxide gas, and after that trembled
delicately at 25” in a consistent temperature level bathroom till balance was
gotten to; normally 4 or 5 hrs were called for.
The services were filteringed system at a continuous temperature
level and also the filtrates evaluated. The crystals were gone back to their
containers as well as even more electrolyte remedy included. A lot of the
factors on the salt sulfate contour were gotten by duplicated cleaning with
an option of an offered focus up until consistent solubility was gotten to. The
exact same treatment was made use of in researching solubility in chlorides,
however, the solubility is so high in focused chloride services that it was not
feasible to get filtrates of consistent salt material, yet real balance was gotten
to considering that the factors all rest on a smooth contour.
In identifying solubility in the remainder of the electrolytes 2 containers
of crystals were made use of and also the salt focus was initially boosted from
balance to balance as well as lastly lowered in the succeeding equilibrations.
That the earlier, as well as later factors all rest on the exact same smooth
contour and that the factors in the much more focused services inspect those
acquired in the previous collection of experiments, show that real balance
was gotten to.
The quantity of hemoglobin liquified was identified, as previously, by
Kjeldahl nitrogen evaluations on the filtrates. The sulfate services were
examined for salt by heat-coagulating the healthy protein without the
enhancement of more salt, cleaning the precipitate saltfree, and also very
carefully vaporizing, drying out, carefully firing up, as well as considering
the filtrate. The magnesium sulfate decisions were inspected by changing
a couple of examples to barium sulfate and also evaluating thus. The
ammonium sulfate focus was, nevertheless, identified by heat-coagulating
the healthy protein in the visibility of a mild quantity of phosphate barrier,
cleaning the healthy protein salt-free, as well as distilling over the ammonia
in the filtrate.
Physical Chemistry of Proteins. X The pH of all saturated services was
identified with the hydrogen electrode a.s.a.p. after filtering system. The
hemoglobin, as well as the electrolyte options, were changed as virtually as
feasible to pH 6.6 prior to the experiment started, and also where essential
little amounts of acid or antacids were included in the electrolyte remedies
throughout the experiment.
The pH worths as figured out lie generally in between 6.5 and also 6.8 in
the series of minimal solubility.
The ionic stamina, regard to Lewis, B., is computed each 1000 g of
H2O. Task Coefficients of Hemoglobin in Solutions of Chlorides, as well as
Sulfates In a heterogeneous balance where a remedy is filled with a strong
part, at consistent temperature level as well as stress, the task of the material
in the strong stage, should coincide as that in the fluid stage.
This is independent of other elements in the option. The enhancement
of electrolytes to a saturated option of hemoglobin does not transform the
task of the hemoglobin although it alters the solubility or the focus. The
proportion of the solubility of a compound at absolutely no electrolyte focus,
X0, to the solubility in an option of offered electrolyte focus, S, is the task
coefficient, y, of the material because of service.
The solubility of hemoglobin in focused remedies of multivalent
electrolytes could be appropriately defined, by the straight formula for the
solubility of nonelectrolytes and also healthy proteins in focused salt options
log S = p – K,’/x where X is once again the solubility and also P the ionic
stamina. p is the obstruct continuous and also is the theoretical solubility

in the lack of salt, called theoretical because, obviously, hemoglobin is
a globulin whose solubility passes through an optimum with raising salt
consent, supply. p is nonetheless a hassle-free consistent differing with
the temperature level and also the amphoteric residential or commercial
properties of the healthy protein. Ii,’ is a salting out consistent feature of the
healthy protein independent of the temperature level as well as of the pH
when an offered electrolyte is utilized, yet differing with the electrolyte. The
evaluate ion of the constants K,’ and also/3 pays for an ample characterization
of the rainfall of a healthy protein in focused remedies of electrolytes. In
examining the solubility of carboxy hemoglobin in phosphate barriers of
differing ionic stamina as well as pH.
It was located that at the factor of minimal solubility the healthy protein
acted as though it were made up not just of the neutral particle, yet of favorably
and also adversely billed particles also. It was additionally discovered that
the pH of minimal solubility differed with the salt concentration. The size
of the impact of electrolytes on the acid as well as fundamental dissociation
constants was such that the percentage of credited uncharged particles at pH
6.6 was around consistent, although somewhat higher in the extremely water
down services of phosphate.
Hence, although the incline of the solubility contour at pH 6.6 in water
down services was such that the Debye-Hiickel formula did not show up to
use, if one thought about the neutral particle alone, it was discovered to act
as though A in Formula 1 was 1.5, the worth made use of in explaining the
phosphate barriers themselves, as well as Z, Z, were 4, the worth made use
of explaining solubility in phosphates at 0.”
The variant in the dissociation constants was such that if the solubility
had actually been identified at pH 6.7 as opposed to 6.6 the healthy protein
would certainly have included an around continuous percentage of credited
uncharged fragments.
The pH of the saturated remedies of hemoglobin in sulfates and also
chlorides was not so precisely managed as in the phosphate barriers. The
factors exist generally on smooth contours, nevertheless, as well as the
variant in pH is not adequate, evidently, to take the healthy protein much
from the pH of minimal solubility.
An acceptable image of the variant of task coefficients could be acquired
from a research study of a variant of solubility at around pH 6.6. The factor
to consider of Formulas 1, as well as 4 in connection with the solubility of
hemoglobin in phosphate barrier options, exposed the applicability of the

very first to water down services as well as of the 2nd to focused remedies.
Formula 4 has actually been revealed to be relevant to hemoglobin in
focused sulfate services. The applicability of Formula 1 to solubility in both
chlorides and also sulfates is taken into consideration in the adhering to.
The “valence” kind is obviously “obvious” when one is taking care of a
difficult healthy protein particle.
The solvent activity of a neutral salt after a healthy protein,
oxyhemoglobin, has actually been located the same to the solvent activity of
a neutral salt after a bi-bivalent or a uni-quadrivalent substance.
In conclusion that oxyhemoglobin is bivalent or quadrivalent may be
proper, yet would certainly be unjustified at the here and now time. Our
experiments allow neither reduction. They make it specific, nonetheless, that
oxyhemoglobin acts in this regard as though it were bivalent or quadrilateral,
which the activity of neutral salts in liquidizing healthy proteins corresponds
their activity in liquidizing various other a little soluble material. The neutral
carboxyhemoglobin particle in remedies of phosphate acts as though it had
the exact same evident valence kind.
Moreover, Carbohydrates is another biological molecule which is
mainly composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen atoms, having the ratio
of hydrogen-oxygen atom 2:1 and exists as hydrates of the carbon atom.
Its empirical formula is given as:
Cm(H2O)n
Carbohydrates contain four chemical groups, i.e., disaccharides,
oligosaccharides, monosaccharides, and polysaccharides the lower
molecular mass carbohydrates are disaccharides and Monosaccharides. Just
like proteins, carbohydrates also play an essential role in living organisms.
Polysaccharides perform the role of storage of energy, i.e., cellulose.
Carbohydrates are present in almost every kind of food. The important
sources include cereals sugarcane, fruits, potatoes, bread, milk & table
sugar, etc. similarly, the sugar and starch are the essential components of
carbohydrates in our diet in which starch is present in abundance in potatoes,
rice, and maize. The carbohydrate that is found in live and other tissues
of the human body is Glycogen. Moreover, carbohydrate is also present in
plant tissue as the cell wall and also maintains our digestive system.
The nucleic acid is those important molecules that transfer genetic
information from one generation to the other and are classified into two basic
types, i.e., ribonucleic acid (RNA) and deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The
nucleic acid is further composed of nucleotide monomers and nucleotide are
made with the composition of three elements which is a phosphate Group
nitrogenous Base, five-carbon Sugar. Also, the nucleotide is further joined
with each other to produce polynucleotide chains. The nucleotide is held
together with the help of covalent bond which is present between the sugar
and phosphate. Their joining links are known as phosphodiester linkages
and these linkages are the backbone of RNA and DNA. Just like proteins, the
nucleotide is combined together by dehydration synthesis. In this synthesis,
nitrogen atom is joined with the loss of water molecule.
Lipids are such type of macromolecules that are soluble in a non-
polar solvent, for example, fats, monoglycerides, waxes, diglycerides,
sterols, etc. The functions of lipids include energy storing, signaling with
communication and act as structural components of cell membranes. Also,
lipids are divided into 8 types of fats. Lipids are also described as Fats and
are called triglycerides. The presence of lipids is also discovered in fatty
acids.
Enzyme kinetics is defined as that branch of chemistry that deals with
the chemical reaction which are catalyzed with enzymes and reaction are
recorded with all the other resulting factors. The catalytic mechanism can
also be explained with the help of enzymes kinetics as well as its role in
metabolism. Enzymes belonging to the family of protein and can manipulate
other molecules known as enzymes substrates. The data given by enzyme
structure can plat important role in describing the kinetic data and some
enzymes can also change their shape during a chemical reaction. Unlike the
other chemical reaction, the reaction which is catalyzed by enzymes shows
the properties of kinetic saturation.
Now, this chapter will discuss the biochemical energetics. It is the field
of science that deals with the cell biology and biochemistry of energy that
is flowing and produce in the living organisms and also contains the study
of different cellular process and transfer of energy. The main objective of
this subject is to study how different species produce energies and perform
the required biological work. In the living organism, the covalent bond is
broken and energy is produced which is then used by the living organism
in different types of energy and produce ATP (Adenosine triphosphate). The
living organisms take energy from different organic and inorganic materials.
There are basically two types of chemical reaction that take place in living
organisms which are exergonic and endergonic. In exergonic reaction,
the spontaneous reaction is taken place and energy is released comes

under negative energy ΔG released whereas endergonic reaction are those
chemical reactions consume energy, and it is considered positive valve of
energy ΔG. The total free energy in a chemical reaction can be calculated
from the following formula:
ΔG = ΔH – TΔS
REFERENCES
1. http://www.biochemistry.org/?TabId=456
2. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/macromolecules/
lipids/a/lipids
3. http://www.biology-pages.info/E/EnzymeKinetics.html
4. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK21737/
CHAPTER
9
BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING
The chapter will cover the biomechanical engineering processes such

as fermentation, agitation, and mass transfer of chemical engineering,
biochemistry, and microbiology. The chapter will introduce the readers to
enzyme technology and representations of microbial systems. The chapter
will cover the basics of biology, biotechnology, cell constituents, kinetic
enzyme analysis, immobilized enzymes, design, review, and stability of
bioreactors, kinetics of receptor-ligand binding and bioproduct recovery and
bioseparations and manufacture of biochemical products.
Fermentation is such a biochemical process that deals will the breaking of

glucose molecules and consumption of sugar without the involvement of
oxygen. The products resulted from fermentation are gases, yeast, organic
acids, alcohol, and mostly occurs in the presence of bacteria. The overall
process of fermentation is given the name of zymology. The ATP produced in
microorganisms are resulted due the process of fermentation by dividing the
organic materials. It is used in the preservation of many food products such
as yogurt and pickled cucumbers and in the production of alcoholic drinks,
i.e., wine. The human being also contains the process of fermentation in their
gastrointestinal including the animal as well. The process of fermentation is
still be used and with the help of advance biochemical techniques many
discoveries are still being studied. An example of the modern fermentation
process is that they have been used by scientist in studying the transferring
of genetic information.
Another important biochemical process that needs to discuss is the

agitation which deals with the induced motion of a matter in a specific
way usually the movement is in a circular manner in a fixed chamber and
helps in the mixing of two or more component which can be in separate
phases previously. The process of agitation is used in different analysis such
as mixing of immiscible solutions and suspending the solid particles in a
solution. It also deals with the transfer of heat that results due to the mixing
of different solutes as well as making a gas dispersed in a given liquid. The
most commonly used devices used for agitation are propeller, turbines, and
impellers.
Mass transfer is the movement of molecules of matter from one location
to another and this process is used in many separation techniques absorption,
precipitation, evaporation, drying, and distillation and membrane filtration.
The mass transfer is described as a physical process of separating solutes
from a mixture and this field has vast application in the field of biochemistry
such as evaporation of water from tissues. The mass transfer occurs due
to the difference in the chemical potentials and results in thermodynamics
gradients in term of flow of mass from one matter to other. In a chemical
process, the species of a matter tends to move from high chemical potential
to low chemical potential and maximum mass transfer is achieved when the
chemical potential in both of the matter are in equilibrium. The mass transfer
basically depends upon a number of factors such as flow pattern of species
of matter and diffusive properties of species. The rate of mass transfer can be
quantified as the mass transfer coefficient which is a dimensionless quantity.
Since the mass transfer is the transport of species in the liquid and gaseous
state which is defined in four categories such as exchange of mass between
phases, transportation of mass in case of turbulent flow and in laminar flow,
diffusion.
The chapter will further discuss microbiology and its relation with
biochemistry. Microbiology is defined as it is the branch of science which
deals with the study of microorganisms such as bacteria, protozoa, viruses,
and archaea. The study of microbiology has deep roots in other fields of
science such as cell biology, biochemistry, ecology, and physiology. In this
field, the microbiologist only relies on the certain number of tools such as an
identification that is purely based on DNA. There are numerous research that
results in the betterment of mankind in this field. The process of fermentation
was discovered, as described earlier, which is utilized with the help of latest
trend of microbiology with its combination of modern biochemistry, similarly,
bacteria is produced in industrial scale for the production of amino acids
Biochemical Engineering 75
and most commonly produced amino acid is Corynebacterium glutamicum.

Moreover, different variety of biopolymers are also produced which the help
of microbiology such as polysaccharides, and polyamide can the advanced
biotechnical discoveries are used to tailor some specific properties in these
polymers with eradicating the other features. Furthermore, microbiology
is used by different animals and human in producing beneficial vitamins,
aiding digestion, producing amino acids. The enzyme technology is the
latest discoveries of biotechnology and biochemistry in which fundamental
techniques of enzymology are applied and they have been used in different
application such as feed, agriculture, food, textiles industries, paper, and
leather products. Furthermore, this enzyme technology is also utilized in
various pharma and chemical industries to increase the overall efficiency
and output of the product.
This chapter will also describe the brief introduction of bioreactors.
It is defined as such an environment that supports biological activation
and it is a vessel that carries a different chemical reaction at an optimum
rate. The organism that is produced in bioreactors can be submerged in
a liquid solution or can be attached or stick with the wall of vessels of a
bioreactor. They are designed in such a way that will the help of biochemical
engineering optimum environment is created to perfume specific functions
and obtain the desire results from the bioreactors. The conditions such as
environmental values which includes pH, and dissolved gases, temperature,
nutrient concentrations are set to affect the overall production and growth
of organisms. There are four types of bioreactors given as photo reactors,
personal reactors, up, and down agitation reactor and cloning bioreactors
used by NASA. Various mathematical techniques are applied which are an
important tool in bioreactors such as in the case of wastewater treatment. With
the help of these models, process control strategies are efficiently designed
and can predict the future result of bioreactors. Moreover, these bioreactors
are mostly used in beverages, food, and pharmaceuticals industries as they
mostly deal with the diverse species of microorganisms. There are three
main stages of a bioreactor which are defined as upstream and downstream
of processing and bioreaction. The whole process helps in converting raw
material into the required finish product. The raw material is first converted
into a useable form for processing and this is done by the upstream process
and it is the initial stage of the bioreactor, then it is transferred to separation
process by downstream and further biological process are applied to obtain
the finished product.
Phytochemicals are of wonderful pharmaceutical and farming

significance, yet usually, show reduced wealth in nature. Current demos of
industrial-scale manufacturing of phytochemicals in yeast have revealed that
microbial manufacturing of these high-value chemicals is an encouraging
option to sourcing these particles from indigenous plant hosts. Nevertheless,
a variety of obstacles continue to be in the more comprehensive application
of this method, consisting of the restricted expertise of plant additional
metabolic rate as well as the ineffective reconstitution of plant metabolic
paths in microbial hosts.
In this Evaluation, we go over current methods to accomplish microbial
biosynthesis of intricate phytochemicals, consisting of techniques to: (1)
rebuild plant biosynthetic paths that have actually not been completely
illuminated by mining enzymes from indigenous as well as non-native hosts
or by enzyme design; (2) boost plant enzyme task, especially cytochrome
P450 task, by enhancing performance, selectivity, expression or electron
transfer; and also (3) boost total response effectiveness of multi-enzyme
paths by vibrant control, compartmentalization or optimization with the
host’s metabolic rate. We additionally highlight staying difficulties and as
well as future possibilities of this method.
The optimization of synthesized metabolic paths calls for cautious
control over the degrees and also the timing of metabolic enzyme expression.
Optogenetic devices are suitable for accomplishing such exact control, as
light could be used as well as getting rid of promptly without complicated
media adjustments.
Below we reveal that light-controlled transcription could be utilized
to improve the biosynthesis of useful items in crafted Saccharomyces
cerevisiae. We present brand-new optogenetic circuits to move cells from
a light-induced development stage to a darkness-induced manufacturing
stage, which permits us to manage fermentation with only light.
Moreover, optogenetic control of synthesized paths makes it possible
for a brand-new setting of bioreactor procedure utilizing regular light
pulses to tune enzyme expression throughout the manufacturing stage of
fermentation to raise returns. Phage—host communications are essential to
ecology, advancement, as well as biotechnology. Central to those is infection
effectiveness, which continues to be inadequately recognized, specifically in
nature.
Right here we use genome-wide transcriptomics as well as proteomics to
check out infection performance in nature’s very own experiment: two almost
similar (genetically as well as from a physical standpoint) Bacteroidetes

microbial pressures (host18 as well as host38) that are genetically unbending,
however, eco crucial, where phage infection effectiveness differs.
With each other, these searching’s to expose several infection
inadequacies. While this contrasts the solitary systems typically disclosed
in lab mutant research studies, it likely much better mirrors the phage—host
communication characteristics that take place in nature.
Mass transfer is the transportation of a compound (mass) in fluid and also
aeriform media. Relying on the problems, the nature, and the pressures in
charge of mass transfer, 4 fundamental kinds are differentiated: (1) diffusion
in a quiescent tool, (2) mass transfer in laminar circulation, (3) mass transfer
in the unstable circulation, as well as (4) mass exchange in between stages.
The most basic situation is mass transfer in a tool at remainder where the
driving pressure is the distinction of focus in surrounding areas of the tool
as well as the system is molecular diffusion. The material moves, because of
the analytical personality of particle movement, from a high focus area to a
reduced focus one having the tendency to equalization of focus throughout
the whole quantity. This mass transfer is explained by a formula called Fick’s
legislation which, when related to a binary combination, has the type form.
 dC A
m = − DAB Ma
dy
where is the circulation important A, kg/m2s, in the reverse instructions to the
focus slope of this compound dCA/dy (kmole/m3m), is the molecular weight
of part A (kg/kmole) as well as BIT (m2/s) is the inter diffusion coefficient
important A basically B and also is figured out by the physical residential
properties of these materials. BIT has been identified experimentally for
lots of gas sets and also could likewise be determined to make use of a
molecular-kinetic concept. BIT is understood to rely on temperature level
and also stress. The diffusion coefficient in gases under typical problems is
of the order of 10 − 4 m2/s, while in fluids it must do with 5 orders reduced.
Really, along with focus slope, temperature level and also stress slopes
which impact mass transfer by means of thermal and also stress diffusion
might enter into play. These results are most substantial in gas blends with
a commonly differing particle dimension, e.g., He–Cs. Thermal diffusion
underlies among the approaches of splitting up of uranium isotope U235.
In laminar circulation of aeriform and fluid combinations, computation
of mass transfer does absent certain troubles. For example, for a plate in the
stream of incompressible fluid, the collection of Formulas (2) explaining the

speed and focus areas has the kind.
∂u ∂v
+ 0,
=
∂x ∂y
∂u ∂v ∂ 2u
u +v v 2,
=
∂x ∂y ∂y
∂C ∂C ∂ 2C
u +v D 2,
=
∂x ∂y ∂y
where x and also y are the longitudinal and also transverse collaborates, u
and also v the longitudinal as well as transverse parts of rate, ν as well as
D the coefficients of kinematic thickness as well as molecular diffusion,
specifically, and also C the neighborhood focus of a material, C = f(x, y).
Under the boundary conditions u = v = 0 and C = C1, at y = 0, u =
u0 and C = C0 at x < 0 or y = ∞ the solution to equation system (2) yields.
βx
=
Sh x = 0.332 Re1/2 x Sc ,
1/3
D
where β is the neighborhood mass transfer coefficient at the range x from
the leading side of home plate (β = [ m / M (C – C )], Re = x u /ν is the
1 0 x 0
Reynolds number, as well as of m or (C1 the Schmidt number. Keep in mind
that there is a separation from the straight reliance of or (C1 – C0) at high
prices of mass transfer. If the complete size of home plate is L, after that the
length-averaged mass transfer coefficient is discovered from the formula
βL
=
ShL = 0.664 Re1/2 1/3
L Sc ,
D
where ReL = Lu0/ ν.
Mass transfer essentially alters in a change to a stormy circulation. Its
vortex circulation features bring about a massive transportation of liquid.
This transportation generally has prices which are orders of size above
molecular ones and advertises a quicker equalization of the focus area as
well as, provided a material resource, fast breeding of the material over
the circulation random sample. Considering that a strenuous concept of
disturbance is doing not have, it is preferable to explain the circulation itself
and also warm as well as mass transfer in it by a collection of formulas much

like (2) for the laminar circulation utilizing balanced speed worth’s and also
changing v as well as D by their efficient worth’s satisfying the problems
in the unstable circulation, i.e., by the coefficients of “eddy thickness” and
also “unstable diffusion.” The molecular diffusion likewise happens in the
unstable circulation, e.g., in between as well as inside swirls. Its duty is
boosted (about unstable transportation) as the network surface area is come
close to and ends up being primary near it. It is typically thought that the
molecular DM, as well as stormy DT diffusion coefficients, are additive, i.e.,
D = DM + DT.
Considering that in an industrialized unstable circulation the compound,
power, and energy transportation takes place using large swirls, the
transportation price is taken into consideration similar and DT, aT, and also
νT have to do with an equivalent. (This is a three-way example in between
the transportation of the material, power, as well as energy.) This makes it
feasible to make use of empirical dimensionless formulas explaining warm
transfer for estimation of mass transfer.
Mass exchange in between a gas and a bead is frequently come across
in design. For a tool at remainder the service could be composed, therefore;
β dd
=Sc = 2,
D
where β is the mass transfer coefficient, dd the bead size, and D the diffusion
coefficient of the traded compound in the gas. When the decline relocates
relative to a tool in the Red ≤ 200 arrays the Frössling-Marshall formula.
Sh= 2 + 0.6 Re1/2
d Sc
1/3
(where Red = dpu/ ν with u and v is the speed of the gas about the decrease
and also the gas kinematic thickness, specifically) is rather constant with the
experiment. This formula likewise keeps in the situation of dissipation of
beads in a gas stream gave the dissipation price is little or modest.
The price of mass transfer from the surface area of the fluid movie
(e.g., dissipation) moving on the internal surface area of television towards
the main gas circulation could be determined to make use of an empirical
formula.
βd
=Sh = 0.023Re0.83 d Sc 0.44 ,
D
where d is the size of television (cf. Nu = 0.023 Re0.8

d Pr
0.4
for heat transfer).
Another instance of mass transfer is diffusion of some material, such
as A from one relocating tool to one more via a user interface (two-film
concept). If it is thought that there is no focus get on the limit, i.e., CABi =
CAEi (Fig. 9.1a), after that the circulation important A could be stood for in
the type.
=m β AB M A (C AB − C ABi )
= β AE M A (C AEi − C AE=) K A (C AB − C AE ),
where βAB, βAE, as well as KA, are the coefficients of mass transfer for
compound A in media B and E as well as the general mass transfer coefficient,
specifically, as well as CA the focus important A at the factors suggested in
Number 1 (Figure 9.1).
Figure 9.1. Mass transfer of component A between media B and E with no con-
centration jump at the interface.
Hence,
1 1 1
= + ,
K A β AB β AC
i.e., the overall resistance to mass transfer is a number of resistances in each
tool.
In most cases, the focus of the moving material is not the same as the
user interface in both particular media. As an example, if B is a fluid stage,
as well as E, is gas, as well as a balance on the border follows Henry’s
legislation CABi = H CABi (Number 2), after that
=m β M (C − C
AB A AB= ) β M (C − C )
ABi AE A AEi AE
C 
= K A M A (C AB − HC AE
= ) K A M A  AB − C AE  .
 H 
where
1 1 H H
= + = .
K B β AB β AC K E
Offered the circulation criteria for both movies, β could be identified
making use of, e.g., the above solutions (Figure 9.2).
Figure 9.2. Mass transfer of part A in between media B as well as E with a focus
dive at the user interface.
Mass transfer, primarily in the mix with warmth transfer, is extensively
utilized in the market, in chemical procedure devices, metallurgy, power
design, and so forth. The devices consist of fractionating towers, absorbers,
and also extractors, driers, and also cooling down towers, burning chambers,
heterogeneous catalysis devices, and also lots of others.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.thermopedia.com/content/940/
2. https://www.britannica.com/science/fermentation
3. h t t p s : / / w w w. k t h . s e / e n / b i o / r e s e a r c h / i n d b i o / e n z y m e -
technology-1.432723
4. https://www.nature.com/subjects/microbiology
5. https://www.omicsonline.org/scholarly/enzyme-technology-journals-
articles-ppts-list.php
6. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/bioreactors
7. https://www.slideshare.net/WASSAN14CH18/agitation-and-mixing
CHAPTER
10
ELECTRICAL CIRCUITS
The chapter will introduce readers to the basic principles of electrical circuits
and the basic laws such as Thevenin’s, Kirchhoff’s and Norton’s laws about
the analysis of electrical circuits. The chapter will include discussions of DC
circuits and analysis, DC transients, and static electrical fields. The chapter
will cover the basics of static magnetic fields, inductors, capacitors, and
filters.
Electric circuits consist of circuit elements and interconnections which are

joined in a way to perform a specific task. The function of circuit elements
is to ensure the defined relationship between current and voltage at its
terminals, for example, the relationship in Ohm’s law V=iR. The terminals
are connected through interconnections also called as wires so that circuit
elements can interact with each other by sharing of current and voltages. For
example, circuit in Figure 10.1 shows the circuit elements bulb, battery, and
switch connected through a wire. Here the defined task is the conversion of
energy to light a bulb. The purpose of the switch is to break/ close the circuit.
Figure 10.1: Electric Circuit. https://www.electricaltechnology.org/2014/01/

important-terms-related-to-electric-circuits-and-networks.html
To facilitate the interconnections the wires of a good electrical conductor

like copper are used. Ideally, all point of wires are at the same potential,
show no resistance to the flow of current. But in actual wires do not have
this property. In order to ease our initiation to circuit theory, we shall assume
the ideal behavior.
10.1. LAWS OF CIRCUIT ANALYSIS AND

SYNTHESIS
Circuit analysis the process of calculating the values of current and voltages
in a circuit. Whereas the circuit synthesis is the process of designing the
circuit in order to get a specific value of current and voltage. Both synthesis
and design can be done by knowing element laws such as Ohm’s law and
the connection laws also called Kirchhoff’s laws or circuit laws. In order to
analyze a complex circuit, we must have an understanding of the terms like
Nodes, Branches, Loops, and meshes, Series and parallel connection.
Loop is a closed path, the mesh is a loop that contains no other loop. In
Figure 10.2, there are 6 nodes, 3 loops, 3 meshes, 7 branches.
Figure 10.2. Illustration of Kirchhoffs Circuit Law: Determination of Number

of Nodes, Branches, Lopes and Meshes in a Circuit. https://www.electricaltech-
nology.org/2014/01/important-terms-related-to-electric-circuits-and-networks.
html
Consider current/voltage through a branch associated with a node/loop,
respectively.
10.2. KIRCHHOFF’S CURRENT LAW (KCL)

At any instant amount of charge/currents entering a node must equal the sum
of all currents flowing out of that node.
Electrical Circuits 85
∑ iin = ∑ iout
I1+I2+I3=I4+ I5
10.3. KIRCHHOFF’S VOLTAGE LAW (KVL)

At any instant, the sum of all voltage drop around the loop is equal to zero.
VAB+VBC+VCD+VDA=0
10.4. THEVENIN’S THEOREM

This theorem is used to reduce the complex circuit into a simple circuit by
calculating the resistance equivalent to all the resistances in the circuit and
connecting it in series with a single voltage source and load.
Steps to follow Thevenin’s theorem
• Remove the load from the original circuit and calculate the
voltage across the open terminals where the load used to be that
will be called as Thevenin voltage source.
• Remove all the power sources from the circuit by replacing voltage
sources with the simple open circuit and current sources as wire
(closed circuit). Then calculate the total resistance at the open
terminals that will be called as Thevenin equivalent resistance
• Now draw the Thevenin resistance and Thevenin voltage in series

and reconnect the load between the open points of the circuit.
That will be the Thevenin equivalent circuit.
• Now analyze the values of current and voltage across the load
resistance.
Example
According to the above steps consider R2 as load and remove it from the
circuit. Now we have B1, R1, R3, B2 in series. Calculate the total voltage
and total current of the series circuit. By using ohm’s law.
The total current of the series circuit will be equal to 4.2A by dividing
total voltage 21V by total resistance of 5 ohms. Now the voltage across each
resistance will be calculated as 16.8V across R1 and 4.2V across R3. By
using KVL the voltage across R2 will be 11.2V.
Remove the power sources and calculate the resistance at the open
terminal. Now the three resistances are in parallel connection.
Connect the voltage 11.2V and resistance of 0.8 ohms in series that will
give the Thevenin equivalent circuit and reconnect the load resistance in
series.
10.5. NORTON THEOREM

This theorem is used to reduce the complex circuit into a simple circuit by
calculating the resistance equivalent to all the resistances in the circuit and
connecting it in parallel with single current source and load.
Steps to follow Norton theorem
• Remove the load from the original circuit and calculate the current
across the short wire where the load used to be that will be called
as Norton current source.
• Remove all the power sources from the circuit by replacing
voltage sources with the simple open circuit and current sources
as a closed circuit. Then calculate the total resistance at the open
terminals that will be called as Norton equivalent resistance
• Now draw the Norton resistance and Norton current in parallel
and reconnect the load between the open points of the circuit.
That will be the Norton equivalent circuit.
• Now analyze the values of current and voltage across the load
resistance by following the rules of a parallel circuit.
Example
According to the above steps consider R2 as load and remove it from the
circuit. Now we have B1, R1, R3, B2 in series. Calculate the total voltage
and total current of the series circuit. By using ohm’s law
By considering each loop separately calculate the current across R1 and

R3 (by ohm’s law). Then apply the KCL and get the value across the short
terminals.
Remove the power sources and calculate the resistance at the open
terminal. Now the three resistances are in parallel connection.
Now draw the Norton resistance and Norton equivalent current in

parallel and reconnect the load between the open points of the circuit. That
will be the Norton equivalent circuit.
10.6. DC TRANSIENT
Transient state is the response of the circuit to the energies stored in the
storing elements (capacitors/inductors) in the circuit.
In RC/ RL circuit if the capacitor/ inductor has some stored energy that
can be dissipated across the resistor. The way the energy is dissipated is
known as a transient response or natural response.
10.7. STATIC ELECTRIC AND MAGNETIC FIELDS

Electric and magnetic fields are basically force generated by nature but
can also be generated by the use of electricity. An electric field is a force
generated due to the attraction and repulsion of electrical charges due to
which the electric current/ electrons flow. It is measured in volts per meter
(V/m). The effect caused by the flow of electrons is also a form of force
field that is also created by the magnet is known as a magnetic field. It is
measured in Tesla (T). If the electric or magnetic field does not vary with
time having steady direction, flow rate and strength then it will be called as
steady electric/magnetic fields (thus the frequency of 0 Hz).
We see many examples of the electric and magnetic field in our daily
life. For example, in lightning, the electric field generates due to the
imbalance of charges. In frictional processes, the displacement of positive
and negative charges produce an electric field. Cathode ray tubes used in TV
and computer screen also generate electric field sometimes which become
visible due to dust particles. In the compass system the geomagnetic field is
used which exerts the force from south to north. In biomedical and industrial
application intense field strength is used, for example, in MRI (Medical
Resonance Imaging) devices.
10.8. FILTERS
In electronics, filters are used to specify the range of frequencies passed
through the circuit. There are two types of components used in the
manufacturing of filters one is active types of components which includes
transistors, integrated circuits and other is passive type components which
are inductors, capacitors, and resistors. The active type components use
external power to make them enable for working. Active components can
also use in amplification of signals. These components can be used in a
variety of ways by doing proper analysis here is just the very basic idea
about their use.
In order to design filters we use capacitors, inductors, diodes, and
resistors, etc. depending upon the requirement, for example, capacitors are
used to block DC and inductors are used to block high-frequency AC signals.
Similarly, for switching mode power supply inductors, capacitors, and
diode/ MOSFET can be used. As high-frequency signals can pass through
capacitors and only low-frequency signals can cross the inductors. So both
inductors and capacitors can be used in circuits in the following ways.
10.9. CAPACITOR
The capacitor is like a battery which can store electrical energy due to its
structure which is two parallel metallic plates separated by an insulating
material (called as dielectric). The plates are connected by terminal wires
which are used to connect a capacitor in a circuit. According to the working
principle of the capacitor, it can only store charges but it can be used in
different sort of applications. For example, it can be used in timing devices
because it takes a particular time to store charges depend on its capacitance.
As the capacitors allow the certain frequency to pass through them so it
can also be used in electronic filters for smoothing the signals/voltages in
circuits. The capacitors are used in the circuits made for the tuning of radios
and televisions. To stop high-frequency signal (noise) on the power line to
an IC capacitor can be connected in parallel to the IC. Similarly to stop
low-frequency capacitors will be connected in series. For quick ON/OFF
switching in which rapid current grip from the power line is required. That
can create a problem for the power line. In this case, the capacitor is used.
Capacitance can be increase or decrease by varying the size of plates or by
reducing the space between.
Capacitors are of different types depending on its manufacturing and
size or capacitance for different applications. For example, Electrolytic
Capacitor, Mica Capacitor, Paper Capacitor, Film Capacitor, Non-
Polarized Capacitor, Ceramic Capacitor. Large capacitors also called as
super capacitors can be used as batteries as well. The unit used to measure
capacitance is farad denoted by (F). One farad represents the big amount of
capacitance so normally we use prefixes as milli, micro, nano along with
Farad. Supercapacitors typically store thousands of farad which is a huge
amount of charges. According to the application, capacitors are divided into
the following types. High Pass Filter (HPF), Low Pass Filter (LPF), Band
Pass Filter (BPF), Band Stop Filter (BSF), Notch Filter, Equalization Filter,
etc.
10.10. INDUCTOR
An inductor is a coil of an insulating wire wound around a core wire also
called as AC reactor it is a passive electrical component which can store
electrical energy in the magnetic field when the electric charges flow
through it. Due to the flow of electric current through a coil, the voltages
are induced because of the varying magnetic field. Lenz’s law defines the
induction of electromotive force which opposes the change in current that
produces it. Hence the inductors resist the change in current through them.
Faraday’s law describes the induced voltages in an inductor. Units used to
represent inductance are Henry which is basically the ratio of voltages and
change in current through an inductor. As the inductors are characterized
by inductance which is the number of magnetic field lines produced by the
varying current. Inductance is affected by four factors, Number of turns in a
coil, Material of the Core, Cross section area of the Coil, Length of the Coil.
Power dissipation is another factor that must be considered which mainly
depends on inductor core and inductor winding.
Inductors are of different types depending on the applications, sizes, and
rating. The sizes are according to the frequency of AC being used and power
being handled. Types of inductors are available based on applications sizes,
ratings, winding, and core used. Their physical sizes vary from tiny sizes to the
huge transformer, depending on the power being handled and the frequency
of AC being used. Inductors are one of the passive electronic elements other
than capacitors and resistors that are used in the signal controlling circuits
and noise elimination or as filters and for voltage regulation. For example,
In order to reduce noise high-frequency signals inductors can be connected
in series in an electric circuit with ICs. Few types of inductors are as follows
Ferrite Core Inductors, Toroidal Core Inductors, Bobbin based Inductors,
Multi Layer Inductors, etc.
REFERENCES
1. https://arslanhelpyoucom.files.wordpress.com/2016/07/sergio-franco-
electric-circuits-fundamentals.pdf
2. https://electronics.stackexchange.com/questions/84861/
fundamentally-knowing-when-to-use-capacitors-inductors
3. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/
4. https://www.greenfacts.org/en/static-fields/l-2/1-what-are-static-
fields.htm
CHAPTER
11
ELECTROMECHANICAL
SYSTEMS
The chapter will include discussions about the basic principles of
electromechanical systems and include the basic principles of electric
machines and motors, sensing, and actuation, digital logic gates, analog to
digital-digital to analog conversions, and interfacing and communication
protocols.
In this chapter, various terminologies of electromechanical systems are

discussed. One of the essential components of the electromechanical system
is electric machine. These are such type of machines uses electromagnetic
forces for their operation. They are described as an electromechanical
energy converter as in case of the motor, they convert electrical energy
into mechanical energy whereas an electric generator converts mechanical
energy into electrical energy, also, there is a third category of electric
machinery that is term as transfers that also converts energy, i.e., changing
of voltage produces alternating current. There are a number of different
types of electric machines in which some are rotating machine and some
are liner machines, which show liner motion. In an electric machine (rotary
or liner), the magnetic field generated by the stator coil produces motion
in the rotor coils as a result, electric energy is converted into mechanical
energy. A generator is such an electric machine which as described earlier,
converts mechanical energy into electrical energy and it forces the electrons
to make into the electric circuit, it resembles a water pump, whereas, the
motor operates in opposite way. In the case of a transformer, transfer of
energy takes place from one coil to another by the principle of induction
and divides the transformer into three type such as step-up, step-down, and
isolation transformer.
This chapter will further discuss different technologies such as digital
logic gates. A logic gate is the fundamental and building block of digital
circuitry and its designs which implement Boolean functions to perform
logic operation binary inputs and as a result, a different binary output can be
achieved. These logic gates are applied with the help of diodes or electronic
limit switches. Furthermore, the digital logic consists of a circuit with a
variety of different components such as arithmetic logic units (ALUs),
multiplexers, and registers. There are seven basic types of logic gates that
are given below:
And gate is such a gate which operates on the AND operator and contains
two input and one output. The truth table of AND gate is given below with
its circuit representation in Figure 11.1
Figure 11.1. 2 Input AND Gate- AND gate is an electronic circuit that gives
a high output (1) only if all its inputs are high.
The 2nd gate of the digital logic gate is OR gate and as indicates from its
name, it depends upon the OP operator. The truth table of OR gate is given
below with its circuit representation in Figure 11.2
Electromechanical Systems 97
Figure 11.2 OR Gate -The OR gate is an electronic circuit that gives a high
output (1) if one or more of its inputs are high.
Another type of logic gate is the XOR gate (exclusive OR) which is true
only in a condition when one other both input is true. The truth table of XOR
gate is given below with its circuit representation in Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3. XOR Gate-The ‘Exclusive-OR’ gate is a circuit which will give a
high output if either, but not both, of its two inputs are high.
In digital logic, a digital inverter has also existed and which is true only
if the input is false. The truth table of NOT gate is given below with its
circuit representation in Figure 11.4
Figure 11.4 The NOT Gate -The NOT gate is an electronic circuit that produc-
es an inverted version of the input at its output. It is also known as an inverter.
The fifth logic gate is the NAND gate, in this gate AND operation is
first applied to the inputs and then NOT operation is applied, for a condition
to be True by the AND operation, the NOT gate reverts the output and
make it False. The truth table of NAND gate is given below with its circuit
representation in Figure 11.5.
Figure 11.5: 2 Input NAND Gate - This is a NOT-AND gate which is equal to
an AND gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NAND gates are high
if any of the inputs are low.
Furthermore, NOR gate is another such gate of digital logic gates that
coverts the output from the OR operation and reverts the result, if the output
from the OR gate is false, the NOR gate will make it true. The truth table of
NOR gate is given below with its circuit representation in Figure 11.6.
Figure 11.6: 2 Input NOR Gate- This is a NOT-OR gate which is equal to an
OR gate followed by a NOT gate. The outputs of all NOR gates are low if any
of the inputs are high.
The last gate is the XNOR gate which is an XOR gate and followed by
the NOT operator. It indicates that output is true only if the inputs are the
same and vice versa. The truth table of XNOR gate is given below with its
circuit representation in Figure 11.7.
Figure 11.7: XNOR gate-The ‘Exclusive-NOR’ gate circuit does the opposite

to the EOR gate. It will give a low output if either, but not both, of its two
inputs are high.
The combinations from these gates can be utilized in solving complex
algorithms and further the logic circuits can be designed accordingly.
The analog to digital converters is such devices that convert an analog
signal into a digital signal so that it can be processed by a microcontroller or
a digital computer. It is also known as ADC devices and such devices convert
the intensity of a signal into a digital value in a binary form. There are a
various form of ADC devices but due to the hardware complexity they are
not used and Integrated circuit are mostly used for such type of conversion.
The signal processed by the ADC is defined by its bandwidth and the noise
ratio present in the analog signal. Further, the bandwidth sampling is done to
characterize its performance parameters and different techniques are applied
to perform this action. There are many factors the effect the sampling rate
of the analog signal such as its resolution, accuracy of signal, jitter, and
aliasing, etc. such parameters are very important to obtain the final product in
the form of digital signal so that it can be utilized accordingly. However, the
resolution of an converter indicates and gives the information that specified
discrete valves over the particular range that it can convert the analogue
to digital set of data and it determines the magnitude of the error which it
further determines the average of the output signal with respect to noise
ratio which is required by a perfect analogue to digital converter irrespective
the utilization of oversampling. Since the values are stored digitally in the
form of binary data to the resolution is defined in bits, for example, an ADC
having the resolution of 8 bits indicated that it can encode your required data
in analogue form into 1 to 256 different levels and the values are present
in unsigned integers from 1 to 255. The quantity Resolution can also be
defined in terms of volts which is mathematically given as:
Q=EFSR/2M
In the above equation, the quantity Q is equal to the LSB (the minimum
change which is required in the output is called Least Significate Bit Voltage),
where M is the ADC’s resolution in bits and EFSR is the full-scale voltage
range (also called ‘span’). The output error in the conversion of analog to
DC can occur and the two mostly known error are Quantization error and
non-linearity error, these two errors are measured with Least Significant Bit.
Similar to ADC, the digital to analog conversion or DAC is the type
of conversion that deals with the converting of the digital signal to analog
signal. The most commonly used device is an integrated circuit (IC). To
convert a signal into the analog form, the interpolation is done in which the
discrete signal is interpolated in a graph and these pulses are reconstructed
to produce analog signal again. The Nyquist sampling theorem is very
important in this conversion and it states that the DAC can create the analog
signal only in a condition that the bandwidth of the sample signal should be
less than the Nyquist frequency. So when can say that the DAC transform
the given finite and precise numbers into required physical quantity and it
also can an ability to convert a time defined series data into the respective
quantity. This technique of converting the digital signal to analog is used
in Pulse width modulator in which a stable current or voltage is passed
through a low-pass filter for a particular duration set by the digital code.
This technique is also used to control the speed of electric motor digitally.
The ADC and DAC have changed the digital and analog technology.
The DAC devices bring the voice into a large speaker and your audio voice
is transfer to a long range with the help of ADC. These conversions are the
latest technology and is the foundation of digital communication and its
signal processing.
This chapter will further discuss about different communication protocols
which are mostly used in the field of telecommunication, this protocol
is the set of rules used by the system for the purpose of communications
to transfer information by varying the physical quantity. These protocols
possess many characteristics such as to recover the errors through different
techniques and defines the rules for synchronization of data, syntax, and
semantics. These communication systems use defined methods and formats
for the transit of information. The required protocols can be utilized with
the help of hardware or software and sometimes the combination of both
can be used. The information transferred from one system carries specific
data to activate a response from a range of responses, which is pre-fixed
for a specific protocol. This specific information is independent from how
it will be used. Moreover, these protocols are set and defined on particular
technical standards. Since there are multiple protocols available for a
single system which can describe different aspects as well. For example,
the protocols of the Internet are defined by the Internet Engineering Task
Force (IETF). There are many techniques to design a protocol but most
commonly used is system engineering principles as communication within
the system operates in a concurrent manner. One of the important factors
for concurrent programming is the synchronization of data for transferring
and receiving messages for a communication in the system. The low-level
protocols have less complexity for syntax and semantic, hence makes them
more human-friendly to operate. For high-level protocols, the complexity
increase to a great extent and language interpreters are used, an example
of such a protocol is HTML language. The term concurrent programming
is just limited to the theoretical extent as in the real world programming
it contains a great amount of bugs and errors. Therefore, a mathematical

technique is implemented for the study of communication and concurrency
known as communicating sequential processes (CSP). Another technique for
formulating the concurrency is by using finite state machines which are used
in Moore and Mealy machines. The Moore and Mealy machines are used as
design tools to use in a telecommunication system and digital electronics.
However, for designing a complex protocol, it is decomposed in a simpler
protocol and such protocols are called protocol family.
Similarly for the communication to take place, the respective protocols
standard have to be matched and agreed upon. For this purpose, the rules are
established with the help of different structural algorithms. The operating
system of the protocol software makes itself independent when using
portable protocol programming language. In this case, the source code is
used as protocol specification tools. However, the need for a protocol can
be seen by looking into the protocol designed by IBM named as bi-sync
protocol (BSC). It was among the earliest protocol which was only used
to connect two nodes and it was not designed to use for the multiple nodes
operations and shown a great amount of deficiencies and bugs. Since this
absence of a standard protocol give the opportunity for a various organization
to establish their own protocol which creates an abundance of complexities
and problems which further created non-compatible advance versions of
their own protocols. Another purpose of such protocols was to stop users
from using devices of other manufacturers. There are also cases when the
certain protocols were very famous in the market but they do not possess the
standard characteristics. These protocols are named as de facto standards.
These de facto are very much popular in niche markets and emerging markets
just to monopolize the standards. There are some standard organization s for
protocols which are named as International Organization for Standardization
(ISO), the International Telecommunication Union (ITU), the Institute of
Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and the Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF). The organization IETF maintains the protocols used on
the Internet. Similarly, the IEEE control the protocols that are implemented
in hardware and software for the commercial and electronics. The ITU is the
standard organization which maintains the protocol standards used in the
telecommunication sector. The NEMA standards are implemented in Marine
Electronics and for web technologies, the standards of World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C) are implemented. With the help of these organizations,
the standards of protocols are maintained and any advancement is also
designed by them.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.ee.surrey.ac.uk/Projects/CAL/digital-logic/gatesfunc/
2. http://www.electricaleasy.com/p/electrical-machines.html
3. http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/logic/logic_1.html
4. https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/analog-to-digital-conversion
5. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/digital/chpt-13/digital-
analog-conversion/
CHAPTER
12
PROCESS DYNAMICS AND
CONTROL
The chapter will introduce the readers to the principals of control methods.
The chapter will cover topics dealing with modeling for control, linear
ordinary differential equations and Laplace transforms transfer function
models, analysis of continuous-time linear systems, SISO control system
analysis, synthesis of SISO controllers and SISO controller design.
In these days every industrial system is designed to be autonomous.

Research and development are totally focusing on designing such control
system algorithms which can give a desirable output of dynamical systems
in an optimal manner. Synthesis of control algorithms needs the electrical,
mechanical, and nanoengineering knowledge of the process in order to focus
on fundamental theoretical as well as application problems.
Control systems are of two types: process control and system control.
Process control is required in the large scale industrial processes, for
example, in gas and oil industry, chemical, textile, and food processing
industries where temperature, pressure, level, and density is required to
measure and maintain. System control involves semi-autonomous devices
where expected tasks are required to perform in a specific time and in a
repeated manner. The basic principle of any control method is the same as
having the following four steps.
• analysis and measurement of the process conditions;
• set the controller to do the required task by considering the
measured values;
• get the output result from the actuator through control; and
• get the feedback from the output and set the controller accordingly.
To follow the basic strategy of control system designing, modeling of
the system is the first step to transfer the required results with respect to
measured values in the form of logical structure. Mathematical modeling
means the conversion of dynamic system conditions in the form of
mathematical equations. Each system has a unique mathematical model,
for example, a state-space model is useful for optimal control issues and
transfer function approach is useful for time-invariant systems and transient-
response analysis. After the mathematical modeling, some computer and
analytical tools can be used for control system synthesis.
Differential equations are the basic mathematical tools used for modeling.
Differentially equations show the rate of change of any physical parameter
or quantity with respect to time, in other words, these are the derivative
of functions. Ordinary differential equations represent the derivative of one
independent variable and it will be called as partial differential equation if
it will be the derivative of more than one independent functions. Similarly,
linear differential equations are the derivative of a function having degree
one (variables for physical quantities have the power of one). Examples of
first/ second order linear ordinary differential equations are as below
First-order linear ordinary differential equation:
Second-order linear ordinary differential equation

Complex differential equations are converted to the simple algebraic
equation in order to make the solution simple. This conversion is done by
many methods two of them are Laplace transform and Fourier transform.
Laplace transform can be done by four methods.
• Laplace transform by using theorems.
If f(t) is defined over the interval (0, ∞), the Laplace transform is denoted
as f(s)
∞
( f ) fˆ=
L= ( s) ∫ e − st f (t )dt
0
Process Dynamics and Control 107
• By using Mathcad (By using this software, we can find Laplace as

well as the inverse Laplace transforms.)
• By using the Piecewise defined Functions.
• By using Delta Function.
Every control system has output and an input signal. Transfer function
shows the ratio of input to the output of the system. By using block diagram,
we can express the whole system in which transfer functions are represented
by blocks and arrowed lines represent the flow of the process. The excitation
or cause signal also called reference input is operated by transfer function
and produces the output called as an effect. Thus, the transfer function is the
relation of cause and effect of the system.
In different cases, the category of output and input vary in nature, for
example, in case of motors electrical energy converts to mechanical energy
and in case of generator mechanical energy convert to an electrical output.
But for mathematical modeling of a system, all the signals must be in the
same form. So we use Laplace conversions and transfer function in Laplace
domain.
After the mathematical modeling of a system now it’s time to convert
these logics into commands in other words to create the communication
path between the devices of the system we need different protocols. SISO
(single input, single output) is a wireless communications system. Antennas
are used in this system on the transmitter side as well as on the receiver side.
In this technology electromagnetic field is used as a source of signals
but it has a drawback in some cases, for example, in hilly areas, canyons,
and due to high building the electromagnetic field gets obstructed and the
wavefront get disturbed. Hence scattered and the late arrival of the signal
at the receiver side create problems. In order to reduce the effect of this
distortions, smart antenna technology can be used which includes SIMO
(single input, multiple outputs), MISO (multiple inputs, single output), and
MIMO (multiple inputs, multiple outputs).
SISO controller can be synthesis according to desired input and output.
The key point in the synthesis of any controller is always to keep the poles
at predefined locations. So by using different approaches, this can be done.
Here is the polynomial approach to doing this task. Let consider a nominal
model and make transfer function of the controller and for the model with in
the control loop. Let Cs = P(s)/L(s) is the transfer function of controller and
Go(s) = Bo(s)/Ao(s) is the transfer function of any model and consider the
desired polynomial for the closed loop is
Now the main objective is to find such solution (values of A and L)

so that the polynomial Acl exhibit the desired properties of close loop if
provided by values of Ao and Bo (given values). In very general conditions
it is quite possible. By considering a general example, let Go(s) = Bo(s)/
Ao(s) is the model of plant with Ao = s^2 +3s +2, Bo(s) = 1. C(s) = P(s)/L(s)
where p(s) = P1s + Po and L(s) = l1s + lo, is the controller. Now by comparing
close loop characteristic polynomial A0(s)L(s) + B0(s)P(s) = (s^2+3s +2)
( l1s+ lo) +(1)( P1s + P0) with s^3+3s^2+3s+1 and by equating coefficients
by making non-singular matrix, the values of P1 = 1, P0 = 1, l1=1, l0= 0 can
be find by using the transfer function of controller Cs = (s+1)/s the close
loop polynomial assignment is also possible even in linear SISO systems by
using Sylvester’s theorem.
By considering the following mathematical result lets discuss a general
case.
12.1. SYLVESTER’S THEOREM

Consider the two polynomials A(s) and B(s) as mentioned above. By making
the matric such that determinant of metric is not equal to zero, A(s) and B(s)
will be found as co-prime or relative prime which mean having no common
factors. Now in order to analyze that how the pole assignment is possible in
a closed loop system for SISO controller. Let consider a feedback loop with
one DOF. Assume the plant nominal model and controller as same mentioned
above {Go(s), C(s)} respectively. If (s) is consider as arbitrary polynomial
of degree nc = 2n – 1 then P(s) and L(s) will have degree np = nl= n – 1 such
that A0(s)L(s) + B0 (s)P(s) = Acl (s). here the pole assignment is achieved
in general case. Additional constraints can also be placed on the obtained
solutions. For designing a control system it’s a compulsory requirement that
the tracking error of the nominal control loop must be zero in either the
input/output disturbance or for reference input that happens because of D.C.
components. To achieve this the controller must have one pole at the origin
and nominal loop must be stable internally. This will give sensitive function
zero at zero frequency. In order to get such result to replace L(s) as,
The close loop polynomial equation can be written as
Pole assignment technique can also be used for PI and PID controller
synthesis. Consider a control of the form
This can be identical to PID controller where
To design a PID controller by pole assignment method, the only

requirement is the second order model of the plant. Let there is a plant with
nominal model Go = 2/(s+1)(s+2). Now the task is to create a PID controller
which return a close loop with dynamics controlled by factors s^2 + 4s + 9.
For this purpose solve the pole assignment equations with the given factor
as
In result C(s) gives a PID controller with the values of KP5.67, KI = 8

and KD = 0.93 and TD= 0.11:
In solving real-world problems of control systems, the time delay is a

very important factor to consider. As the delay in response become donate
in some cases so to improve the performance it is necessary to reduce this

factor. Smith Predictor gives a perfect strategy for the case of a stable open
loop plant by building a parallel model which reduces the delay. According
to the previous example, the Smith Predictor structure can be made as
Now the controller can be designed with no delay in the loop by the use
of Pseudo complementary function between two variables let for r and z can
be written as Trz(s). This can be done by considering a standard PID model
as
This gives nominal complementary sensitivity between r and Y as
According to the procedure mentioned above robustness issues cannot

be sorted out, it needs more architecture to involve with this procedure. The
mentioned architecture cannot be used for unstable open loop plants some
more ideas are required to add with this architecture.
For the robust SISO controller synthesis and design for nonlinear
systems and such uncertain linear systems which show static nonlinearities
can be done in four steps. (1) Identification of methodology to synthesize
robust SISO controller for uncertain nonlinear Hammerstein models. (2)
Selection of weighting functions H∞ for constraints L∞ by using a systematic
approach. (3) Robustness calculation to specify the allowable modeling and
inversion error of nonlinearity. (4) Finding such conditions for frequency
domain which give output L2 as well as the input related to same output L2.
Above are the steps for controller synthesis while the whole process
is divided into three steps identification, controller synthesis, and system
analysis. Identification includes the modeling based on an experimental
approach to collect the nonlinear characteristics of the plant. This
identification is followed by the dynamics of the uncertain linear plant.
The error between the data of the actual system and nonlinear model are
combined as unstructured uncertainty. For this uncertainty robust controller
design methodologies are required.
To explain the procedure mentioned in the above paragraph, consider
the example to regulate the mass air flow (MAF) of an engine then apply
the design methodology for the synthesis of a robust feedback controller.
In this application, if the Hammerstein model of a 4.6L V8 spark ignition
engine from an input of electronic throttle to the output of MAF engine
is known. The tracking controller H∞ can be designed with steady state
error equal to zero while illustrating the nonlinear throttle characteristics
and time delay. In order to confirm the performance of a closed loop, for
example, maintenance of constraints, and disturbance and noise reduction
we should consider the experimental data because it can validate successful
the performance.
SISO and MIMO are basically techniques or algorithms used in data
transmission. SISO is an older technique, MIMO is added recently in order
to improve the data transmission rate and to increase the coverage. SISO
stands for single input-single output while the MIMO stands for multiple
input multiple outputs. Both techniques are based on a number of antennas
used at the transmitter and receiver side. As the name suggests in SISO
system there is only one antenna on the transmitter side and one on the
receiver side while in case of MIMO there are multiple antennas used on
both sides. Better bit error rate can be achieved in case of MIMO by using
the technique named as Space Time Blocking Code (STBC) which also
enhance the coverage. The data rate can be improved by using the technique
named Spatial Multiplexing (SM). By the use of beam forming along with
SM, both the data rate and coverage in a wireless system can be achieved.
SISO is used in radio, satellite, GSM, and CDMA systems while MIMO
is used in next generation wireless technologies such as mobile WIMAX
-16e, WLAN-11n.11ac,11ad, 3GPP LTE, etc.
The QUEST of the enhanced gas economic situation for ground lorries
increased in recent times because of the boosted cost of nonrenewable fuel
source as well as the problems of ecological effects. Crossbreed electrical
lorries (HEVs) appear to be one of the most appealing temporary service

as well as are under passionate growth by numerous automobile business.
An HEV includes an electrical power course to the traditional powertrain,
which aids to enhance gas economic situation by engine right-sizing, tons
leveling, as well as regenerative stopping. A right-sized engine has far better
gas effectiveness as well as smaller sized warm loss.
The lowered engine power is made up of an electric device (or
equipment). Compared to interior burning engines, electrical equipment’s
supply torque faster, specifically at reduced car rate. As a result, releasing
efficiency could be enhanced despite decreased total ranked power. Tons
leveling could likewise be accomplished by including the electric course,
which allows the engine to run extra successfully, independent from the
roadway lots. Regenerative stopping enables the electrical device to catch
component of the automobile kinetic power and also charge the battery
when the lorry is slowing down.
Mathematical versions serve for supplying a structure for incorporating
information and also getting understandings right into the fixed and
also vibrant actions of intricate organic systems such as networks of
communicating genetics. We examine the vibrant habits gotten out of design
genetics networks including usual biochemical concepts, and also we contrast
present approaches for modeling hereditary networks. A typical modeling
strategy, based upon merely modeling genetics as ON-OFF buttons, is easily
carried out and also permits fast mathematical simulations. Nonetheless, this
approach might forecast vibrant remedies that do not represent those seen
when systems are designed with a much more in-depth technique making
use of normal differential formulas. Previously, most of the genetics network
modeling researches have actually concentrated on identifying the kinds of
characteristics that could be created by usual biochemical concepts such as
responses loopholes or healthy protein oligomerization.
For instance, these components could create numerous secure states for
genetics item focus, state-dependent feedbacks to stimulations, body clocks
as well as various other oscillations, and also optimum stimulation regularities
for optimum transcription. In the future, as brand-new speculative methods
boost the simplicity of characterization of hereditary networks, qualitative
modeling will certainly should be replaced by measurable designs for
particular systems.
Mass transfer in between stable and also mobile areas issues of
synchronized procedures. We establish a “multirate” version that enables
modeling of the small‐scale variant in prices as well as kinds of mass

transfer using a collection of first‐order formulas to stand for each of the
mass transfer procedures. The multirate version is included right into the
advective‐dispersive formula. Initially, we contrast the multirate design to
the basic first‐order as well as diffusion versions of mass transfer. The round,
round, and also split diffusion designs are all revealed to be certain situations
of the multirate version. Blends of diffusion from various geometries and
also first‐order rate‐limited mass transfer could be incorporated as well as
stood for specifically with the multirate version.
Second, we establish remedies to the multirate formulas under problems
of no circulation, rapid circulation, as well as radial circulation to a pumping
well. Third, making use of the multirate design, it is feasible to precisely
anticipate prices of mass transfer in a mass example of the Borden sand
having a combination of various grain dimensions and also diffusion prices.
4th, we check out the impacts on aquifer removal of having a heterogeneous
blend of kinds and also prices of mass transfer. Under some conditions,
also in a reasonably uniform aquifer such as at Borden, the mass transfer
procedure is ideal designed by a combination of diffusion prices.
12.2. INTEGER-ORDER CONTINUOUS MODELS

OF FRACTIONAL ORDER SYSTEMS
The problem of obtaining a continuous realizable model for a fractional order
controller can be viewed as a problem of obtaining a rational approximation
of the irrational transfer function, modeling the fractional controller. Among
other mathematical methods, two of them are particularly interesting for
this purpose, from a control theory point of view: the continued fraction
expansion method used for evaluation of functions, and the rational
approximation method used in interpolation of functions. On the other hand,
the use of frequency identification or curve fitting methods for obtaining
rational approximations to the irrational frequency responses, characterizing
fractional-order systems are proposed. In this section, the general form of the
methods and some especially interesting applications of them are described.
12.3. CONTROLLER UNDERSTANDING

Generally, there are two opportunities for recognizing a controller: an
equipment awareness based upon using a physical tool, or a software program
(or electronic) awareness based upon a program, which will certainly operate
on a computer system or microprocessor. In electronic devices, equipment

awareness indicates making use of digital gadgets or circuits, executing the
necessary feature as an admission or resistance feature.
12.4. ANALOG UNDERSTANDINGS

For equipment digital awareness, the beginning factor is the admission or
insusceptibility feature. For recognizing such features, a minimum of two
methods could be utilized: creating a microelectronic particular tool that, for
building, has actually the needed admission or insusceptibility or recognizing
an approximate reasonable feature by utilizing a limited lumped-element
network, in a ladder, tree, plunged, or latticework geography. Because this
paper handles logical estimates of the fractional-order drivers, just the last
means is gone over listed below.
REFERENCES
1. http://csd.newcastle.edu.au/book_slds_download/Ch07t.pdf
2. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/001044859090095T
3. https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b525/666eaee3dee0209df03c9ac9b2
9f71c01e64.pdf
4. https://www.electrical4u.com/transfer-function/
5. https://www.unf.edu/~mzhan/chapter6.pdf
CHAPTER
13
INTRODUCTION TO
BIOCHEMICAL METHODS
The chapter will cover the basics of chromatography (paper, thin layer,
column, and electrophoresis), spectroscopy, and spectrophotometry,
centrifugation, ultracentrifugation, and isotopic techniques, viscosity,
diffusion, dielectric constant and osmometry, and optical methods.
This chapter decried a brief introduction of chromatography and other

terminologies which can be useful for the readers in understanding and
utilization of different biochemical methods. Just like other techniques as
discussed in the previous chapter, chromatography is another separation
techniques that is used to separate solute from a solution or mixture. There are
two phrases in this technique, one is called mobile phase in which the mixture
is dissolved and the other phase is called the stationary phase in which the
mobile phases passes and it hold the structure to separate the constituent of
the solution. The different speed of the solute particle in the mixture causes
them to separate due to their different speed between the stationary phases
and mobile. The chromatography can be analytical or preparative technique.
In case of analytical chromatography, the relative proportion of different
amount of solute is defined in the given mixture whereas, in preparative
chromatography, it is method of purification in which solute is separated from
the mixture so that further different techniques can be applied by keeping the
purity of the solution. There are four type of chromatography on the basis
of chromatography bed shape which are column chromatography, planar
chromatography, paper chromatography and thin layer chromatography and
discussed accordingly. In column chromatography, the stationary bed is fix
in the tube and the particle of stationary phase fills the tube, since the tube is
open from the top, there is unrestricted path for the mobile phase to pass the
tube and difference rates of the particle of the mobile phase are calculated.
Another separation technique of chromatography is the planar
chromatography in which the stationary phase is set on a plane. The plane
can be a piece of paper, or a layer of particle in the form of solid. As soon as
the mobile phase s passed through it, the different distances are recoded for
different particle present in the mobile phase and with the help of Retention
factor, the different recorded distances can help in the identification of the
particles of the mobile phase, Similarly, in case of paper chromatography, a
dot is place on the piece of paper with a solvent which is further sealed. As
the solvent t travels, the sample mixture also travels with the solvent, since
the paper is made from a polar substance such as cellulose, if the particles
of the mobile phase are polar, then they will quick with the paper and in
this way the different traveling distance are calculated which indicates the
desired particle. One of the widely chromatography used in laboratory is the
thin layer chromatography and it is similar to paper chromatography which
different biochemical are separated on the basis of their sizes, just like in
paper c chromatography, in this technique of chromatography, the adsorbent
is composed of cellulose or silica gel and in way, multiple samples can be
recorded at the same time and due to this ability of thin layer chromatography,
it is mostly used in different drug test and in water purification techniques.
It indicates much better result than paper chromatography with better
quantitative analysis and separation.
Thin layer chromatography is the easiest kind of chromatography
to do. An appropriate shut vessel including solvent as well as a layered
plate are all that are called for to perform splitting up, qualitative as well
as semiquantitative evaluation. With optimization of methods as well as
products as well as making use of readily available business tools, extremely
reliable splitting up and also precise and also specific credentials could be
attained.
The approach of paper dividing chromatography in using a little decline
of the remedy having the compounds to be divided to a strip of filter paper a
brief range type one end. The decline is enabled to completely dry, and also
completion of the paper nearby to the area is put on an establishing service,
typically a water-containing solvent, to make sure that a solvent circulations
past the place by capillary activities as well as on down the size of the paper
Introduction to Biochemical Methods 119
In spectroscopy, it deals with the interaction of light with matter

(absorption) and it is radiated in the form of energy and this process is
depended on the wavelength of emitted radiations. The study of spectroscopy
is further expanded with the interaction of small-scale particles on electrons
and ions and with the particles which are the function of energy absorption.
This field of science play its vital role in vital discoveries in the field of
quantum mechanics as well as quantum thermodynamics and in the general
theory of relativity. It has also help the modern physicist to understand
electromagnetic forces as well as strong and weak nuclear forces. There are
great applications of spectroscopy such as in monitoring systems of optical
fiber networks, measurement of different compound and elements in food
samples, measurement, and calculation of toxic and harmful compound
present in the blood sample,
Centrifugation is such an application which involves the separation
of solute particle from is its mixture with the help of centrifugal forces.
This sedimentation technique is mostly used by laborites and industries to
separate two immiscible liquids as well and also helps in the analysis of
hydrostatic properties of different macromolecules. In this technique, the
particle which are denser move away from the axis of centrifuge and the
particle with low density move toward the axis of rotation. The operating
principle of this technique is that larger the molecule, higher the density it
will possess and more easily they will be separated from the mixture.
However, this chapter will further discuss one of the most important
centrifugal technique which is known as Ultracentrifuge. This is the
optimized centrifugal technique for increasing the rotor speed at extreme
rate which is capable of generating an acceleration value of 100 000g. The
ultracentrifuge is further divide into two categories known as the analytical
ultracentrifuge and preparative ultracentrifuge. These two categories of
ultracentrifuge are very useful in many instrumentation techniques in the
field of molecular biology, polymer science and biochemistry. Moreover
in the analytical ultracentrifuge, the sample is monitored with the help off
real time techniques using the optical detection systems ultraviolet light
absorption and/or interference optical refractive index sensitive system.
By using such advanced system the observer calculates the axis of rotation
versus the concentration of the sample and the required data can be monitored
accordingly.
These modern techniques can be used with the help of advance
instrumentations, the results obtained in each experiments can also be stored
for further analysis, and further mathematical expression can be fed in the
given results. There are two very common experiments are applied named
as sedimentation velocity and sedimentation equilibrium experiments. The
analytical ultra-centrifugal technique can give us many valuable information
such as shapes of macromolecules in gross form, various chemical as well
as conformation changes in macromolecules and change in the size of
macromolecules.
Chromatography of healthy proteins on cellulose ion exchangers
includes mostly the facility of numerous electrostatic bonds in between
charged websites externally of the adsorbent and also websites birthing
the other fee externally of the healthy protein particle. The variety of such
bonds that could be developed establishes the focus of completing ions
needed for the launch of the bound particle. Hence, healthy proteins varying
dramatically accountable thickness, or in variety of fees through dimension,
might be anticipated to vary in their needs for elution. Cost circulation
could likewise be considered a variable. However, it is the overall impact
of these variables that establishes the fondness of the healthy protein for
the adsorbent, so an easy relationship in between any kind of among them
and also the chromatographic habits of the healthy protein concerned is not
constantly get. The circumstance is more customized by the opportunity that
sometimes nonelectrostatic pressures could play a crucial duty.
A very delicate fluorescence response for amino acids making use of
o-phthalaldehyde and also 2-mercaptoethanol allows the discovery of amino
acids divided on little ion-exchange columns. The benefits are: (1) excellent
accuracy at the degree of 0.5 nmole; (2) broadband due to the smaller sized
elevation of the column; and also (3) direct partnership in between meter
action and also amino acid focus.
13.1. STANDARD INTERPRETATION

The International Union of Pure as well as Applied Chemistry (IUPAC)
specifies LOD as complies with (1): The restriction of discovery, expressed
as the focus, cL, or the amount, qL, is originated from the tiniest step, xL, that
could be identified with practical assurance for a provided logical treatment.
Applications researchers are continuously in search of alternate methods
to discuss a few of the fundamental, however, typically complex, ideas of
spectrochemistry.
Moreover, various other information such as number and subunit of

stoichiometry of macromolecules can also be obtained with this centrifugal
technique.
This form of ultra centrifugal technique has been using to a great extent
as different chemical analysis is used with modern computer technique and
different software tools are available which makes this technique very useful
and manageable. Similarly, Preparative ultracentrifuge is also been used in
different chemical experiments as it is available with great variety of rotors
which are suitable for experiments and the rotors used in this techniques
are designed in such a way that they can hold tubes which contains the
samples. This technique is mostly used in biology to find particular kind of
fractions such as cellular organelles (mitochondria, microsomes, ribosomes)
and viruses. It also been used for different gradient separations by filling
the tubes from top till the bottom Moreover, the sucrose gradient is also
been used and developed which have been employed for the separation of
cellular organelles. However, irrespective to the abundance of advantages
of ultracentrifuge systems, there are also disadvantages of this system as
well. In high speed of kinetic energy of the rotor, any failure can cause a
tremendous loss of eh whole machinery, their rotors are mostly designed
with light weight material such as aluminum metal or titanium. The great
amount of stress and chemical reactions on the rotors makes them weak with
the passage of time and has to be replaced.
Therefore, proper usage of the rotors with instrumentation within the give
limits is very necessary to maintain the safety level during the experiments.
The latest designed in the rotor is of carbon fiber which is 60% lighter and
is much more efficient than the other materials of the rotors and also results
in fast braking.
The viscosity of a fluid is defined as its resistance to its deformation
in terms of tensile stress or shear stress and in liquid state, the viscosity is
referred as thickness. It is a property of fluid which resists the relative motion
between two surfaces. The fluid which possess no viscosity are called ideal
fluid and this phenomena is measured at very low temperatures whereas all
the fluid have viscosity and are named as viscous fluids.
Oxygen and also carbon isotopic evaluations were carried out on
carbonate portions of argillaceous sedimentary rocks as well as limey shales
by mass spectrometric evaluation of CO2 gas freed by responding examples
with HCI at area temperature level. The isotopic proportions were gotten
making use of a Micromass 602 mass spectrometer as well as were compared
to those figured out for examples of the Peedee belemnite sedimentary rock
criterion (Craig, 1957).
One significant downside of the swirl thickness subgrid‐scale tension
designs made use of in large‐eddy simulations is their failure to stand for
properly with a solitary global continuous various unstable area in revolving
or sheared circulations, near strong wall surfaces, or in transitional programs.
In the here and now job a brand-new swirl thickness version exists which
reduces much of these downsides.
The version is based upon an algebraic identification in between the
subgrid‐scale tensions at two various filtered degrees as well as the solved
unstable stress and anxieties. The subgrid‐scale tensions gotten making use
of the suggested design disappear in laminar circulation as well as at a strong
limit, as well as have the right asymptotic actions in the near‐wall area of an
unstable limit layer. The outcomes of large‐eddy simulations of transitional
as well as stormy network circulation that utilize the recommended version
remain in great contract with the straight simulation information.
Groundwater recharge suggests various points to various individuals.
For instance, to an agronomist, water which relocates below the origin area
of plants stands for a loss in return therefore must be reduced. Those that
have an interest in water sources, take the contrary sight. A few of the factors
for researching all-natural groundwater recharge are: to identify the risk-free
return of a groundwater system; to analyze the level of growth of additional
salinization adhering to land clearing up; and, for those thinking about
storage space of waste products, to recognize locations of really reduced
groundwater recharge. Just all-natural recharge, either regional or local will
certainly be thought about right here.
Neighborhood (or scattered) recharge is specified as that getting to the
water level by percolation of rainfall over of evapotranspiration, with the
unsaturated area. Local recharge happens adhering to overflow as well as
succeeding ponded seepage with low-lying locations, streams or lakes.
They are reported in standard symbols about PDB for carbon as well as
SMOW (Craig, 1961) for oxygen. Liquid addition resolutions Nondestructive
liquid addition evaluations were lugged out on two times as sleek 100- to
200-thick areas making use of a double objective SGE Design III cold home
heating phase adjusted with natural as well as steel criteria for temperature
levels in between -90° as well as 500°C.
Homogenization temperature levels of liquid-rich additions were

reproducible to -T-0.2°C and those of gas rich incorporations to -T-3°C.
Cold factor resolutions were reproducible to -T-0.2°C. Clay Mineralogy
as well as iron-rich chlorite (solid and weak basic representations) are
the only clay minerals existing in the bulk of examples. Combined layer
chlorite-montmorillonite, as well as montmorillonite were determined in
nine samplings, every one of which were accumulated near modification
facilities.
Diffusion is such a movement of molecules from a place of higher
concentration of molecules to the place of lower concentration and example
of this phenomenon is spreading of smell of a perfume in a room. The rate
of diffusion is directly proportion to the concentration of molecules and
mathematically it is defined as:
j = -D(dc/dx)
In the above equation, dc/dx is the rate of diffusion in the x direction and
c is the concentration of substance and D is proportionality constant.
Dielectric constant is defined as the property of electrical medium which
the ratio of capacitance of given material of capacitor to the capacitance of
a capacitor at vacuum and mathematically it is given as
κ = C/C0
In the above equation, C0 is the capacitance of material at vacuum and
C is the capacitance of given material and K is dielectric constant and it is a
dimensionless property.
This chapter will further discuss one of the most important topic of
advance chemistry named as Osmometry. In this branch of chemistry,
the number of particles of solute and solvent in the solution are counted.
However, it can be affected by the amount of present solvent in the given
mixture, so we can say that osmometry is the technique to measure the
amount of solute to solvent ratio. However, to use this technique, the
osmometers are used to measure the osmolality of the given material.
The most common method to perform this technique is the freezing point
depression method is the worldwide accepted method in the labs. The
observer can used find the osmolality of the sample as the method is very
simple and the result can be easily obtained. Its instrumentation in nowadays
are used to computer techniques to store the analysis of different samples
and different mathematical algorithms can be applied to them as well. In
freezing point depression method, the freezing point of the given material is
depressed with the addition of another material and as a result, the freezing
point of material is lowered as compared to the material in its original form.
In this way, it measures the freezing point depression of the material for
all the sample present in the given sample and its osmolality is measured.
There are great amount of advantages of osmometer and osmolality such
as clinics nowadays can used this technique to time efficiently diagnose a
patient thus the patient necessary time is saved in case of emergencies and its
benefits include the development of drugs and media manufacture for proper
product stability which insure safety of the patient. The further benefits of
osmolality includes their usage in labs and biotechnological researchers
use this method for various purpose in different experimentations. Another
important terminology needed to be discussed with the osmolality is the
osmotic gap, it is the difference of actual and measure osmolality which is
calculated from the concentration of all the solutes from Serum, this value
indicated the molecular weight present in the Serum. The substance which
produce osmotic gap are alcohols, acetone, aspirin, glycols, etc. Furthermore,
they are also used in various test result such as in Urine test, the osmolality
provides the necessary information of kidney concentrating ability, the free
water clearance as well as the hydration status for athletes. The osmolality
of stool is very important for the patient suffering from Diarrhea. Another
important test is the Serum osmolality which is another important clinical
test and used for alcohol toxication in rapid screening, in the differential
diagnosis for hypernatremia and hyponatremia.
REFERENCES
1. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chromatography
2. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Viscosity
3. https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-centrifugation-definition-
process-uses.html
4. https://www.aicompanies.com/education/osmolality/faq/
5. https://www.britannica.com/science/chromatography/Methods
6. https://www.britannica.com/science/diffusion
7. https://www.britannica.com/science/spectroscopy
8. https://www.khanacademy.org/science/organic-chemistry/
spectroscopy-jay
9. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3931874/
CHAPTER
14
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF
HOMOGENEOUS SYSTEMS
The chapter will introduce the readers to ideal mixtures, integral quantities,
differential quantities, thermodynamics of open and closed systems, fugac-
ity, and activity, Gibbs energy, Wilson equation and regular solutions. The
chapter will continue the discussion of chemical engineering thermodynam-
ics introduced above and include specific applications in biotechnology.
Ideal mixture is such a mixture whose thermodynamic properties resembles

with an ideal gas. As defined in the earlier chapter, the more of the enthalpy
is closer to zero, the more is the mixture possess the ideal nature and the
mixture also strictly follows Raoult’s law and the activity coefficient is also
equal to one. The concepts of the ideal mixtures are the fundamentals of
thermodynamics. The properties of an ideal solution are similar than those
of ideal gases but with a few differences that the intermolecular forces in a
solution are stronger where it can be neglected in the case of gases. So we can
say that the average characteristics for gases and liquids are similar to each
other. In discussing the ideal solution, an important function as Margules
function should be discussed; it is given as a function which is added to the
Raoult’s law for the description of a liquid solution to account for deviations
from ideality. The amended Raoult’s law description of the vapor pressure
above the solution becomes:
P1=P*1x1fM,1
P2=P*2x2fM,2
The Margules function has the general form:
fM,1 = exp(αx22+βx23+γx23+δx24+...)
The function always contains the opposite mole fraction x2 (= 1-x1 for a
binary system). The numbers of Margules parameters α, β, γ, δ,.. varies.
The larger the deviations from ideality the more parameters are required.
However, the Margules function will be later used in this chapter to discuss
the mathematical forms of regular solutions. So this function holds a huge
rule in the overall result to state a solution ideal or non-ideal. The deviations
from this function can make the solutions or the mixtures non-ideal. So we
can state that, a single parameter of Margules function can make a solution
ideal to non-ideal. But as compared to the ideal solutions where the mixing is
always complete with the additive nature of the solution, the non-ideal ones
have different case, their volume is not equal the sum of solutes components
of the solution as well as their solubility is not constant within the specific
range.
Dilution is another important and it is among the daily used terms in the
chemical labs, it the process of decreasing the amount of solute in the solution
and it is mostly done by increasing the amount of solvent in the mixture.
So, in simple words, to dilute a given solution we just need to add up more
solvent in the solution by keeping the amount of solute fixed. However, the
resulting solution is properly mixed to make the overall solution same in
all the perspective. For example, if there are 1676 grams of salt (the solute)
dissolved in 1 liter of water (the solvent), this solution has a certain salt
concentration (molarity). If one adds 1 liter of water to this solution the salt
concentration is reduced. The diluted solution still contains 10 grams of salt
(0.171 moles of NaCl).
Mathematically this relationship can be shown in the equation:
C1 x V1 = C2 x V2
where, C1 = initial concentration or molarity, V1 = initial volume, C2 = final
concentration or molarity, V2 = final volume.
A thermodynamic system is such a system that follows the properties of
thermodynamic such as enthalpy, temperature, internal energy, etc. In a
thermodynamics system, an equilibrium state is always considered then in
unequilibrium and this type of system is always enclosed with walls so that
it can be separated from the walls. A thermodynamics systems is always
within the constraints of state variables and they also required a specific type
of function called as state function which further define the state variable.
Depending upon the functionality of a thermodynamic systems, they are
divided into three types named as open system, closed system and isolated
Chemical Analysis of Homogeneous Systems 129
system. In open systems, energy, and matter are allowed to freely go in and
out of the system without any discontinuity, the example of such system is
the boiling of water as during the heating of water, stream freely goes out of
the system. However, the case of closed system is totally opposite, in closed
system the energy and system is restricted within the jurisdiction of the
container and are not allowed to go in and out of the system, for example,
in case of boiling of water, if the container is cover with lid, the stream is
not allowed to go out of the system whereas the heat moves out only. The
third type of thermodynamics system is isolated system, it is such type of
system in which neither the matter goes in and out of the system nor the heat
exchange is possible so we can say that the system is completely sealed,
example of such system is insulated gas tank or a thermoflask.
Fugacity, in term of thermodynamics of chemistry, it is defined as
replacement of mechanical partial pressure of a gas with partial pressure to
main the equilibrium of the system. It possess the same chemical potential
and pressure as a real gas exerts. The fugacity is determined in various
methods and experiments such as Van Der Waal’s gas. The pressure exerted
by an ideal gas and fugacity are interrelated and are dimensionless quantity,
Mathematically, it is defined as:
Φ = f/p
The fugacity can be used in terms of chemical equilibrium that the reactants
and products can be replaced by fugacities, in case of condensed phase
in terms of vapor phase, the chemical potential is equal to the vapor and
fugacity is equal to the fugacity of vapors. We can say that the fugacity is the
measure of tendency of a gas to escape and the pressure required to make a
non-ideal gas to follow the ideal gas equation.
Gibbs energy is widely used in the field of thermodynamics and which can be
used to calculate the amount of reversible work required in a thermodynamic
system at constant pressure and constant temperature. It the amount of work
extracted by a thermodynamic closed system and this work can only be
taken from a reversible process. So we can say that the transformation of
system from initial to final state, the work done on the surroundings by that
system is equal to the diseases in the value of Gibbs energy. In other words,
Gibbs energy is that amount of energy that released by a chemical process
and further it can be used to do work. This free energy is the sum of enthalpy
and temperature (in Kelvin) with entropy which is mathematically given as:
G = H – TS
In case of change in enthalpy of system, this equation is given as

∆G = H – T∆S
Whereas, this equation in standard state equation becomes
∆G° = ∆H° – T∆S°
The standard state condition are the partial pressure should be 0.1 MPa and
the molarity of aqueous solution should be 1M.
This chapter will further discuss about biotechnology, it is defined as any
system that used biological system is called biotechnology. It has huge
application is the field of bioengineering, bio genetics biomolecular sciences,
etc. in medical biotechnology, it helps in the diagnostic of many diseases in
way that the treat of different has been considerably reduced from days to
minutes and simple blood samples with different advance technologies can
help doctors to give proper information of the comer diseases and can be
cure without surgeries. It is also used in the DNA fingerprinting for the
identification of individuals. Furthermore, it has also created techniques
to deal with diseases associated with the genetics of human body The
application of biotechnology are vastly present in the field of agriculture
which is known as green biotechnology. With the help of genetically
analysis of crops, its DNA is manipulated to produce fine quality of crop
and help in various ways such as weed resistance, pest resistance and insect
resistance. Biotechnology has also helped farmer and provided them more
opportunities and facilities to work with nature, the modern biotechnology
have created many medicine for the plants as the defense system is
activated when they feel danger from any bacteria or insets. The field of
biotechnology has been also used for the discoveries of various antibiotics,
different vaccines and creation of artificial hormones. Biotechnology had to
modern the field of fermentation as it has boasted the overall efficiency in
the making of beverages and alcohol. It had been used to create explosive
in World War 1. There are great amount of applications nowadays that are
used with the help of chemical engineering thermodynamics in the field of
biotechnology. One of the common application of such field the separation of
specific protein and different types of viruses from various macromolecules
in the bioreactors. For this liquid-liquid extraction is employed and it is
discussed in later chapters of this book. Another application of this field
with the usage of thermodynamics principles for the drug development of
one of the fatal disease known as AIDS. In this application, the technique of
Isothermal Titration Calorimetry is utilized through interpretation in various
experimental results. Similarly, the separation of protein in bioreactor is also
an application of this field in which a special salt is added to the reactor. n.

To provide guidance for attaining the desired results, we require a pertinent
phase diagram, i.e., a plot of temperature vs protein concentration (or its
equivalent, protein density) designated by number density F. A common
way to express protein density is provided by the protein packing fraction
η = π/6 Fσp3
where σp is the protein diameter
Furthermore, this chapter will discuss another terminology which is known
as regular solutions and it is defined as a solution in which “the entropy of
mixing is equal to that of an ideal solution with the same composition, but
is non-ideal due to a nonzero enthalpy of mixing. Such a solution is formed
by random mixing of components without strong specific interactions
and its behavior diverges from that of an ideal solution only moderately.”
Hence, the entropy of such mixtures are equal to that of the entropy of ideal
solutions this is due to the interaction of specific components. Let us take
two components, then mathematically it is given as:
∆S = -nR(x1lnx1 + x2lnx2)
where R is the gas constant, n the total number of moles and xi the mole
fraction of each component. Only the enthalpy of mixing is non-zero, unlike
for an ideal solution, while the volume of the solution equals the sum of
volumes of components.
However, the mathematical form of regular solution can also be expressed
in the form of Raoult’s law with the help of Margules function having just
one parameters α:
P1 = x1P1*f1,M
P2 = x2P2*f2,M
Using the Margules function, the equation becomes:
f1,M = exp(αx22)
f2,M = exp(αx12)
Notice that the Margules function for each component contains the
mole fraction of the other component. It can also be shown using the Gibbs-
Duhem relation that if the first Margules expression holds, then the other
one must have the same shape. A regular solutions internal energy will vary
during mixing or during process. On contrary in discussing the case of ideal
solutions, regular solutions do possess a non-zero enthalpy of mixing, due
to the W term. If the unlike interactions are more unfavorable than the like
ones, we get competition between an entropy of mixing term that produces

a minimum in the Gibbs free energy at x1= 0.5 and the enthalpy term that
has a maximum there. At high temperatures the entropy wins and the
system is fully miscible, but at lower temperatures the G curve will have
two minima and a maximum in between. This results in phase separation.
In general there will be a temperature where the three extremes coalesce
and the system becomes fully miscible. This point is known as the upper
critical solution temperature or the upper consulate temperature. In contrast
to ideal solutions, the volumes in the case of regular solutions are no longer
strictly additive but must be calculated from partial molar volumes that are
a function of x1.
Since cataract development in the eye results from the communication
of many various lens healthy proteins, a research study of multicomponent
aqueous-protein services works for comprehending the specifications that
affect stage splitting up. Liu et al. have thoroughly examined liquid two-
protein remedies to get the stage splitting up temperature levels as a feature
of total healthy protein quantity portion as well as healthy protein structure.
Go is direct in, as well as it is a procedure of the Gibbs power adjustment
of the service when a solitary healthy protein particle is contributed to a
pure solvent. The second term adheres to from the widely known Carnahan-
Starling formula; it stands for the worsening of blending for difficult rounds.
The last term offers the mean-field estimate of the liquefied healthy protein
fragments. The design displayed in Eq. 4.3 for binary options anticipates the
crucial quantity portion as 13%, while the mean speculative quantity portion
for the four binary mixes was 20.5%. Number 4.3 reveals the stage splitting up
temperature level as a feature of the overall healthy protein quantity portion
at various repaired make-ups for the liquid two-protein service having γIIIa
as well as γIIIB crystallins existing a molecular-thermodynamic version
for an liquid mix having greater than one healthy protein. Liu’s research of
such ternary systems has revealed that an indigenous γs Crystallin might
play a substantial function in preserving openness of the eye lens. Number
4.4 programs that the important phase-separation. As revealed by Benedek
et al., the conjunction contour could be customized by a percentage of an
additive that reduces the top essential remedy temperature level listed below
body temperature level. By protecting against healthy protein gathering, it
is feasible to stop development of cataracts. Enhancement of a medicinal
representative that could decrease Tc listed below the body temperature
level could decrease healthy protein gathering in the eye. In the important
area (within 10°C of Tc), the conjunction contours could be fitted by the
scaling relationship.
To recognize communications in a binary protein-water combination
Taratuta et al. provided a molecular thermodynamic perturbation design
where the recommendation system is a setting up of tough rounds
distributed in the continual liquid stage. The Gibbs complimentary power
G for this system is offered by where V is the quantity of the service; Go is
the common Gibbs cost-free power; ΩP is the quantity of a healthy protein
particle; kB is Boltzmann’s consistent; T is outright temperature level; is the
quantity portion of healthy protein; as well as U is a dimensionless criterion
that evaluates liquid protein-protein, protein-water, as well as water-water
communications.
Condensation of healthy proteins leads to eye-lens turbidity that could
be evaluated by gauging the strength of light spread by the lens. As revealed
by Thurston et al., the strength of light spread (Iscatt) is offered by where Io
is the strength of case light; t is the age of an individual; as well as ∆Z is a
time continuous gotten from speculative information.
REFERENCES
1. http://scienceworld.wolfram.com/chemistry/Fugacity.html
2. http://siddharthdey.com/wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Ind.-Eng.-
Chem.-Res.-2011-Dey.pdf
3. http://surfguppy.com/thermodynamics/thermodynamic-system-open-
closed-isolated-systems/
4. http://www.chem.tamu.edu/class/fyp/stone/tutorialnotefiles/thermo/
gibbs.htm
5. https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Physical_and_Theoretical_
Chemistry/Physical_Properties_of_Matter/Solutions_and_Mixtures/
Ideal_Solutions
Chemistry/Thermodynamics/Fundamentals_of_Thermodynamics/A_
System_and_Its_Surroundings
7. https://www.geol.umd.edu/facilities/lmdr/fug.html
8. h t t p s : / / w w w. s l i d e s h a r e . n e t / F y z a h B a s h i r / a p p l i c a t i o n s - o f -
biotechnology
CHAPTER
15
METHODS IN QUANTITATIVE
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS
The chapter will cover the basic principles of errors and statistics, calibration
methods, general chemistry concepts, activity, and pH measurements,
systematic treatment of equilibrium, acid-base basics, buffers, and
electrochemistry.
This chapter will discuss various quantitative analysis of chemistry and

their utilization in various methods of science. So first we will analyze
the terminology error and in terms of statics, it is defined as the deviation
between the actual values to the true value. But the error in the chemistry can
be different from the normal definition of error. It can be simply occurred due
to inaccurate in the measurement of certain values of different instruments.
By using this concept of error in the chemistry, various different resources
of errors can be discussed which are as follows:
Most of the errors that are occurred in the chemistry are due to mistakes of
the person performing the experiment. There are different types of mistakes
that can lead to various error in the experiment but the most common among
them are misreading the values from the gauges, making mistakes in the
calculation or it can be spilling of chemicals during their transfer from one
place to other. The magnitude of degree of error is dependent upon the
mistake and at the stage of where it was happened.
In chemistry different experiment are result on the basis of estimation
of measurement and hence it result in error in the end. For example, in a
chemical lab, the person filling the beaker to a certain level of volume had to
watch until the beaker is full to a marked value and unavoidably if the level
of volume crosses the marked level, then such mistake of that person can be
resulted in the error of the whole chemical experiment and such errors are
named as measurement estimation errors and be resulted in further chemical
change in a chemical reaction.
Similarly, the lab chemist also consider the limitation of measuring
devices as a source of error. Every measuring device possess certain level of
inaccuracies, irrespective to its measuring ability. For example, the weight
measuring instrument are labeled be the manufacturer with imprecision of 1
to 5%. So measuring with such instrument will always result in some type
of error, also other instruments such as flask measuring devices also gives
imprecision in range from 1 to 5% and are resulted in inaccurate in the
measurements of device.
Improper calibration of the measurement devices also results in
producing errors in the measurement result of the experiment. Calibration
is defined as checking or adjusting an instrument in such a way so that it
can give error free results. Instruments with the passage of time, results in
improper calibrations, which leads to errors in the output of the result. Such
devices have to be checked otherwise they are also resulted in the sources of
error in the whole experimental result.
A calibration is a procedure made use of to contrast the assessment,
determining, as well as examination tools to an identified referral criterion
of well-known qualified precision as well as accuracy, keeping in mind the
distinction and also readjusting the tool, where feasible, to concur with the
requirement. Essential to an organized program of tool calibration and also
routine recalibration is the suggestion that the tools are not continuous.
Prolonged usage, wear, style, setting, and also time are several of the aspects
that break down the tool efficiency and also its precision. A calibration
system is made to ensure the confirmation, upkeep, as well as recognition of
the tool’s preferred precision and also accuracy and precision.
Choice of suitable evaluation, determining, as well as examination tools
is an important component of assessment preparation, as well as success
depends upon such elements as dimensions to be made and also precision
demands. Consisted of are equipment products, such as tools, components,
evaluates, and also themes, software program for computer-aided
evaluations, and also procedure instrumentation. Likewise consisted of is all
screening tools made use of in the growth, manufacture, installment, and also
Methods in Quantitative Chemical Analysis 137
maintenance of an item. Discovering an across the country acknowledged

resource to execute calibration is very important.
The needs for the calibration research laboratories are covered in ISO/
IEC Overview 25 as well as consist of needs such as lawful identification
impartiality, properties, tools, and also technological proficiency of workers,
treatments, as well as self-assessment.
15.1. COMPONENTS OF A CALIBRATION

PROGRAM
A calibration program is made to preserve control over all the evaluation and
also dimension systems. The aspects of the program consist of:
• choice and also purchase of devices proper to the demand;
• recognition of devices (equipment, software program, and also
treatments), precision, and also accuracy before very first usage;
• ideal ecological problems for calibration, evaluation, screening,
and also dimension;
• traceability to a referral requirement of well-known precision as
well as security;
• precision proportion;
• regularity of calibration;
• handling, protecting, and also storage space;
• remember system for regular upkeep, repair services,
modifications, and also recalibration;
• facility of treatments for regular recalibrations;
• documents choice as well as procurement of ideal tools and also
recognition of their precision and also accuracy become part of
the assessment or high quality preparation choice.
The staying components from above are the key elements of a calibration
system.
15.2. TRACEABILITY
Traceability includes the chain of dimensions as well as precision transfers
that are made that attach the country’s criteria of dimensions, as preserved
by the National Institute of Specifications and also Screening (NIST) with
the dimensions made in research study, production, and also the market. It
is essential to supply the proof that the chain exists which it is undamaged.
It needs to offer proof that at each web link in the chain or transfer from
the main recommendation requirements at NIST or various other additional
criteria, factor to consider is offered to the dimension mistakes related to
that specific transfer. This brings us to the principles of precision, accuracy
as well as precision proportion.
15.3. PRECISION VERSUS ACCURACY

These are necessary ideas in calibration. Precision is specified as an
arrangement in between the gauged worth as well as truth worth. When
this contract is within appropriate array, it is called within resistance. The
accuracy, on the various other hand, is the nearness of numerous dimensions
worths. Hence, a tool could be specific yet not precise.
15.4. PRECISION PROPORTION

The precision proportion is the relationship in between the precision of the
dimension requirement as well as the precision of the devices or tool being
adjusted. In order to designate a mentioned precision to a specific quality of
a gauging tool, it is required to have a tool with a “rather far better precision”
with which to contrast. The more away you go from the main criterion in
regards to the traceability chain, the even worse off you are mosting likely
to remain in regards to precision. Depending upon the precision proportion
in tool calibration, settlement could need to be offered in the recalibration.
These techniques could consist of establishing resistance bands for precision,
adjustment elements, analytical approaches, duplicated screening, as well as
various other extra innovative methods.
15.5. REGULARITY OF CALIBRATION

The following essential idea is the regularity of calibration or period in
between recalibrations. A lot of recalibration programs are based upon
some feature of time. Periods in between recalibration must be based upon
such variables as the tool’s function, security of dimension (over various
problems), monitoring of drift (sluggish variant gradually) and also the level
of use. The period in between calibrations need to be reduced to guarantee
ongoing necessary precision based upon the previous calibration background.
It might be feasible to extend the period if historic calibration information
suggests no destruction of the tool’s precision. A set period recalibration

program for all determining tools is the easiest to carry out, yet it cannot
acknowledge the distinctions in tool kind as well as application. A minor
variant of a taken care of period recalibration program entails establishing
recalibration periods based upon the tool kinds or teams. This approach
acknowledges the distinctions in sorts of tools yet have no factor to consider
for variants in applications or the distinctions in private tools within the
team. An extra complex variation of the above approach is to readjust these
periods periodically, based upon the evaluation as well as recalibration
outcomes. One of the most advanced technique is the one that considers
distinctions in between tool kinds, in between tools of the very same kind,
as well as in between applications. It begins by developing a preliminary
period for a kind or team of tools and afterwards changes the period of each
tool separately accordinged to the evaluation of its very own recalibration
background. The evaluation is reasonably easy and also includes figuring
out whether the tool was “in” or “out” of precision resistances at the time of
each recalibration. If the tool is still within calibration, you might boost the
calibration period or vice versa, you need to reduce the period if the tool is
discovered to be from calibration at the time of recalibration. The underlying
presumption to this technique is that tools have an independently one-of-a-
kind capability to stay within resistances for a particular duration, besides
any kind of failures. Although it is practically one of the most advanced,
budget-friendly, and also vibrant approach, its management intricacies need
a high level of assistance from the automated information handling system
to preserve the calibration background for each and every tool.
15.6. RECALL SOLUTION

Recall systems need to be based upon twin triggers. The key elements
contain establishing a stock as well as a listing of tools due for recalibration.
In a tiny procedure, an easy by hand checked card documents could suffice
for the objective. As the amount as well as selection of tools boosts, a digital
spread sheet or a data source comes to be an outright need. The various
other component of the recall system contains determining the calibration
condition of the tools utilizing sticker labels, shade codes, tags, or various
other appropriate methods to reveal identification, day of last calibration,
as well as day of the following calibration due. This two-part method to
tool recall for recalibration could ensure needed recalibration within defined
periods as well as lower the opportunity of proceeded use the tool past its
recalibration due day.
15.7. PAPERWORK
Documents offer proof of conformity with the program needs in instance of
an interior or an exterior quality control audit. Along with the paperwork of
the total program needs, one likewise should develop, file, as well as keep
calibration treatments for all the tools covered by the program needs. This
likewise consists of documents for the recall procedure and also previous
calibration background for each and every tool for regularity of recalibration
choices. Paperwork ought to additionally consist of the treatments and also
preventative measures for taking care of, conservation, and also security
of the tools to guarantee its precision as well as accuracy under differing
ecological problems throughout storage space, transport, taking care of and
also usage.
15.8. RECAP
Proceeded usage, wear, atmosphere, and also time are a few of the aspects
that weaken the tool efficiency that causes unfavorable result on the
precision and also accuracy. A set up recalibration program is a crucial
aspect of a dimension guarantee program. It is planned to establish just
how well the determining tool procedures, records, as well as replicates the
unpredictability (or enhanced self-confidence degree) in the dimensions.
Control of evaluation, determining, as well as examination tools are essential
components of the ISO-9000 Top quality Monitoring System criteria as well
as qualification demands.
There are various calibration are applied to correct the reading and
output of the instruments to reduce the errors. Calibration of instruments
is such a technique in which results obtained from instruments is compared
with the substandard readings of a laboratory which is taken at several
times to scale the instrument. The calibration reading and substandard
readings are plotted against a graph and uncertainties are removed and if the
instrument shows deviation from the standard value, it is again calibrated.
For calibration, various methods are used which are named as Quantitation,
Precision, Specificity, Accuracy, Range, Limits of Detection and Linearity.
In specificity, values of calibrated and uncalibrated instrument are fed into
graph with respect to time and adjustments are made accordingly and in
case of Linearity, the values are place in a linear graph and deviations are
checked in a way that how well it follows the calibration curve. In case of
limits of detection and quantitation, the sensitivity of the instruments are
checked, i.e., the lowest value and quantity that can be correctly taken from
the instrument. Then, accuracy is another calibration method in which it is
seen that how near is the reading taken from a faulty instrument to a true or
standard reading and to check the precision of an instrument, it is check that
how much the instrument can reproduce the true value from the different set
of experiments.
One of the important measurement of a chemical process in different
industries such as pharmaceutical, chemical, etc. is the pH, which is defined
as measurement of concentration of hydrogen ion concentration. The
solutions having low pH value are called acidic solution whereas solution
with high pH value are called base solution, in a scale from 0 to 14 in which
0 is the defined as strong acidic solution and 14 is strong base and 7 is
neutral (water).
The pH of a solution is measure with the help of a paper known as

“litmus paper,” this paper is dipped in the solution and changes color, the
color is then matched and corresponding pH value is monitored accordingly.
There are three classification a substance known as acid, base, and
neutral. Many chemist and scientist have proposed different definitions from
them such as chemists Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted and Thomas Martin
Lowry proposed that an y substance that donated a proton (H+) ion is acid
or this proton acceptor is a base whereas Arrhenius states that anything
that forms hydrogen ions in aqueous solution is acid where hydroxide ion
forming substance are base. Similarly, Lewis stated that any specie that
accepts the electrons are the base where the substance that donate electron
pair are termed as base. Lewis discredited the concept of acid-base in term
of protons and proposed his definition in electron basis. This pair further
establishes covalent bond.
Buffer are such solutions that resist the change of pH when any of
the component of acids or base are added into it and possess the ability to
neutralize the solution whenever acid or base are added, thus it maintains the
pH level stably. These solutions very important in different processes which
require certain maintained level of pH is require. The buffer solution have
certain range that how much the addition of acid-base it can bear and how
much it amount can withstand.
This chapter will discuss one of the most useful and important branch
of chemistry known as electrochemistry, it is defined as “the branch of
chemistry that studies the relationship between electricity and takes it as
quantitative and measurable quantity and identifiable chemical change,
with either electricity considered an outcome of a particular chemical
change or vice-versa. These reactions involve electric charges moving
between electrodes and an electrolyte (or ionic species in a solution). Thus
electrochemistry deals with the interaction between electrical energy and
chemical change.” Similarly when electric current is supplied to a chemical
solution to perform the reaction and to obtain the desired result, such as in
the case of electrolysis and when the electric current produce due to the
result of spontaneous chemical reaction, these types of reactions are called
as electrochemical reactions. Furthermore, a chemical reaction in which
electrons are transferred or transmit from one atom to another molecule,
such chemical reactions are called Redox reaction or oxidation-reduction
chemical reaction. So we can say that this branch of chemistry explains
different electrochemical reaction taking place as a result of Redox reactions
and are also connection with some kind of electric circuitry as well as an
intervening electrolyte. Now, we will discuss about the topic of Redox
reactions in this chapter. As described earlier, the reduction and oxidation
chemical reaction in electrochemistry change the oxidation state of an atom,
ion or molecule that takes it part in the chemical reaction. The oxidation
state is basically a hypothetical charge number that indicates which types
of bonds an atom will have as well as how many of them it will possess.
An atom or a molecule give an electron to other element in order to change
its oxidation state and become stable. For example, when atomic sodium
reacts with atomic chlorine, sodium donates one electron and attains an
oxidation state of +1. Chlorine accepts the electron and its oxidation state
is reduced to −1. The sign of the oxidation state (positive/negative) actually
corresponds to the value of each ion’s electronic charge. The attraction of
the differently charged sodium and chlorine ions is the reason they then form
an ionic bond. Hence, the loss of electron from an atom is called oxidation
whereas the gain of electron in the atom is called as reduction. Both of these
terminologies always occur in paired form such as one specie gains electron
whereas the other specie losses the electron, these electrons are shared
between the atoms on the basis of electronegativity, but the case of oxygen
is important to discuss here, For reactions involving oxygen, whenever
oxidation of oxygen takes place in the chemical reaction, it is assumed that
the oxygen atom or atoms are added to the respective chemical reaction.
Similarly, in case of organic compounds, such as butane or ethanol, the loss
of hydrogen implies oxidation of the molecule from which it is lost (and the
hydrogen is reduced). This follows because the hydrogen donates its electron
in covalent bonds with non-metals but it takes the electron along when it
is lost. Conversely, loss of oxygen or gain of hydrogen implies reduction.
Moreover the electrochemical reactions are balanced as well in the end of
reaction to visualize the oxidation and reaction of atoms, to understand this
phenomenon, water is the easiest example to understand the working of
redox reaction using the ion-electron method where H+, OH− ion, H2O and
electrons (to compensate the oxidation changes) are added to cell’s half-
reactions (the electrochemical reactions that takes place inside an chemical
cell for the generation of necessary current) for oxidation and reduction.
In case of acidic medium, H+ ions and water are added to half-reactions
to balance the overall reaction. For example, when manganese reacts with
sodium bismuthate.
Unbalanced reaction: Mn2+(aq) + NaBiO3(s) → Bi3+(aq) + MnO4−(aq)
Oxidation: 4 H2O(l) + Mn2+(aq) → MnO4−(aq) + 8 H+(aq) + 5 e−
Reduction: 2 e− + 6 H+(aq) + BiO3−(s) → Bi3+(aq) + 3 H2O(l)
Finally, the reaction is balanced by multiplying the number of electrons
from the reduction half reaction to oxidation half reaction and vice versa and
adding both half reactions, thus solving the equation.
8 H2O(l) + 2 Mn2+(aq) → 2 MnO4−(aq) + 16 H+(aq) + 10 e−
10 e− + 30 H+(aq) + 5 BiO3−(s) → 5 Bi3+(aq) + 15 H2O(l)
Reaction balanced:
14 H+(aq) + 2 Mn2+(aq) + 5 NaBiO3(s) → 7 H2O(l) + 2 MnO4−(aq) + 5 Bi3+(aq) + 5
Na+(aq)
Similarly, in case of basic medium, in basic medium OH− ions and water
are added to half reactions to balance the overall reaction. For example, on
reaction between potassium permanganate and sodium sulfite.
Unbalanced reaction: + KMnO4 + Na2SO3 H2O → MnO2 + Na2SO4 +

KOH
Reduction: 3 e− + 2 H2O + MnO4− → MnO2 + 4 OH−
Oxidation: 2 OH− + SO32− → SO42− + H2O + 2 e−
The same procedure as followed on acid medium by multiplying
electrons to opposite half reactions solve the equation thus balancing the
overall reaction.
6 e− + 4 H2O + 2 MnO4− → 2 MnO2 + 8 OH−
6 OH− + 3 SO32− → 3 SO42− + 3 H2O + 6e−
Equation balanced:
2 KMnO4 + 3 Na2SO3 + H2O → 2 MnO2 + 3 Na2SO4 + 2 KOH
However, there are neutral medium as well and same procedure is also
applied on them. For example, on balancing using electron ion method to
complete combustion of propane.
Unbalanced reaction: C3H8 + O2 → CO2 + H2O
Reduction: 4 H+ + O2 + 4 e− → 2 H2O
Oxidation: 6 H2O + C3H8 → 3 CO2 + 20 e− + 20 H+
As in acid and basic medium, electrons which were used to compensate
oxidation changes are multiplied to opposite half reactions, thus solving the
equation.
20 H+ + 5 O2 + 20 e− → 10 H2O
6 H2O + C3H8 → 3 CO2 + 20 e− + 20 H+
Equation balanced:
C3H8 + 5 O2 → 3 CO2 + 4 H2O
The electrochemical cell is one of the application of Redox reaction in
which an electric current is produced due to the spontaneous reaction. This
kind of cell includes the Galvanic cell or Voltaic cell, named after Luigi
Galvani and Alessandro Volta.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.brighthubengineering.com/hvac/50002-calibration-of-the-
measuring-instruments/
2. http://www.labdepotinc.com/articles/pH-information-2.html
3. https://bitesizebio.com/7642/types-of-statistical-errors-and-what-
they-mean/
Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Acid/Lewis_Concept_of_Acids_and_
Bases
Chemistry/Acids_and_Bases/Acid
6. https://sciencing.com/reasons-error-chemistry-experiment-8641378.
html
7. https://www.allaboutcircuits.com/textbook/direct-current/chpt-9/ph-
measurement/
8. https://www.zurich.com.au/content/dam/risk_features/product_
liability/risk_topic_instrument_calibration.pdf
CHAPTER
16
DESIGN PRINCIPLES
The chapter will introduce the readers to the principles of chemical
process design with specific focus on synthesis, integration, and system
level understanding. The chapter will cover the principles of the process
conceptualization, process flow diagrams, and estimation of thermodynamic
properties, thermodynamic feasibility, industrial chemical kinetics, chain
reactions, reactor selections, heuristics, and reactor-separator integration
strategies.
In chemical engineering, design of a process includes all the steps required

to get a desired product. Product design and process design are two different
tasks but both may have some similar steps depending upon the product.
The very basic approach to design a process is to analyze the problem and
search for all the possible solutions then study the details in order to select
the best solution with authentic reasons and logics, finally implement the
selected method. Generic overview of a process can be shown as;
“Molecular Thermodynamics for Chemical Process Design,” By John

M. Prausnitz.
Thermodynamic properties are essential for quantitative process design
to produce chemical products. Caloric properties are required for heat
balances, but these properties are usually available or estimated easily. More
important – and often much more difficult to estimate – are the chemical
potentials of components in mixtures; it is these potentials which determine
phase equilibria, as required for separation operations, and chemical
equilibria, as required for chemical reactors and for separation operations
based on chemical reactions. Molecular thermodynamics is an engineering-
oriented science for calculating the desired chemical potentials from a
minimum of experimental data. This applied science, based on classical and
statistical thermodynamics, yields chemical potentials through models that
are based on molecular physics and physical chemistry. Selected examples
are cited to illustrate the applicability of molecular thermodynamics: group-
contribution methods for obtaining chemical potentials in highly non ideal
mixtures as required for distillation-column and process-safety design;
equation of state for precipitation of uniform-sized crystals from supercritical
fluids; molecular-or-vital calculations to guide process development for
alternatives to environmentally dangerous chlorofluorohydrocarbons;
molecular-simulation calculations for separation of gas mixtures with
porous adsorbents; equilibria in two-phase aqueous systems for separation of
protein mixtures; and, finally, extended polymer-solution thermodynamics
to guide synthesis of hydrogels suitable for protein recovery from soybeans
and for novel drug-delivery devices.
16.1. INTRODUCTION
One generation ago, the goal of chemical engineering was stated easily:
to establish efficient and economic methods for producing on a large scale
what the chemist or material scientist produces in small quantities. Today,
that statement is incomplete. Today’s chemical engineer does not start where
the chemist stops. Increasingly, chemists and chemical engineers work
together on product conception and development. Twenty-five years ago,
chemists and chemical engineers worked in series: first the chemist, then
the chemical engineer. Today they must work in parallel. If the idea for a
new product is to become a reality, then its early development must soon be
linked to a process for its production. That process must be concerned not
only with production capacity and product quality but, increasingly, with
consideration for safety and for environmental protection.
Chemical process design is based on several scientific disciplines, whose
relative importance depends on the nature of the product. Only a few of
these disciplines are always essential; they are the cornerstones of chemical
Chemical Engineering Design Principles 149
engineering. One of these is chemical thermodynamics. This article presents

some applications of chemical thermodynamics for chemical engineering.
For process design, the first law of thermodynamics gives energy balances
which require primarily caloric properties of materials; these properties are
usually available from published experimental data or from semi empirical
correlations one generation ago, scientist produced a new product on small
scale and chemical engineers were responsible to produce the same product
on industrial scale by keeping the factors of economics under consideration.
But now they both work together and if there need to implement any new
idea they do it after keen analysis which increases the production rate along
with enhanced quality. During the production a design engineer face the
different situations, for example, selection of suitable inputs and route for
known output. Another situation is for known input the desirable output is
required to find out, product with known properties needs to manufacture or
optimization of the path is required to design. Whatever the situation is, a
chemical process engineer needs to consider ‘product manufacturing’ along
with all the necessary things like energy conservation, cost effectiveness,
recycling, and disposal of waste materials.
16.2. CHEMICAL PROCESS SYNTHESIS

Problem definition: which means that to study thoroughly about the required
conditions and select the best possible solution. The simplest way to represent
a process is its block diagram. Mostly flow diagram do not explain the details
of chemical reactions, effect of reactions, etc. so ‘problem definition’ must
include the all necessary details. If the product manufacturing is related to
already existing techniques then the basics data will be available but for
the implementation of new methodology basics data will be collected and
analyzed by the process design engineer. It includes the Reconsideration
of traditional processes, raw materials and assumptions. Finding out the
alternative methods depending on the advanced research and development
in order to be the part of competition. Optimization of superstructure by
setting the new scales and parameters for the equipment as well as for the
process reactions, Changing the whole criteria of performance, Interaction,
and mixing all aspects of the process invention.
16.3. PRINCIPLES OF THE PROCESS

CONCEPTUALIZATION
Chemical engineers use graphical representation to illustrate the schematic
of any process. These technical diagrams include the block flow diagram
(BFD), the process flow diagram (PFD), and the piping and instrumentation
diagram (P&ID). As chemical processes include variety of reactive
chemicals, toxic byproducts their reactions at high temperature and pressure
so design flow diagrams must be formulated in appropriate way and chemical
engineers must skilled enough to analyze and interpret diagrams equipped
by others.
Block Flow Diagrams. BFD is the very simple approach to describe a
chemical process. The diagram contains different blocks having information
about unit operations which are connected together by arrows or input,
output streams. One of the types of flow diagram is ‘block flow process
diagram’ which represents only one process. Another type is ‘block flow
plant diagram’ which shows more than one chemical processes.
Process Flow Diagram (PFD). PFD is the next step to BFD it contains
the details of chemical process. Every industry has its own format for flow
diagrams but give the same information. For example, description of the
equipment and flow streams of the process will be identified by specifics
numbers. Control strategy and utility streams to the equipment of the whole
chemical process will be shown (Figures 16.1 and 16.2).
Figure 16.1: Symbols for Drawing Process Flow Diagrams. Bhattacharyya, D.,
et al (2012) Diagram for Understanding Chemical Processes. http://www.infor-
mit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=1915161&seqNum=2
Figure 16.2: Conventions Used for Identifying Process Equipment. https://

www.slideserve.com/gisela/the-nature-of-process-design
Piping and Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) or mechanical flow
diagram (MFD), show information required to start the construction of plant
which includes all the mechanical aspects of plant.
The chemical reactors are used to enhance the performance of low level
or less reactive performance of a reactor depends on four factors.
Reaction Kinetics and Thermodynamics: Some variables like

pressure, temperature, concentration effect the performance of a reactor,
these are defined by kinetics and equilibrium of reaction. These extensive
variables directly affect the rate and productivity of reaction by use of specific
reactor. Catalyst are also used booster. Thermodynamics of reactions play an
important role to define up to what extend the reactants will be converted in
to product without conversion to catalysts.
Reactor Parameters: For specific design problem with known kinetic
properties, thermodynamics, and heat transfer configuration, the fixed
reactor volume or inlet volumetric flow rate must give the desirable product.
Production of Desired Product: For the desirable product, quantities
of reactants are defined by parameters like conversion, selectivity, and yield.
These are the functions of extensive variables (temperature, pressure space
time, etc.)
Heat Transfer in Reactor: As chemical reactions consume and release
energy, the temperature highly effects the rate of chemical reaction. For
equilibrium it is required to maintain the overall temperature of the reaction,
for example, for exothermic reactions excess energy must be drained from
the system and in endothermic process specific heat is required to keep the
reaction in process. The overall rate of heat transfer depends on the reacting
stream properties, medium of heat transfer, temperature maintaining forces
and the configuration of reactor.
Rate of chemical reaction is measure by the ‘reaction kinetics’. While
designing a new reactor for any alteration in the process, reactor must be in
the small volume for fast reactions. When we examine a prevailing reactor
of fixed volume, a faster reaction shows the increased conversion. Whereas
thermodynamic properties show the limitation to the conversion of reaction.
Letri is the rate of reaction
The rate of reaction is an intensive property, depends on state variables

such as temperature, concentration, and pressure, the rate of reaction not effect
by total mass of material. In case of solid catalyst system, the performance of
reactor is controlled by mass transfer resistances. Temperature significantly
increase the rate of chemical reaction.
Thermodynamics limits the obtainable conversion of chemical reaction.
This effect can be observed in the following example
Production of Methanol from syngas can be shown as

CO + 2H2 = CH3OH
For stoichiometric input with no inert present, the equilibrium expression
can be represented as
where X represents the equilibrium conversion, P shows the pressure in

atmospheres, and T represents the temperature in Kelvin. If we make a plot
at four different pressures (15 atm, 30 atm, 50 atm, and 100 atm) between
equilibrium conversion and temperature. It will be clear that with an increase
in temperature the equilibrium conversion decreases at constant pressure.
As methanol formation reaction is exothermic in nature so according to Le
Chatelier’s principle with increasing pressure at constant temperature the
equilibrium conversion increases (Figure 16.3).
Figure 16.3: Temperature and Pressure effect on Conversion for Methanol from
Syngas. https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Equilibria-in-methanol-synthesis-
Approximate-conditions-are-given-for-i-conventional_fig10_258733433
There are two chemical reactors called the ‘continuous stirred tank
reactor’ and ‘plug flow reactor’. The plug flow reactor has a pipe in
which reactants combine and the variation of pressure, temperature, and
concentration takes place from point to point.
The performance equation is
In the continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR), all properties are

considered to be uniform within the reactor and it is supposed to be well
mixed. The performance equation is
where V shows reactor volume FAo represents the molar flow of limiting
reactant A τ is the space time (reactor volume/inlet volumetric flowrate) CAo
is the inlet concentration of A, XA represents the conversion of A, rA is the
rate of reaction of A
Heuristic rules that accelerate the choice and positioning of processing
operations after the assembly of flowsheets. These rules are created after
experience but should be simulated before implementation.
• In case of raw materials and stream reactions. Select those raw
materials and chemical reactions which are favorable in handling
and storage.
• Use the reactants in such quantities so that the first reactant
completely consumes the seconds reactant so that it must not
remain toxic or reactive further.
• In case of pure products, before the reaction operation the inert
species must be eliminated so that the catalyst can remain safe
from the effect of inert.
• Introduce the purgative streams in the form of liquid or vapors in
order to remove impurities which generally produced as a result
od by products or during the feed to the reaction. But valuable
species must not remove during this process.
• In order to get high yields of the required products in series/
parallel reactions. Temperature pressure and catalyst must be
adjusted during the initial distribution of chemicals.
• The liquid mixtures must be separated by distillation, stripping,
liquid-liquid extraction, crystallization, and/or adsorption. The
separation of vapor mixtures can be done by partial condensation,
cryogenic distillation, absorption, adsorption, and membrane
separation.
• To add or remove heat from the reaction, use the excess reactants,
an inert diluent, and cold shots early in the synthesis process.
These will affect the distribution of. For less exothermic reactions,
external cooler having reactor fluid or cooling coils, as well as
intercoolers can be used.
• For pumping and compression fan can be used to raise the gas
pressure from atmospheric pressure to a high as 0.1 atm-g (1.47
psig). Blower or compressor can raise the gas pressure to as
high as 2 atm-g (30 psig). To increase the pressure of a stream,
pumping of liquid must be preferred than compression of gas,
unless refrigeration is needed.
REFERENCES
1. http://users.metu.edu.tr/yuludag/che417/11_Heuristics.pdf
2. https://www.d.umn.edu/~rdavis/courses/che3791/Green/notes/
ProcessSynthesis.pdf
3. https://dredgarayalaherrera.files.wordpress.com/2015/08/analysis-
synthesis-and-design-of-chemical-processes3rd-ed.pdf
CHAPTER
17
MATERIAL SCIENCE AND
MATERIAL SELECTION
The chapter will cover the concepts of material balances chemical
engineering profession, mathematical methods in biochemical and
chemical engineering. The readers will be introduced to fluid mechanics
for biochemical and chemical engineers. The chapter will further discuss
heat transfer for biochemical and chemical engineers, mass transfer for
biochemical and chemical engineers, rheology, and polymer processing,
introduction to chemical engineering thermodynamic laboratory, chemical
engineering transport laboratory, chemical kinetics and reaction engineering
and chemical engineering kinetics and reactor design laboratory. The
chapter will introduce the readers to the laboratory practices in chemical
and biological processes.
In chemical engineering the material balance or mass balance is the basic

concept required to design any chemical process. For the implementation
of safe and economical chemical processing plant it is compulsory to have
knowledge about material balance. In a chemical process it is required to
convert raw material into desirable product along which unwanted byprod-
ucts also generate which are sometimes hazardous. By using material bal-
ancing tool of chemical engineering the entering and leaving materials of
the process can be controlled.
Following are the types of material balance problems that generally
arise in chemical processing:
• in the steady state continuous operations models of flowsheet
material balance;
• in the non-steady state continuous or batch operations models of

flowsheet material balances;
• mixing and amalgamation material balances; and
• analysis of the process data and its understanding.
Problem formulation and its solution are the two strategies used for mass
conservation in chemical processes. Formulation means the mathematical
description of the process by using the laws of physics and chemistry.
Mathematical model generally contain large number of complex equations
so the formulation must be done in the way to be simulated easily without
error.
To deal with chemical process the knowledge of fluid mechanics, heat
transfer, and mass transfer strategies must be known. Fluid mechanics deals
with the mechanics of fluid and forces acting on fluids when it moves during
the process. Chemical engineering is incomplete without fluid mechanics.
Because a chemical engineer has to handle the chemicals during the whole
process through pumps and piping. For example, in case of pneumatic
conveying or condense gases through the pipes the variation of densities,
temperature, and pressure must be controlled by using logical modeling
techniques. Similarly in batch reactors during the mixing of chemicals
agitators design always change the material properties. If we consider some
other examples like heating and cooling in reactors, fluid like gas, liquid, or
condensing steam involves and in case of separation processes (distillation,
crystallization, and precipitates separation) again calculations for fluid
involve.
As discussed earlier in a chemical process raw material is transformed to
useful product. During this process the heat and mass transferred in different
modes. There are three modes of heat transfer. Although all occur at the
same time but we consider each at a time for the sake of simplicity. First
mode of heat transfer is condensation in which heat is transfer from one part
of body to another part by using a medium in between that can be the same
body as well. Second mode is convection in which heat is transferred from
one fluid to another by mixing them together. In case of different densities
of two fluids natural convection happens due to the temperature difference
but in case of forced convection mechanical means are used to force the
fluids to move. Third mode of heat transfer is by radiations in which heat
transfer without any physical contact between two bodies but through waves
in space.
Material Science and Material Selection 159
If the material has ability to change the phase during operation then
provision is required for heat transfer to or from the system in order to
give latent heat of the phase changing additionally for other effectible
heat changes in the system. Heat can be transfer through any of the mode
mentioned above but in case of phase change the heat transfer and mass
transfer takes place simultaneously.
In order to calculate the mass transfer in a chemical process, transport
properties such as some empirical factors and diffusivities relates the rate
of mass transfer to the driving forces in numerous different conditions and
geometries. In case of confusion for the use of fundamental verses applied
coefficients check for the fluid flow whether it is parallel to the interface
along which mass has been transferred. Where as in case of diffusion in
stagnant medium without transverse velocity gradient, normal diffusivities
can be suitable for problem-solving. In both cases calculations must done
through proper data instead of focusing on correlations. Units used in
diffusivity correlations generally consider the CGS system. For mass transfer
correlations used the CGS or English system. In both cases SI units are
most commonly used. Fick’s First Law narrates flux of a component to its
structure gradient, using diffusivity as constant of proportionality. It can be
written in numerous forms, depending on the units and frame of reference.
Polymer processing operations are categorized in two ways, “by process”
or by the “type of unit building blocks.” By process is significance of the
unit processes concept used in the literature of chemical engineering and
in this situation, we observe the operations of specific polymers to classify
from the types like extrusion, injection molding, blow molding compression
molding, and so on. Classification of operations with “unit building blocks”
is almost related to the unit operation concept. For example, pressurization
and pumping of molten polymers, polymer filtration and heat transfer. In all
these cases, the knowledge of transport modes and the rheological behavior
is required.
Rheology is the study of deformation and flow of liquid form of matters
or soft solids under the condition that they show plastic flow due to applied
force before approaching to elastic deformation. This field of physics covers
the study of matters with complex microstructure, for example, mud, sludge,
polymers suspensions, many foods and additives, etc.
Rheology mostly deals with the behavior of non-Newtonian fluids.

Which are defined as the fluids whose viscosity change with temperature
and flow velocity or strain rate. For example, the Ketchup and emulsion
paints change their viscosity with constant stirring.
It is very important to consider the elasticity and viscosity of materials
and the level of domination of these properties depend on force/stress applied
to the material and to the duration of application of stress. Now the question
is how these properties vary with the concept of state of matter (solids and
liquids). In both cases these properties must be qualified. In our daily life we
differentiate the materials in our home, in the laboratories or in the factories
by their response on low stresses. Which is usually noticed by human beings
or determine by gravitational field with in very short time spectrum.
As the difficulties can and do arise while labeling the materials as solid
or liquid so we use rheological apparatus in which we apply different values
of stress for the wide range of time spectrum so that we become capable
to fine solid like properties in liquids or liquid like properties in solids. It
became helpful to distinguish the material state. But in some cases still we
need to elaborate further more properties of material before labeling it.
Chemical thermodynamics deals with the heat change during
chemical reactions along with change in state of products within the
laws thermodynamics. Chemical thermodynamics is not only about the
measurements of thermodynamic properties in labs but it also deals with
the mathematical models and equations related to chemical process which
show the spontaneity of processes. For the designing of reactors modeling
and chemical reaction engineering are needed. In any real problem first step
is to identify the body of matter or reactants which can be called as system.
Few microscopic properties define the thermodynamic state of the system.
Labs having equipment related to some basics laws and thermodynamic
applications, for example, boilers, Joule-Thomson apparatus, refrigeration
unit and Boyle`s law apparatus allow students to experience practical
implementation of chemical engineering and reaction engineering which
includes the calculation of heat transfer, change of state during physical and
chemical processes.
In contrast with thermodynamics which deal with the direction of
chemical processes there is a branch of physical chemistry called as
chemical kinetics which deals with the study of rates of chemical reactions.
In other words thermodynamics can be called as time’s arrow and chemical
kinetics can be called as time’s clock. Kinetics is purely related to physical
processes and chemical reactions in any of the fields like biology, geology,
cosmology, and psychology, etc. kinetics of chemical reaction is important

to study because it provide the information about the mechanism of reaction
which become helpful to find the effective ways of causing the chemical
reactions to occur. As many chemical processes can take place by using
more than one method so reaction mechanism give the information about the
conditions feasible for any particular method. The detailed study of chemical
kinetics concluded that some chemical reactions are elementary and some
are composite or complex. Rates of reaction also help to identify whether
the reaction will take place by one or more steps and what conditions are
required in each elementary process.
For the study of reaction kinetics first of all it is important to study
about the factors affecting the rate of chemical reaction, for example,
concentrations of reactants, temperature, pressure, etc. in some cases rate of
reaction depends on the concentration of reactants such reactions are called
as second order reaction if there are two reactants A and B involved in it. The
reaction rate v can be expressed as v = k[A][B], where k is the rate constant.
In another case if the rate of reaction will proportional to the concentration
of only reactant A then this reaction will be called as first order reaction so
kinetics of reaction not correspond in a simple way to the balanced chemical
reaction. Means there can be the possibility that a second order reaction will
be second order in one direction while first order in the reverse case. When
the rate of chemical reaction changes with temperature then rate equation
is expressed as Arrhenius equation represented as k = A exp(–E/RT) where
R is the molar gas constant, A and E are quantities that can vary depending
on the reaction. According to this equation the plot for algorithm of rate
constant and reciprocal of absolute temperature must be a straight line. By
solving the slop of straight line and its intercepts the kinetic parameters A
and E for this equation can be calculated Arrhenius relationship is helpful
for many physical processes but still in some cases complications may occur
which fail its application.
If the reaction is elementary occurring I one step. In this case, if the
quantity A is related to the frequency of collisions between the molecules
and the activation energy E is zero then rate constant k will be equal to
A which means that on each collision atoms combine with the frequency
of collision. But for the reactions in which activation energy is not zero
and chemical bond is broken. Here the Arrhenius explains it as, in many
reactions rate increases by the increase in temp where the collision is not
responsible of the increase in rate of reaction. Arrhenius explains that when
two reactants A and B react together they form an activated complex also
called as intermediate which afterward give the final product of reaction. If

the intermediate will be of high energy it will be formed in small amount.
According to Boltzmann principle the molecules with energy higher than
activation energy is expressed as exp (–E/RT). So only those molecules
can react which have energy greater than activation energy while all other
collisions will be ineffective and the reactant molecules will separate without
reaction.
In natural, biological, and chemical processes momentum, heat, and mass
transfer plays an important role. For the technical study of these processes
laboratory courses such as “Unit Operations Laboratory,” “Process Control
Laboratory,” and “Transport Laboratory.” are required. These courses and
working in laboratories give students the hand on experience of dealing
with chemical processes commonly used in manufacturing plants. For
example, in Transport theory viscosity of a given sugar solution is measured
in a constant water bath using a Cannon-Fenske viscometer. The kinematic
viscosity thus obtained is converted to absolute viscosity. By reviewing
Hagen-Poiseuille equation students can understand viscosity and makes it
less abstractive concept.
REFERENCES
1. http://faculty.poly.edu/~rlevicky/Handout3.pdf
2. http://www.physicsclassroom.com/class/thermalP/Lesson-1/Methods-
of-Heat-Transfer
3. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-kinetics
4. https://www.crcpress.com/Mathematical-Methods-in-Chemical-and-
Biological-Engineering/Dutta/p/book/9781482210385
5. h t t p s : / / w w w . w i l e y . c o m / e n - a u /
Biochemical+Methods-p-9783527302994
CHAPTER
18
CHEMICAL PROCESS
ENGINEERING
The chapter will cover topics in the principles of energy conversion, chemical
reaction, engineering, process design, biochemical engineering, energy
systems engineering, process modeling and control, and instrumentation
and measurement in a chemical bioprocess laboratory.
This will cover various aspects of different process that are used in chemical
engineering, but first, we need to understand the basic principles of energy
conversion, which is defined as it is the conversion of energy which
is provided by the nature to converted in such a way that I can be used
by mankind. The energy conversion had been used since centuries and it
contain a wide variety of systems and devices. One of a fundamental law
which is been used is known as law of conversion of energy which states
that the total amount of energy of a system remains constant and it cannot
be created or destroyed but can only be converted from one form to other.
This statement is not a description for any process but it is stated regardless
of the process and not only applied to the nature as a whole but also to
the isolated or closed systems. Hence, if the boundaries of the system are
defined in such a way that energy cannot be removed or added to the system
then it is converted with the system. The different forms of energy include
kinetic, thermal, gravitational, elastic, mass energy, electrical, chemical, and
nuclear and radiant energy. Let us take the example of a ball toss in the air,
the ball keeps traveling in the air but a point comes when it is stationary in
the air and returns back to its initial position. When the ball given energy
at its initial point 1 it possess kinetic energy which is given as 1/2mv12, and
it slowly becomes zero to the highest point 2. As the ball rises in the air, it
gains potential energy which is given has mgh1, but at the highest point 2
this potential energy becomes mgh2. By the law of conversation of energy
and keeping the friction in the air negligible, then it mathematically it can
be written as:
EK1 + EP1 = EK2 + EP2
/2mv12 + mgh1 = 0 + mgh2
1
In this ideal example of energy conversion, the kinetic energy of the

ball is converted into gravitational potential energy of the ball mg (h2 – h1),
as the ball comes back to the ground, the potential energy is converted back
into kinetic energy and the total energy of the ball at the point h1 is given as
1
/2mv12 + mgh1 so we can say that work done by the gravitational forces on
the ball is zero, hence the system is said to be conservative one.
Another important terminology in the chemical engineering is the
process design, which is defined as the designing of the process to obtain
the desired physical and chemical material after applying various different
techniques on them. It is said to be the summit of chemical engineering in a
way that it bring all the processes of this engineering all together. With the
help of the process design, not only the existing process can be modified
but also the new techniques can be establish to obtain the final product in
an efficient way, thus reducing the raw material and increasing the output
of an industry. The initial stage of a design process can be from conceptual
level and ends in the form of construction plans and fabrication of the final
product. Process design is closer to the designing of unit operation then the
designing of the equipment.
Before the discussion about chemicals and their reactions it is important
to know about the chemical identity and its behavior when combined to other
chemicals. The chemical reaction engineering involves the detailed study
about the chemicals their rate of reaction and the CRE also deals with the
factors affecting the chemical reaction kinetics, for example, environmental
conditions and reactors or catalysts (homogeneous or heterogeneous).
Sometimes the catalyst do not involves directly in the reaction but integrates
with the process. The identity of chemical depends on type, quantity, and
configuration of atoms and the reaction happens when a chemical loose its
identity, for example, in decomposition, isomerization, combination, etc.
Rate of a reaction is defined as the rate at which the chemicals loose its
identity per unit volume per unit time. Let there is a reaction in chemical A
Chemical Process Engineering 167
is decomposed to form chemical B, the rB represents the rate of formation

of specie B and –rA represents the rate of deformation of specie A. rB is the
function of concentration, temperature, pressure, and type of catalyst and
other reaction conditions. Reactor design is one of the most important aspect
of CRE whose objective is to get maximum possible product in minimum
time by using raw materials and by considering quality, quantity as well
as safety of environment. The technologies used in this process can be
thermodynamics, kinetics, and Stoichiometry. After having the knowledge
of chemical engineering the main tasks that an engineer has to do are design
a process, maintain, and operate the chemical processes, fix the prescribed
problems and reduced the product cost. The fields in which the knowledge
of chemical reaction engineering is required are petroleum refining,
pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals, and chemicals manufacturing. This field
also has scope in biotechnology, microelectronics, in energy preservation
from non-fossil resources. Chemical engineers also work for pollution
prevention and sustainable development of environment. Biochemical
engineering is also known as bioprocess engineering and it is the branch of
chemical engineering which deals with the designing and construction of
different process which involves organisms such as molecules, atoms, and
equipment such as bioreactors. Its applications are in the water treatment
industries, food, pharmaceutical, petrochemical industry and biotechnology.
Furthermore, the biochemical engineers have many duties such as converting
the discoveries of life sciences into materials and techniques which can
contribute to the health of mankind. Similarly, they play a lead role to
eradicate diseases from the society by creating and producing vaccines
for the diseases such as vaccination of AIDS, swine flu, HIV as well as
with the creation of engineered tissues for the replacement of human body.
Moreover, the biochemical engineers play vital role in obtaining energy
from renewable resources, i.e., biofuels which not only reduces pollution
from the environment but also create impact in creating similar resources
of energy.
The modeling and simulation of chemical processes is the key feature of
chemical engineering. In which computer based software are used to design
chemical processes, which can predict the dynamic behavior of process. The
first step of modeling is to make the process flow diagram, which shows
the system components and their connections. The perquisites for chemical
process modeling are the knowledge of chemical properties of products
used and the physical parameters of apparatus involved. Process simulation
helps to implement the maximum range of conditions on products under
consideration in order to know all the possible behaviors of product. It

uses mathematical models for analysis, prediction, and testing irrespective
to whether the reaction exists in actual or not. Modeling and simulation is
now the part of almost every engineering field. It provides the following
solutions, research, and development, decision making, training, and
education, operation, process optimization, production planning and process
design. Mathematical modeling and simulation is the important part of every
research project because it reduces the experimental research. There are
other steps also involved, for example, reactor design and catalyst selection
and process condition as discussed above. Production planning is another
important factor to consider because the profitability always remains the
main task to achieve, which is obtained by optimal production and processes.
Constant evaluation is required to maintain the profitably in case of change
in conditions and products. Dynamic simulation evaluates the parameters,
targets, and defined control strategies for the sake of controllability and safe
environmental limitations. Initially it is used in the design process and then
during the process to analyze optimized operation condition. The purpose
of this process is to get the process tailbacks and there solution. Dynamic
simulation involves the variable ‘time’ for solving the control problems
which is not solved by steady state simulation. Modeling not only help
to make the process efficient but also help to train the engineers for real
world problems. Training of engineers and operators is very important due
to advancement in technologies, different virtual training tools are available
which produce the natural situation of the process in virtual environment.
Training of existing scenarios and process set-up is has the huge influence
on process safety and ability of operators to be able to handle unpredicted
conditions.
Dynamic model assist chemical engineers to continuously run the unit
with defined optimized strategy, making the mathematical model by using
the complete knowledge of the process and control algorithms also called
Advanced Process Control (APC). This approach is giving engineers and
operators the ability to nearly run the unit to approach the predefined economic
benefits. Decision-making process is done through so many calculations,
models, and simulations this approach is more efficient than the decisions
built on assumptions. There is a proper strategy that can be followed to make
the decision-making process less frustrating and challenging.
In short there is almost no field of chemical engineering that can
overlook the significance of the process simulation. It is the unavoidable
part of chemical engineering and other engineering as well. Process
simulation is like a guidebook for chemical engineer instructing them to the

best engineering solution.
The energy system engineering is such a type of engineering that
supplies energy to the system in an efficient way. Therefore, it is such a
discipline, which deals with the aspects of engineering as well as with
economics. On conceptual level, the energy system engineering involves
technologies, regulations with its implementation at practical level, for
example, development of such grids which saves the energy and minimizes
the losses. So, the energy system engineers oversees a complex energy
distribution problems and find ways to improve them efficiently and make
their contribution to protect the environment by saving the necessary
amount of energy as well. The duties of energy system engineers can be
from managing the working of wind turbines to efficient using the hydro-
electric power production systems. Also, the development of fuel cells is
the result of this field and provides effective means of production of other
resources of energy systems as well.
The energy sector provides marvelous opportunities for investigation,
design of energy resourceful equipment and systems, advanced financing and
project management, technology development and fundamental research.
Engineers with hand on experience in laboratories and an understanding of
energy systems is in demand in energy supply companies, energy consulting
and financing companies, energy equipment manufacturers, energy-intensive
manufacturing and process industries. The energy process engineering can
make students capable to evaluate and improve conventional energy systems
and design the sustainable energy systems of the future. There is significant
scope for entrepreneurship and new start-up companies in this area. Recent
advances in Nanoscience and Nano-technology have already resulted in
potential applications for new materials in photovoltaics, hydrogen energy
storage, improved batteries, super capacitors, fuel cells and provide several
opportunities for technology and system development.
For the measurement of different parameters in the laboratory level of a
biochemical process, different instrumentation and measuring techniques are
applied. The modern biochemical processes are monitored by online sensors
technology either mounted externally or installed internally in the process
such as sensor probes and more advance level of subsystems are employed
to measure the state of biochemical process. These subsystem work in such
a way that they can transmit signals that can be useful for calculations and
feedback of closed loop systems. The different on-line sensing techniques
give the corresponding values of different parameters such as to measure
pressure of the system sensor such as piezoresistive can be used, it works

in such a way that the greater the amount of pressure, greater will be the
resistive and corresponding voltage will be lessen then further amplification
techniques are applied to transmit the signal accordingly.
It can be concluded from the brief description of chemical processes, the
design process, modeling, and simulation processes that the chemical process
engineering is very vast field the detailed knowledge of its all disciplines is
very important as it is responsible for all the variety of materials that we
have in our life.
REFERENCES
1. http://energyfromthorium.com/2006/05/29/principles-of-energy-
conversion/
2. http://mime.oregonstate.edu/what-do-energy-systems-engineers-do
3. http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/book/9780080966595
4. http://www.simulatelive.com/simulate/steady-state/process-
simulation-as-the-key-discipline-of-chemical-engineering
5. http://www.ucl.ac.uk/biochemeng/about/what-is
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biochemical_engineering
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Conservation_of_energy
8. https://moodle.zhaw.ch/pluginfile.php/353962/mod_resource/
content/0/Wo39/Kurzvortraege/Lit2000Sonnleitner.pdf
9. https://www.britannica.com/technology/energy-conversion
10. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301193635_Basic_
principles_of_energy_conversion
11. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/1369703X
CHAPTER
19
BIOPROCESS ENGINEERING
The chapter will introduce the readers to the topics under bioprocess
development as an interdisciplinary challenge, biochemistry 11 including
plasmids and recombinant DNA techniques, applications of chemical
engineering principles in biotechnology (energy balances, and maintenance
of fermentation temperature, heating, and cooling, and sterilization).
The chapter will further cover the applications of chemical engineering
principles to biotechnology (role of diffusion in bioprocessing). The chapter
will cover applications of chemical engineering principles to biotechnology
through discussing the topics such as downstream processing, cell
disruption, filtration, centrifugation, liquid-liquid extraction, adsorption
and chromatography in biotechnology. The chapter will introduce readers
to the regulatory compliance through a discussion of regulations and their
guidelines.
Bioprocess is such a type of the process that uses cells or their components
such as enzymes or bacteria to obtain the desired product. For a bioprocess,
the transportation of energy and mass are the fundamentals of different
bioprocess from converting energy to transportation of different biological
mediums. Cell therapy bioprocessing is an important term that needs to
be discussed so it is defined as it is such a discipline that combines the
field of cell processing with bioprocessing and this field has been derived
from bioprocess engineering. The main goal of a cell therapy bioprocess
is too robust and reproduces such manufacturing process that can produce
therapeutic cells. For example, such technique is being used in to produce
biopharmaceutical drugs and to maintain their standards, to minimize the

cost of goods in the final production of drugs.
Furthermore, this chapter will learn development in biochemistry and
with the introduction of two techniques named as Plasmids and recombinant
DNA. Plasmids are such small DNA biological molecule that is separated
from DNA and possess the tendency to replicate itself. Due to their double
stranded structure, they are mostly found in bacteria but they are also
sometime present in eukaryotic and archaea organisms. Plasmids also help
in survival since they carry genes such as antibiotic resistance. Moreover,
different bioinformatics software are used for recording the DNA sequence
and their manipulation plans. The examples of such software are Gene
ConstructionKit, Genome Compiler, LabGenius, Geneious, and Lasergene.
In recombinant DNA technology, DNA molecules from two different
species are combine which are further inserted into an organism to produce
such a genetic combinations that are beneficial to science in terms of
industry, agriculture, and medicine. The main goal of this technology is
to characterize and manipulate new genes. Finding a specific gene from a
DNA is much more difficult than separating a DNA from the collection of
cells. This technology has helped the mankind in separating a gene or any
specific sample of DNA, which helped the researcher and scientist in many
ways such as taking the nucleotide, to experiments its transcript, its further
mutation in efficient way and then again inserting the corrected sequence in
the living organisms.
For the mixing of different type of fluids, mass transfer also take place
and for large scale mixing, bulk fluid motion causes such mixing that is why
diffusion is very important in bioprocess. Similarly, due to the turbulence in
the fluids, the fluid mixing on bulk scale takes place. Moreover, mixing in
the molecular scale is accomplished due to diffusion. The diffusion is also
used when catalyst are used in solid forms which diffusion is responsible in
removing the product molecules away from the site of reaction as discussed
in previous chapters, when the reaction took place with diffusion, the overall
reaction rate can be slowed down if the process of diffusion is slowed.
The study of Chemical engineering and biotechnology provides the
extensive elementary skills in chemistry and other disciplines. This study
provides broad vision to the industrial processes that are in use. The
higher studies in chemical engineering and biotechnology give access to
modern apparatus and professional experience in industries and field,
Bioprocess Engineering 175
which develops the managerial and business skills. The greatest scientific
revolutions today in chemical engineering and biotechnology are the
introduction of nanotechnology, enables the automatic control of reactions
at the molecular level, which presents advanced opportunities for new
products. Major challenges ahead are to discover environment friendly
renewable energy sources. The study of chemistry along with biotech make
the student capable to develop these Many people believe that solar cells
will solve future energy problems. But the detailed study of in chemical
engineering and biotechnology also delivers a basis for developing and
adopting new environmental technology, including membrane technology
that can constitute a part of CO2-free gas power plants.
Today, major development is made within the field of biotechnology.
Such as genetic research, cancer research and development of new medicine.
Biotechnology involves all from food, natural gas, use of DNA tests, to the
preparing of beer and wine. Along with current research efforts for new
knowledge, great challenges will emerge in years to come as we attempt to
make practical use of this knowledge. For this we need new biotechnologists
with interest and critical sense. Biotechnology is defined as the technology
to manipulate any biological system or living system for the improvement
of products for various purposes. It is widely employed in different fields
of life such as agriculture, medicines, and even in genetics. The ideology
of traditional biotechnology has changed a lot and there is a line of division
between the traditional and the modern view of biotechnology. This difference
was defined by European Federation of Biotechnology (EFB) as follows:
‘The integration of natural science and organisms, cells, parts thereof, and
molecular analogs for products and services’. The principle of genetic
engineering is to modify the existing organisms by changing the genetic
material in them. It mainly includes the recombinant DNA technology.
Recombinant DNA technology is a technique which changes the
phenotype of an organism (host) when a genetically altered vector is
introduced and integrated into the genome of the organism. Inserting the
desired gene into the genome of the host is not as easy as it sounds. It
involves the selection of the desired gene for administration into the host
followed by a selection of the perfect vector with which the gene has to be
integrated and recombinant DNA formed. This recombinant DNA then has
to be introduced into the host. And at last, it has to be maintained in the host
and carried forward to the offspring’s.
The downstream part of a bioprocess constitutes of improving the

purity and quality of the cell mass taken from upstream part of the process.
Furthermore, the downstream process is divided into three parts named as cell
disruption, purification, and polishing. The steps involve in the downstream
process consist of following parts, the step is the separation of biomass
which is performed by centrifugation. Another alternative for the separation
process is ultra-filtration. The next step is cell disruption, in which product is
released from the cellular biomass and concentration of broth is performed
by concentrating the medium if the product is extracellular. And the water
content is eliminated if the amount of product is lower than the concentrated
medium then volume of water is removed to increase the concentration of
the product and it can be done by reverse osmosis or vacuum drying. In the
final step of down streaming, the product is almost 100% pure. The final
product is then mixed with other ingredients which is called excipients. The
purified product is then packed and send to the market for the consumer.
Another separation technique very often employed in bioprocess is
known as liquid-liquid extraction which solvents are extracted on the basis
of their solubilities in two different liquids. There is transfer of species from
one liquid which is aqueous and to the other liquid which is polar solvent
due to their chemical potential. The liquid-liquid extraction is abbreviated
as LLE and it is used in the making of various organic compounds such
as making of perfumes, production of biodiesel and vegetable oil is also
examples of LLE. Since, it is one of the initial solvent extraction techniques,
but such techniques are not useful when extracting the solvent from same
functional groups. The success of LLE is measured in two terms knowns as
decontamination and separation factor where the separation factor is such
a factor which determines the ability of a mixture to separate further two
solutes, also the contamination factor is the such a factor which determines
how much amount of contaminates can be separated from the product. The
LLE is used in many commercial applications such as DNA purification, the
DNA is extracted to study in many modern bioprocesses and it is also used
in food industry for separating the smaller molecules such as nucleic acids
and peptides. However, the successful percentage of the LLE is determine
by decontamination factors and separation factors, the most efficient way
to find the success of LLE is to check the extraction column from the given
data set. The data set can then be converted into a curve to determine the
steady state partitioning behavior of the solute between the two phases.
The y-axis is the concentration of solute in the extract (solvent) phase, and
the x-axis is the concentration of the solute in the raffinate phase. From
here, one can determine steps for optimization of the process. There are
huge number of techniques in which the LLE can be perform which are as
follows: Batch wise single stage extraction is the most commonly used in
chemical and bio labs due to their easiness and abrupt results. The whole
process includes the data from DLLME and direct organic extraction. In case
of Dispersive Liquid-Liquid micro extraction (DLLME), small samples of
water compounds are extracted from organic matter. This process is done by
injecting small amounts of an appropriate extraction solvent (C2Cl4) and a
disperser solvent (acetone) into the aqueous solution. The resulting solution
is then centrifuged to separate the organic and aqueous layers. This process
is useful in extraction organic compounds such as an organochloride and
organophosphorus pesticides, as well as substituted benzene compounds
from water samples. Similarly, direct organic extraction is also part of batch
wise single stage extraction, it is done by mixing the organic solute in the
organic solvent and can be extracted by separation funnel. This process is
valuable in the extraction of proteins and specifically phosphoprotein and
phosphopeptide phosphatases, the example of this application is extracting
anisole from a mixture of water and 5% acetic acid using ether, then
the anisole will enter the organic phase. The two phases would then be
separated. The acetic acid can then be scrubbed (removed) from the organic
phase by shaking the organic extract with sodium bicarbonate. The acetic
acid reacts with the sodium bicarbonate to form sodium acetate, carbon
dioxide, and water. Furthermore, LLE also possess multi stage extraction,
in this technique, used by mostly industries, it is mostly used for metal,
i.e., lanthanides because the separation factors between the lanthanides are
so small many extraction stages are needed. In the multistage processes,
the aqueous raffinate from one extraction unit is fed to the next unit as the
aqueous feed, while the organic phase is moved in the opposite direction.
Hence, in this way, even if the separation between two metals in each stage
is small, the overall system can have a higher decontamination factor. The
last technique of LLE is known as extraction without chemical changes
and it is mostly used by noble gases. This is the simplest type of solvent
extraction. When a solvent is extracted, two immiscible liquids are shaken
together. The more polar solutes dissolve preferentially in the more polar
solvent, and the less polar solutes in the less polar solvent. Some solutes
that do not at first sight appear to undergo a reaction during the extraction
process do not have distribution ratio that is independent of concentration.
A classic example is the extraction of carboxylic acids (HA) into nonpolar
media such as benzene. Here, it is often the case that the carboxylic acid will
form a dimer in the organic layer so the distribution ratio will change as a
function of the acid concentration (measured in either phase).
For this case, the extraction constant k is described by k = [[HAorganic]]2/
[[HAaqueous].
In the making of biological products, cellular disruption is an essential
step, which involve in downstream process. The cellular disruption is
for the extraction as well as retrieval of the final product so it cannot be
considered an isolated process as it effect the properties of cell slurry and
further influence the downstream process. There are many types of cellular
extraction methods as the biological products can be of variety of forms such
as intracellular, periplasmic or extracellular. The basic methods of cellular
disruption are composed of two types: mechanical and non-mechanical
methods. The mechanical methods are consists of liquid shear and solid
shear methods whereas for non-mechanical methods include enzymatic,
physical & chemical methods. But before cellular disruption, cells are
separated and extracted from culture medium. The mechanical methods are
bead mill, ultrasound, and non-mechanical physical methods are thermolysis
decompression, etc.
REFERENCES
1. http://biotechisfuture.weebly.com/uploads/1/4/1/6/14160671/unit_
iibpeii.pdf
2. https://byjus.com/biology/biotechnology-principles/
3. https://chem.libretexts.org/Demonstrations_and_Experiments/Basic_
Lab_Techniques/Liquid-Liquid_Extraction
4. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioprocess
5. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bioprocess
6. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid%E2%80%93liquid_extraction
7. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recombinant_DNA
8. https://www.britannica.com/science/recombinant-DNA-technology
9. https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-
sciences/liquidliquid-extraction
CHAPTER
20
ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY
AND REMEDIATION
The chapter will introduce the readers to the chemistry of air, water, and
soil with a specific focus on the health effects of human-made chemical
products and environmental by-products. The topics covered will include an
introduction to environmental problems, sustainability, and green chemistry,
stratospheric chemistry and the ozone layer, ozone holes, chemistry of
ground-level air pollution, environmental, and health consequences of
polluted air. The chapter will include the topics of the greenhouse effect,
energy use, fossil fuels, global climate change and the health effects. The
topics of biofuels and alternative fuels, the chemistry of natural waters,
pollution, and purification of water, pesticides, dioxins, furans toxic heavy
metals, and PCBs, and wastes, solids, and sediments will be included.
This chapter will give the knowledge the readers about chemical by
product and their beneficial and adverse side effects. Everything is made
up of chemical substance, the chemical substance can be made from man-
made or it can be extracted from the nature which have given prosperity
to the mankind but some of the chemical by-product have greatly affected
mankind and environment of the earth. As, not all the chemical substance
are dangerous but still they can be proof poisonous if they are handled
incorrectly. Almost, everything leaves behind chemical waste. Household
create garbage where the industrial waste if not properly treated can threaten
the life of human as well as animals and sea species. Chemistry is the study
of the science of matter and matter is anything that has mass and occupies
space. Environmental chemistry and green chemistry are involving the study
of matter. Wrong matter in wrong places can cause serious pollution and
this has a major significant influence upon the earth and its support system.
Humans have an attitude of extracting minerals from the earth thereby,
causing environmental problems. The challenge mankind faces today in the
environment is sustainability, the ability to maintain and enhance condition
that will enable humans and other organisms to live on planet earth. This
has resulted in survival actions and that of their descendants. The role of
chemistry cannot be overemphasized as we eat, are surrounded by and made
up of chemicals. All these are true because chemistry is the science of matter.
It is all a combination of the air we breathe, the water we drink, the soil that
grows our food, vital life substances and processes.
In a holistic view, environmental chemistry is the study of origins,
transport, reactions, effects, and fates of chemical species in the water, air,
earth, and living environment and the activities of humans.
20.1. GREEN CHEMISTRY

In the earlier stage of development, the emphasis of environmental chemistry
was detection of pollution, sorting it adverse effects, and having pollutants
controlled once produced (Figure 20.1).
Figure 20.1. Illustration of the Definition of Green Chemistry.

The practice of green chemistry is in the framework of industrial ecology,
as a comprehensive approach to production, distribution, utilization, and
termination of goods and services in a manner that maximizes the mutual
benefit of utilizing of materials and energy while preventing the production
of waste.
Environmental Chemistry and Remediation 183
A chemical product can be a single chemical substance or it can be a

mixture, i.e., acetone and petrol. Most of the material nowadays are being
made with the help of chemical by-product which is replacing the natural
product, these new chemical by-product gives the material some extra
properties such as artificial cotton can be fire resistant as well. With the
passage of time, the production of chemical byproduct has been increased in
a huge rate and in their production, different amount of chemical are emitted
in the form of gases in the air or hazardous chemical waste in sea and ocean
and contain risk to the mankind and the environment. Some chemical
substances and their byproduct do not decompose but they accumulate in
the body of animals and human beings. The recent research shows almost
300 different chemical substances in the blood samples of human, which
can create different side effects to the hormones and can damage the nervous
system. The young people and children can be greatly affected by them as
their brain is not fully developed and can have lifelong consequences in their
later life. The chemical byproduct can be toxic which means that they could
cause corrosive injuries in the outer surface of human body. Some of the
chemical substance are non-renewable this means that they cannot be reused
and has to be extracted or mined, for example, the nuclear power plant need
continuous supply of uranium to run its operation and produces radioactive
waste which has to be disposed of an proper manner as such kind of waste
emits radioactive radiations and lasts for hundreds or thousands of year. The
chemical byproduct greatly effects the reproduction system of humans as
they effect the production of eggs and sperms.
Our motherland earth is currently facing a lot of environment concerns
and with the time passing on, they are increasing day-by-day and effect each
human and animal species. Since our environment is changing at a great pace
so we need to understand the problems that are happening around us. The
patterns of weathers are changing, the natural disasters are also increasing
and the periods of heating and cooling are effect in consequences. Major
environment are global warming, acid rain, air pollution, urban sprawl,
waste disposal, ozone layer depletion, water pollution, climate change and
the list goes on. The pollution of soil and water can take great time to recover
and the major cause of this problem are industries and automobiles. Another
major concern to the mankind is clean water which is now a source of earning
and political concern. The toxic waste from industries and agriculture is
affecting the drinking water for all the species on earth. Climate change is
another major environmental concern and which is changing rapidly with

past couple of years and as a result, it is changing the weather patterns of the
world. The increasing amount of industrial waste and carbon content in the
water causing is making the marine life in danger due to which some of their
species is in very less amount.
The acid rains happen due to the presence of specific type of toxins in
the atmosphere. The huge amount of Sulphur and nitrogen oxide comes back
to earth as a result of rain. Similarly, a protecting layer from the ultraviolent
radiations from the sun is known as ozone layer and the depletion of this
layer is caused by Chloroflorocarbons (CFC’s). As these poisonous gases
reach the upper atmosphere of the earth, the create depletion by reacting
with the ozone and the depletion of the layer result in the form of ozone
holes. Noise pollution is another form of pollution that is caused due to
excessive amount of unpleasant noise. There are many reasons for it such as
construction activities, the increased amount of vehicles in traffic and poor
urban planning are among the major causes of this problem.
Biofuels are nonconventional and alternative fuels available to us. These
alternative fuels are not produce from conventional fuels such as petrol or
diesel. The main purpose of these fuels is to capture energy that can be utilized
in some other time. An example of biofuel is biodiesel that is produced from
which is a renewable fuel and manufactured from vegetable oil, grease, and
animal fats. The physical properties of biodiesel are similar to conventional
fuels and are cleaner burning fuels. The other alternative types of fuels are
renewable energy resources. This type of energy sources is not only efficient
but also environment friendly. The examples of such resources are solar
energy, tidal, and wind energy. Another non-conventional type of fuel is
hydrogen. There are many techniques developed that extract the energy of
hydrogen from a chemical reaction but only problem with this type of fuel is
that there is no storing of hydrogen yet made. Similarly, air engine is another
alternative type of fuel which used air engine and utilize compress air as a
fuel. The compressed air is much cheaper than all the other alternative fuels
and the economy production of such fuel is much more easy and effective in
comparison with conventional fuels of our planet. There is need to change
our daily life to save the environment and government should also take steps
in the awareness of public regarding the environment. Water pollution can
be a physical, biological or chemical factor which affects the aquatic life
and those who consume water. Chemical energy describes the saved energy
inside chemical bonds, as well as it is launched using exothermic responses.
When a response takes place in burning procedures, there is possibility that
the quantity of energy being launched will certainly differ, considering that
it would certainly rely on the chemical bond’s nature.
20.2. BENEFITS OF CHEMICAL ENERGY

• It is a abundance source of energy. Mostly all resources of
chemical energy, such as petroleum, timber, natural products like
wax and coal, could be located all over the world, and human
beings are extremely based on these energy resources. When
rates of these energy resources change, this is the reason that
globally economic situations are being impacted. Among one
of the most usual and large chemical energy resources readily
available nowadays is petroleum, which is removed from
underlying sedimentary layers of our earth’s crust. It is created
from the procedure of chemical conversion that takes place in the
fossilized remains of dead plants and pets under terrific stress put
in by the Planet’s layer. Inning accordance with data, individuals
in lots of nations have an extremely high reliance on petroleum
that the condition of all worldwide economic climates is impacted
straight by its rate variations.
• It generates high octane gases that offer a considerable
quantity of energy. The energy crammed in by high-octane gases
that are acquired by improving petroleum is considerably high
in contrast to various other energy resources, making it feasible
for automobiles, vehicles, and various other lorries achievement
broadband. The energy that is launched by chemical energy via
combustion-induced bond damage in gas is enormous, as well as
it is among the greatest contributing variables to its appeal as a
gas resource.
• It will certainly ignite quickly. As compared with various other
resources of energy, chemical energy creates gases that are merely
flammable as well as can breaking down immediate energy. Put
simply, instantaneous energy could be created because of the
simple combustibility of chemical energy.
• It will certainly ignite effectively. The performance of burning
very depends upon the accessibility of oxygen. If a system is
developed well, as an example an automobile engine, effective
burning could be attained. With chemical energy resources, the
effectiveness of burning is certainly high. This is one exceptional
reason that the chemical energy, which is launched with petroleum

burning, is extremely liked over other source of energy. The
burning’s performance hinges on the oxygen’s accessibility,
therefore, the system of a car engine holds a massive influence
on the effectiveness of traveling when driving and even airborne.
• It is the simplest and most effective energy resource to shop and
also use. Chemical energy is so easily offered and is discovered
in virtually whatever we utilize. Also made use of by our bodies,
it has been the resource of life for billions of years, as well as
the growths in chemical energy modern technology have caused
durable rechargeable batteries. It is likewise really hoped that it
will certainly be utilized in generating renewable resource sources
in the future. To dig further right into this element, it is significant
that chemical energy is a kind of prospective power that relates to
the architectural setup of atoms or particles. This setup could be
the outcome of bonding chemicals within a particle or otherwise.
The energy of a chemical material could be changed to various
other kinds of energy via chain reaction. When a gas is shed, the
chemical energy is transformed to warm, which resembles food
digestion of food metabolized in an organic microorganism. Eco-
friendly plants could likewise change power from the sunlight to
chemical energy with the procedure referred to as photosynthesis.
Electric energy could likewise be transformed to chemical energy
with electrochemical response procedures.
• It plays a crucial duty in culture as well as in some way the
atmosphere. Chemical energy is useful to culture through energy
cells. Batteries function by utilizing numerous chemicals that
engage with each various other, developing electric power. The
sort of battery that is extensively utilized around the globe is the
zinc-copper cell, which utilizes the chemicals zinc as well as
copper, where the previous is being assigned the adverse side and
the last being marked the silver lining. By linking a cord to both
ends, the acid inside the battery is delighted and will certainly
damage down several of the zinc. The electrons from this
component are after that complimentary to follow the cable to the
copper side, where electric circuits are carried out then permitted
to move right into the gadget that the battery is powering up.
Various other necessary procedures that include chemical power
are photosynthesis, food production and, once more, gas burning.
Chemical energy plays a vital duty in each of our day-to-day

lives, and it would certainly be difficult to overlook the benefits
we could delight in from it. We will certainly learn how to value
its relevance and will certainly discover means to add to its
preservation. Currently, we assess its downsides.
20.3. NEGATIVE ASPECTS OF CHEMICAL

ENERGY
• It could be hazardous to the atmosphere. Prior to the resources
are exchanged beneficial energy, burning is needed as well
as this could create damaging spin-offs which could add to
contamination. Considering that chemical energy is stemmed
from natural products, there is a high danger that the setting
will certainly be significantly impacted by it, especially due
to way too much burning that is needed for its manufacturing.
We as customers could do our component in managing such
results. Federal governments could develop some plans over the
appropriate use chemical energy to minimize carbon impacts.
Exclusive establishments within this sector could carry out some
brand-new innovations to manage such a disadvantage.
• It includes a high price. The manufacturing of atomic energy,
specifically, requires a great deal of loan to establish and spend
up nuclear power terminals. It is necessary to bear in mind that
it is not constantly feasible by numerous establishing nations to
manage such a pricey resource of energy.
• It could create contaminated waste. The waste generated by
activators should be gotten rid of appropriately to a safe and
secure location, considering that it is incredibly dangerous as
well as could leakage radiations otherwise saved correctly. The
radiations released by this type of waste could last to 10s and even
centuries. Hazardous wastes consist of radioisotopes with lengthy
half-lives, which implies that they remain in the environment in
some type or the various other. These responsive radicals could
make sand or water polluted, which is called combined waste
that could create unsafe chain reaction and could result in unsafe
difficulties. To take care of such waste, plants would generally
hide it under sand in a procedure called vitrification. An additional
threat this approach brings is that the waste could be utilized to

earn nuclear tools. This idea alone could make individuals close-
by worried of exactly what the compound could influence their
lives.
• It is non-renewable. Many resources of chemical energy could
not be restored. Taking the instance of atomic energy again, some
plants make use of uranium, which is a limited source and is not
discovered in numerous nations. Several countries depend on
various other areas for the consistent supply of this gas.
• It is bad for human health and wellness. Thinking about that
chemical energy is extremely flammable, it is anticipated to
add to contamination, which triggers different health problems
as well as is never ever helpful for human wellness. Worldwide
warming has gotten worse in recent times as a result of hefty air
pollution in the various components of the globe, as well as with
alternate power resources, its impacts could be regulated as well
as minimized. Chemical power describes the saved power inside
chemical bonds, as well as it is launched through exothermic
responses. When a response occurs in burning procedures, there
is likelihood that the quantity of power being launched will
certainly differ, given that it would certainly depend upon the
chemical bond’s nature.
20.4. LISTING OF BENEFITS OF CHEMICAL

ENERGY
• It is a mother lode of energy. Mostly all resources of chemical
energy, such as petroleum, timber, natural products like wax as
well as coal, could be discovered around the globe, as well as
people are extremely based on these power resources. When
costs of these power resources change, this is the reason that
around the world economic climates are being impacted. Among
one of the most usual as well as large chemical power resources
readily available nowadays is petroleum, which is removed from
underlying sedimentary layers of our earth’s crust. It is created
from the procedure of chemical conversion that takes place in the
fossilized remains of dead plants and also pets under excellent
stress put in by the Planet’s layer. Inning accordance with stats,
individuals in several nations have a really high dependence
on petroleum that the standing of all international economic

situations is impacted straight by its cost variations.
• It generates high octane gases that offer a significant quantity
of energy. The power crammed in by high-octane gases that
are acquired by improving petroleum is considerably high in
contrast to various other energy resources, making it feasible for
autos, vehicles as well as various other automobiles achievement
broadband. The energy that is launched by chemical energy with
combustion-induced bond damage in gas is tremendous, as well
as it is among the largest contributing elements to its appeal as a
gas resource.
• It will certainly ignite conveniently. As compared with various
other resources of power, chemical energy generates gases that
are merely flammable and also can providing immediate energy.
Basically, immediate power could be created because of the
simple combustibility of chemical energy.
• It will certainly ignite effectively. The effectiveness of burning
very relies on the schedule of oxygen. If a system is developed well,
as an example an automobile engine, effective burning could be
accomplished. With chemical energy resources, the effectiveness
of burning is certainly high. This is one outstanding reason that
the chemical power, which is launched with petroleum burning,
is extremely liked over other source of power. The burning’s
performance hinges on the oxygen’s accessibility, therefore, the
system of an automobile engine holds a massive influence on the
performance of traveling when driving and even airborne.
• It is the most convenient as well as most reliable power resource
to shop as well as make use of. Chemical energy is so easily
offered as well as is discovered in virtually every little thing we
make use of. Also utilized by our bodies, it has actually been the
resource of life for billions of years, and also the advancements
in chemical power innovation have actually caused durable
rechargeable batteries. It is likewise wished that it will certainly
be made use of in creating renewable resource sources in the
future. To dig much deeper right into this element, it is significant
that chemical power is a kind of prospective power that relates to
the architectural plan of atoms or particles. This setup could be the
outcome of bonding chemicals within a particle or otherwise. The
power of a chemical compound could be changed to various other

kinds of power with chain reaction. When a gas is melted, the
chemical power is transformed to warm, which resembles food
digestion of food metabolized in an organic microorganism. Eco-
friendly plants could likewise change power from the sunlight
to chemical power with the procedure called photosynthesis.
Electric energy power could likewise be transformed to chemical
power via electrochemical response procedures.
• It plays an essential function in culture and also in some way
the setting. Chemical energy power is extremely handy to culture
through power cells. Batteries function using numerous chemicals
that engage with each various others is developing electric power.
The kind of battery that is extensively made use of worldwide is
the zinc-copper cell, which utilizes the chemicals zinc and also
copper, where the previous is being assigned the adverse side as
well as the last being assigned the silver lining. By attaching a
cord to both ends, the acid inside the battery is thrilled and also
will certainly damage down several of the zinc. The electrons
from this aspect are after that totally free to follow the cable to the
copper side, where electric circuits are performed and afterwards
enabled to move right into the tool that the battery is powering up.
Various other important procedures that include chemical power
are photosynthesis, food production as well as, once more, fuel
burning. Chemical energy plays a vital duty in each of our day-
to-day lives, as well as it would certainly be difficult to disregard
the benefits we could appreciate from it. With this in mind, we
will certainly discover how to value its relevance and also will
certainly locate means to add to its preservation. Currently, we
assess its downsides.
20.5. CHECKLIST OF DOWNSIDES OF CHEMICAL

ENERGY
• It could be dangerous to the setting. Prior to the resources are
exchanged beneficial power, burning is needed as well as this
could generate hazardous byproducts which could add to air
pollution. Given that chemical power is stemmed from natural
products, there is a high danger that the setting will certainly be
considerably influenced by it, specifically due to way too much
burning that is needed for its manufacturing. We as customers

could do our component in managing such impacts. Federal
governments could develop some plans over the appropriate
use chemical power to decrease carbon impacts. Exclusive
establishments within this market could carry out some brand-
new innovations to take care of such a drawback.
• It includes a high expense. The manufacturing of atomic energy,
particularly, requires a great deal of loan to establish and also
spend up nuclear power terminals. It is essential to remember that
it is not constantly feasible by lots of establishing nations to pay
for such an expensive resource of power.
• It could generate contaminated waste. The waste generated
by activators should be taken care of appropriately to a safe
location, because it is incredibly dangerous and also could
leakage radiations otherwise saved appropriately. The radiations
sent out by this type of waste could last to 10s and even centuries.
Hazardous wastes include radioisotopes with lengthy half-lives,
which implies that they remain in the ambience in some kind or
the various other. These responsive radicals could make sand
or water infected, which is referred to as combined waste that
could create unsafe chain reaction and also could cause unsafe
problems. To take care of such waste, plants would generally hide
it under sand in a procedure called vitrification. An additional risk
this technique brings is that the waste could be utilized making
nuclear tools. This idea alone could make individuals close-by
scared of just what the material could affect their lives.
• It is non-renewable. Many resources of chemical power could
not be renewed. Taking the situation of atomic energy again,
some plants utilize uranium, which is a limited source as well
as is not located in lots of nations. Numerous countries count on
various other areas for the continuous supply of this gas.
• It is bad for human wellness. Taking into consideration that
chemical power is extremely flammable, it is anticipated to add to
contamination, which creates numerous health problems as well
as is never ever helpful for human wellness. Worldwide warming
has gotten worse recently as a result of hefty air pollution in the
various components of the globe, as well as with different power
resources, its impacts could be managed and decreased.
20.6. MAJOR CURRENT ENVIRONMENTAL

PROBLEMS
• Pollution: Pollution of water, air, and soil require millions of
years to recoup. While water pollution is caused by oil spill, acid
rain, urban runoff; air pollution is caused by various gases and
toxins released by industries and factories and combustion of
fossil fuels; soil pollution is majorly caused by industrial waste
that deprives soil from essential nutrients.
• Global Warming: Climate changes like global warming is the
result of human practices like emission of Greenhouse gases.
Global warming leads to rising temperatures of the oceans and
the earth’ surface causing melting of polar ice caps, rise in sea
levels and also unnatural patterns of precipitation such as flash
floods, excessive snow or desertification.
• Overpopulation: The population of the planet is reaching
unsustainable levels as it faces shortage of resources like fuel,
food, and water. Intensive agriculture practiced to produce food
damages the environment through use of chemical fertilizer,
insecticides, and pesticides. Globally, people are taking efforts
to shift to renewable sources of energy like solar, wind, biogas
and geothermal energy. The cost of installing the infrastructure
and maintaining these sources has plummeted in the recent years.
• Waste Disposal: The over consumption of resources and creation
of plastics are creating a global crisis of waste disposal. Developed
countries are notorious for producing an excessive amount of
waste or garbage and dumping their waste in the oceans and,
less developed countries. Plastic, fast food, packaging, and cheap
electronic wastes threaten the well being of humans. It occurs
due to rise in global warming which occurs due to increase in
temperature of atmosphere by burning of fossil fuels and release
of harmful gases by industries. Climate change has various
harmful effects but not limited to melting of polar ice, change
in seasons, occurrence of new diseases, frequent occurrence of
floods and change in overall weather scenario.
• Loss of Biodiversity: Human activity is leading to the extinction
of habitats and species and loss of bio-diversity. Balance of
natural processes like pollination is crucial to the survival of the
eco-system and human activity threatens the same.
• Deforestation: Our forests are natural sinks of carbon dioxide and

produce fresh oxygen as well as helps in regulating temperature
and rainfall. At present forests cover 30% of every year but the
land tree cover is lost amounting to the country of Panama due
to growing population demand for more cloth, food, and shelter.
25% of CO2 produced by humans. The main impact is on shellfish
and plankton in the same way as human osteoporosis.
• Ozone Layer Depletion: The ozone layer is an invisible layer of
protection around the planet that protects us from the sun’s harmful
rays. Depletion of the crucial Ozone layer of the atmosphere is
attributed to pollution caused by Chlorine and Bromide found
in Chloro-fluoro carbons (CFC’s). Once these toxic gases reach
the upper atmosphere, they cause a hole in the ozone layer, the
biggest of which is above the Antarctic.
REFERENCES
1. http://biofuel.org.uk/other-alternative-fuels.html
2. https://greengarageblog.org/11-core-advantages-and-disadvantages-
of-chemical-energy
3. https://www.afdc.energy.gov/fuels/biodiesel.html
4. https://www.conserve-energy-future.com/15-current-environmental-
problems.php
5. https://www.health.ny.gov/environmental/chemicals/toxic_
substances.htm
6. https://www.kemi.se/en/guidance-for/consumers/chemicals-in-the-
everyday-environment
7. Manahan, S. E. Fundamentals of Environmental Chemistry, Third
Edition.#
CHAPTER
21
CHEMICAL REACTION
ENGINEERING
The chapter will cover the topics such as introduction to chemical reactions,
homogeneous, and heterogeneous reactions. The chapter will further discuss
the basics of kinetics and contacting, the design of batch reactors, basics
of plug flow reactor. The chapter will include topics in basics of mixed
flow reactors, the design of mixed flow reactors, kinetics of heterogeneous
reactions, kinetics of homogeneous reactions, reaction rates of homogeneous
and heterogeneous reactions. The chapter will discuss gas phase homogenous
reactions, a combination of reactors, recycle reactors for autocatalytic
reactions, multiple reactions, non-isothermal reactors, adiabatic reactors,
adiabatic plug flow reactors, and multi-parameter model reactors.
This chapter will give the readers a detail description of chemical reactions
and their types with different types of reactors. So, first we need to understand
about a chemical reaction and it is defined as a process in which one or
more substances (reactants) react together to form one or more substances
(products). The reacting substances can either be atoms or they can be
compounds and can possess different chemical and physical properties. A
chemical reaction is represented by a chemical equation, which is given as:
A+B C+D
In the above equation, the A,B are the reactants and C,D are the products
and they are separated by an arrow which gives information about the
direction as well as reaction type (reversible or irreversible). In chemistry,
there are two types of mixtures, homogenous and heterogeneous on the

basis of what chemical reaction take place. A Homogenous reaction is such
a chemical reaction in which the all the reactant as well as the products are in
same phase, i.e., the reaction taken place between two solid and two liquid
substance can be term as a homogenous reaction. These types of chemical
reactions are much simpler as the products are mainly dependent on the
product, a common example of this reaction is the reaction between gas and
oxygen to produce flame.
Similarly, a heterogeneous reaction is such type chemical reaction in
which the reactants, products or both are in different chemical phase, the
examples of such chemical change are the reactions of metals with acids,
the chemical reaction in batteries and the corrosion of metals is also, the
example of heterogeneous reaction. These chemical reactions are far more
complex than homogenous chemical reaction in which the final product is
entirely dependent on the properties of reactants.
A batch reactor are the vessels that are used in different manufacturing
and process industries for different type of applications such as solids
dissolution, batch distillation, product mixing, chemical reactions,
crystallization, polymerization and liquid/liquid extraction. They have
different terms names as well, i.e., crystallizer. In basic construction of a
batch reactor, it consist of heating and cooling systems and a tank with
agitator. The manufacturing material can be range from steel, glass or exotic
alloy, stainless steel and glass-lined steel.
The liquids and solids are charged in the vessel through the top and
gases escape from the holes of vessels which are present in the top. The
liquid can be discharge as well in the bottom of the vessel. A batch reactor
is designed for certain applications as well but this chapter will give a
general design of batch reactor. An agitator is mounted on the top of reactor
Chemical Reaction Engineering 197
and contains a shaft where blades are mounted, different type of designs
of blades can be used and their manufacturing material is according to the
application and their usage. Some reactors also possess baffles as well. The
reactors taking place in the batch reactor usually need heat of dissipates
heat, therefore, to maintain an desired temperature for reactants and
products, heat can be added or removed with the help of a cooling jacket or
cooling pipes. There are several types of cooling jackets of batch reactors
such as single external jacket which covers the vessel of reactor, heat can
be added or removed through the nozzles and in this way the temperature
can be regulate according to the desired conditions. Another type of jacket
is named as half coil jacket in which vessel is welded around with pipes to
establish a circular channel. The fluid is passed through the channel in plug
fashion. The more the larger the vessel, more will be the coil around the
vessel. The temperature of the vessel is controlled with the help of heating
and cooling principles. Moreover, a latest cooling and heating jacket for the
vessel is named as constant flux cooling jacket. Unlike a single jacket, it is
composed of 20 or smaller jackets and temperature is controlled by using
certain amount of jackets accordingly. Furthermore, another type of reactor
known as plug flow reactor or continuous tubular reactor which describes
a chemical reaction in as flow system with continuous geometry. The main
aim of this reactor is to estimate and predict the behavior of chemical reactor
which possess a tubular design characteristics with the help of factors, i.e.,
its dimension can be established. In this reactor, it is considered that the plug
is flowing through the reactor as number of coherent plugs and contains
uniforms composition. In an ideal flow reactor, it is considered that there
is no mixing of the reactors along the x-axis but there can be mixing of the
plug in the y-axis.
Further modification of plug flow reactors help us to form a new type of

reactor named as recycle reactors which are extensively used in autocatalytic
reactions. It is used in a situation when we need the output from the reactor
and recycle it for a different number of reasons such as, in case of biological
reactions, the enzymes are introduce in the process with the help of recycle
reactors.
In the above figure, the generated steam from the output is again fed into
the recycle reactor.
The input to the reactor is from point 1 and its output is from point 3.
At point 1, the new input is mixed with recycle input whereas the output at
point 2 is further split into recycle input and net output. The batch reactors
which are operated isothermally are designed in such a way that the overall
temperature of the system is zero and when an ideal isothermal reactor
is attached with a heat bath, the heat exchange is very slow and reactor
adjust the energy so that the change of overall temperature of the reactor is
zero. Similarly, in case of batch reactor working in adiabatic conditions, it
monitors the reaction rates, energies involve in the process and the reaction
orders of exothermic process. Industrial chemical process aims to produce
efficiently a desired product from a wide range of materials that undergo
several treatment processes successfully. Raw material experiences several
physical treatment steps to ensure that they are in a chemical reaction form.
Material is pass through the reactor and the products of the reaction undergo
further physical treatment which involves separations, purification, etc., to
obtain a final desired product. Chemical treatment steps play a major role in
a process economically.
Reactor design stages undergo different approaches. It is optimum to
consider every part of the reactor design to be economical such as low
reactor cost and low material treatment cost. Reactor designs mostly uses
information, knowledge, and experience from different areas such as
thermodynamics, fluid mechanics, heat transfer, chemical kinetic, mass
transfer and economics.
Chemical reaction engineering is a combination of all these factor for
designing a reactor properly.
Figure 21.1. Chemical reaction process.

Chemical reactions can be classified in many ways and these depend on
the breakdown of the number and types of phases involved. A reaction is
homogenous when it occurs in only one phase and consists of variables such
as temperature, pressure, and composition while a reaction is heterogeneous
when it occurs in two phases to proceed at the rate that it does. The problems
become complex when it consists of more variables and materials move
from one phase to another during reaction and the rate of mass transfer
becomes important.
The reaction rate expressions is required in algebraic form when material
and energy balances are performed for batch, continuous stirred tank reactor
(CSTR) and plug flow (PFR). This is normally expressed in terms of the
concentrations or partial pressures of the reactants (and sometimes products)
and may be empirically determined based upon an understanding of the
mechanism of the reaction.
Lets’ consider the irreversible reaction,
vAA→vBB
where are stoichiometric coefficients. The rate of the disappearance
of A, is a reaction rate expression that depends on concentration of A,
where n is the reaction order (not equal to vA) kc is a rate constant, CA is the
concentration of A1.
Rate of reaction could also be expressed in terms of partial pressure and
this is where the gas-phase reactions are applicable.
where kp is a rate constant and PA is the partial pressure of A.

For a gas-phase reaction, kp and kc can be related,
Considering the ideal gas,

PAV = NART
where V is the volume of the batch reactor, NA is the total number of moles
of A in the reactor, R is the gas constant, and T is the reactor temperature in
Kelvin
PA = NAVRT = CART
where CA is the concentration of A
—————————-For gas phase reaction

The relationship between kp and kc are same for all reactor type
Consider a general reversible reaction
Example 21
A rocket engine, Figure A1.1, burns a stoichiometric mixture of fuel
(liquid hydrogen) in oxidant (liquid oxygen). The combustion chamber is
cylindrical, 75 cm long and 60 cm in diameter, and the combustion process
produces 108 kg/s of exhaust gases. If combustion is complete. Find the rate
of reaction of hydrogen and of oxygen.
Solution:
–rH2 = 1VdNH2dt or –rO2 = 1VdNO2dt
The volume of reactor and the volume which reaction takes place are the
same
Thus,
V = π4 (0.5)2 (0.65) = 0.1276 m3
Looking at the reaction occurring;
(i)
Molecular weight 2 g; 16 g; 18 g
Therefore,
So from Eq. (i)
and the rate of reaction is
Chemical energy is reserved energy in a chemical bond and released by

way of exothermic reactions. They produce combustible energy and give
out instant energy. In a process called photosynthesis, Green plants can
transform energy from the sun to chemical energy. Electrical energy can be
converted to chemical energy through electrochemical reaction processes.
Chemical-reactor theory has three ideal reactor types: batch reactors, filled
with reactants, continuously stirred during the reaction, and then emptied of
products after a given reaction period; plug-flow reactors (PFR’s), reactants
continuously enter and products continuously exit with no mixing along
the flow path; continuous-flow; and stirred-tank reactors (CSTR’s), which
reactants continuously enter and products continuously leave a stirred
vessel. The progress is in arising models of digestion from reactor theory
is that many conceivable modification to ideal models have analogues in
diverse industrial reactor configurations that is already tested and modeled.
The suitable flow problem in a tubular reactor is ‘plug flow, as well as
under such excellent problems, the residence time in the reactor coincides
for all components of liquid as well as there is commonly a consistent speed
account throughout the span of the reactor. Extra especially, the reactor
defined here could offer several of even more exact temperature level
control, reduction of heat transfer right into and/or from the reactor, ideal
residence times of response elements as well as or optimized blending. The
reactor is therefore specifically well fit for responses consisting of thermally
delicate parts such as drivers that might or else show decreased lifetimes, or
response elements that undesirably break down or respond at temperature
levels within the handling requirements of the procedure desirably performed
within the reactor.
The here and now innovation associates with connect plug flow with the
ability of adiabatic procedure and appropriate for performing continuous, gas
stage, totally free radical reactions to generate chlorinated and/or fluorinated
propene as well as greater alkenes. Processes including the exact same are
additionally supplied. The suitable flow problem in a tubular reactor is ‘plug
flow, and under such perfect condition, the residence time in the reactor
coincides for all aspects of fluid and there is generally a consistent velocity
account throughout the radius of the reactor. That is, as the plug flow via the
reactor, the plug elements are flawlessly blended in the radial instructions,
with blending in the axial direction being non-existent. While in technique,
optimal plug flow does not happen, preserving sensibly great plug flow via
tubular reactor supplies substantial advantages. Obviously, plug flow offers
better splitting up in between responded and unreacted product compared
to non-plug reactor. Accomplishing the ideal mix of residence time, reliable
blending and excellent plug circulation could cause tubular activators that
are numerous meters long. Reactor of such size could after that offer added
troubles in temperature level control and also warmth transfer features.
It would certainly hence be preferable to give a tubular reactor efficient in
estimating plug flow, while yet additionally giving optimum, e.g., residence
time, warm transfer features, temperature level control as well as blending.
Even more especially, the reactor explained here could give several of even
more precise temperature level control, reduction of heat transfer right into
and/or from the activator, ideal residence times of response parts as well as
or enhanced blending. The reactor is hence especially well fit for responses
consisting of thermally delicate elements such as stimulants that might or
else display lowered lifetimes, or response parts that undesirably break
down or respond at temperature levels within the handling requirements
of the procedure desirably accomplished within the reactor. In some
personifications, the reactor might additionally make up a layout that reduces
the manufacturing of by-products at a wanted conversion. Many such layouts
are offered, consisting of: (i) a layout that decreases heat transfer to and/or
from the reactor; (ii) a layout that maximizes the circulation of the response
parts at the limit in between the response elements as well as at the very least
a part of a minimum of one reactor tube wall surface; (iii) a style that assists
in a decrease of the temperature level of a reactor effluent to a temperature
level listed below which considerable development of by-products does
not take place, and/or (iv) a layout that enables the manufacturing price
of a procedure carried out in the reactor to be readjusted by managing the
temperature level of the reactor effluent.
CHAPTER
22
FLUID MECHANICS AND HEAT
TRANSFER
The chapter will cover advanced principles of heat transfer and fluid
mechanics and laboratory processes in fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
The chapter will be a continuation of the previous chapters that introduced
the readers to the principles of fluid mechanics and heat transfer.
As, illustrated from the name of the chapter, this chapter will give the
readers the information regarding the heat and fluid dynamics and their
principles and application in various laboratory analysis. Heat is a physical
terminology and it is defined as a thermodynamic property which is transfer
of energy across a boundary to another system and it is also the amount
of work done which can be performed by a thermodynamic system. It is
calculated with the help of heat transfer coefficient and it is proportional
to the flux of heat and driving force to continue to the flow of heat. The
heat flux is a quantitative property and it is represented by vectors showing
the path of heat flux flow across a thermodynamic system. The principles
for the transfer of heat are advection, conduction or diffusion, convection,
and radiation. In advection, transfer of fluid takes place from one medium
to other and it is purely dependent upon the momentum and motion of the
concern fluid. The fluid transfer takes place in the form of thermal energy
as a physical transfer of cold or hot object from one place to another and
example of such heat transfer is the thermal hydraulic system and can be
mathematically represented as
Q = vpCp∆T
Similarly, another mode of heat transfer is condition which is resulted
due to rapidly moving or vibrating molecules and transfer their energy to the
neighboring molecules. Conduction is significant process of heat transfer in
solid or between different solid bodies. In case of metals, the steady state
conduction is observed which is the amount of heat entering the solid body is
equal to the amount of heat leaving it. Similarly, another form of conduction
is the transient conduction which is the change of temperature of body result
as a function of temperature and mostly analysis of such conduction is very
complex and it is calculated with the help of computer.
The expansion of fluid due to thermal energy is caused by the Buoyancy
forces or by an external process and such type of thermal energy transfer
is called convection. Another formed of convection is known as forced
convection in which the fluid is forced to flow by a pump or any other
mechanical mean. The convection heat transfer is mostly observed in gases
and liquids. The natural form of convection so occurred due to the variation
of temperature caused by buoyancy forces and it is observed in bulk fluid
only.
Another form of heat transfer is the process of radiation which is caused
by energy transfer by means of photons and they are emitted by any matter
as electromagnetic waves. The thermal radiation have the ability to flow in
vacuum as in case of space. The thermal radiations are resulted due to the
motion molecules in matter.
In industries, the heat transfer is very important in many chemical and
manufacturing process as heat addition and rejection of heat is an essential step
for example, principle of heat transfer are necessary in reactors in petroleum
industries. Similarly on laboratory scale various instrument are designed to
conduction various experimentation on different natural processes. There
are variety of instruments to study heat transfer on laboratory scale such as
This chapter will further discuss about fluid mechanics and its principle
and it deep analysis. Fluid mechanics is the branch of mechanics which deals
with the properties of forces, statistical conditions and motions on fluids at
static or dynamic conditions. This field of mechanics briefly elaborates the
science of flow round bodies, flow stability fluid statics, surface tension,
flow in enclose bodies, etc. Moreover, the fluid mechanics is one of the
complex field of science which is mathematically solved with numerical
methods and with latest techniques of computer software and one of the
most advanced approach is called computational fluid dynamics, in this type
Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer 205
field, the fluids which are at motion are only discussed. Similarly another
method to visualize the fluids flow is known as Particle image velocimetry.
There are two main branches of fluid mechanics which are fluid statics and
fluid dynamics. In fluid statics, the fluids are analyzed which are at rest
and follows the conditions that fluids are at rest and in stable equilibrium.
This branch of fluid mechanics gives brief explanation of different natural
phenomenon of fluids such as float of oil on water and change of atmospheric
pressure with respect to height, the application of hydraulics which is storing
and using the statics motion of fluids, some aspect of astrophysics, medicine,
geophysics, meteorology, etc.
However, the 2nd branch of fluid mechanics, fluid dynamics, deals with
those fluid which are at motion and the motion of liquids and gases in
motion are most significant in this field. Fluid dynamics are used to study the
measurement of flow and to solve many practical problems, the problems
of fluid mathematical properties such as velocity, density, temperature,
pressure which is utilized as functions of time and space. This branch of fluid
dynamics is subdivided into various other branches such as aerodynamics
which is the study gas and air in motion and the field of hydrodynamics
which is study of liquids in motion. Similarly, the fluid dynamics possess
various practical applications such as calculating the correct aerodynamic
forces on aero planes, calculating the mass flow rate of fluid in pipelines
in different oil and gas field industries, to predict the next season weather
patterns which can be useful for the field of agriculture. Moreover, it can be
also useful for the discipline of dynamics of crowd and traffic engineering,
to study modeling explosions in space.
Furthermore, it is used in many biological process as well in different
industries such as analysis of continuous flow of blood in the organs of body,
to study in the case of batch reactors, the fluid dynamics is used to cooled
down the required mixture and in case of calculation of buoyancy forces to
measure the densities of different shapes of matter on the liquid. A fluid is
a substance that goes through continuous changes when under shear stress
and it is bounded by two large parallel plates, of area A, separated by a small
distance H. The bottom plate is held fixed. When force F is applied to the
upper plate, it moves at a velocity of U, and the fluid continue to deform
when force is applied while solid goes through a finite deformation. Force
F
is proportional to the area of the plate; the shear stress is 𝜏 = A , within
y / H is established; and due to a no-
the fluid, a linear velocity profile u = U
slip condition. The fluid bounding the lower plate has zero velocity U. The
velocity gradient is called is called shear rate for this flow. Shear rates
are usually reported in units of reciprocal seconds. The ratio of shear stress
to shear rate is the viscosity, μ μ ꞊ . The SI units of viscosity are kg/ (m ∙ s)
or Pa∙ s (pascal second). The cgs unit for viscosity is poise; 1 Pa∙ s equals 10
poise or 1000 centipoise (cP) or 0.672 Ibm/(ft ∙ s); kinematic viscosity
is the ratio of viscosity to density. The SI Unit of kinematic viscosity are /s.
The cgs stoke is 1c/s. Fluid flow pattern are more complex in rheology as it
is a relationship between fluid deformation and stress. Rheology is the study
of relationship in fluid flow and it primary goal is to obtain a constitutive
equation by which stresses may be computed from deformation rates. Purely
viscous fluids are fluid without any solid like elastic behavior which do not
undergo any reverse deformation when shear stress is removed. The shear
stress depends on the rate of deformation and not on the extent of strain. The
fluid which exhibit both viscous and elastic properties are called viscoelastic
fluids. Viscous fluids are time – independent and time-dependent fluids.
The shear stress depends on instantaneous shear rate while the shear stress
for time-dependent fluid depends on the history of the rate of deformation,
because of structure or breakdown at the time of deformation. The Newtonian
fluid rheogram is a straight line passing through the origin. The slope of the
line is the viscosity, and this is independent of the shear rate and sometimes
depend only on temperature and perhaps pressure.
Shear thinning fluids are those which the slope of the rheogram decreases
with increasing shear rate and they have been called pseudo plastic. Polymer
melts and solutions/ solid suspension are shear-thinning. Dilatant fluids
shows increasing viscosity with increasing shear rate. Time independent
fluids are those which structural rearrangements occur during deformation
at a slow rate to maintain equilibrium configurations.
The kinematic of fluid flow depends on the quantitative description
of the fluid deformation and the rate depends on how velocity is being
distributed in the fluid. The velocity of the fluid is the vector quantity with
three Cartesian components .
Compressible and Incompressible flow has the density of the fluid
constant or nearly constant. Fluid are compressible when the density varies
by more than 5 to 10%. Practically, compressible flows are normally limited
to gases, supercritical fluids, and multiphase flows containing gases. Liquid
flows are normally treated as incompressible except in the context of
hydraulic transients.
Laminar and turbulent flow are two types of flow. Laminar flow has
smooth streamlines and the fluid velocity components vary smoothly with
position and with time if the flow is steady while turbulent flow has no
smooth streamlines and the velocity shows chaotic fluctuation in time and
space. Reynolds number is defined for a Newtonian fluid as Re = LU
where L is a characteristic length.
Multiphase flows are generally complex, and several features are
identified which poses more complication than single-phase flow. Fluid
distribution is important for efficient operation of chemical-processing
equipment such as contractors, reactors, heat exchangers, burners, mixers,
extrusion dies and textile -spinning chimneys. To have optimum distribution,
proper consideration must be given to flow behavior in the distributor, flow
conditions upstream and downstream of the distributor and the distribution
requirements of the equipment. For turbulent flow, the combine effect of
friction and inertial pressure recovery is given by;
 ρV
2
 4 fL
∆p =  − 2k  1
 3D  2 (discharge manifold)
where ∆p = net pressure drops over the length of the distribution;
L = pipe length;
D = pipe diameter;
F = Fanning friction factor;
V i = distribution net velocity.

Fluid mixing is a discipline of fluid mechanics and it is used to speed
up slow processes of diffusion and conduction to ensure concentration and
temperature are in uniform, blend materials, enable chemical reactions, and
allow intimate contact of multiple phases.
The proper use of heat transfer knowledge in the design of practical
heat-transfer equipment is an art. Designers must have knowledge of the
difference between an ideal condition for and under the basic knowledge
would be obtained and as well as the mechanical expression of their design
and its environment. Process heat exchangers design normally adhere the
following steps:
The condition of the process must be specified (stream compositions,
flow rates, temperatures, pressures).
• Physical properties over the temperature and pressure ranges of

interest must be specified.
• The choice of heat exchanger to be chosen.
• An estimation of the size of the exchanger is made, using heat-
transfer coefficient appropriate to the fluids, the process and the
equipment.
• Design is chosen and complete in all detail necessary to carry out
the design calculations.
• The above chosen design is evaluated as its strength to meet
the process specifications with respect to both heat transfer and
pressure drop.
• Based on the result of Step 6, a new configuration is chosen if
necessary and step 6 is repeated.
The overall heat-transfer coefficient design equation for heat exchanger
is
where dA is the element of surface area required to transfer an amount of

heat dQ at a point in the exchanger and the overall heat transfer coefficient
is U and the overall bulk temperature difference between the two streams is
ΔΤ.
Fluid dynamic history gases, air, fluids as well as water are both fluids.
Continuing the partial differential formulas that define the activity of such
fluids, stipulation of the basis for the difference in between these 2 kinds of
fluids and after that the recap of the appropriate thermodynamic connections
is talked about.
22.1. PHASES OF MATTER

The phases of matter might be generally classified right into fluids and
solids. Fluids do not stand up to contortion as well as tackle the form of its
container owing to their lack of ability to sustain the shear tension in fixed
stability. The difference in between fluids as well as solids is not so easy
and is according to both the thickness of the moment and the issue range
of rate of interest. A fluid is a liquid with the residential or commercial
property that transforms to the form of its container and maintains its
continuous quantity independent of stress. A gas is a compressible fluid that
not only modifications to the form of its container however additionally

broadens to inhabit the complete container. A fluid is a liquid with the
residential property that transforms to the form of its container as well as
stays at its consistent quantity independent of stress. The important kind
of the form element for an ellipsoid exists and after that made use of to get
logical expressions and mathematical worth for the form elements of many
isothermal geometries. It is revealed that the dimensionless form element is
a weak feature of the geometry offered that the square origin of the overall
energetic area is selected as the body size. The form variable results of this
phase are made use of in the phase on all- natural convection to design warm
transfer from isothermal bodies of approximate form. When steady-state
transmission take place within and outside solids in between getting in touch
with solids, it is often dealt with by ways and methods of using conduction
form as well as thermal conductance specifically. This phase covers the
fundamental formulas, meanings, and connections that specify elements and
the thermal contact, space, and joint conductance for adhering, harsh surface
areas, as well as conforming surface areas. The basic expression is utilized
to establish various and basic expressions in many vital coordinate systems
such as (1) round, elliptical. and bicylinder collaborates. (2) spheroidal
collaborates round, oblate spheroidal and prolate spheroidal. The essential
type of the form and element for an ellipsoid is provided and afterwards
utilized to acquire logical expressions and mathematical worth’s for the
form and variables of numerous isothermal geometries, oblate, and prolate
spheroids as well as elliptical machine. It is shown that the dimensionless
form and element is a weak feature of the geometry shape form as well as
element proportion supplied that the origin of the overall energetic location
is chosen as the size. A basic expression is suggested for precise evaluations
of form elements of three-dimensional bodies such as cuboids.
REFERENCES
1. Anderson, D. A., Tannehill, J. C., & Pletcher, R. H (2012) Computational
Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer 244-346
2. http://www.potto.org/fluidMech/intro.php
3. https://energy.gov/energysaver/principles-heating-and-cooling
4. Perry R. H & Green, D.W (1997) (Seven Edn) Perry’s Chemical
Engineers Handbook.6.26 -6.36
CHAPTER
23
MATHEMATICAL MODELING
AND NUMERICAL METHODS
The chapter will be a continuation of the above chapters that introduced the
discussion of ordinary differential calculus and calculations. The chapter
will discuss the topics such as numerical methods in computing with real
numbers, numerical differentiation, interpolation, and curve fitting using
regression analysis. The chapter will discuss the topics in statistics such as
theory (binomial, Poisson, and normal distributions), large sample theory
(central limit theorem), and elements of statistical inference using confidence
intervals and hypothesis testing, t-tests, and f-tests.
Numerical numbers are numbers used to simulate mathematical processes

which simulate real world situations. Computing is all about insight and
the choice of a formula, logarithm does not only influence the computing
but understands the results when they are obtained. The progress of the
computing, the number of iterations, spacing used by a formula gives light
to the problems. The second main idea is a consequence of the first, if the
purpose of computing is insight and not numbers. It is necessary to study
families and to relate one family to another therefore, avoiding isolated
logarithms and formulas. The difference in numerical methods and analysis
elaborates the subject more. Numerical methods are methods which meet the
need for method to cope with the potential infinite variety of problems that
arises while numerical analysis is the study in-depth of a few, selected and
topics and is carried out in a formal mathematical avenue that is not lacking
to the world. The third measure idea is the round off error and the finite
nature of the computing machine which only deals with finitely numbers
shown. Numerical differentiation is the process of finding the derivatives
of functions. Similarly, ordinary differential equation (ODE) is the
mathematical representation of any physical quantity which is the function
of any independent variable. If more than one independent variable includes
then this equation will be called as partial differential equation. There are
two types of ordinary differential equations, linear and nonlinear differential
equations. linear differential equations have closed-form solutions that
can be added and multiplied by coefficients while nonlinear lack additive
solutions so these are complex to deal with. These equations can be solved
in graphical and numerical methods by using computer applications or by
hand.
Consider a very basic example of ODE in which x is any

quantity which the function of independent variable is ‘time’. x(t) is a
constant function, x(t)=C. where C cant not be specify uniquely if we only
have equations for the derivatives of x. for the unique solution of x(t), one
must provide some additional data in terms of the function x(t) itself. In
order to solve differential equations numerical methods are useful specially
in the case where symbolic computation cannot solve the equation. For
example, in engineering different algorithms are used to compute numeric
approximations. There are various mathematical procedures used to solve
problems.
• Simultaneous Linear/Nonlinear Equations
• Integration/Differentiation
• Ordinary/ Partial Differential Equations
• Curve Fitting (Interpolation, Regression)
• Optimization
• Fast Fourier Transforms
Curve fitting: is the process of making A curve by joining series of data
points to develop a mathematical function. This technique is used to find
out the values of coefficient used in function or differential equations in
which one independent variable has a function with respect to a dependent
variable. If we have data measured with any analytic function, we use two
approaches to solve this problem ‘Interpolation and Curve fitting.’ We use
assumption in case of interpolation takes precise data, we just consider
that the data is correct and the information given by the set of points is
Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Methods 213
describing the desired function and the curve pass the all the points. In
case of curve fitting or Least squares regression data shows a significant
extent of scatter we try to get best fit curve to show the general trend of data
which means the curve which covers the maximum data points but it is not
necessarily happens in every case. In engineering, these techniques have
tow applications one is trend analysis which is the prediction of dependent
variables by extrapolation or interpolation Second is hypothesis testing,
which is a Comparison of mathematical models or existing algorithms with
measured data. Probability is one of the topics of mathematics which deals
with the calculation of occurrence of event within 0 and 1. Zero means
that event is impossible to happen and 1 means the event will happen. In
real-life applications probability distribution can be categorized as discrete
(Binomial, Poisson) and continuous (Uniform, Normal, Exponential).
For x is in between positive and negative infinities. E(x) = u and V(x) =
thus the nominal distribution is characterized by u and standard deviation .
Binomial random variable is represented with the symbol X, the probability
distribution of X is called the binomial distribution.
Let f(x) (non-negative) is the density function of variable X. Then, f(x)
is the rate which probability gathers in area of x.
Notwithstanding, f(x) h ≈ P(x < X ≤ x + h) when h (a positive number)
is necessarily small.
Then, P(x1 < X ≤ x2) = Z x2 x1 f(x) dx; (4), we must have Z ∞ − ∞ f(x)
dx = 1.
Continuous distribution is the exponential distribution that has the
following probability density function:
f(x) = λe − λx (10) for x ≥ 0.
Another useful continuous distribution is the exponential distribution,
which has the following probability density function:
f(x) = λe − λx (10) for x ≥ 0.
The exponential distribution is used to model time intervals between
“random events.”… X is called a Poisson random variable and the probability
distribution of X is called the Poisson distribution. Its probability mass
function is:
P(X = x) = e − µ µ x x! (2) for x =0, 1, 2,...
The value of µ is the parameter of the distribution.
23.1. MEAN AND VARIANCE

It can be shown that E(X) = µ and V (X) = µ. 13. In this situation, the
total number of events, in that interval has a binomial distribution with
parameters n and µ/ n. That is, P(X = x) = n! Some probability distributions
have appeared in real-life applications individually. Basic study properties
and distributions are discussed after much studies: binomial; Poisson;
uniform; normal; and exponential. The first two are discrete and the last
three continuous.
23.1.1. Binomial Distribution

Let’s consider in a sequence of coin flips, the number of heads/tails and
vote is numbered for two different candidates in an election. In a company,
the number of males and female employees are counted. The number of
accounts in compliance or not in compliance with an accounting procedure.
The number of successful calls in sales and the number of defective products
in a production run. The number of days your company’s computer network
experiences a problem in a month. These situations involve the application
of binomial distribution.
23.1.2. Canonical Framework

There are set of assumptions that leads to a binomial distribution if valid. Let
X is the total number of successes. X is called a binomial random variable,
and the probability distribution of X is called the binomial distribution. The
Poisson distribution is another family of distributions that shows in many
business situations. It is applicable when random events occur at a certain rate
over a time. Let’s consider this example, the number of customers arriving
at a bank, accidents in a stretch of highway daily, number of accesses to
a web server, number of emergency calls in New York, number of typos
in a book, monthly number of employees that has an absence in a large
company, monthly demands for a product. These are all situations where
the Poisson distribution are applicable. The Poisson distribution rises when
set of canonical assumptions are reasonably valid. The number of events
that occur in any time interval that is independent of the number of events
in other disjoint interval. The distribution of number of events in an interval
is the same for all intervals of same size. The function F(x) ≡ P(X ≤ x) = Z
x − ∞. f(y) is called the cumulative distribution function of X. F(x) is used
to describe a random variable, since f(x) is the derivative of F(x). Different
probabilities of interest that has a variable X can all be computed via either
f(x) or F(x).
23.1.3. Uniform Distribution

The uniform distribution is the simplest example of a continuous probability
distribution. A random variable X is uniformly distributed if its density
function is given by: f(x) = 1 b − a (5) for − ∞ < a ≤ x ≤ b < ∞.
23.2. BINOMIAL PROBABILITY-MASS FUNCTION

Consider a random binomial variable let it be X. Then, its probability
function is:
for x = 0, 1, 2,…n. The values of n and p are called the parameters of the
distribution. In the given formula the shows the probability
of n trials that contains x = successes and n – x = failures. The total number
of such sequences is equal to
The total number of possible combinations when we randomly select x

objects out of n objects).
Poisson Probability. Let X is a random Poisson variable. its probability
can be calculated as:
The value of µ is the parameter of the distribution for x = 0, 1, 2,...
23.3. NORMAL DISTRIBUTION

For the normal distribution of a random variable X with parameters µ and σ,
its density function can be define as
In statistical theory the “central limit theorem (CLT)” states that with
the finite level of variance for large size sample of population, the mean
for the all samples from the same population will be equal to mean of the
population with condition that all sample must follow normal distribution
pattern with variance of population divided by size of each sample. There
are limitations in this theorem application the sample size must be equal to
or greater than 30 will be acceptable but in case when sample size increases
the mean of sample data become closer to the mean of overall population or
the means of the sample should be normally distributed.
Statistical inference is the inferring of properties of probability
distribution by data analysis. This analysis gives properties of a population:
this includes testing hypotheses and deriving estimates. The population is
consider as set and observed data is subset or sample from the population.
This analysis can be compared with descriptive statistics. Which only
consider the properties of the observed data and does not assume that the
data came from a larger population. A truly informative statistical inference,
however, should provide not only a point estimate but should also indicate
how confident we can be that the estimate is correct. So, rather than a single
value, we often prefer to use a range of values. This is what is known as
an interval estimate: an interval of numbers (usually centred around some
point estimate) within which the parameter value is believed to fall. Another
name for interval estimates is confidence intervals, because they contain the
parameter with a certain degree of confidence. A statistical hypothesis, also
called confirmatory data analysis, it is a testable hypothesis that can be observe
by the model of the process formed by random variables the hypothesis test
uses statistical inference method, in which two data sets are compared a
data set from sampling and synthetic data from an existing ideal model. The
comparison is basically the alternative of null hypothesis in which there is
no relationship between two data sets. According to a threshold probability,
the comparison can be statistically significant if the relationship between the
data sets would show the understanding of the null hypothesis. Hypothesis
tests are used to find out the reasons of rejection of the null hypothesis for
a pre-defined level of significance. The characterization of null hypothesis
and the alternative hypothesis is assisted by recognising conceptual errors
and by defining their parametric limits. An alternative method for statistical
hypothesis testing is to postulate a set of statistical models, one for each
candidate hypothesis, and then use model selection techniques to select
the most suitable model. The common selection techniques are based on
either Akaike information criterion or Bayes factor. T-test is used for the
estimation of population parameter, for example, population mean, and is
also used for hypothesis testing for population mean. It is only applicable
when population standard deviation is not confirmed. In case of known

population standard deviation, Z-test will be used. Both are used to estimate
population parameters: population mean and proportion. It is also used in
hypothesis testing for population mean or population proportion. Unlike
Z-statistic or t-statistic, where we deal with mean & proportion, Chi-square
or F-test is used for finding out whether there is any variance within the
samples. F-test is the ratio of variance of two samples.
REFERENCES
1. http://home.agh.edu.pl/~zak/downloads/MN1–2015-Eng.pdf
2. http://makemeanalyst.com/normal-distribution-binomial-distribution-
Poisson-distribution/
3. https://library2.lincoln.ac.nz/documents/Normal-Binomial-Poisson.
pdf
4. https://www.essie.ufl.edu/~kgurl/Classes/Lect3421/Fall_01/NM5_
curve_f01.pdf
5. https://www.utdallas.edu/~scniu/OPRE-6301/documents/Important_
Probability_Distributions.pdf
CHAPTER
24
PROCESS CONTROL,
INSTRUMENTATION, AND
SAFETY
The chapter will introduce the readers to the principles of chemical process
systems, modern control systems, advanced process control, computational
techniques in control engineering, industrial communication systems, system
identification, instrumentation in chemical engineering biotechnology and
current control systems.
Unlike the previous chapter, this chapter will discuss briefly about different
control systems that are used widely in industrial sector to overall increasing
the efficiency and improving the finishing of the final product. With increasing
demands of various chemical and products on large scale, this has resulted
in complexity of operations of an industrial unit and plant design which
have further resulted to improvised different control techniques, algorithms
and methodologies. The improved control system of an manufacturing unit
in an industry not only utilize the raw material efficiently but also increases
the productivity and decreases the pollution level in the surrounding areas
and improve the safety level of the plant.
A control system is such a system which possess predefined condition
with the help of variable or set of variables to maintain a specific output
or conditions. A control system can be further controlled by electricity or
it can be mechanically controlled, by a fluid or it can be controlled with
combination of different types of means. With the help of a computer system,
a control system can be easily controlled and can be monitored as well with
further adjustment in the output according to the requirements. A control

system is the foundation of automation process of industry. There are two
types of control systems which are feedback and feed forward systems. The
example of feed forward can be of early Loom of early 18th century, whereas
the feedback system was incorporated in the industrial sector in 19th century
and solved those problems of industrial sector which was not previously
possible and its example is shaper machine followed by an cutting tool and
in such away the tool can adjust itself according to the shape of product.
A control system is composed of two fundamental characteristics which
are as follows:
• The motor can vary the output value of control quantity as it
draws the power which is coming from a power source rather
than an input signal. So, a large amount of power is viable to
effect the value of the quantity which has to be controlled and
also the loading the entire system has no effect on the input signal
or distort its accuracy and range.
• The amount of energy that is fed to the input signal to vary
the control quantity is determined from a specific function that
lies between the desired and actual values of the quantity to be
controlled.
Similarly, the efficiency and stability of an control system is determined
on the basis to which extent it can compensate and bring the system to
normal state when an external signal is fed to that control system. If, with
the addition of external signal causes the system to overcorrect itself then
a condition is automatically performed by the system known as hunting,
in this phenomenon, first the system overcorrect itself in one direction
and then after modification, it overcorrects itself in opposite direction. As
indicates from the discussion that the process of hunting takes time and it
is undesirable in an chemical plant to wait for the system to return to its
normal state, so another element is attached to the system called Dampers
which slows down the response of the entire system which not only avoids
unnecessary overcorrection but also stops the excessive overshoots of the
control system of industrial process. The examples of damping can be an
electrical resistance in the circuit, in mechanical systems brake plays the
role of dampers as well as shock absorbers can also perform damping in the
system.
Furthermore, another method to determine the stability of a system
is frequency response method in which various frequencies are fed in
Process Control, Instrumentation, and Safety 221
continuously varying signal to the system and the output taken from the
system is compared with the phase value and amplitude of the system. There
are many methods to calculate the frequency response of the system through
practically and mathematically (they are useful for such systems that are
based on ordinary linear differential equation).
To design a modern control system, there are many techniques and
different algorithms available such as adaptive control is one of them in
which the system is designed in such a way that the system modify itself to
give best optimal and desired output. The functions which adaptive control
possess are identification of a process, updating, and providing the current
state of the system, making comparison with the present result and desired
result and making such changes in the system to give optimum performance
in the output of the system. Similarly, unlike adaptive control technique,
another technique known as dynamic optimizing control technique operates
in the system in terms of specific conditions to give specific output in results.
This method is mostly used in a situation when control system is moves its
position from original position to a new position during small amount of
time.
Moreover, one of the control technique that is widely used in industrial
sector is Model Productive Control (MPC) which is still considered among
the most advanced control techniques. Due to its ability to deal with the
complex problems and input to output to interactions, this control techniques
(it was developed in 1970 and later improved with the passage of time)
also possess the ability to deal to various variables and executing it in same
time with any inference between them. But the limitations associated with
MPC have been removed in past couple of year and it is continuously been
removed. The advancements are adequately accomplishing the targets of
different control techniques and to design MPC, following are the basic
characteristic should be possessed by such system:
• The controller should have the ability of absorb different
uncertainties such as disturbance or sudden change of values of
input variables.
• The controller should have the tendency to perform in an tough
environment with state variables and their actuation
• The controller should be designed in such a way that it should
deal with non-linear systems and interacting system variables.
• If the system goes through the phase of power failure or other
uncertainties the controller should remain safe and reliable.
A process is shown has a manipulated input M, a load input L, and

a controlled output C, which is flow, pressure, liquid level, temperature,
composition, inventory, environmental, or quality variable holds a desired
value identified as the set point R.
An open-loop system positions the manipulated variable either manually
or a programmed basis, without the use of any measurements. This operation
is acceptable for well-defined process without disturbances.
A closed-loop system uses the measurement of one or more process
variable to move the manipulated variable to achieve control.
In feedback control loop, the controlled variable is compared to the
set of point R, with the difference, deviation, or error e acted upon by the
controller to move m in such a way to minimize the error. The action demotes
a negative feedback in that an increase in deviation moves m to decrease the
deviation. The action of the controller is selected to allow use on process
gains of both signs.
A Feed-forward Control system uses measurements of disturbance
variables to position the manipulated variable in such a way as to minimize
any resulting deviation. The disturbance variables could be either measured
loads or the set point, the former being more common. The feed-forward
gain must be set precisely to offset the deviation of the controlled variable
from the set point.
Computers controls have been used to replace analog PID controllers,
by setting set points of lower level controllers in supervisory control, or
by driving valves directly in direct digital control. Single-station digital
controllers perform PID control in one or two loops, including computing
functions such as mathematical operations, characterization, lags, and dead
time, with digital logic and alarms.
Figure 24.1. Block diagram for feed-forward and feedback control.

24.1. FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEM

CHARACTERISTICS
Using the diagram above as a simple presentation of closed feedback
loop, the load enters the process at the same point as the variable that is
manipulated due to the most common point of entry. Due to lack of sufficient
information, the transfer function that gains in the path of the manipulated
variables are the best estimates of those in the load path. The load has to
impact in the controlled variable by passing through the lag in the process.
On and Off Controller are used for manipulated variables having only
two states. The temperature in homes is commonly controlled, electric water
heaters and refrigerators, and pressure and liquid level in pump storage
systems. On/Off control is satisfactory when slow cycling is acceptable
because it leads to cycling in which the load lies in between the state of
manipulated variable.
Proportional – Plus – Integral (PI) Control: Integral action eliminates the
offset described above by moving the controller output at a rate proportion
to the deviation from set point. It is most mostly combined with proportional
action in a PI controller when available alone in a integral controller.
where tI is the integral time constant in minutes, it is introduced as integral

gain or reset rate 1/tI in repeat per minute in most controller. The last term
in the equation is the constant of integration, the value the controller output
has when integration begins.
24.1.1. Controller Tuning

The performance of a controller depends more on its tuning than its designs.
Tuning is applied to the end user to fit the controller to the controlled process.
There are different approaches to controller tuning due to performance
criteria selected, whether it is load or set-point changes are important, or
process is lag-or dead time-dominant and the availability of information
about the process dynamics.
Controller Performance Criteria: The measures of controller performance
in an industrial setting are the maximum deviation in the controlled variable
that results from a disturbance and its integral.
24.2. BENEFITS OF ADVANCED CONTROL

The efficiency of most processes is determined by steady-state operating
conditions. Economic performance is enhanced by the steady-state operating
conditions alterations that lead to more efficient process operation. The
following hierarchy is used for process control:
Level 0 - Measurement Devices and Actuator

Measurement devices and actuator: These devices and methods are used for
sampling biological fluid as well as to measure the target constituent within
the biological fluid. Obviously, the subject devices have a sampling device
that is used for skin surface work which helps to provide access to biological
fluid. The devices are best to used in the sampling and concentration
measuring of glucose in interstitial fluids which also provides kit that include
subject devices used in practicing the subject methods
Level 1 - Functional Control

Magnetic resonance imaging is used to investigate the neural correlation of
self-regulatory control across development in healthy individuals performing
the strop interference task. Performance of task allows the involvements of
self-regulatory control to inhibit an atomized response that is in approval
of another, less automatic response. The magnitude of fMRI signal change
has an increased age in the right inferolateral prefrontal cortex and the right
lenticular nucleus. It is inevitably not possible that age related changes in
the ability to read or in the ways used to optimize task performance would
affect the findings.
Level 2 - Supervisory Control

This is a class of important system that is formed otherwise called discrete-
event systems. These systems are modeled by automata together with a
mechanism to enable and disable a subset of state transitions. The situation
is to ensure by appropriate supervision that the closed loop behavior of
the system falls within a legal behavior. If a behavior is decayed into an
intersection of component restrictions, conditions are determined which is
possible to synthesize the appropriate control in a integrated way
Level 3 - Production Control

Project controls have been focused on after the fact detection of variances.
The last planning system made an excellent application by firms with direct
responsibility for production management;, e.g., specialty contractors. These
application poses two research questions thereby (1) what tools provides and
improved implementation of the Last Planner system of production control
to increase plan reliability above the 70% PPC Level? (2) How/Can Last
Planner be successfully applied in order for plans to increase it reliability
during design process. This question is investigated in an extensive case
study, that has significant contribution to understanding design process from
active control perspective
Level 4 - Information Technology

This reports on the development of an instrument that is designed to measure
the various perceptions that may be adopting an information technology
(IT) Innovation within organizations. Consequently, the lack of a theoretical
foundation for these research and inadequate measurement of constructs
has been programed as major causes of the outcomes. In recent studies, the
diffusion of new end-user IT, focused on measuring the potential adopter’s
perceptions of the technology. Measuring these perceptions is a downfall
in the innovation diffusion literature. The was based formerly on the five
characteristic of innovations formed by Roger (1983) form the diffusion
literature, with additional two developed within the study. The main object
was to verify the convergent and discriminant the validity of the scales in
examining how the items were measured into different construct categories.
This analyses inter-judge agreement about item placement that identifies
both bad items as well as weaknesses in some of the construct’s original
definitions.
Levels 2, 3 and 4 clearly affect the process economics, as all three levels
are directed to optimizing the process in some manner.
Most processes are determined by the constraint; which could be
product specifications and problems associated with the constraint causes
off-specification product. Also, the constraint is equipment limit and any
violation of the constraint causes equipment protection mechanism to
activate. In advanced control techniques, the single-loop PID controller
is acceptable in many process applications but has a poor performance
for processes with slow dynamics, time delays, frequent disturbances, or
multivariable interactions.
In feed-forward control, if the process shows a slow dynamic response

and disturbance frequently, there is advantage in the application of feed
forward control. Feed forward control (FF) control is different from feedback
(FB) control in that primary disturbance or Load (L) is measured with a
sensor and the manipulated variable (m) is adjusted.
In cascade control, the failures of using conventional feedback controller
is because there is not disturbance until controlled variables deviates from
its set point. Correction by feedback controller is usually slow and delayed
or results in long-term deviation from set-point. One way to improve the
dynamic response to load changes is by using secondary measurement point
and controller. The measurement point is located as it recognizes the upset
condition before the primary controlled variable is affected.
Furthermore, selective and override control is when there is more
controlled variables than manipulated variables and a chosen selector is
used to solve the problem from among a number of available measurements.
Selectors can be categories by a number of different options such as multiple
measurement points, multiple final control elements or multiple controllers.
Selectors help in the improvement of control system performance as well as
protect equipment from safe operating conditions.
REFERENCES
1. http://accelconf.web.cern.ch/AccelConf/ICALEPCS2013/papers/
thppc081.pdf
2. http://web.mit.edu/cheme/news/seminars-16/PaulsonJoel.pdf
3. https://www.britannica.com/technology/control-system
CHAPTER
25
CHEMOMETRICS
The chapter will introduce the reader to instrumental analysis in chemistry,

calibration techniques in chemical and biotechnology engineering,
analytical techniques such as variance analysis, correlation coefficients and
multivariate analysis.
The instrumental chemistry is defined as such branch of chemistry in which

different analysis and investigations are made on analyte with the help of
instruments whereas an analyte is a substance whose chemical properties
are being studied. There are various instrumental techniques in chemistry
which are further divided into various categories depending upon the type
of analyte. Many methods are quantitative as well as qualitative analysis but
the major categories are separatory, spectral, and electroanalytical.
The first instrumental method is the spectral method in which
electromagnetic radiation are applied which is being scattered or absorbed
by the analyte. As the type of radiation emitted by the analyte can be
different from one another, in which material properties is identified and
spectral instrumental analysis possess the largest instrumental techniques
of chemistry. One of the mostly used spectral methods is absorptiometry
in which electromagnetic radiations are provided by the instrument and are
being absorb the analyte and the quantity of radiations absorbed the material
is measured, in radiations the photons strikes the molecule and transfer its
energy and make them excited (high energy state) and the energy of incident
radiation decreases as well. The absorptiometry is further subcategorized into
many types and the types mainly depend upon the type of emitted radiations
and the wavelength. There types are radio waves absorptiometry (in which
nuclear magnetic in terms of resonance spectrometry is studied ultraviolet-

visible absorptiometry), infrared absorptiometry, and X-ray absorptiometry.
The instrument and their tendency to measure the radiations from one
spectral region t another can be different but their operating principles is the
same and they consist of three essential components which are given as a
source which produces the electromagnetic radiations, a specially designed
cell which contains such properties that it is transparent to radiations but
contains the sample that is being studied and a detecting equipment that
measures the amount of radiation which is absorb by the sample.
Similarly, nuclear magnetic resonance is another form of spectral method
of instrument analysis. The absorption by analyte results in various physical
process within it and the radio frequency of radiations causes the nucleus
of an atom to spin in different state in the presence of an magnetic field, the
nuclear magnetic resonance method helps us in this way to study the nuclei
of an atom as well as its possible transition between different spin states.
Since different kind of atoms possess different spin state which are further
separated from each other by their amount of energy possessed by them,
in this way this method of spectral analysis of instrumentation identifies
different types of atoms in analyte and the observation on the spin states can
only be monitored in the presence of a magnetic field.
Another spectral methods is microwave absorptiometry is similar to
nuclear magnetic resonance but in this methods electron spin resonance is
studied and the absorb radiations by the sample falls into microwave spectral
region and transition of spin states of electrons occurs as a result. The
presence of magnetic field is also required in this method and this application
is mostly utilized in the study of different structures and chemical reactions
of materials which contains unpaired electrons.
The last method of spectral analysis of instrumentation is heat analysis
in which heat is added to the analyte and its properties are being monitored
its temperature as well. The change in temperature is compared with internal
changes of the sample and this result is then utilized in the quantitative
and qualitative analysis and mechanism of decomposition for analyte is
determined.
Infrared spectrophotometry is another technique for the instrumental
analysis in which the infrared radiations are absorbed by the analyte and
causes the rotation and vibrational changes in the sample. The changes
caused by vibrations are different energy level of vibrations within the same
molecule. The infrared spectrophotometry is primarily used for organic
Chemometrics 231
analysis as the vibrational energy levels are mainly dependent on the type of
atoms and on the functional groups attached to the molecule. It also contains
its application in quantitative analysis as well.
Similar to infrared spectrophotometry, the Ultraviolet-visible
spectrophotometry absorbed by the analyte and it causes the electrons of
atoms in its outermost shell to jump into unoccupied high energy state. The
Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotometry principle is mainly used in quantitative
analysis of different types of molecules and their atoms. This method is
much more useful as the height of peaks of absorption of ultra-visible region
in organic and inorganic compounds is much more as compared with other
methods of instrumental analysis. In case of gaseous state, if the analyte is
constituent of atoms only then this methods is given the name as atomic
absorption spectrophotometry.
Another method of instrumentation analysis is X-ray absorption which
the X-rays are radiated on the analyte and the occupied outermost electrons
are excited which are moved into unoccupied shells. Also the energy of
X-rays can even sometimes ionizes the analyte as they also have the tendency
to remove the electron or electrons from the atom or molecule. The study of
X-ray absorption is only limited to the atom rather than the whole molecules
as the inner shell electrons are linked with the atoms. This method is used
in quantitative analysis by comparing the results of spectra of unknown
substance with the spectra of known analyte. The shapes of spectra obtained
in the X-ray absorption are different than the other methods of absorptions
but the operating principle of all the methods are same.
Various statistical techniques are applied on the result that area obtained
from the instrumental analysis of various analyte. The analytical chemistry
works in such a way that there are always chances of errors. If results from
different sources consisted of variability then the sources of error must be
identified and further controlled in an efficient way. Variance is used in such
cases which is a statistical technique which estimate such factors whom
contribute to the significance of results and removes the error from the
calculation.
The potential of chemometric is huge and it key is understanding how to
perform meaningful calculations on data. Most cases, this calculation is too
complex to use by hand or calculator, so software is being used inevitable.
Data analysis is not knowledge based but a skilled based subject and
the key is to understand few basic principles. MATLAB and Excel could be
considered useful simultaneously. Excel provides a good and new interface
and allows examination of data while MATLAB is best for developing

Matrix based algorithms. A design metrics is a very important concept.
Chemometric are interested in industrial process control and monitoring
plus aspect of analytical chemistry and near-infrared spectroscopy.
Chemical analysis is based on measurement of different physical and
chemical quantity with the aid of measurement equipment. The accuracy
of the measurement is paramount with the use of instrument calibration.
Laboratory inspections are vital as a result interlaboratory test are conducted.
Large amount of homogenous sample is produced and smaller subsample to
the participating sub laboratory are sent. Results of the participant analyses
are collected and evaluated. The laboratory assessment is performed on
the basic of trueness and precision of its results. Interlaboratory tests are
carried out as a test of the practicality of a new analytical procedure, to
determine the characteristic of the procedures, to identify the characteristic
of a referential material.
25.1. INSTRUMENTAL CHEMICAL ANALYSIS

The aim of instrumental chemical analysis is the same as those of qualitative
and quantitative chemical analysis; difference is that instrumental techniques
are used instead. Equipment which has been specially designed to measure
specific phenomena are; optical, electrochemistry, and chromatography.
Many types of analysis can be carried out in a effective and efficient way.
This is also based on the type of machine used by electricity.
The following subsections describes below are the analytic chemical
instruments.
25.2. OPTICAL METHODS
25.2.1. Molecular Absorption Spectroscopy

Molecular structures at chemical processes are important for predicting
molecular reactivity and reaction mechanisms. A laser pulse as an internal
clock is used to begin fundamental chemical processes, and molecular
structural dynamics is characterized by coherent vibrational motions. Current
developments in pulsed X-ray facilities makes structural determination of
discrete excited states and reaction intermediates that uses laser-initiated
time resolved X-ray absorption spectroscopy (LITR-XAS). Moreover,
Chemometrics 233
femtosecond X-ray sources starts making significant contributions coherent

molecular motion. Further applications with high time resolution allows
visualization of fundamental chemical events in many systems and promotes
our understanding in photochemistry.
25.2.2. Molecular Fluorescence Spectroscopy

There are new tools for the study of individual macromolecules under
physiological conditions. This is because of advances in single-molecule
detection and single- molecule spectroscopy at room temperature by laser-
induced fluorescence. The activity of these tools relay conformational
states, conformational dynamics, and activity of single biological molecules
to physical observables, which are uncovered by ensemble averaging. Time
trajectories and distribution can be measured during a reaction without
matching all the molecules in the ensemble.
25.2.3. Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy

Metal stress in seawater was studied for a long period; poor analytical
techniques and unrepresentative sampling have made published data not
useful when acknowledging the role of elements in the geochemical and
biological cycles of the ocean. A solvent extraction method is devised to
recover copper, zinc, cobalt, nickel, and lead from seawater and then it
is transferred to solvent suitable for direct analysis by atomic adsorption
spectrometry. At these low levels, extreme care should be taken in the
development of a suitable method of analysis and working on the samples.
Statistical treatment of the data is developed and enables us to use computer
program to process the raw data and calculate confidence limits on each
analysis.
25.3. ELECTROCHEMISTRY METHODS
25.3.1. Potentiometry
This method is used for performing attractive mode force potentiometry
with sub millivolt accuracy and a spatial resolution of order 50 nm. The
technique allows measurements made in air on specimens that are passivized
or oxidized, conducting or semiconducting, with zero sensitivity to oxide
thickness or character. Potentiometric stripping analysis is made for highly
sensitive measurements of single stranded DNA at carbon paste electrodes.
Electrochemical (oxidative) pretreatment is used to condition the carbon

paste surface prior to the accumulation process.
25.3.2. Electrogravimetry
A model of transport of the charge carriers and neutral species in conducting
polymers is presented. Considered the diffusion of anions, cations, and
solvent in the polymer and the ion and solvent transfer kinetics at the polymer
solution interface. The electrochemical impedance and electro gravimetric
transfer function are derived and are calculated and plotted under several
experimental conditions. These are carried out on polyaniline film coating
one of the electrodes of a quartz crystal microbalance.
25.3.3. Coulometry
The discharge and charge endpoint capacities as well as the coulombic
efficiency of Li/graphite coin cells examined using the high precision charger.
Cells were charged and discharged at different c-rates and temperatures
observe the trends in the creation of the solid electrolyte interphase (SEI) on
the graphite electrode. The experiments show that time and temperature are
the dominant contributors to the growth of the SEI. The charge consumed
by the SEI is proportional to the electrode surface area and this increased
consumption on high surface area electrodes continues during cycling.
25.4. CHROMATOGRAPHY METHODS
25.4.1. Gas Chromatography

In gas chromatography applications, the present invention provides a
recirculating filtration system that is used with a transportable ion mobility
spectrometer. This has a pump and a set of filters and flow sensors that are
connected to an ion mobility spectrometry sensor which comprises of gas
chromatograph column at its inlet. The filter cleans the portion of the IMS
sensor’s outlet flow and circulates back to the IMS sensor as a carrier fluid
stream flow by the pump. The amount of flow equals to the amount of flow
introduced into the sensor as the sample is exhausted by the filtration system
to maintain a constant total flow volume that is through the system when the
sample is being analyzed.
Chemometrics 235
25.5. HIGH PERFORMANCE LIQUID

CHROMATOGRAPHY (HPLC)
This is a sensitive method used in determining free and total homocysteine
in human plasma which consist of free homocysteine that is protein-bound.
The thiol compounds in plasma, which are liberated from plasma proteins
with tri-n-butylphosphine, and are derived with thiol-specific fluorogenic
reagent, ammonium 7-fluorobenzo-2-oxa-1,3-diazole-4-sulphonate. These
are separated by reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography.
25.6. THIN LAYER CHROMATOGRAPHY

A novel planar liquid chromatographic technique that uses a pressurized
ultra microchamber (PUM chamber) has been developed. The sorbent layer
is covered by a membrane under external pressure, thereby eliminating vapor
phase. The pump system admits the solvent. The main advantage of this
technique overpressure thin-layer chromatography (TLC) has a shorter time
needed for separation than a classic column chromatography. This method
appears is suitable for the accurate modeling of column chromatographic
method.
25.7. ION EXCHANGE CHROMATOGRAPHY

This unit has the basic steps in planning and carrying out ion-exchange
chromatography to separate proteins. These describe both batch adsorption
and column chromatography in conjunction with either step or linear elution
gradients. The support procedures are (1) Pilot experiments that determines
initial conditions for batch or column chromatography, (2) Calculates the
dynamic capacity of an ion-exchange column, (3) Methods for producing
continuous gradients of pH and salt concentration to elute protein from ion-
exchange columns, (4) regeneration of used ion-exchange media and (5)
storage of ion-exchange media.
25.8. OPERATING LINE

The response given by the instrument is converted to an analytical result and
one of the frequently used methods is that of an operating line. A graph is
mapped out experimentally before a specific analysis before real sample are
given. The line produced in response to the signal which shows a chemical
parameter (concentration, quantity of material) ensures that analysis is
carried out within a certain interval. The analytical instrument reacts to a

stimulus at entry to produce a response which is a measure of some physical
size.
Imagine that x is the concentration of the analyte and that y is the response
of the instrument with depends on the way it functions, identification of the
relation y=f(x) is possible for an analytical procedure. This links the two
value and the graphic representation of the equation is called an operating
curve. In making effective change, the calibration curve is reduced to a
straight line expressed in an equation like where:
• is the angle coefficient of the x axis and the slope
• is the y – intercept; the point of interception with the vertical
axis
Working out the relationship by tracing the operating line which enables
the determination of analyte. One or more standards are used taking the
y value from the instrument and mapping the points on the graph. These
solutions at various concentrations are used to construct the operating line.
Standard solutions at operating points are diluted as necessary ensuring that
significant mistakes are not made during their preparation.
Chemometrics 237
REFERENCES
1. Funk, W., Dammann, V., & Donnevert, G., (1992) Quality Assurance
in Analytical Chemistry. Application in Environmental, Food, and
Materials Analysis, Biotechnology, and Medical Engineering. 15-32
2. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/ac00237a051
3. http://pubs.acs.org/doi/abs/10.1021/
ac50016a715?journalCode=ancham
4. http://www.federica.unina.it/agraria/analytical-chemistry/
instrumental-chemical-analysis/
5. https://www.britannica.com/science/chemical-analysis/Classical-
methods#ref621130
CHAPTER
26
PROCESS MODELING AND
SIMULATION
The chapter will introduce the readers to process and operations modeling,
random variables and probability distributions, model design, applications of
simulation modeling, analyzing simulation output, advanced arena concepts,
inventory theory and queuing, resource allocation problems, applications of
linear programming, transportation models, network analysis, and decision
analysis.
As the previous chapter describes instrument analysis of chemistry but

this chapter will discuss different aspects of modeling and simulation
techniques and their importance in daily life, some other terminology will
also be discussed as well. Modeling and simulation of a process is basically
a technique or methodology for the representation of a process or systems
by using various mathematical equations or physical measurements.
Both, modeling and simulation are treated individually and contain equal
importance. Modeling is used for conceptualization and to make various
assumptions which can be further utilized during the designing of a specific
model and its implementation in the real world. The execution of this
model comes under the umbrella of ‘simulation’ in which implementation
and experimentation of a model takes place, its behaviors with various
environmental parameters is noted and different conditions are applied to
it. Modeling and simulation is used for developing data for decision-making
and other managerial queries by repeating a set of simulations to visualize
its actual impact. It can facilitate to design and implement a systematical
model without testing the model in real conditions of the world and its result
can be obtained. A very common example is during the design of car spoiler
or its front hood, different computer simulation software can be run to find
out the fractional effect of the car and to remodel the design according to the
parameters, so useful information can be obtain without actually designing
the car which not only reduces the cost but also saves time in remodeling
in further adjustments according to the needs of latest design. Similarly, the
simulation can be run by different software for chemical experimentation
and other human machine interaction designs where simulation helps in data
mining for actual models and also possess the ability to represent the whole
system. Moreover, different virtual software are available for the purpose
of training which was previously dangerous and expensive in real world
environment.
Modeling and simulations techniques are the foundation stones of every
engineering process and system design and contains all the necessary tools
to make models to set new industrial environments. It can be used to reduce
the cost of the product, increasing the quality and finishing of product and
learning can be done much easily. The simulation-based software are widely
used in many application. As described earlier in this chapter, the use of
simulation s much cheaper and easier than conducting the experiments in
the real world, an example can be use of super computer to simulate the
detonation of nuclear explosion and its effects can be seen with the help of
it. Similarly, such simulation can be used to describe the damages caused
by a hurricane or storm. Different simulation are used to solve the operation
problems which can be created in the environment during a process, its
example is deep sea analysis of a natural process is done with the help of
simulators. Similarly, simulation can be resulted much faster in decision-
making process. They can be helpful during the state of IF-THEN-ELS
where they can find and lead to true state of the system more logically then
time taking calculations and experimentations. That is why they are said to
be the toolbox of engineering and decision support system. They have been
used in analysis support program for experimentation and planning. They
can directly lead to an optimal solution can save the time of design and
engineering team.
Inventory theory is also known as material theory and this terminology
is frequently used in inventory and production units of a chemical industry.
It is utilized in various operation management and research management,
which are concerned with the designs to reduce the cost of overall product.
It deals in such organizations in which spare part allocation, manufacturing,
logistics, supply chains, warehousing of different parts of product takes
place. However, with the help of inventory theory, the manufacturing unit of
Process Modeling and Simulation 241
an industry knows that how much they need to make the product to meet the
demands of their client. These kind of inventory problems can be eradicated
by using mathematical equations of optimal control, network optimization,
systematic approach of controlling production and dynamic programming.
These kinds of pre-defined models are the part of inventory theory.
Mathematically, it is stated as
xk+1 = xk + uk – wk
uk ≥ 0
in the above equation, the store has Xk items at the time of k, it can receives
the amount of orders uk and the number of items sold are represented as wk,
Xk is allowed to go on back orders which purely depends upon the demand
of particular products.
The last topic of this chapter is about linear programming, it consists
of such mathematical techniques and models which can give best possible
result in a given situation and its representation is in the form of linear
relationships. It also can be used for optimization in different design processes
as a linear function. There are various applications of linear programming in
different fields, they can be used to solve complex engineering problems to
mathematics, economics, and businesses sciences and their industrial usage
are in, telecommunications, transportation, energy, and manufacturing.
They are mainly used for optimization in various departments of industry,
some problems such as flow problems of multi commodity and networks are
one of the major concern of linear programming which utilizes research on
algorithms to generate best possible solution for such difficult problem. In
terms of economics, their applications include microeconomics and company
managerial problems, for example, production, planning, technology,
and transportation. With the passage of time, modern management are
changing and every company want to obtain maximum profit but minimum
expenditures of resources, so in such scenarios, every organization is seeks
the help of linear programming to meet their such demands so that they can
cope with the requirements of their clients. A number of different algorithms
are available to solve the problems according to the type of organization and
their actual demand.
A model imitates the reality and mathematical model is a form of
identification. Process engineering area the models we deal with are
fundamentally mathematical in nature
The characteristic nature of the process models includes mechanistic

models also refers to as phenomenological models due to basic derivation
from system phenomena example mass, heat and momentum transfer. They
contain empirical parts such as rate expressions or heat transfer relations.
Empirical models are result of experiment and observation. It does not rely
on the knowledge of the basic principles and mechanisms, which are present
in the system. Deterministic models are characterized by cause – effect
relationships. Stochastic models arise when the description contain elements
with natural random variations that is described by probability distributions.
This characteristic is associated with phenomena that are not explained in
terms of cause and effect but by probabilities. Modeling characteristics and
analyses includes models developing in hierarchies where several models
for different tasks with varying complexity in terms of their structure and
application area. Models exist with relative precision, affecting how and
where it can be used. Models cause us to think about our system and force us
to consider key issues. It can be difficult or impossible to validate properly.
Models are intractable in terms of their numerical solution. The modeling
goals explain the intent usage of the model and have major impact on the
level of details needed. In process engineering, the important use of models
is written below.
In dynamic simulation, models develop to represent change in time. It
is possible to predict the outputs O given all inputs i, the model structure M
and parameters p.
While static or steady-state simulation, the process system is at steady
state representing an operating point of the system and the simulation
problem computes the output values o given inputs i, the model structure M
and its parameters p.
Most design problems are solved using an optimization technique that
finds parameter values that generates the desired outputs.
Many process models are non-linear and when the model consists of
one differential equation, solution may not be too difficult. When multiple
differential equation is involved, difficulty in getting into the dynamic

process behavior can occur.
26.1. PROCESS CONTROL

The principle of conversation is based on the fundamental physical law that
mass, energy, and momentum can neither be formed or destroyed. A system is
usually a defined volume, process unit, or plant. The fundamental problems
in process control are to consider a dynamic process model together with
measured inputs i, and/or outputs o in order as follows. Design an input
which the system responds in a prescribed way, giving a regulation or state
driving control problem. Finding the structure of the model using input and
output data thus giving the system identification problem.
Finding the internal state in giving a state estimation problem using a
form of least square solution. Find faulty modes and system parameters
corresponding to measured input and output data that leads to faulty
detection and diagnosis problems. Process modeling is regarded as more art
than science and engineering and it is an engineering activity with a growing
maturity. One important aspect is the application of conservation principles
for conserved extensive quantities. The development of the constitutive
relations that provides a set of relations used in completing the model. This
is based on the fundamental principle of physics that mass, energy, and
momentum are neither created nor destroyed but can change from one form
to another.
The possibilities of testing application software before operation was
much reduced or impossible, in this case, application software was used
in testing and adjusting directly within real technology during putting into
operation. Practically, this is time consuming and not efficient for the project.
Possibility of testing and verifying reaction of control system to all the fault
and emergency events occurs. Present day technology has made it easier for
developed tools and programs for testing application software for modeling
and simulation of technological processes has been produced.
Amongst other things, responses to failure and emergency events are
evaluated, control algorithms are designed and optimized, sequential logic
and user interface are tested.
Control systems presently test is done during the development, and
putting into the simulations techniques for the following purposes:
For the effective functioning of the technology, it is important for

control system to provide basic control of actuators, functions according
to technological conditions, automatic sequence and regulation of number
of operation signals (pressure, flow, temperature, force, velocity, voltage,
current, etc.) Feedbacks are collected from technological process such as
valve position, auxiliary contacts of contactors and values of the process
signals.
To keep predefined values of the process signals at précised levels,
one affects quality of output of manufacturing process, amount of needed
resources and financial demands of a given manufacturing process. A given
emphasis is placed on optimization of control algorithm and it parameters.
Function of the process simulation provides a feedback for a tested program
as close to real technology as possible to test sequential logic and control
algorithms and to optimize their parameters.
Visualization of all the states and signals needs testing, which includes all
failure stated, emergency states, and their arranged display at visualization
mimics. Simulation during application development allows programmers
to test specific units during early phases of the project, which eliminates
amount of possible repetitive errors and consequently simplifies overall
application testing. This covers simulations of operator panels that verify
their appropriate design and functionality. This makes it possible to test real
control of technology and possibly modify the design of operator panels
with additional requirements before their manufacture.
Specialist intervention experts on process technology monitors simulation
of behavior of the process technology. This behavior is verified by functional
description of technological unit. Experts on process technology receive
feedback since they cannot cover all the states of controlled technology
in the functional description. By means of simulation together with a PLC
programmer, they are defined and solve possible incomplete description of
technology unit yet before putting control system into operation.
Training operators simulation system provides a complete set of user
interface (simulation of operator panels, control boxes) that are used for
training operators of controlled technology and technological processes for
functional tests of devices.
Operators can control the technology before realization and train
failures states that cannot testes under real operation. Advanced operators
put up their feedback and reveal possible other pitfalls of the technological
process before live operation. Workers putting system into operation at the
destination is appreciable due to the workers with tuning control loops and
their optimization and with adjustments of application software.
Linear programming (LP, also called linear optimization) method that
achieves the best outcome (such as maximum profit or lowest cost) in a
mathematical model. This is a special case of mathematical programming
and it is widely used in business and economics and used in some engineering
problems. Industries using linear programming models include energy,
transportation, telecommunication, and manufacturing. This is useful in
modeling diverse types of problems in and for planning routing scheduling
assignment. If the problem is strong duality theorem, the primal problem has
an optimal solution, the dual problem has one also and there is no duality
gap. But it is not an optimal solution, it is unbounded. The unboundedness
of the primal + weak duality theorem or dual problem must be infeasible.
Duality theorems general LP problems contains equalities or unrestricted
variables, these can also be handled easily. Equality constraint corresponds
to an unrestricted variable and vice-visa. Duality theorems general problems
suppose has no sign restriction. Then we could not conclude that 3x1 + 2x2
≤ 4x1 + 2x2 holds for all feasible solutions (e.g., if x1 = −1; x2 ≥ 0 holds)
In general 3x1 ≤ (y1 + 2y2) x1 [∗], thus set y1 + 2y2 to its maximal value
3, [∗] holds for unrestricted x1 Similarly true that a primal “≥” constraint
corresponds to an non-positive variable, and vice-versa. An LP in which all
variables are required to be integers is called a pure integer programming
(IP) problem. For example, max z = 3x1 + 2x2 st x1 + x2 ≤ 6 x1, x2 ≥ 0
x1, x2 integer. An IP in which only some of the variables are required to be
integers is called a mixed integer programming problem (MIP), e.g., x1, x2
≥ 0 and x2 be an integer (x1 is not required to be an integer).
A node of the branching tree is “measured” if there is no feasible
solution of the corresponding subproblem and the subproblem yields an
optimal solution where all variable has integer values. The optimal z-value
for the subproblem does not exceed the current. In the case of LP, the goal
was to minimize linear function subject to linear constraints. The interesting
maximization and minimization problems the objective function may not be
a linear function and some of the constraint are not linear constraints.
REFERENCES
1. http://www.inf.u-szeged.hu/~london/LinProg.html
2. https://datasciencebowl.com/useful-applications-of-simulation-
modeling/
3. https://www.engineering.com/Blogs/tabid/3207/ArticleID/920/
APPLICATIONS-FOR-SIMULATION-MODELING.aspx
CHAPTER
27
POLYMER TECHNOLOGY
The chapter will discuss the topics such as nomenclature and fundamental
concepts of polymers and polymerization, polymer stereochemistry,
crystalline, copolymers, and viscoelasticity and polymer processing.
Polymers are chain-like structures, formed by joining so many structural

units together by different types of linkages. Along with natural polymers
such as starch, cellulose, rubber, etc., artificial polymers are also prevailing
on industrial scale. Polymers have vast applications in different fields, for
example, polymers are used to improve the aeration of soil to improve the
plants growths and health. In medical field polymers are used to make heart
valves and blood vessels. All packaging materials and plastic containers are
the applications of polymers. Similarly, on industrial scale polymers have
vast application like parts of automobiles, windshield of planes, adhesives,
matrix for composites, and elastomers are all forms by polymers.
The process of chemical combination of monomers to make chain like
structures is called polymerization. Minimum 100 monomers molecules
must be combine to make a product having different physical properties.
For example, as elasticity, the ability to make fibers, tensile strength, etc.
These physical properties and the covalent chemical bond make polymers
different from other compounds and molecules formed in other process like
crystallization in which molecules combine by weak intermolecular forces.
Polymerization is categorized in two classes. One is condensation
polymerization, in which molecules of simple compounds like water are
formed. Second is addition polymerization, in this process by-products do
not formed and catalysts are generally used which change certain structures
and hence the properties of polymers.
Linear polymers are formed by viscous molecules like liquids or solids
having different crystallinity. They have tendency to dissolved in some
liquids, and soften upon heating. Crossed linked polymers are formed when
molecules combine in the form of thermosetting resins having network
like structures they do not melt upon heating not even dissolve in solvents.
Both linear and cross-linked polymers can be made by either addition or
condensation polymerization.
Polymer and macromolecule are two different things. Macromolecules
combine to form a polymer. The end product is usually measured in terms
of molar masses (unit g/mol), its distributions of is called as dispersity (Đ)
which is the ratio of the mass-average molar mass (Mm) to the number-
average molar mass (Mn), i.e., Đ = Mm/Mn. Only in idealized representations
Polymer nomenclature is considered by ignoring irregularities of structures.
There are two ways to name a polymer. Source-based nomenclature is used
where monomer are known. Alternatively, more obvious and common is
structure-based nomenclature is used where the structure of polymer is
confirmed. Traditionally different syntaxes for names are also acceptable.
In every case polymer names must have the prefix poly, followed by round
brackets having the rest of the name, e.g., poly (4- chlorostyrene). Locants
indicate the position of structural features. Enclosing marks are not important
for source-based one word name having no locants. But in case of confusion
it should be used, e.g., poly(chlorostyrene) is a polymer but if it is written as
Poly chlorostyrene might be a multi-substituted, tiny molecule. End-groups
are labeled with α- and ω, for example, α-chloro-ω-hydroxy-polystyrene.
When a polymer having chain like structures show stereochemical
isomerism, its properties its properties become dependent to stereochemical
structures. So the study of the stereochemistry of polymers is significant and
NMR spectroscopy tool is so helpful for this study.
Tacticity is the word used for defining the stereochemical structures
of polymers. In polymers of vinyl monomers CH2=CH-X or vinylidene
monomers CH2=CXY, the main-chain carbons with substituent group(s)
are called as “pseudo-asymmetric” if carbons at the ends, do not have
the four different substituents then it will not be truly asymmetric but its
relative handedness increase. In isotactic structures all the substituents are
positioned on one side of the zigzag plane showing the chain overextended in
Polymer Technology 249
an all-trans conformation. The structure is represented by a “rotated Fischer

projection” in which the main-chain skeleton is shown by a horizontal line.
Syndiotactic structures are regular arrangements in which the groups

substitute alternatively from side to side which make the configurations with
neighboring units opposite
The unit diad or dyad represents the comparative configuration of the

successive monomeric units. For a vinyl polymer, two diads meso (m) and
racemo (r) are considered with these representations, an arrangement in an
isotactic polymer can be written as -mmmmmm- and incase of syndiotactic
polymer it can be written as -rrrrrrrr-. In reality, however, purely isotactic
or syndiotactic polymers are seldom attainable but the level of symmetry
need analysis. Tacticity [1] is the term used for defining such stereochemical
features of polymers.
The quantitative data of tacticity is provided by NMR spectroscopy. By

extending the notation of m and r, one can define relative configurations of
longer monomeric units can also be defined by using the notations of m and
r along the chains. Figure below is representing the three possible triads,
shown by mm, rr, and mr. Which are also named isotactic, syndiotactic,
and heterotactic triads, respectively. Similarly, for the tetrad, the following
six distinguishable sequences are possible mmm, mmr, rmr, rrr, rrm, mrm,
and for the pentad mmmm, mmmr, rmmr, mmrm, mmrr, rmrm, rmrr, mrrm,
mrrr, rrrr. Hatada and Kitayama (2004)
27.1. CRYSTALLINE POLYMERS

The term crystalline is used to describe the regions in a polymer where
the chains are packed in a regular way. Many polymers have combination
of crystalline (ordered) regions and amorphous (unordered) regions.
Amorphous areas have more tendency for mobility as the chains are more
extended. A polymer chain can be part of an amorphous or crystalline area.
Spaghetti can be consider as an example for the representation of different
areas. If we observe spaghetti through a glass bowl some regions will be
grouped together in a regular arrangement, while some regions will be
totally mixed up.
After a short-term introduction to the different types of polymers now
it’s time to study some important processes for thermoplastic materials.
These are named as extrusion and injection molding. Single and twin-screw
extruders are used for melting and pumping of polymers and for die extrusion
for the production of sheets, pipes, tubing, etc. Injection molding is the
process of injecting a molten polymer into mold cavities in order to make
parts of different sizes. Various problems create during these processes, for
example, die swelling, melt fracture (spiraling, bam booing, regular ripple,
random fracture). Other processes like calendaring, compression molding,
rotational molding, powder injection molding and thixomolding are also
used in polymer processing.
Polymer processing is the engineering activity that is concerned with
operations carried out on polymeric materials to increase their utility. It
primarily deals with the conversion of raw polymeric materials into finished
products, that does not only shape but compounding chemical reactions that
leads to macromolecular modifications and morphology stabilization, and

value-added structures. Polymer processing analyses specific processing
methods such as extrusion, injection molding calendaring. This approach
claims that occurrences in polymer in a certain type of machine is not unique.
Polymer is a study of materials of comparatively simple recurring
units. They mostly occur in nature and are also made of large number of
glucose unit which are natural rubber, these are called polyisoprene and
polysaccharides, examples are starch and cellulose.
Most times, rubber is difficult to define but is a material that can stretched
to double its original length and can retract quickly to it original length and
it can easily be formed in it raw state and can retain its size and form when
vulcanized. The effect of vulcanization in a rubber is to reduce it plasticity
and reducing it elasticity at the same time. Plastic can be divided into two
main subgroups thermoplastics and thermoset materials. Thermoplastic
are materials that softens when heat is applied and hardened when cooled
while thermosets soften once and harden irreversibly by the application of
sufficient heat. The different softening point in a plastic are due to relative
strength of their intermolecular forces. Further classification on the basic
type of chemical reaction are addition or condensation.
27.2. ADDITION POLYMERIZATION

They are usually thermoplastics and the resultant polymer is obtained by a
combination of many simple basic substances without loss. These substances
are called monomers. There are four basic methods of carrying out addition
polymerization with it advantages and disadvantages and these are not based
on their monomers being polymerized.
27.3. BULK POLYMERIZATION

Pure monomers with the additional of catalyst is used this process of
polymerization. This mixture is stirred in a large reactant vessel with or
without the application of heat. The advantage of this process is the purity of
the final product with excellent color and clear polymers such as Polystyrene.
This is economically attractive as raw materials cost only contain monomers.
Manufacturing process is difficult as addition polymerization are exothermic

and with large quantities of undiluted reactants causing difficulties as heat
separate. This also involves increase in viscosity and stirring becomes
difficult and impossible.
27.4. SOLUBLE POLYMERIZATION

This is process where monomer and catalyst are dissolved in an inert solvent
when the resultant solutions are being stirred and heated. Both heating
and stirring problems are lessened in solution polymerization. Economic
problems are inevitable due to the use of large quantities of expensive
solvents to be recovered and separated. The concentration of resultant
polymer is lower than bulk polymerization with inert solvents. Polymer is
soluble in solvent and the removal of the last traces is difficult and for this
reason, the solution process is often resorted for those application where
polymer is required in soluble form.
27.5. EMULSION POLYMERIZATION

In this process, the continuous avenue is water and the monomers are
separated instead of being dissolved. Thus, the resultant polymer medium
is insoluble and therefore precipitation is formed. The catalysts used are
soluble in the dispersing medium and emulsifying agents such as sodium,
potassium salts of fatty acids are added to stabilize the emulsion. After
completion of the reaction, the precipitated product is washed to remove
emulsifying agents and some contamination always remains. In this process,
there are few heat transfer problems and molecular weight product.
27.6. SUSPENSION POLYMERIZATION

The monomers are suspended in the carrier medium together with a
monomers soluble catalyst. The mixture concentration is broken into small
droplets containing little of the catalyst. A stabilizer such as methyl cellulose
is also included in the mixture, so catalyst is separated from each other
during the reaction. After the process, the stabilizer is removed by washing
and leaving the polymer in the form of beads.
The fundamental properties of polymer depend upon the stereochemistry
of the polymer chain. Microstructure determines the final properties of semi
crystalline polymer products. These products are dimensional accuracy and
stability. Further determination is done by the thermo-mechanical history

done by every single material element during the state of processing. A
model for flow- induced nucleation and crystallization is needed as different
parameters are used as a driving force. Examples of such parameter are
macroscopic strain, the Cauchy stress, the conformation of molecules,
phenomenological molecular deformation factor affecting induction time.
The disadvantage of this model is the overall degree of crystallinity without
adequate final crystalline structure. Another disadvantage is the inability
of models to describe processes which causes no flow occurrence during
crystallization. Example of this process is push-pull injection moulding.
After the mould has been filled, the flow is kept in a backward and forward
motion.
The mechanical history of the melt is always present in the final state
of the solidified material. These crystals combine to give the total degree
of crystallinity. One of the challenging problems in polymer physics is
the crystallization of flexible polymers from solutions and melts. This is
when a highly entangled collection of interpenetrating polymer chains
changes into a crystal. This poses difficulty in such a process to complete
as a result of topological connectivity of the polymer molecules. Polymer
crystallization is negatively affected by large free energy barrier as a result
reorganizes polymer confrontation into ordered states. The crystallization
process progresses because of nucleation and growth; hence the major
theory of polymer crystallization is the generalization of small-molecule
crystallization theory of surface nucleation and growth to incorporate chain
folding.
The purity of a chemical species by the solid from a liquid mixture can
be called solution crystallization or crystallization from the melt. A diluent
solvent is added to the mixture and the solution is directly or indirectly
cooled. The solid phase is maintained and hence formed below its pure –
component freezing point temperature.
The chemical structure of a block copolymer material is shown in an
interesting way by incompatibility effects giving it many specific, new
morphologies, original physical and mechanical properties which leads
to valuable technological applications. The most typical feature of block
copolymer is a strong repulsion between unlike sequences even when the
repulsion between unlike monomers is weak. These results in sequences
inclining to segregate and as they are chemically bonded, even the complete
segregation does not lead to a macroscopic phase separation as a mixture of
two homopolymers.
The application of the linear theory of viscoelasticity is a recent

occurrence, the activity is due to the large-scale development and utilization
of polymeric materials. A Newtonian viscous fluid responds to an applied
state of uniform shear stress by a steady flow process.
When material respond in this manner, it exhibits both an instantaneous
elasticity and creep characteristics and this is described as a combine features
of each.
The terms polymer and macromolecule do not have the same meaning.
Here a polymer is a substance that has macromolecules and usually have
a range of molar masses (Unit g, mol-1), the distributions are specified by
dispersity (D). This is defined as the ration of the mass-average molar mass
(Mn) to the number average molar-mass (Mn) which is .
Polymer nomenclature applies to idealized representations; minor
structural irregularities are ignored. A polymer can be identified either as a
source based nomenclature sometimes called monomer and a more explicit
structure- based nomenclature is used when polymer structure is proven.
Traditional names are acceptable where there’s no confusion and polymers
have names with prefix poly followed by enclosing marks around the rest
of the name. These marks are used in the order: {[()]}. Locants shows
the position of structural features, e.g., poly(4-chlorostyrene). In the like
hood of a source based name of one word with no locants, the enclosing
marks are not important but they are used when there’s confusion, e.g.,
Poly(chlorostyrene) is a polymer where poly chlorostyrene is a small,
multi-substituted molecule. End groups are described with α- and ω-, e.g.,
α-chloro-ω-hydroxy-polystyrene.
27.7. REGULAR DOUBLE-STRAND POLYMERS

Double-strand polymers has chains of rings that do not interrupt. In a spiro
polymer, adjacent rings has one atom in common with each ring while in a
ladder polymer, adjacent rings has two or more atoms in common. In order
to identify the preferred CRU, the chain is broken in order for the senior ring
to be retained with maximum number of heteroatoms and minimum number
of free valences. The preferred CRU is an acyclic subunit which consist of
4 carbon atoms with 4 free valences with additional one at each atom. This
enables the lower left atom to have the lowest number. The free valence
locants are written before the suffix and they are cited clockwise from the
lower left position as: lower-left, upper-left, upper-right, lower-right.
Crystallization is a first order transition which is liquid to solids as well as

water to ice. A less classical transformation is a glass rubber transition in
polymers. At the glass transition temperature, Tg the amorphous portion of
polymer soften.
REFERENCE
1. Christensen, R. M. (1982) (Second Edn.). Theory of Viscoelasticity:
An introduction 1-2
2. http://www.polydynamics.com/Overview_Polymer_Processing.pdf.
3. http://www.rsc.org/globalassets/05-journals-books-databases/our-
journals/polymer-chemistry/brief-guide-to-polymer-nomenclature.
pdf.
4. https://www.britannica.com/science/polymerization.
5. Hatada, K., & Kitayama, T (2004) NMR Spectroscopy of Polymers.
Stereochemistry of Polymers. 73-85 ISBN: 978-3-642-07293-2.
6. Leibler, L. (1980). Theory of Microphase Separation in Block
Copolymers. 13(6), 1602–1617, DOI: 10.1021/ma60078a047.
7. Miles, D. C., & Briston J. H. (1996). Polymer Technology, Third
Edition Meijer, H. E. H., Peters, G. W. M., & Zuidema, H. (Eds.).
Development and Validation of a Recoverable Strain-Based Model
for Flow-Induced Crystallization of Polymers. Material Technology,
Dutch Polymer Institute, Eindhoven University of Technology.
8. Reiter, G., & Strobl, G. R. (Eds.). (2007). Progress of Understanding
of Polymer Crystallization. Lecture Notes Phys. Doi: 10.1007/
b11903420.
INDEX
A Aspen Plus 3, 4, 7, 8
atoms 45, 46, 48, 230, 231
absorption membrane processes 54
autocatalytic reactions 195, 197
adsorbates 55
automation 220
adsorption 54, 55, 59
automobiles 247
Advanced Process Control (APC)
168 B
aeriform 77
bacteria 29, 30, 31, 32
alcohol 73
Bacteriology 31
algae 29
Bacteroidetes 77
algebraic equation 106
Band Stop Filter (BSF) 91
alternating current 95
batch Control 3
Amorphous 250
batch reactor 196, 198, 200
anaerobic oxidation of methane
Bayes factor 216
(AOM) 32
Binary distillation 54
analyte 229, 230, 231, 236
binomial distribution 213, 214
analytical ultracentrifuge 119
Binomial random variable 213
antibiotics 32
biochemical energetics 69
archaea 29, 30, 32, 74
biochemical process 73, 74
arithmetic logic units (ALUs) 96
biochemistry 63, 69, 71, 73, 74
Arrhenius equation 42, 43
Biodiversity 192
bioengineering 130
biological agents 4 chemical engineering 147, 148, 149

Biomass 57 Chemical equilibrium 7
biomass burning 57 chemical kinetics 157, 160
biopharmaceutical drugs 174 chemical plant 4, 7, 8
Bioprocess 173, 179 Chemical process design 148
bioreaction 75 chemical process simulation 3
bioreactors 73, 75, 82 Chemical reaction equilibrium 7
bioseparations 73 chemical reactions 195, 196
biotechnology 127, 130, 134 chemical reactor 54
bi-sync protocol (BSC) 102 chemical thermodynamics 1, 37,
black body radiation 24 149
block flow diagram (BFD) 150 Chemometric 232
Bobbin based Inductors 92 Chi-square 217
boiling point 23 Chloroflorocarbons 184
Boltzmann principle 162 chromatography 117, 118, 125
Boolean functions 96 circuit elements 83
Boyle-Mariotte’s Law 13 circuit synthesis 84
Boyle’s law 13 closed-loop system 222
Brownian movement 33 Colloids 49
Buoyancy forces 204 column chromatography 117
communicating sequential process-
C
es (CSP) 102
Calibration 136, 140 composites 247
Cannon-Fenske viscometer 162 Computational Fluid Dynamics 2
capacitor 89, 90 computers age 1
carboxyhemoglobin 26 conceptualization 239
Carnot engine 39 Conduction 204
Carnot’s laws 37 conductivity 46, 48, 50
catalysts 248, 252 contamination 187, 188, 191
catalytic hydrogenation reactors 15 continuous stirred tank reactor
Cations 46 (CSTR) 154, 199
Cell 30 controller 221, 222, 223, 225, 226
Cell therapy 173 control system 219, 220, 221, 226
cellular composition 29 convection 203, 204, 209
cellulose 247, 251, 252 corrosion 196
central limit theorem (CLT) 215 corrosion resistance 51
Centrifugation 119 Corynebacterium glutamicum 75
Ceramics 46, 52 Coulometry 234
Charles’ Law 13, 14, 19 covalent bond 69
Index 259
Crossbreed electrical lorries 112 electrical energy 90, 91

crystalline structure 253 Electric circuits 83
crystallinity 248, 253 electric communication of ions 24
crystallization 54, 196 electric field 89
crystallization stripping 54 electric generator 95
crystallizer 196 electric motor 101
crystals 65 electrode 26
current 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, electrolysis 142
91 electrolytes 64, 65, 66, 67
Curve fitting 212 electromagnetic forces 95
electromagnetic radiation 229
D
electromechanical systems 95
Dampers 220 electromotive force 91
Delta Function 107 electronegativity 21
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) 69 electronics 90, 93
desorption 54, 55 electrons 45, 46, 48, 230, 231
detonators 48 energy 2, 5, 7, 8
diffusion 8, 9, 32, 33, 173, 174 energy absorption 119
diffusivity 12, 15 energy transfer 8
digital inverter 97 enthalpy 127, 128, 129, 130, 131
digital logic gates 95, 96, 98 entropy 129, 131, 132
Dilution 128 environmental chemistry 182
discrete-event systems 224 Enzymes 69
Dispersive Liquid-Liquid micro enzymes substrates 69
extraction (DLLME) 177 Equalization Filter 91
distillation 54, 56, 59, 60 Equation of states 16
Distillation 54 equilibrium 12, 15, 16
dividing wall columns (DWCs) 60 equivalent valencies 64
DNA fingerprinting 130 eukaryote cells 31
ductility 46, 51 European Federation of Biotechnol-
dynamic programming 241 ogy (EFB) 175
Dynamic simulation 168
F
E
Faraday’s law 91
Eco-friendly hemoglobin 25 feedback control loop 222
ecological relationship 29 Feed forward control (FF) 226
elastic deformation 159 feed-forward gain 222
elasticity 160 Fermentation 73
elastomers 247 Ferrite Core Inductors 92
Ferroelectric crystals 49 heat conductivity 12, 15

fertilization fermentation 23 heat exchangers 207
filteringed system 25 heat flux 203
filtering system 26 heat transfer 53
filters 83, 90, 92 heat transfer coefficient 203, 208
First law of thermodynamics 38 hemoglobin 25, 26, 27, 65, 66, 67,
Flowsheeting 2 68
flowsheet material balance 157 heterogeneous catalysis devices 81
fluid flow 8 heterogeneous reaction 196
fluid mechanics 203, 204, 205, 207 High Pass Filter (HPF) 91
Fluid mechanics 158 homocysteine 235
Frössling-Marshall formula 79 homogenous chemical reaction 196
F-test 217 homopolymers 253
fugacity 127, 129 Hopkinson stress bar 48
fungi 29, 30 Human Genome Project 1
hybridization 23
G
hydraulics 205
Galvanic cell 144 hydrocarbons 22
gas absorption 54 hydrodynamics 205
gas chromatography 234 hydro phobicity 48
gas constant 5
I
Gay-Lussac’s Law 14
genome 31 ideal gas 12, 13, 17, 18
genome-wide transcriptomics 76 Ideal gas equation 5
genotype 32 ideal-gas equation of state 16, 17
germination 23 Image Processing 51
Gibbs-Duhem relation 131 immune system 30
Gibbs free energy 132 Inductance 91
Global warming 192 inductor 89, 91
globulins 64 industrial ecology 182
Golgi apparatus 31 industrial system 105
Graham’s Law 13 information technology (IT) 225
infrared spectrophotometry 230,
H
231
habitats 192 Institute of Electrical and Electron-
halogens 22 ics Engineers (IEEE) 102
Haversian systems 48 instrumental chemistry 229
Heat 203, 210 instrumentation 230, 231
heat conduction 8, 9 integer programming (IP) 245
Index 261
intermolecular forces 247, 251 Linear polymers 248

International Organization for Locants 248, 254
Standardization (ISO) 102 logic circuits 99
International Telecommunication logic gate 96, 97, 98
Union (ITU) 102 Loops 84
International Union of Pure as well Low Pass Filter (LPF) 91
as Applied Chemistry (IU-
M
PAC) 120
Internet Engineering Task Force macromolecule 248, 254
(IETF) 101, 102 magnetic fields 83, 89
interval estimate 216 Manufacturing process 252
intramolecular forces 21 manufacturing unit 219
inventory 222 Margules function 127, 128, 131
inventory theory 239, 240 Mariotte’s Law 13
Ions 64 mass 2, 7, 8, 9
isolation system 16 mass transfer 73, 74, 77, 78, 79, 80
isomerization 166 mass transfer coefficient 74, 78, 79,
Isothermal Titration Calorimetry 80
130 Matlab 2
matters 45
K
mechanical energy 95
kinematic viscosity 162 mechanical equilibrium 16
kinetic energy 165, 166 mechanical flow diagram (MFD)
kinetic theory 12 151
Kirchhoff’s laws 84 melting point 23
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) 85 meshes 84
metabolism 63, 64, 69
L
metals 196
Laminar flow 207 meteorology 205
Laplace transform 106 Microorganism 29
laser-initiated time resolved X- microporous membranes 59
ray absorption spectroscopy microporous solids 55
(LITR-XAS) 232 microreactors 4
Le Chatelier’s principle 153 mitochondria 31
Lenz’s law 91 mixed integer programming prob-
level of dissociation 64 lem (MIP) 245
Limits of Detection 140 Modeling 239, 240, 242
linear ordinary differential equa- Model Productive Control (MPC)
tions 105, 106 221
molar mass 17, 248, 254 P

Molecular structures 232
paper chromatography 117, 118
momentum 8
Particle image velocimetry 205
Momentum transfer 8
pellet 8
monomers 247, 248, 251, 252, 253
petroleum 185, 186, 188, 189
montmorillonite 123
phase equilibria 37, 38
morphology 29, 32
Phase equilibrium 16
multicellular animal parasites 29
phosphorus 31
Multi Layer Inductors 92
photoelectric effect 24
multiplexers 96
photovoltaics 169
N piezoelectricity organic compounds
23
National Institute of Specifications
piezoresistive 170
and also Screening (NIST)
piping and instrumentation diagram
137
(P&ID) 150
network optimization 241
planar chromatography 117, 118
neutrons 45
plasticity 251
Newtonian fluid 206, 207
plug-flow reactors (PFR’s) 201
Nodes 84
Pollution 192
non-equilibrium systems 12
polyamide 75
non-Newtonian fluids 160
polyisoprene 251
Norton theorem 87
polymath 2
Notch Filter 91
Polymer crystallization 253
nucleons 45
polymerization 247, 248, 251, 252,
nucleotide 174
256
Numerical differentiation 212
Polymers 46, 247, 256
Numerical numbers 211
polysaccharides 75, 251
Nyquist frequency 101
Polystyrene 251
O potentiometry 233
Precision 138, 140
Ohm’s law 83, 84
precision proportion 137, 138
opacity 46
preparative ultracentrifuge 119
optogenetic control 76
pressure 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18
Optogenetic devices 76
Probability 213, 215, 218
ordinary differential equation
probability distribution 213, 214,
(ODE) 212
215, 216
organic acids 73
Process control 105
organic material 29
process flow diagram (PFD) 150
ozone layer 181, 183, 184, 193
productivity 219
Index 263
protein oligomerization 112 separation 53, 54, 55, 56, 59, 61

Proteins 63, 66 separation processes 53, 54
protons 45 shear stress 205
protozoa 29 simulation 239, 240, 242, 243, 244,
purification 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 246
single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs)
Q
50
quacks 45 solid electrolyte interphase (SEI)
Quantitation 140 234
quantitative analysis 135, 231 solidification 55
quantum computers 14, 15 solubility 64, 65, 66, 67, 68
solvents 248, 252
R
Source-based nomenclature 248
radiant energy 165 Space Time Blocking Code (STBC)
radiated pressure waves 24 111
radiation 203, 204 Spatial Multiplexing (SM) 111
radiation energy 24 Specificity 140
radio elements 22 spectrochemistry 120
radio waves absorptiometry 229 spectrograph 24
Raoult’s law 11, 18, 127, 131 spectroscopy 117, 119, 125
Rate of a reaction 166 starch 247, 251
reactants 160, 161, 195, 196, 197, statistical mechanics 12
199, 201 stereochemical isomerism 248
reaction equilibria 37 stereochemistry 247, 248, 252
reaction kinetics 54, 152 Stochastic models 242
reactors 204, 205, 207 stoichiometric coefficients 199
recombinant DNA technology 174, structure-based nomenclature 248
175 Sylvester’s theorem 108
recycle reactors 195, 197 syndiotactic polymer 249
Redox reaction 142, 144
T
registers 96
reproduction system 29 tacticity 249
Reynolds number 207 Task Coefficients 66
rheogram 206 telecommunication 245
ribonucleic acid (RNA) 69 telescope 24
rotated Fischer projection 249 temperature 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18
Thermal diffusion 77
S
thermal resistivity 46
Second law of thermodynamics 38 thermodynamic property 203
thermodynamics 12, 15, 198 V

thermodynamics gradients 74
Vander Waals equation 5
thermodynamic system 128, 129
velocity gradient 206
thermoflask 129
vibrational energy 231
thermolysis decompression 178
viruses 74
Thevenin’s theorem 85
viscosity 12, 15, 160, 162
thin-layer chromatography (TLC)
vitrification 187, 191
235
voltages 83, 84, 90, 91
Third law of thermodynamics 38
Toroidal Core Inductors 92 W
Traceability 137
waste disposal 183, 192
transcription 32
wavefront 107
transformer 95
wavelength 119
Transient state 89
Wolfram Mathematica 2
transportation 239, 241, 245
World Wide Web Consortium
tropism 23
(W3C) 102
U
X
Ultraviolet-visible spectrophotom-
X-ray absorptiometry 230
etry 231
X-ray absorption 231, 232
universal gas constant 17
Z
Zeroth Law of thermodynamics 37
zymology 73

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CHEMICAL ENGINEERING

e-book Edition 2019

ISBN: 978-1-77361-621-6 (e-book)

© 2019 Arcler Press

ISBN: 978-1-77361-487-8 (Hardcover)

Nseabasi Ikput, M.Sc., BEng, is a UK-based Chemical Process Engineer

Chapter 1 Introduction to Chemical Engineering Computing..................................... 1

Chapter 2 Chemical Engineering Fundamentals........................................................ 11

Chapter 3 Organic Chemistry: Biological Emphasis.................................................. 21

Chapter 4 Fundamentals of Microbiology................................................................. 29

Chapter 5 Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics................................................... 37

Chapter 7 Separation Processes................................................................................ 53

Chapter 8 Introduction to Biochemistry................................................................... 63

Chapter 9 Biochemical Engineering.......................................................................... 73

Chapter 10 Electrical Circuits..................................................................................... 83

Chapter 11 Electromechanical Systems...................................................................... 95

Chapter 12 Process Dynamics and Control............................................................... 105

Chapter 13 Introduction to Biochemical Methods.................................................... 117

Chapter 14 Chemical Analysis of Homogeneous Systems......................................... 127

Chapter 15 Methods in Quantitative Chemical Analysis........................................... 135

Chapter 16 Chemical Engineering Design Principles................................................ 147

Chapter 17 Material Science and Material Selection................................................ 157

Chapter 18 Chemical Process Engineering................................................................ 165

Chapter 19 Bioprocess Engineering.......................................................................... 173

Chapter 20 Environmental Chemistry and Remediation........................................... 181

Chapter 21 Chemical Reaction Engineering.............................................................. 195

Chapter 22 Fluid Mechanics and Heat Transfer........................................................ 203

Chapter 23 Mathematical Modeling and Numerical Methods.................................. 211

Chapter 24 Process Control, Instrumentation, and Safety........................................ 219

Chapter 25 Chemometrics........................................................................................ 229

Chapter 26 Process Modeling and Simulation........................................................... 239

Chapter 27 Polymer Technology............................................................................... 247

Figure 9.1. Mass transfer of component A between media B and E with no

Chemical Engineering Problems in Biotechnology is the engineering activity

to solve problems which most frequently appears during the manufacturing

Batch reactors are the computer simulation-based computer application for

1.1. MATHEMATICAL FORMULATIONS OF EQUA-

where b is the excluded volume; and a is the International force between

m = 0.480 + 1.574 ω – 0.176 ω .

The ω parameter is the acentric factor as defined ω = –

(1+logPvp,r)Tr=0.7, where Pvp,r is the reduced pressure of a saturated vapor,

estimated at a reduced temperature of 0.7. Acentric factors for numerous

1.2. VAPOR-LIQUID EQUILIBRIUM

1.3. CHEMICAL REACTION EQUILIBRIUM

1.4. MASS BALANCES WITH RECYCLE STREAM

1.5. SIMULATION OF MASS TRANSFER

1.6. PROCESS SIMULATION

1.7. CHEMICAL REACTORS

1.8. TRANSPORT PROCESSION ONE DIMENSION

Convective diffusion equation in two and three dimensions. Chemical

In the given formula, pi is the partial pressure of the component in the

Furthermore, when comparing the same gas in two different sets of

2.1. CLARIFYING COMPLEX CHEMICAL

2.2. MASS PRODUCTION AND NETWORKING

T(R) = 1.8 T(K)

The molar mass M is the mass of one mole (gram-mole, gmol) of a

Let’s consider the following example.

The conversion of energy principle can be defined as the net change in

The equation above is called energy balance and can be applied to

energy to maintain internal structural organization of cells. The process of

advance sciences as it is used in analytical chemistry and physics, since

describe distinctions in habits in between salts of the exact same valence

by changing a couple of examples to barium sulfate as well as considering

in phosphate barriers of differing ionic toughness and pH. It was located