Chemical Engineering Terminology

Muhammad Rashid Usman is Assistant Professor at the

Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology, University
of the Punjab, Lahore. He spent most of his career working at
the institute. He completed his PhD studies from the
University of Manchester, UK and joined back his duties at
the institute in 2010. He has received several performance
awards and research grants. He is currently leading the
catalysis and reaction engineering (CaRE) research group
at the institute. He has more than 20 research publications to
Chemical
his name. He is a member of PEC, PIChE, and NCQT
Pakistan.

Rabya Aslam is lecturer at the Institute of Chemical

Engineering
Engineering and Technology, University of the Punjab,
Lahore. Ever since she finished her graduation, she worked
at the Institute. She has been recently moved to Friedrich
Alexander Universität Erlangen Nürnberg, Germany for
Terminology
doing her PhD studies.

Mahmood Saleem is Professor of Chemical Engineering at

the Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology,
University of the Punjab, Lahore. Having obtained his
graduation degree from the University, he initially worked at
D.H. Chemicals and then joined the Institute. For a period of Muhammad Rashid Usman
two years, he also worked at Bahrain Training Institute,
Bahrain. He completed his Doctoral degree from TUG, Rabya Aslam
Austria in 2007 and resumed his work at the Institute, where
he was selected as Professor in 2008. He has authored over Mahmood Saleem
40 scientific publications and has received a number of
incentive awards on scientific publications. He is a member Muhammad Rashid Usman
of AIChE, ACS, PEC, PIChE, and PCS.

ISBN 978-1-304-37904-7
90000

ID: 14074279
www.lulu.com
9 781304 379047
Chemical Engineering
Terminology
Che
emica
al Eng
ginee
ering
Term
minoology

Muhamm
mad Rashid Usman
Assistant Professor
ute of Chemical Engineering an
Institu nd Technology
Uniiversity of the Punjab,
P Lahore

Raby
ya Aslam
Lecturer
Institu
ute of Chemical Engineering an nd Technology
Uniiversity of the Punjab,
P Lahore

Mahmood
d Saleem
Professor
Institu
ute of Chemical Engineering an nd Technology
Uniiversity of the Punjab,
P Lahore

2013
Chemical Engineering Terminology

Copyright © 2013 by Muhammad Rashid Usman

All rights reserved. This book or any portion thereof may not be reproduced or used in
any manner whatsoever without the express written permission of the publisher except
for the use of brief quotations in a book review or scholarly journal.

First Printing: 2013

ISBN 978-1-304-37904-7

Lulu Enterprises, Inc. (Lulu.com) acts as a publisher on behalf of

Muhammad Rashid Usman

Institute of Chemical Engineering and Technology
University of the Punjab, Lahore 54590, Pakistan

http://faculty.m-rashid-usman.pu.edu.pk
  
 
 
 To our beloved parents

Karamatullah
Amtullah

Aslam
Surriya

Saleem
Arshad Bibi

v
 Contents

Preface ............................................................................................................. ix
A .......................................................................................................................... 1
B ....................................................................................................................... 42
C ........................................................................................................................ 75
D .................................................................................................................... 123
E..................................................................................................................... 156
F ..................................................................................................................... 178
G .................................................................................................................... 208
H .................................................................................................................... 224
I ...................................................................................................................... 245
J ...................................................................................................................... 264
K .................................................................................................................... 267
L ..................................................................................................................... 276
M ................................................................................................................... 292
N .................................................................................................................... 313
O .................................................................................................................... 323
P ..................................................................................................................... 333
Q .................................................................................................................... 376
R .................................................................................................................... 378
S ..................................................................................................................... 405
T .................................................................................................................... 450
U .................................................................................................................... 483
V .................................................................................................................... 493
W ................................................................................................................... 511

vii
X .................................................................................................................... 525
Y .................................................................................................................... 527
Z .................................................................................................................... 529
References ................................................................................................ 534

viii
 Preface

In the name of Almighty! This book is a comprehensive collection of

chemical engineering terms in a single volume. The book is a useful
reference material for chemical engineering students and professionals,
applied and industrial chemists, and those who are not taught chemical
engineering at any level of schooling but somehow involved in
chemical engineering business. Our experience of teaching and research
over the years has realized a must book of this kind. Better
understanding of the terms helps in better understanding the relevant
literature and in communicating with more assurance and less use of
words.
The book is easy to use as it is a type of dictionary or glossary
where the terms are arranged in an alphabetic order. Where the term is
considered requiring more attention, a rather detailed description is
provided. The book contains a number of labeled figures which are to
some extent the visual descriptions of some critical terms for the better
understanding. Compared to the published literature of this kind, to our
knowledge, the present book is more comprehensive with more
definitions and more diagrams and we expect it would be much more
beneficial for the reader.
The concepts and descriptions of the terms in this book are based
on our years of experience of teaching and research and what we have
understood from the literature. It is possible that the reader may not
agree with the description of some of the terms. The meaning of a term
may vary from country to country and even from industry to industry
within the same country. In any case, we welcome the suggestions by
the readers and will try to accommodate the relevant suggestions in the
next edition of this book, if any. Please feel free to send your
suggestions and recommendations about the contents of this book on
mrashidusn@gmail.com.
The principal author (Dr. Muhammad R. Usman) would like to
thank his wife, Sidrah Javed, for her love and support and of course for
her patience especially in the last days of the compilation of this book.
She also helped him in understanding a few biochemical engineering
terms. The author is also thankful to his brother Dr. Muhammad Faisal
Irfan, a chemical engineer and scientist, for having many useful
ix
discussions over the years. At the end, the author wants to pay his
gratitude to his PhD supervisor, Dr. David L. Cresswell, an old fellow,
from whom the author has learned various directions of academic
thinking. The author could not forget the hours he spent with him while
listening to him.

x
A
Ablation: When an object travels in air the frictional heating caused by
air resistance is dissipated by the vaporization of some material loss of
the object. Such simultaneous heat and mass transfer process is called
as ablation. Generally, it is the vaporization of a material caused by
frictional heating of the material by the surrounding fluid. A rocket
traveling through air is coated with a poor conductor of heat (sacrificial
material) which vaporizes due to the frictional heating by air and the
main body of the rocket remains intact.

Absolute entropy: It is the total value of the entropy of a system

relative to the zero of entropy at zero K. Third law of thermodynamics
may be employed to measure the absolute value of entropy. See
entropy.

Absolute humidity: Same as humidity. See humidity.

Absolute manometer: A manometer which measures absolute

pressure. If the leg of a piezometer is evacuated and sealed, it forms an
absolute manometer. Barometer is an absolute manometer. See
piezometer.

Absolute pressure: It is the total pressure relative to the zero pressure

(i.e., perfect vacuum). It is usually distinguished by writing letter “a”
with the pressure units such as psia (pounds per square inch absolute).

Absolute pressure  barometric pressure  gauge pressure

Absolute pressure  barometric pressure  vacuum

Where, barometric pressure is the local pressure measured by a

barometer. For usual chemical engineering calculations, standard
atmospheric pressure (1.013 bar) is taken as the barometric pressure.
See gauge pressure and vacuum.

Absolute reaction rate theory: Also known as transition state theory.

According to the theory, for a chemical reaction to occur the reacting
species first form an activated complex before transforming into the
1
products. The activated complex is later decomposed to produce the
reaction products. The activated complex exists in equilibrium with the
reactants and the rate of decomposition of the complex is the rate of the
chemical reaction. The activated complex is sometimes called as the
transition state and therefore the theory as the transition state theory.

Absolute surface roughness: Also known as simply surface roughness.

The surface finishing of the commercial pipes is not smooth and tiny
peaks or crests are always present at the surface. The average height of
these crests is considered as absolute surface roughness. Surface
roughness is therefore defined to express the unevenness and
irregularities of the surfaces of pipes. It is expressed in units of length
and usually reported in millimeters (mm). Corrosion and erosion of the
pipe surface also contribute towards surface roughness. Fig. A-1 shows
a model surface roughness while Table A-1 gives typical values of
surface roughness of some commonly used pipe materials.

Fig. A-1 A model surface roughness.

Table A-1 Typical absolute surface roughness of chosen materials [1, 2]

Material Surface roughness (mm)
Drawn tubing 0.0015
Commercial steel 0.045
Stainless steel 0.002
Cast iron 0.260
Concrete 0.3–3.0
Glass/plastic 0
Hydraulically smooth conduit 0

Absolute temperature: The temperature of a body measured on

absolute scale of temperature. This is the temperature of a body
corresponding to the absolute zero of temperature. The SI units of
absolute temperature are K.

Absolute viscosity: Same as dynamic viscosity. See dynamic viscosity.

2
Absorbate: In a gas absorption operation, it is the component (solute)
that is required to be removed from the feed mixture. See gas
absorption.

Absorbent: In a gas absorption operation, absorbent is the liquid

solvent that is added to the absorption system to absorb one or more of
the components from a gas phase to relatively purify the gas phase. For
example, monoethanolamine (MEA) is an absorbent and used to absorb
carbon dioxide in the purification of natural gas. See gas absorption and
solvent.

Absorber: Also called as gas absorber. An absorber is an equipment

that is required for the absorption of one or more components from a
gas phase to the liquid phase (gas absorption). Examples are sparged
vessel, mechanically agitated vessel, Venturi scrubber, spray column,
packed column, tray tower, baffle column, and wetted wall column.
Absorbers may either be gas dispersed (include those in which gas
phase is disintegrated and forms small gas bubbles while liquid phase
remains in a continuous phase) such as sparged vessel, mechanically
agitated vessel, and tray tower or liquid dispersed (in which liquid
phase is disintegrated, i.e., forms tiny drops or films and gas phase
remains in continuous phase) such as packed column and Venturi
scrubber [3]. See gas absorption.

Absorption: Same as gas absorption. See gas absorption.

Absorption column: Also called as absorption tower. An absorption

column is a vertical and usually cylindrical vessel that is employed to
carry out the gas absorption operation. Examples are spray column,
baffle column, tray tower, and packed column. See absorber.

Absorption factor: For a gas absorption system, it is the ratio of the

slope of the operating line to that of the equilibrium line. It is usually
denoted by A and defined by the following relationship:

L
A G L
m mG

Where, L is liquid flowrate, G is gas flow rate, and m is a constant

3
(slope) in an equilibrium relationship such as y  mx . For many gas
absorption systems, absorption factor has a value close to unity and
generally a value of 1.4 is a good approximation [4]. A high absorption
factor results in a high degree of absorption and small number of stages.
See absorption factor method, stripping factor, and Kremser equations.

Absorption factor method: The method is used to calculate the

number of ideal stages for a multistage absorption equipment. When
both the operating line and the equilibrium line are linear over the
required concentration range, the number of theoretical or ideal stages
can be worked out using simple analytical relationships. These
analytical relationships include absorption factor and the use of these
equations is called as absorption factor method. See absorption factor
and Kremser equations.

Absorption refrigeration: A refrigeration system in which a

refrigerant is absorbed by an absorbent medium and then desorbed by
heating (with direct fired heater, waste heat boiler, or steam) and then
condensed. The condensed refrigerant is cooled afterwards by
expanding through an expansion valve and evaporated in an evaporator
to produce the refrigeration effect. Fig. A-2 shows the concept of the
absorption refrigeration cycle.

Fig. A-2 Absorption refrigeration cycle. The contents in the dashed box
differentiate absorption refrigeration cycle from vapor compression
refrigeration cycle. See vapor compression refrigeration cycle.
4
Absorption tower: Same as absorption column. See absorption
column.

Absorptivity: When thermal radiations fall upon a body, a fraction of

the radiant energy is absorbed by the body, fraction is reflected back
into the surroundings, and the rest is transmitted through the body. The
fraction of the incident ray that is absorbed by the body is called as
absorptivity. See Fig. A-3 for the concept of absoptivity, reflectivity,
and transmittivity. The percentage absorbed, reflected or transmitted
depends on the nature, temperature of the receiving body, and the
wavelength of the incident radiation. A black body is a perfect absorber
and has absorptivity equal to unity. See reflectivity and transmittivity.

absorptivity  reflectivity  transmittivity  1

Incident Reflected
radiation part

Absorbed Transmitted
part part
Fig. A-3 Concept of absorptivity, reflectivity, and trasnmittivity.

Accumulation: It means building up or depletion of a quantity in a

system with time. In precise words this term is the rate of accumulation
and may be defined as the change of a quantity (mass, mole, energy,
etc.) within the system with respect to time. It may be positive or
negative depending on the rates of the quantity coming into and going
out of the system. For a steady-state process, the rate of accumulation is
zero.

Accumulator: Accumulator is a vessel that is used to collect a liquid

condensate. It is considered as an integral part of a distillation column.
In a fractional distillation column, the accumulator is sometimes called
5
as reflux drum [5]. See reflux drum. See also Fig. B-7, Fig. C-9, and
Fig. D-11.

Accuracy: Accuracy is a measure of how close a measured value of a

variable to the actual value of the variable. It tells the approach of the
value of the measured variable towards the actual value of the measured
value. Two types of accuracies are defined, namely, static accuracy and
dynamic accuracy. Static accuracy represents the closeness of a
measured value to the actual (standard) value when the measured
variable is not changing in the system. However, dynamic accuracy
shows the closeness of the measured value to the true value when the
measured variable is changing with time. See precision.

Acentric factor: Two-parameter theorem of corresponding states,

although gives better results than ideal gas law, but deviation still exists
from experimental results except for simple substances like argon,
xenon, and krypton. Upon introducing a third parameter, the results are
greatly improved. The most widely used third corresponding states
parameter is the acentric factor. Acentric factor is a characteristic of
molecular structure of a fluid and can be determined from critical
temperature and pressure and vapor pressure at reduced temperature of
0.7 ( Tr  0.7 ). Pitzer acentric factor is defined as:

pT*r 0.7
   log  1.0
p

Where, pT*r 0.7 is the vapor pressure at reduced temperature of 0.7,

i.e., the vapor pressure of a given substance at 0.7 times its critical
temperature. The acentric factor (zero for simple spherical noble gases
like argon) accounts for the non-sphericity in the prediction of
compressibility factor. The parameter is frequently employed in the
correlations that are used for the estimation of thermophysical
properties. Acentric factors of benzene, carbon dioxide, and water are
0.210, 0.225, and 0.344 [6], respectively.

Acid clay treatment: A used lubricating oil is treated with

concentrated sulfuric acid which removes undesirable components from
the oil. The contents are then mixed with a clay such as fuller’s earth,
6
heated, and filtered from the acid sludge.

Acid egg: It is a simple type of liquid pump that consists of a closed

tank with no moving parts. Compressed air is employed to force the
liquid out of the tank through the discharge pipe. The operation of a
single acid egg is intermittent, however, the operation can be made
continuous using several acid eggs. It is an inexpensive, but inefficient
device.

Acid number: The number of milligrams (mg) of potassium hydroxide

required to neutralize the free acids (say free fatty acids in a vegetable
oil sample) present in one gram (g) of a given sample.

Acid sludge: The mud like material that settles at the bottom of the tank
when a petroleum product such as lube oil is treated with sulfuric acid.
See acid clay treatment and acid treatment.

Acid treatment: A process in which a petroleum product such as lube

oil fraction is treated with sulfuric acid. This is usually done to remove
impurities that impart color, odor, and the other undesirable properties.

Activation energy: Same as energy of activation. See energy of

activation.

Activator: In catalyst technology, a component which when combines

with a catalyst modifies its structure and enhances its activity.

Active area: Also called as bubbling area. The term is applied with tray
towers. On a single tray, it represents the area that provides the passage
for vapor flow close to the tray deck. It is therefore the total cross-
sectional area of the column less the sum of the areas of the two
downcomers (downcomer area and downcomer seal area) and any
considerable non-perforated area (region greater than 4 in wide [7]).
Generally, for a single pass cross flow tray as shown in Fig. A-4, if one
downcomer area is Ad and total column cross-section area is Ac , then
the active or bubbling area, Aa , is:

Aa  Ac  2 Ad

7
 Liquid flow
direction on tray

Active or
bubbling area

Downcomer area
Downcomer seal area
(Outlet downcomer)
(Inlet downcomer)

Fig. A-4 General representation of active area for a single pass cross
flow tray assuming no significant non-perforated area other than the
areas of the two downcomers.

Active centers: Also called as active sites. The chemical reaction takes
place on the specific sites of a catalyst which are considered a small part
of the total surface sites. The specific sites on which a reaction takes
place are the active centers. The loss in the area of the active centers
such as by poisons or coking results in the loss of the activity of the
catalyst and therefore a decrease in the rate of reaction.

Active sites: Same as active centers. See active centers.

Activity: In thermodynamics, it is defined as the ratio of the fugacity of

a component to its fugacity at the standard state. As it is the ratio of two
similar quantities, it is a dimensionless quantity. The choice of the
standard state is arbitrary.
Activity of a catalyst controls the extent of a chemical reaction
involved and describes the effectiveness of a catalyst towards the rate of
the chemical reaction and conversion of the reactant. It has no concern
with the product distribution (selectivity).

Activity coefficient: It is the ratio of the activity of a component in a

mixture to its mole fraction or concentration in terms of moles per cubic
8
volume. Activity coefficient is a correction factor that accounts for the
deviation of a solution from ideal solution behavior and therefore helps
out in predicting the actual phase equilibria. Activity coefficient of a
pure component or a component in an ideal solution is unity. Activity
coefficient of a component less than unity shows negative departure
from the Raoult’s law, and vice versa.

Activity coefficient models: Various activity coefficient models have

been proposed to estimate the activity coefficients to undertake the non-
ideality present in a liquid mixture. The experimental data is correlated
to find the parameters of a given activity coefficient model which later
can be used to predict the activity coefficients at the desired conditions.
The van Laar, Wilson, and NRTL (non-random two liquids) activity
coefficient models are typical examples. See activity coefficient.

Actuator: Actuator is a device that reacts in response to a signal to

produce the desired effect in a process variable. In most cases, the term
is applied for the devices that automatically adjust the movement of a
control valve. A pneumatic (that is operated by the help of air) actuator
is shown in Fig. A-5.

Fig. A-5 Representation of a pneumatic actuator.

Adaptive control: A control system that automatically adapts or adjusts

its behavior to compensate for the changes in a process.

Addition rule: It is applied to determine the composition of a mixture

obtained by the addition of two mixtures. It states that the composition
9
of the final mixture that is obtained by adding two separate mixtures
lies on a straight line drawn between the compositions of the two
adding mixtures.

Additive: Additives are chemical compounds that are added to a

product such as lubricating oil in order to alter or impart the desired
properties to the oil.

Adiabatic compression: The process of compression of a gas when no

heat enters and leaves the system. Adiabatic compression in
compressors and adiabatic expansion in turbines are typical examples.
The amount of work required for the adiabatic compression is always
greater than the work required in isothermal compression. Interstage
cooling is therefore required in multistage compressors to economize
the process of compression. In reciprocating compressors, compression
is usually assumed adiabatic because the compression process is so fast
that there is not enough time for the heat to leave the system.

Adiabatic cooling line: On a humidity chart, the lines of constant

adiabatic saturation temperature (also wet bulb temperature lines for the
air-water system) are adiabatic cooling lines. A single line is a plot of
dry bulb temperature and humidity for a specified value of adiabatic
saturation temperature. See humidity chart.

Adiabatic efficiency: The efficiency of a compressor/turbine reported

when the process of compression/expansion is assumed adiabatic (no
heat energy leaves and enters the system). See isentropic efficiency.

Adiabatic expansion: An expansion process (say in a turbine or piston

cylinder assembly) in which no heat energy leaves and enters the
system. See adiabatic compression.

Adiabatic flame temperature: Also called as theoretical flame

temperature. It is the maximum temperature attained by the combustion
products when a fuel is burned under adiabatic conditions (no heat loss
and no heat gain). The highest adiabatic temperature will be attained if
the fuel is treated with theoretically required amount of oxygen under
conditions of complete combustion of the fuel. An increase in flame
temperature increases the thermal efficiency and reduces the fuel cost,

10
but costly material of construction may be required. Adiabatic flame
temperature increases if the air is preheated or the amount of excess air
is reduced. However, increasing flame temperature may cause
formation of oxides of nitrogen (using air) which are not benign to the
environment.

Adiabatic flow: Flow of a fluid in which there is no heat transfer to and

from the fluid. Adiabatic flows are larger than isothermal flows,
however, in many cases the difference is small.

Adiabatic process: A process in which no heat leaves and enters the

system, i.e., for such a process Q = 0, where, Q is heat energy.

Adiabatic reactor: In an adiabatic reactor, no heat energy is added to

or taken from the reactor system. It is a preferred reactor over the non-
adiabatic reactor when sufficient conversion and selectivity are possible
without heating or cooling the reactor. However, in an adiabatic reactor,
for the case of an exothermic reaction the upper temperature limit may
damage the catalyst and material of construction. Also, the temperature
may fall unacceptably low during an endothermic reaction. In such
instances, an isothermal or a non-adiabatic non-isothermal reactor and
not the adiabatic reactor would be the better choice. An adiabatic
reactor is simple in operation and has low cost as no heating or cooling
system is installed. Where possible an adiabatic reactor should be
selected because it is more economical than the corresponding
isothermal reactor. An adiabatic fixed bed reactor is shown in Fig. A-6.
See also isothermal reactor.

Fig. A-6 Adiabatic fixed bed reactor.

11
Adiabatic saturation process: The process in which a gas attains the
adiabatic saturation temperature. See adiabatic saturation temperature.

Adiabatic saturation temperature: For a gas-water mixture (say air-

water mixture), it is the temperature attained when the gas is saturated
under adiabatic conditions. See humidity chart.

Adsorbate: In the unit operation of adsorption, the component (the

solute) that is adsorbed on the surface of the adsorbent is termed as
adsorbate. In the dehydration of natural gas by adsorption process,
water is the adsorbate and retained by the solid adsorbent. See
adsorption.

Adsorbent: In an adsorption process the solid material that adsorbs one

or more solutes onto its surface is known as adsorbent. Adsorbents
usually have highly porous structure, i.e., there are a large number of
fine pores and the bulk density is usually quite lower than the actual
particle density. The presence of fine pores gives rise to a greatly
increased surface area of these materials. Fuller’s earth, activated
alumina, silica gel, activated carbon, and molecular sieves are examples
of adsorbents. See adsorption.

Adsorbent regeneration: When an adsorbent saturates or nearly

saturate with solute/s, it loses its adsorption capacity and there is a need
to replace or regenerate the adsorbent for reuse. In regenerating an
adsorbent, the adsorbent is made free of the solute/s (adsorbate/s). This
is usually carried out either by increasing temperature (greater than the
process temperature) or lowering pressure (less than the pressure of the
process) or using steam or hot gas. See thermal swing adsorption and
pressure swing adsorption.

Adsorber: An adsorber is an equipment that is required to carry out the

adsorption process. It contains the mass of a solid adsorbent and assures
the contact between the adsorbent and the fluid stream containing the
solute/s to be adsorbed. Fixed bed, moving bed, fluidized bed, agitated
bed (e.g. stirred tank system), and rotary bed (adsorption wheel)
adsorbers are the various types of adsorbers. See adsorption.

Adsorption: A process in which one or more components (solutes) are

12
transferred from a gas or liquid phase to the surface of a solid
(adsorbent). Adsorption is either physical adsorption or chemical
adsorption, however, the unit operation of adsorption is usually
understood by physical adsorption. Adsorption is a purification process
that is used to purify gases and petroleum products. It is employed for
highly dilute (very low concentration of solute) liquid or gas streams to
be purified and may be required where selective separation is to be
carried out. Adsorption is carried out either by agitated process or by
percolation technique and carried out either continuously or batchwise.
Adsorption (physical) is a strong function of temperature and decreases
with temperature while opposite is true for the effect of pressure. These
effects are exploited to regenerate an adsorption bed (adsorbent).

Adsorption equilibrium: It is the equilibrium relationship between the

concentration of a solute (adsorbate) in the gas or liquid phase and the
concentration of the solute on the solid adsorbent. The information is
useful in determining the size of an adsorber and estimating the possible
degree of adsorption for a given system. It is usually reported at
constant temperature. See adsorption isobar, adsorption isostere, and
adsorption isotherm.

Adsorption isobar: The isobar shows the variation of the adsorbed

amount of an adsorbate with variation in temperature at a constant
pressure. See Fig. A-7.

Fig. A-7 Adsorption equilibrium curves: a) adsorption isobar,

b) adsorption isostere, c) adsorption isotherm.

Adsorption isostere: A plot of equilibrium pressure of the adsorbate

(p) over the solid adsorbent and temperature (T) at a constant adsorbed
amount is an adsorption isostere. It shows the variation of adsorbate
pressure in the gas phase with temperature for a constant concentration
13
of the adsorbed component (i.e., for constant value of adsorption).
Commonly, ln p and 1 / T are plotted at constant adsorbed amount as it
usually gives a straight line with slope of the line indicating
approximately the heat of adsorption. For adsorption from a liquid
stream, the equilibrium partial pressure of the adsorbent may be
replaced with equilibrium concentration of the adsorbent. See Fig. A-7.

Adsorption isotherm: Adsorption equilibria are usually reported and

plotted under isothermal conditions. The constant temperature
equilibrium relationship between the concentration of a component to
be adsorbed in the fluid (gas or liquid) phase and its concentration on
the surface of the solid is called as adsorption isotherm. See Fig. A-7.
The basic models for adsorption isotherms are linear (may be called as
Henry’s), Freundlich, and Langmuir. See Langmuir adsorption and
Fruendlich adsorption isotherms.

Adsorption wheel: Also called as rotary bed adsorber. See rotary bed
adsorber.

ADU: It stands for atmospheric distillation unit. See atmospheric

distillation unit.

Advection: It is the forced convection.

Aeration: The process in which a liquid is contacted with a gas either

by bubbling the gas in the body of the liquid or by showering or
spraying the liquid in the gas. Aeration frequently finds its application
in environmental and biochemical technologies. See aeration factor.

Aeration factor: The term is used in operations which are

characterized by foam or froth formation and defined as the ratio of the
density of the froth to the density of the clear liquid. As the volume of
foam or froth is different from the clear liquid volume, the relationship
between the two volumes (densities) is important in the design and the
operation of a process involving aeration such as distillation or gas
absorption in a tray tower. See aeration.

Aerosol: A dispersion of solid or liquid particles in a gas. Smoke

particles present in air present an example of aerosol.
14
AES: It stands for auger electron spectroscopy. See auger electron
spectroscopy.

Affinity laws for pumps: Also called as pump laws. The laws indicate
the performance of a centrifugal type pump at various speeds
(revolutions per minute) of the pump and may simply be stated as:

o Flow rate or capacity of a pump is directly proportional to the speed

of the pump
o Discharge head is directly proportional to the square of the pump
speed
o Power required by the pump motor is directly proportional to the
cube of the pump speed.

Afterburn: It is the burning of the flue gases (CO) in the convective

section of a fired heater.

Agglomerates: Agglomerates are the product of an agglomeration

process. The smaller particles are agglomerated (joined) to produce
larger particles that are called agglomerates. See agglomeration.

Agglomeration: Agglomeration is one of the principal methods of size

enlargement of solid particles. Different definitions may be found in the
literature, but it is preferred, here, to define agglomeration as the
process in which fine solid particles are joined together with mechanical
forces such as agitation and compression to form large particles where
the individual particles can still be identified. Therefore, the methods of
size enlargement such as heat sintering and size enlargement from a
solution (spraying) or melt (prilling) are not the agglomeration methods.
See aggregation.

Aggregates: The collection or group of solid particles, liquid droplets,

or gas bubbles is an aggregate. For example, some solid particles
combine together by weak forces such as van der Waal forces and form
aggregates. Aggregates are usually undesirable. See aggregation.

Aggregation: The process in which solid particles, liquid droplets, or

gas bubbles are grouped or joined together is called as aggregation. The
difference between the agglomeration and aggregation of the solid

15
particles may be stated in a way that aggregation is not a desired
phenomenon while agglomeration is carried out deliberately for a
purpose. See agglomeration.

Aggregative fluidization: Also called as heterogeneous fluidization. In

gas-solid systems of fluidization, increasing gas flow beyond the
minimum fluidization velocity, large gas bubbles are formed and
channeling of the gas occurs. This type of fluidization is called as
aggregative fluidization. In aggregative fluidization, particles come
close to each other and form aggregates and gas bubbles through the
denser portion. Aggregative fluidization is a general term which
includes bubbling fluidization, slugging fluidization, and turbulent
fluidization. Although not common, aggregative fluidization may also
occur in liquid-solid systems. See particulate fluidization.

Aggregative fluidized bed: Also called as heterogeneous fluidized bed.

A fluidized bed that characterizes the aggregative fluidization is an
aggregative fluidized bed. See aggregative fluidization.

Agitated dryer: It is a steam jacketed drying vessel that may or may

not revolve on any of the axes and integrated with some mechanical
agitator system. The agitation mechanism causes high rates of heat and
mass transfer and reduces the time of drying. Horizontal agitated dryers
and pan agitated dryers are typical examples. Horizontal agitated dryers
have a jacketed cylindrical shell with a horizontal shaft carrying the
agitator blades that stir and scrap the mass of solids.

Agitated film evaporator: Also called as film type evaporator and

wiped film evaporator. Unlike a common evaporator that consists of a
number of small diameter tubes, agitated film evaporator contains a
single large diameter tube which includes an agitator with its blades
almost touching the inside wall of the evaporator (tube). The bottom
portion acts as a heater which is heated externally by the steam in the
steam jacket while upper portion acts as a separator. Feed is entered
from the top and the agitator mechanism throws the feed towards the
wall of the evaporator. The agitator also makes the wall surface free
from the solids and reduces the film thickness. Heat transfer coefficients
are even greater than those involved in forced circulation evaporators.
The evaporator is operated once through and the capacity of the

16
evaporator is relatively lower. Due to internal moving parts it has
greater maintenance cost. It is used with highly viscous materials and
heat sensitive materials.

Agitated tank: Same as agitated vessel. See agitated vessel.

Agitated vessel: An agitated vessel is usually a cylindrical vessel with

or without baffles (strips) where essentially an agitation mechanism is
installed. In most of the cases, the agitation is carried out by the
incorporation of a mechanical agitator and the agitated vessel then may
be called as mechanical agitated vessel (Fig. A-8). The agitation,
however, may also be carried out by the application of the jet agitation
system in which a jet of liquid/gas is introduced in the main body of the
liquid. Mechanical agitated vessels are so widely used that the term
agitated vessel and mechanical agitated vessel are usually considered
the same. Cylindrical vessels with round bottoms are a common choice
as they bear the greater liquid heads and avoid liquid pockets where
mixing currents may not reach. A standard agitated vessel contains a
single impeller and has height of liquid to diameter ratio of unity. In
some cases, however, more than one impeller, one above the other are
mounted on the same shaft of the agitator. Internal heat transfer coils or
external heat transfer jackets may be fitted with the vessels to attain the
required degree of temperature. The agitated vessel is characterized by
the complete mixing (100% backmixed) phenomenon and the
countercurrent plug flow advantages cannot be achieved in a single
vessel. See agitation.

Agitation: It may be defined as a process in which turbulence is caused

in the body a liquid by some mechanical means. It is usually carried out
in agitated vessels incorporated with suitable agitators (one or more
impellers mounted on a shaft). However, jet agitation may be obtained
by introducing a jet of liquid/gas through nozzles into the main body of
the liquid. Agitation is generally used in mixing of two liquids, making
suspensions of solid particles in liquids, gas absorption to break large
bubbles into smaller size bubbles that create high interfacial area,
making liquid emulsions, and to increase heat transfer rates.

Agitator: Often called as mechanical agitator. An agitator is simply a

cylindrical shaft that is fitted with one or more impellers and requires

17
some kind of motor mechanism for its rotation. An agitator essentially
requires a vessel or tank to produce the required degree of agitation. See
agitated vessel.

Fig. A-8 Mechanical agitated vessel.

AIChE: It stands for American institute of chemical engineers.

Air binding: Also called as air lock. A condition in which bubbles of

air (gas) are entrapped in a flow system and hinder the flow of the
liquid. Examples may include the fuel flow (injection) or the pump
suction obstruction due to air trapped in the system.

Air classification: Classification (grading or separation) of solid

particles by the use of air flow.

Air conditioning: The process in which a certain air atmosphere is

maintained at desired temperature and humidity is called as air
conditioning. Sometimes pressure is also adjusted as normally required
at high altitudes.

Air cooled heat exchanger: Also called as fin-fan air cooler or simply
air cooler. In an air cooled heat exchanger, ambient air is passed over a
bank of tubes while the hot process fluid flows inside the horizontal
tubes in cross flow to the flow of the air. A forced draft or induced draft
18
fan is required to drive the coolant air and to increase the air velocity
over the tubes which increases the air side heat transfer coefficient. Due
to the low heat transfer coefficient associated with air side, traverse fins
are used on the outside surface (air side) of the tubes to enhance the
heat transfer area. The air side (outside) heat transfer coefficient
depends upon the factors such as air velocity, air temperature, tube size,
fin height, fin concentration (number of fins per linear foot), tube layout
(square or triangular), and fin material of construction. Air cooled heat
exchangers are used as coolers and condensers. They are frequently
employed where the cost of cooling water is high. Fig. A-9 shows a
forced draft air cooled heat exchanger.

Fig. A-9 Air cooled heat exchanger.

Air cooler: Same as air cooled heat exchanger. See air cooled heat
exchanger.

Air dried fuel: See air dried moisture.

Air dried moisture: The moisture contents of a solid sample such as

solid fuel (coal) that are left after air drying at low temperature (to
remove the surface moisture) is known as air dried moisture and the
solid itself is called as air dried solid.

Air dried solid: See air dried moisture.

19
Air filters: Air filters are used to purify a certain air from the
suspended particles such as dust and smoke. They are extensively used
with compressors and internal combustion (IC) engines. The material of
construction of the filter medium may be fiber glass, polyester, hair,
metal, paper, or carbon. They are usually used in the form of rolls or
corrugated sheets fitted in the vertical frames. A bag filter is a common
example of air filters. See Fig. A-10. See also bag filters.

Fig. A-10 Air filter (bag filter).

Air lift pump: In an air lift pump, compressed air is used to aerate the
liquid water and lifts the water from a deep water source. As no moving
parts, the pump is especially useful in pumping liquids containing solids
(in mining) and liquids that can cause frequent wear-corrosion to the
pump parts. See Fig. A-11.

Air lift reactor: The concept of an air lift reactor is shown in Fig. A-
12. Air (gas) is bubbled and circulated in the reaction vessel containing
a draft tube. The aerated liquid having lower density rises up and
circulates. The direction of circulation (clockwise or anticlockwise)
depends on the position of the air entering to the reactor.
20
 Fig. A-11 Air lift pump.

Air lock: Same as air binding. See air binding.

Air pollution: Slow intrusion of various components (COx, NOx, SOx,

CFCs, hydrocarbons, etc.) in atmospheric air which are directly or
indirectly harmful for the animal and plant tissues.

Air standard assumptions: The analysis of a gas power cycle is

greatly simplified by applying the air standard assumptions. In air
standard assumptions, the air which behaves as an ideal gas acts as the
working fluid and all the processes are considered as internally
reversible. Moreover, the heating (combustion) and cooling (exhaust)
processes are replaced by heat addition and heat removal processes,
respectively. If the air is considered to have constant specific heat
capacities at 25°C, the air standard assumptions are known as cold air
standard assumptions.

Air standard cycle: The thermodynamic cycle that is based on the air
standard assumptions is called as air standard cycle. All processes of the
cycle are internally reversible and the working fluid is air that behaves
as an ideal gas. Heating (combustion) and cooling (exhaust) processes
are external heat addition and rejection processes, respectively. See air
21
standard assumptions.

Fig. A-12 Air lift reactor with air entering inside the draft tube.

Air-fuel ratio: All combustible fuels require air (oxygen) to undergo

the combustion reaction. The ratio of the amount of air to the amount of
fuel that is required for a certain combustion process is the air-fuel ratio.
The knowledge of air-fuel ratio is extremely important in the design and
efficiency of a combustion equipment such as furnace. An optimal
value of air-fuel ratio is an important parameter in a reliable design and
operation of a combustion system. If less than required air is used,
unburned fuel and smoke may go into the flue lines. However, a value
greater than the optimum may cause an increase in the size and cooling
of the combustion system.

Air-to-close valve: It is a type of fail-open valve. In some control

situations, the air pressure that moves the actuator is required to close
the valve otherwise the valve remains fully opened. Therefore, if the
pneumatic source for the valve actuation is cutoff the valve traces back
to the fully opened position. See Fig. A-13. See also fail-open valve and
air-to-open valve.
22
 Fig. A-13 a) Air-to-close valve, b) air-to-open valve.

Air-to-open valve: It is a type of fail-closed valve. Unlike air-to-close

valve, in some control situations, the air pressure that moves the
actuator is required to open the valve otherwise the valve remains fully
closed. Therefore, if the pneumatic source for the valve actuation is
cutoff the valve traces back to the fully closed position. See Fig. A-13.
See also fail-closed valve and air-to-close valve.

Alarm: In a plant operation, unwanted control conditions may arise

when an alarm rings and indicates a possible shut down.

Alfa-Laval extractor: A centrifugal type liquid-liquid extractor

developed by Alfa-Laval. It contains a number of perforated cylinders
revolving on a vertical axis through which the liquids flow
countercurrently to achieve the desired extraction. See centrifugal
extraction.

Aliquot: A small fraction of a bulk material usually required for the

analysis.

Alkylation: Addition of an alkyl group to an organic molecule is called

as alkylation. With respect to petroleum refinery, it is the reaction of an
olefin such as butylene (or propylene) with isobutene that forms an
isoparaffin such as isooctane. The product isoparaffin (alkylated
gasoline) has a high octane number and can be blended to a gasoline.
The product of an alkylation process is called as alkylate.

23
Alternative fuels: Owing to the fact that the world oil is depleting day
by day and the fact that the conventional fuels (fossil fuels and nuclear
fuels) are not environmentally friendly, attempts are being made to
develop non-conventional fuels which are called as alternative fuels.
Fuels such as biodiesel, bioethanol, and hydrogen are examples of
alternative fuels.

Amagat’s law: Also called as the law of additive volumes. It is an ideal

gas law and states that the total volume of a fixed mass of an ideal gas
mixture at constant temperature and constant total pressure is equal to
the sum of the individual volumes of all the pure component gases.
Where the pure component volume of a component of gas mixture is
the volume occupied by the gas when it is present alone at the same
temperature and pressure at which the mixture is present. A corollary of
the Amagat’s law is described as the mole fraction of a component of
gas is equal to the ratio of pure component volume of the gas to the total
volume of the gaseous mixture. This result may lead to conclude that
for ideal gases the volume percent is the same as the mole percent. This
is quite a useful finding in carrying out material balance and energy
balance calculations.

Ambient conditions: These are surrounding conditions.

American engineering system: The system of units having length (ft),

mass (lbm), force (lbf), and time (s, h) as the basic quantities. As pound-
force is a basic unit, conversion factor of 32.174 (~32.2) is required to
multiply with force when converting between pound-force and pound-
mass.

Analogies: There exist similarities in all the three transfer processes,

namely, heat, mass, and momentum transfer. In each of the rate
processes, rate of a quantity is proportional to the respective gradient
and area for flow of the quantity in the direction of flow. Due to
similarities in these rate processes, many efforts have been made to
correlate these phenomena. Such efforts are called as analogies.
Examples are Reynolds analogy and Chilton and Colburn analogy. See
Reynolds analogy and Chilton and Colburn analogy.

Analyte: It is the component in a sample mixture of components which

24
is to be analyzed.

Analytical solution of groups (ASOG) method: A group contribution

method for the prediction of activity coefficients.

Anchor agitator: It is a type of agitator (impeller plus shaft) that is

used with the agitated tanks. As shown in Fig. M-7, it appears like an
anchor of a ship, so is the name. It turns at very low speeds and used for
the high viscosity liquids. However, as it provides low axial flow, it is
not a good choice for the blending situations even for the high viscosity
liquids. It is good to use in reactors as it improves the heat transfer from
the wall of the reactor and facilitates in dislodging the vapors formed in
the liquid. Where the solids have a tendency to be deposited on the wall,
it may be used for scraping out the solid particles. See gate paddle
agitator.

Anemometer: A flow or velocity measuring instrument.

Anergic process: A process in which work is zero.

Angle factor: Same as view factor. See view factor.

Angle of nip: The largest or maximum angle made by the jaws in a jaw
crusher or by roll surfaces in crushing rolls that just grip the particle to
be crushed. For crushing rolls the preferred value of the angle of nip is
taken as 32°. See jaw crusher and crushing rolls.

Angle valve: Angle valve as shown in Fig. A-14 has the outlet at 90° to
the inlet of the valve. A stem carrying a plug disc rests on the seat when
the valve is closed. An angle valve provides lower pressure drop or
frictional losses as compared to a usual globe valve. This is because a
fluid has to take more turns in a globe valve than an angle valve. See
globe valve.

Aniline point: The minimum temperature at which equal volumes of

aniline and a sample (of a petroleum product) are miscible is known as
aniline point. For two similar molecular weight samples, it can be used
to compare for aromatic character. A low value of aniline point
indicates higher contents of aromatics, and vice versa. As the ignition

25
quality of a Diesel fuel is proportional to its paraffinity characteristics,
this test gives an idea of the ignition quality of the diesel fuel. See
Diesel index.

Fig. A-14 Angle valve.

Anion exchanger: A vessel containing anion exchange resin and that is

used for anion exchange reactions.

Anisotropic material: For an anisotropic material, a physical property

such as density is not the same in all the directions. Wood is a typical
example of an anisotropic material. See anisotropy and isotropic
material.

Anisotropy: A material may have different values of a property such as

density or tensile strength in different directions. This characteristic of
the material is called as anisotropy. For example, a piece of wood may
have different densities in different directions. See isotropy.

Annual turnaround: See turnaround.

Annular flow: Annular flow pattern is a characteristic of a two-phase

gas-liquid flow. In such type of flow condition, liquid flows along the
26
wall (periphery) of a tube or pipe and vapor or gas flows through the
annular core. When a vapor is condensed inside a tube, an annular
condensate film is formed. The vapor passes through this annular space
and entrains some of the droplets of the condensate. Annular flow in a
vertical tube is shown in Fig. A-15.

Fig. A-15 Annular flow in a vertical tube.

Annulus: Annulus is an important flow conduit and formed when two

pipes of different sizes (diameters) are arranged in such a way that the
smaller diameter pipe is placed inside the larger diameter pipe. The
geometry is the essential feature of the double pipe heat exchangers.
See Fig. A-16.

Fig. A.16 Shaded region is the annular region (annulus).

Anode: The positive electrode of an electrochemical cell at which

oxidation takes place. Negative ions travel towards the anode. See
cathode.

27
ANSI: It stands for American national standards institute.

Anticipatory control: Derivative control action is also called as

anticipatory control. See derivative control.

Antifoaming agent: Certain chemicals have a tendency to form foams.

In operations such as evaporation, distillation, and gas absorption, these
foams entrain the liquid droplets and cause a serious loss in efficiency
of the operation. In order to avoid foaming and to avoid the loss of
efficiency, external agents called as antifoaming agents are added to the
processing streams.

Antifreeze: Antifreeze is added to water to lower its freezing point.

Examples are glycol derivatives such as ethylene glycol and propylene.

Antiknock agents: Certain chemical compounds have the ability to

suppress knocking when added to a gasoline. These are called as
antiknock agents. Examples are methyltertiarybutylether (MTBE) and
some organometallic compounds such as tertraethyl lead. See knocking.

Antoine equation: Antoine equation is frequently used to observe the

effect of temperature on the vapor pressure and to estimate the vapor
pressure at a fixed temperature for a pure substance. The equation can
be written in the following form:

B
ln p*  A 
C T

Where, p * is vapor pressure in mmHg; A, B, and C are the

Antoine’s constants; and T is temperature in K. Antoine equation is a
widely used correlation that should be employed within the suggested
temperature ranges. See vapor pressure.

Antoine’s constants: The parameters A, B, and C of the Antoine

equation are Antoine’s constants. See Antoine equation.

API: It stands for American petroleum institute.

API gravity scale: A specific gravity scale developed by API

28
(American petroleum institute) and normally used with refinery
products. The specific gravity in this scale is reported as degree API or
API gravity as follows:

141.5
API or API gravity  
60 F
 131.5
sp gr 60 F

The density of the oil sample and density of water both should be
obtained at 60F.

API method: Same as Daubert correlation. See Daubert correlation.

Apparent viscosity: On a curve plotted between shear stress and shear

rate (velocity gradient), it is defined as the slope of the line joining the
point of interest and the origin. The concept is shown in Fig. A-17. The
term is normally used with non-Newtonian fluids where unlike
Newtonian fluids, viscosity is a function of shear rate. See non-
Newtonian fluids.

Fig. A-17 Concept of apparent viscosity.

Approach: The term is associated with heat transfer equipment and

cooling towers. In heat exchangers, it is the difference between the
temperatures of two streams at the hot or cold side of the exchangers,
whichever is smaller. In cooling towers, it is the difference between the
temperature of cooling water leaving the cooling tower and the wet bulb
temperature of the entering air.
29
Apron: In the segmental type downcomer, the downcomer plate is
sometimes called as apron. See downcomer plate.
The load bearing part of the apron conveyor is also called as apron.

Archimedes number: It is the ratio of the gravitational forces to the

viscous forces and describes the gravitational effects on particles or
droplets.

  Re 2  l 3  g   2
Ar   Ga    
  Fr  2

Where, Ar is Archimedes number, Ga is Galileo number, Re is

Reynolds number, Fr is Froude number, l is characteristic length, g is
acceleration due to gravity,  is density of fluid,  is the density
difference between two phases (say solid and liquid) and  is viscosity
of fluid.

Archimedes’ principle: When an object is submerged in a fluid, it

experiences a buoyant force (net force) by the fluid which is equal to
the weight of the fluid displaced. This law gives the criterion of floating
and sinking of an object. If the weight of the object is less than the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object, it will float otherwise it will
sink.

Area meters: Area meters are flow measuring devices in which

flowrate of a fluid is a function of variable value of flow area. However,
pressure drop remains constant with flowrate. Rotameter is a principal
example of this class of flow meters. See Rotameter.

Arithmetic mean diameter: Also called as number mean diameter. It

is defined as the diameter of a particle which is the ratio of sum of the
diameters of all the particles to the total number of the particles [8]. It is
usually denoted by d10 .

Arnold’s formula: The formula is used to predict the diffusion

coefficient for the diffusion of component A into liquid B.

Aromatization: It is the transformation of a non-aromatic hydrocarbon

30
to an aromatic compound. The non-aromatic hydrocarbon may be an
aliphatic (straight or branched chain) or a naphthenic compound
(cycloparaffin). The dehydrogenation of methylcyclohexane to toluene
is a typical example of aromatization in which a naphthenic compound
is converted to an aromatic compound.

Arrhenius equation: The effect of temperature on the rate of a

chemical reaction may be predicted, in most of the cases, by a simple
equation proposed by Arrhenius. The Arrhenius equation is shown
below:

 E 
k  k 0  exp  a 
 RT 

Where, k is rate constant, k 0 is frequency factor or preexponential

factor, Ea is activation energy, T is absolute temperature, and R is
universal gas constant.

Arrhenius number: Also called as dimensional activation energy. It is

the ratio of the activation energy to the product of temperature and
universal gas constant.

Ea
Arr 
R T

Where, Arr is Arrhenius number, Ea is activation energy, and T is

absolute temperature.

Arrhenius parameters: The Arrhenius equation contains two essential

parameters, namely, frequency factor ( k 0 ) and activation energy ( Ea ).
These two parameters are known as the Arrhenius parameters. The
specific values of these parameters are to be known (predicted) for the
application of the Arrhenius equation for the given problem. See
Arrhenius equation.

Arrhenius plot: Upon taking natural logarithm to both sides of the

Arrhenius equation, a straight line equation may be obtained as given
31
below:

Ea
ln k    ln k 0
RT

1 E
A plot of ln k and as shown in Fig. A-18 with slope  a and ln k 0
T R
as its y-intercept is known as the Arrhenius plot. Where, k is rate
constant, Ea is activation energy, R is universal gas constant, T is
temperature, and k 0 is frequency parameter. See Arrhenius equation and
Arrhenius parameters.

Fig. A-18 Arrhenius plot.

Ash: It is the non-volatile and non-combustible material in a sample of

fuel such as coal and may be defined as the incombustible mineral
matter that remains in the ash pit after combustion of the fuel. The
calorific value of a fuel decreases as the ash content of the fuel
increases. The ash forming agents may be SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3, CaO,
MgO, etc.

ASME: It stands for American society of mechanical engineers.

ASOG method: It stands for analytical solution of groups method. See

analytical solution of groups method.

Aspect ratio: It is defined as the ratio of the larger dimension to the

32
shorter dimension. It is therefore the ratio of height to diameter of a bed
or vessel such as fluidized bed or agitated vessel.

Assay of crude oil: Assay of a crude oil means analysis of a crude oil.
True boiling point (TBP) distillation data and specific gravity of the
whole crude oil are among the principal properties of the crude oil that
should be included in the crude oil assay. See TBP distillation.

Associated gas: The term is used in petroleum technology and refers to

a gas (natural gas) which is available along with crude oil in a reservoir
and does not occur alone in the reservoir. See unassociated gas.

ASTM: It stands for American society for testing and materials.

ASTM distillation: A laboratory test on refinery products such as

gasoline and naphtha in which standardized batch distillation apparatus
is employed with standardized procedure. It is essentially a differential
distillation technique with no reflux. 100 ml of a sample, taken in a
flask, is heated and the temperature is recorded after every 10 ml is
collected in the graduated cylinder. Initial boiling point (IBP), 10 %,
50%, 70%, 90%, and end point (EP) are the important observations.

Athermal process: Unlike isothermal process, it is the process in which

temperature does not remain constant. See isothermal process.

Atmospheric cooling tower: Atmospheric air enters the sides of the

tower through louvers (pitched bars) that direct the air flow. No fan is
used to push or pull the air inside the tower. Water flows downward
over the packing (fill) in cross flow to the entering air and collected in
the cooling tower water basin from where it is pumped to the service.
For a closer wet bulb approach, the tower is to be very tall, so pumping
cost is high. The tower is recommended in those areas where air is
relatively dry and cool. See Fig. A-19. See also cooling water tower.

Atmospheric distillation column: Although the term is employed in

general, but it usually refers to the crude oil distillation column
operating at atmospheric pressure (slightly above atmospheric
pressure). See atmospheric distillation unit.

33
 Fig. A-19 Atmospheric cooling tower.

Atmospheric distillation unit (ADU): The atmospheric crude oil

distillation column along with the associated equipment is referred to as
atmospheric distillation unit. In atmospheric distillation of a crude oil,
the desalted crude oil is heated in a series of exchangers followed by a
furnace and flashed into the distillation column. Various fractions are
removed from the column depending upon the type of the crude oil and
the subsequent processing of the fractions. Fig. A-20 shows the diagram
of the atmospheric distillation unit with typical product streams.

Atmospheric pressure: Same as barometric pressure. See barometric

pressure and standard atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric reduced crude: Also called as atmospheric residuum and

34
topped crude. It is the bottom product of the atmospheric crude
distillation column. See atmospheric distillation column.

Fig. A-20 Simplified atmospheric distillation unit with typical products.

Atmospheric residue: Same as atmospheric residuum. See atmospheric

residuum.

Atmospheric residuum: Also called as atmospheric residue. It is the

same as atmospheric reduced crude. See atmospheric reduced crude.

Atomic absorption spectroscopy: It is used for the accurate

determination of elements present in a solution. It is an effective
technique for the detection of trace metal elements.

Atomization: The process in which a liquid is disintegrated into

droplets, i.e., atomized in order to increase its surface for the effective
combustion (in burners) or drying (in spray dryers). In the case of a
fuel, it increases the interfacial area between the air and the fuel (liquid
35
fuel). Although the same advantage can be obtained by vaporizing the
liquid (fuel) instead of atomizing the liquid, however, it may cause
cracking in the vaporizer and hence may result in carbon deposition.

Atomizer: An atomizer forms droplets of a liquid stream and finds its

application in fuel injection systems (burners), spray dryers, etc. See
atomization.

ATR-FTIR: Attenuated total reflectance-Fourier transform infrared

spectroscopy.

Attrition force method: It is one of the four principal methods of

application of force required to reduce the size of a given material. The
other three methods are impact, shear, and compression. In attrition, the
size of the solid particles is reduced by rubbing off (under a constant
pressure) the particles with each other or with the rigid surfaces (the
walls of the grinder). It is different from the shear or cutting mechanism
in which a sharp cleavage is produced usually by sharp metal edges.
Attrition is the dominant force in grinding of solid materials that
produces fine particles rather than crushing of solid materials which
handles large size particles to produce usually a size of intermediate
character. Disc mill utilizes dominantly the attrition force that is why it
is frequently known as attrition mill. See compression force method,
impact force method, and shear force method.

Auger electron spectroscopy (AES): An analytical technique that is

applied to determine the surface elemental composition of materials.

Autoclave: A reactor (usually cylindrical) that is used to carry out

chemical reactions and capable of withstanding high temperature and
pressure.

Autoignition: The process in which a fuel-air mixture catches fire by

itself (automatically) in the absence of a spark or flame. For a spark
ignition (SI) engine, the premature combustion is called as autoignition.
This is the main cause of knocking or detonation in SI engines. See
autoignition temperature.

Autoignition temperature: Also called as ignition temperature. The

36
minimum temperature of a fuel-air mixture at which it catches fire
automatically without the presence of an external ignition source. No
ignition source is required for the combustion if ignition temperature is
reached. See autoignition.

Automatic controller: In contrast to a manual controller, an automatic

controller is self functionalized and compares the output response to the
desired value and takes the action according to the error generated
based on the pretuned settings.

Automatic reset: Same as integral control action. See integral control

action.

Availability: It is the same as exergy. See exergy.

Average boiling point: Unlike pure component, a mixture of

components has a range of boiling points. An average boiling point is
usually required for the correlation purposes especially while dealing
with petroleum fractions. The boiling point data obtained in various
laboratory distillation methods such as ASTM distillation method and
true boiling point (TBP) distillation method may be used to obtain the
average boiling point. Various average boiling points are defined based
on weight, mole, or volume fractions. Weight average boiling point
(WABP), molal average (true mean) boiling point (MABP), volume
average boiling point (VABP), mean average boiling point (MeABP),
and cubic average boiling point (CABP) are the commonly defined
average boiling points. See weight average boiling point (WABP),
molal average boiling point (MABP), volume average boiling point
(VABP), mean average boiling point (MeABP), and cubic average
boiling point (CABP).

Average molecular weight: It is the molecular weight of a mixture of

components. Molecular weight is an additive property and may be
calculated from the knowledge of mixture composition and molecular
weights of individual components present in the mixture. It is therefore
calculated as the overall sum of the mole fraction of each component
times its molecular weight.

Average particle diameter: Same as average particle size. See average

37
particle size.

Average particle size: Also called as mean particle size. In a bulk of

solid particles such as powders, there exists a distribution of particle
size. Average particle size is the size which represents the average of all
the particle sizes present in the bulk. It is a linear dimension and may be
defined on the basis of average surface, average length, average weight,
etc. See arithmetic mean diameter, length mean diameter, Sauter mean
diameter, surface mean diameter, volume mean diameter, and weight
mean diameter.

Average velocity: Also called as mean velocity. It is the ratio of the

volumetric flow to the area for flow. Due to the viscosity of a fluid the
velocities near the wall of a pipe and further away from the wall are not
the same and there is a variation in velocities across the radius of the
pipe. The average velocity is the combined effect of all the velocities of
the fluids at different points from the wall and is the representative of
overall flow. For a laminar flow in a pipe, average velocity is half of the
maximum velocity. For turbulent flow in circular pipes, the average
velocity is nearly 80 percent of the maximum [9] which is, however, an
approximation and not a definite way to calculate the average velocity.
It is definitely dependent upon the condition of turbulence (Reynolds
number).

Avogadro’s law: At the same temperature and pressure, equal volumes

of all gases contain equal number of molecules. At STP (standard
temperature and pressure), one gram mole of each gas occupies 22.42
liters and 6.023 ×1023 molecules.

Axial diffusion: Same as axial dispersion. See axial dispersion.

Axial dispersion: Also called as axial diffusion and longitudinal

dispersion. See axial mixing (for a tubular reactor and column type
extractor). See axial mixing.

Axial flow: The flow of a gas or liquid in direction parallel to the axis
of a tubular geometry such as a pipe or axis of the rotation of the shaft.
See Fig. A-21.

38
 Fig. A-21 Axial flow direction.

Axial flow compressor: Axial flow compressor directs the flow of a

gas in the direction of the axis of rotation. It develops small pressure per
stage and compression ratio is normally low per single stage. Although
costly, but it has higher efficiency than an equivalent centrifugal
compressor and required when high gas rates are desired. See
centrifugal compressor.

Axial flow fan: The axial flow fan provides the flow parallel to the axis
of the rotation. The fan usually consists of a propeller that moves a
large quantity of a gas with low pressure developed across the fan.
Guide vanes may be employed to align the flow lines with the axial
direction and a diffuser may be employed to convert some of the kinetic
head to the potential head. Axial flow fan gives greater velocities than a
comparable centrifugal fan. It is noisier, less efficient, and less
expensive than a corresponding centrifugal fan. See Fig. A-22.

Axial flow impellers: In agitated vessels, the type of the impellers that
direct the flow in the axial direction parallel to the agitator shaft.
Pitched blade turbine and three-blade marine propeller are said to
provide flow parallel to the agitator shaft and therefore known as axial
flow impellers. See mixing impellers.

Axial mixing: Also called as longitudinal mixing. In an agitated vessel,

the mixing in the direction parallel to the agitator shaft is called as axial
mixing. Pitched blade turbine and the three-blade marine propeller are
examples of axial flow impellers.
39
 In a tubular reactor or a column extractor such as a liquid pulsed
column, axial mixing is the mixing in the direction parallel to the axis
of the column and it is the mixing ahead or behind a point in the
column. Axial mixing describes the departure from the plug flow
behavior and a high value of axial mixing greatly decreases the
efficiency of a column extractor or a tubular reactor. See radial mixing.

Fig. A-22 One design of an axial flow fan.

Axial velocity component: In a pipe flow (say) the velocity of a fluid

may have three components, namely, axial, radial, and tangential. The
component of the velocity parallel to the axis of the pipe is the axial
velocity component. See radial velocity component.

Azeotrope: A mixture of components, if distilled, has the same liquid

and vapor (in equilibrium with the liquid) composition is known as an
azeotrope or azeotropic mixture. For an azeotrope, the volatilities of the
components are the same and the relative volatility is unity. Having this
azeotropic composition, the mixture vaporizes at a single temperature
and the system is at the constant boiling temperature that is why it is
often called as constant boiling mixture. A common example is 89.43
mol% or 95.6 wt% ethyl alcohol in water at atmospheric pressure. Other
examples are water-formic acid and ethanol-cyclohexane mixtures. An
azeotrope may be a minimum boiling azeotrope or a maximum boiling
azeotrope. See Fig. A-23. See also zoetrope, minimum boiling
azeotrope, and maximum boiling azeotrope.

40
Temperature (T)

Temperature (T)
Fig. A-23 T-x-y diagram for an azeotropic mixture: a) minimum boiling
azeotrope, b) maximum boiling azeotrope.

Azeotropic distillation: If the components present in a mixture form a

constant boiling azeotrope (relative volatility equal to one), it is
impossible to separate them by normal distillation. Such constant
boiling mixture is distilled by adding an external or foreign component
(entrainer) to the mixture. The added component usually forms a low
boiling azeotrope and it is distilled at the top. The process of distillation
in which a new azeotrope is formed by adding an external or foreign
component is called as azeotropic distillation. In ethyl alcohol-water
mixture, an azeotrope is formed at 89.43 mol% ethyl alcohol. When
benzene is added to the azeotrope, a new azeotrope containing water,
ethyl alcohol, and benzene is formed. This ternary azeotrope has a
greater volatility and upon distillation, the new azeotrope is collected at
the top while purified alcohol is obtained at the bottom. See azeotrope.

Azeotropic mixture: Same as azeotrope. See azeotrope.

41
B
Back pressure: Consider a fluid flowing in a long pipe. If, now,
suddenly the valve at the downstream end is closed, the pressure will be
built up in the downstream of the pipe. When higher than the upstream
pressure it pushes (forces backward) the upstream flow. Such a pressure
developed at the downstream is called as back pressure.

Backmixed reactor: Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is also

called as backmixed reactor. This is because CSTR is characterized by
the backmixing phenomenon. See backmixing and ideal continuous
stirred tank reactor.

Backmixing: Backmixing is a phenomenon in which part of a fluid

flows in opposite to the direction of the main flow of the fluid. It is
therefore the internal recirculation and desirable in the fluid mixing
operation. However, it dilutes and decreases the concentration of a
reacting mixture. Backmixing is one the major causes of axial mixing in
tubular reactors and column type extractors, however, backmixing is the
principal characteristic of continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) that is
why the CSTR is also called as backmixed reactor. See ideal continuous
stirred tank reactor.

Backward feed evaporator system: The multiple effect evaporator

system where the feed flows in counter to the flow of heating medium.
The feed to the evaporation system is admitted to the last effect and
flow of the feed is opposite to the flow of the condensing vapor.
Consider a three effect system, if the feed is introduced into the effect
(evaporator) no. 3 and flows back from the effect no. 3 to the effect no.
2 and then to the effect no. 1, while steam is introduced into the effect
no. 1 and the vapor of the effect no. 1 flows to the effect no. 2 and the
vapor of the effect no. 2 to the effect no. 3, the system of such a feed
admittance countercurrent to the flow of the heating medium is known
as backward feed system. In comparison to the forward feed system,
backward feed system is usually economical for cold feeds. However,
as the feed flows from the low pressure effect to the high pressure
effect, extra cost of pumps is needed for the feed to flow. Treating cold
stream in backward feed multiple effect evaporation system is

42
advantageous as low pressure may cause flashing and hence
evaporation. See Fig. B-1. See also multiple effect, forward feed, mixed
feed, and parallel feed evaporator systems.

Fig. B-1 Backward feed evaporator system. 1, 2, and 3 represent the

first, second, and third effect, respectively.

Backwashing: The term is usually used in the regeneration of gravity

filters and ion exchange beds (used for water treatment). In a gravity
filter, when the bed of solids is saturated with the sediments, the wash
water is forced to flow in the reverse direction from the bottom to the
top of the filter. The flow of the water loosens the bed and allows the
water to wash away the sediments with it. The filter bed is cleaned and
relatively free of sediments and regenerated to be used for the next
cycle.

Baffle cut: It is the ratio of the height of the segmental baffle window
(segment cut off) to the diameter of the shell (column). Baffle cuts
normally range between 15% and 45% [10]. Segmental baffles are
either horizontal cut baffles or vertical cut baffles. See segmental
baffles.

Baffle pitch: Also called as baffle spacing. It is the center-to-center

distance between two adjacent baffles.

Baffle plate column: It is a mass transfer device which can be used for
a gas-liquid or liquid-liquid operation. A simple baffle column is a
cylindrical tower fitted with horizontal baffles. The baffles are used to
disperse the liquid phase in a gas-liquid operation or dispersed phase in
43
a liquid-liquid operation. Segmental baffles and disc-and-doughnut
baffles, both kinds, may be applied. Usually low mass transfer
efficiencies are associated with this type of contactor. See Fig. B-2.

Fig. B-2 Baffle plate columns for liquid-liquid extraction: a) segmental

baffle column, b) disc-and-doughnut baffle column.

Baffle spacing: Same as baffle pitch. See baffle pitch.

Baffled tank: An agitated tank (vessel) equipped with baffles. The use
of baffles in the tank avoids the vortex formation in the tank and
therefore improves the agitation and rate of mixing. See Fig. U-1. See
also baffles and unbaffled tank.

Baffles: Baffles are simply plates or strips either rectangular, disc-and-

doughnut, or segmental. However, less common rod baffles may also be
employed (in shell and tube heat exchangers). Baffles are used to
disturb the normal flow of fluids. They are extensively used with
agitated vessels to impede the formation of vortex and to increase the
44
rate of mixing and agitation. See Fig. V-11. They are an essential part
of the baffle columns, where they are used to enhance the mass transfer
coefficient and provide a greater interfacial area. See Fig. B-2. In heat
exchangers their principal function is to create turbulence and to
increase the heat transfer coefficient on the shell side, i.e., over the
tubes. However, in heat exchangers baffles are also useful as they
support the tube bundle and prevent it from sagging. 25 % cut
segmental baffles are commonly employed with heat exchangers [11].
See segmental baffles, disc-and-doughnut baffles, and rod baffles.

Bag filters: A number of bags made of felt or canvas are housed

parallel in a container. The gas enters the inside/outside of the bags and
flows outward/inwardly. The solids in the gas stream are retained on the
surface of the bags, and periodic cleaning of the bags is required which
is usually carried out by vibrating or shaking the bags assembly or by
reverse flow of the gas. Bag filters are used for removing fine solids and
operate on very high efficiency. See Fig. A-10.

Balanced draft: The balanced draft is a combination of both the

induced and forced drafts to balance the inlet and outlet pressure and to
keep the system pressure virtually equal to atmospheric pressure. See
Fig. B-3. See also forced draft and induced draft.

Fig. B-3 Types of drafts: a) forced draft, b) induced draft, c) balanced

draft.

Ball check valve: A type of check valve. Unlike swing check valve,
ball check valve has no moving parts. It wears evenly and has better
life. The valve can be used with or without a compression spring where
the compression spring may be helpful in providing better shut off and
avoiding slippage. A magnetic ball valve in which a magnet is used to

45
hold the ball is a variation of the ball check valve. See Fig. C-8. See
also check valve.

Ball mill: Ball mill is a size reduction machinery that is employed for
the fine grinding of solid particles. It lies in the class of tumbling mills.
It may be operated continuous or batch, wet or dry, or even with inert
atmosphere. In a simple form it is a horizontal or slightly inclined steel
shell lined inside with suitable liners. The shell contains balls usually of
different sizes (mainly due to wear of balls) that act as grinding media.
Balls of steel, ceramic, rubber, wood, etc. may be employed depending
upon the nature of the work. The material to be crushed is fed to the
shell and the mill is forced to rotate where the balls are lifted along the
wall of the shell and dropped down from a suitable height. The impact,
compression, and attrition (abrasion) may be the principal causes of
grinding the material. See Fig. B-4.

Fig. B-4 Ball mill.

Ball valve: A spherical ball with a cylindrical hole functions for the
valve. Ball valve is quick in action and provides minimum resistance to
flow when fully opened and while fully opened it provides inline flow.
The valve handle has to be turned only a quarter of the complete turn
(i.e., 90°) from fully closed to fully opened position. The valve is used
for the on-off purposes and recommended not be used for throttling
requirements. It has low initial cost and requires low maintenance.
Leakage is normally not a problem with this type of valve. See Fig. B-5.

46
 Fig. B-5 Ball valve.

Ballast rings: It is considered equivalent to Pall rings traded under

different name by Glitsch, Inc. [7]. See Pall rings.

Ballast tray: See Glitsch ballast tray.

Banbury internal mixer: The device is used for the mixing of cohesive
solids. It is a type of kneader mixers having closed mixing trough that is
unable to be tilted. It is applied with rubber and plastic like materials to
prepare pastes and suspensions. See kneader.

Barometer: The device is used to measure the local (existing)

atmospheric pressure (called barometric pressure). See barometric
pressure.

Barometric condenser: A barometric condenser is a closed vessel in

which the vapor to be condensed is directly contacted and intimately
mixed with the cold water stream. The mixture of cold water and
condensate then leaves the system through a long tail pipe into a hot
well. Any non-condensable present escapes from the top of the
condenser. The purpose of the long discharge pipe is to provide the
hydrostatic head to balance the pressure difference between the
atmospheric pressure plus frictional losses and the pressure in the main
body of the process unit (evaporator). See Fig. B-6.

Barometric leg: The long discharge pipe of the barometric condenser is

known as barometric leg. See Fig. B-6. See also barometric condenser.

47
 Fig. B-6 Barometric condenser.

Barometric pressure: Also called as atmospheric pressure. It is the

pressure measured by a barometer under the existing conditions. It is
different from standard atmospheric pressure. Standard atmospheric
pressure is defined at 0°C and at sea level and always remains constant
at the value of 101.3 kPa, however, barometric pressure is the pressure
under prevalent or local conditions so it may vary from time to time and
place to place. See standard atmospheric pressure.

48
Barrel mixer: A solid-solid mixing device that is used for the mixing
of cohesive solids.

Base stock: An unfinished key petroleum fraction in which other

fractions and additives are blended to produce the final product. The
straight run gasoline may be blended with alkylated gasoline together
with required additives to give the finished gasoline product.

Basket type evaporator: The construction of a basket type evaporator

is virtually similar to the standard short tube vertical evaporator except
that the calandria (heater) is suspended in the evaporator shell and the
downtake is annular. It offers easier cleaning as the heating element is
easier to disengage from the rest of the evaporator assembly. There are
fewer chances of crystals to be broken. It is therefore often used for
producing crystals of controlled size. See short tube vertical evaporator.

Batch distillation: In batch distillation, the distillation column is

charged with a fixed quantity of the feed liquid mixture and no
continuous flow of the feed is required. Heat is supplied to raise the
temperature of the charge and the vapors produced flow to a condenser
and the product is recovered at the top. Batch distillation can be
performed with or without reflux. Reflux is used to better tune the
product composition even with the components having moderate
volatility difference. See Fig. B-7. See also differential distillation or
Rayleigh distillation.

Batch process: No material enters or leaves the system during batch

processing. No continuous flows of the feed and the product are
required. Compared to a continuous process, batch process is
considered more flexible, more capable of being finely controlled, and
having lower first cost. It can handle various kinds of feed materials and
can produce a desired range of products. However, it has lower capacity
(throughput) and higher labor cost compared to the continuous process.
See Fig. S-4 and Table B-1 for the comparison of batch and continuous
processes.

Batch reactor: A batch reactor works on the principle of batch

processing and has associated with it the advantages of a batch process.
See batch process. Reactants are added to the reactor and when the

49
required conversion of the feed is achieved, the products are taken out
of the reactor. No reactant or product is fed or discharged during the
course of the reaction. Batch reactors are usually applied for the small
scale productions. Batch reactors are common in pharmaceutical
manufacturing and generating laboratory kinetic data. See Fig. T-2. See
also ideal batch reactor.

Table B-1 Comparison of batch and continuous processing

Batch operation
Lower capacity or production
rate.
Product (if taken) composition
and temperature varies with time.
Batch processing is costly in
most of the cases.
Suitable for operations requiring
frequent repair (corrosive or
fouling services) and on-off
demand.
Flexibility is greater. It can
accommodate feed changes more
easily. Various products or
various compositions of the same
product can be obtained from the
same plant more easily.
Labor cost is higher.
Processing time including the
start up and shut off time is
longer.
Better or fine control.
Continuous operation
Greater capacity or production
rate.
Performance is not a function of
time.
In most of the cases, it is usually
economical. So lower unit cost
of the product.
Not suitable for operations where
repeated start ups and shut
downs are required.
It is less flexible to changes in
feed conditions and product
varieties.
Labor cost is lower.
Processing time is shorter.
Control is not as fine as that may
be possible in a batch process.

Batch still: The batch distillation apparatus is sometimes called as

batch still. See batch distillation.

Battery: The term is mainly employed in electrochemistry. Two or

more cells constitute a battery. However, in chemical engineering the
term may also be used when two or more reactors, extractors, or towers
50
are employed in series. See battery of CSTRs.

Fig. B-7 Batch distillation setup.

Battery limit: The geographical limits or boundary of a plant or any

portion of the plant under consideration for operation, modification or
revamping.

Battery of CSTRs: The combination of two or more CSTRs in use for

a certain process. Same sizes and different sizes of CSTRs can be
employed. A relatively large number of CSTRs when used in series can
51
mimic a plug flow reactor. See Fig. B-8.

Fig. B-8 Battery of CSTRs.

Baumé gravity scale: A specific gravity scale which, however, is not in

common use. The specific gravity in this scale is reported as degree
Baumé, i.e., °Bé. The scale is usually used in food industry and that the
scale has two separate expressions for liquids lighter and heavier than
water. For pure water Baumé scale reads 10 °Bé.

140
For liquids lighter than water: Bé   130
s
145
For liquids heavier than water: Bé  145 
s

Where, s is specific gravity of the sample. The scale is commonly

calibrated at 60°F and specific gravity of water and the sample are taken
at 60°F.

Bead mill: A variation of the sand mill in which sand particles are
replaced with relatively large diameter beads. See sand mill.

Beattie-Bridgeman equation of state: The equation of state has a

partial theoretical basis and contains five parameters. It is applied for
52
the p-v-T properties of gases, however, applied only to those substances
for which the above mentioned parameters are known. See Benedict-
Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state.

Bed: A collection of solid particles arranged inside a process vessel.

Examples, where beds of solids are employed, include fixed and
fluidized bed reactors, adsorbers, gravity filters, and water softeners.
See fixed bed, fluidized bed, and moving bed.

Bed filter: Same as gravity filter. See gravity filter.

Bed limiters: A type of packing restrainers used with packed columns.

For light packing materials, the restrainer plate is directly attached to
the tower. When attached to the tower it is a bed-limiter and it is usually
lighter than the hold down grid. See packing restrainers and hold down
grid.

Bell method: Same as Bell-Delware method. See Bell-Delware

method.

Bell-Delaware method: Also known as Bell method. A shell and tube

heat exchanger design method that was developed by Bell while
working at the University of Delaware. This method is an improved
method and different to Kern method as it accounts for the leakages and
bypasses present in the shell side of the exchanger. The method claims
the better accuracy, however, at the cost of more complicated and time
taking procedure. See Kern method.

Bellows: These are cylindrical tubes, but with convoluted thin walls as
shown in Fig. B-9. The geometry of the bellows allows them to expand
or contract along their axis. They are used in pneumatic elements like
pneumatic controllers. They may also be used as pressure measuring
elements.

Fig. B-9 A simple bellow element.

53
Belt conveyor: It is a common type of conveyor that is applied for
transporting solid particles. As shown in Fig. B-10, it essentially
consists of a belt that runs continuously and the material placed on the
belt is transported along the direction of the belt movement. It conveys
the solid particles at the horizontal or slight angle to the horizontal. See
zipper conveyor.

Fig. B-10 Belt conveyor.

Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state: An equation of state

that is regarded as an improvement over the Beattie-Bridgeman
equation of state. It is applicable for both the gas and liquid phases.
However, it is tedious and requires eight parameters to be specified. It
predicts well for hydrocarbon vapor-liquid equilibria. See Beattie-
Bridgeman equation of state.

Beneficiation: It is a purification process in which coal or some mineral

material is cleaned off (purified) from trash (unwanted materials) to
concentrate its valuable component.

Berl saddles: Berl saddles are a type of random packing that are used
with packed columns. They are named because of the shape they
acquire, that of a horse saddle. The packing is one of the two basic
types of packings used with packed columns, the other is the Raschig
rings. Along with Raschig rings, it is the earliest packing (first
generation packing) and sometimes called as original saddles. It
provides greater surface area per unit volume in comparison to Raschig
rings. It gives lower pressure drop than Raschig rings, but it is more
costly. See Fig. P-3.
54
Bernoulli’s equation: The equation relates pressure energy, potential
energy, and kinetic energy of a fluid at a given point in the flow of a
fluid. It states that the sum of pressure energy, potential energy, and
kinetic energy of a fluid at any point is always a constant quantity. It is
therefore a special form of energy balance without shaft work and
frictional losses. It is applied in calculating energy changes for the
systems exhibiting negligible friction and no shaft work (no pump,
compressor, etc.). See extended form of Bernoulli’s equation.

BET isotherm: BET stands for Brunauer-Emmett-Teller. The isotherm

describes the adsorption equilibria of a gas-solid system under
isothermal conditions. Unlike Langmuir adsorption isotherm, it
accommodates multilayer adsorption and therefore it is frequently
employed in surface area measurements of solid materials such as
porous catalysts and adsorbents.

BET surface: The surface area of a catalyst or adsorbent measured by

the BET adsorption method. See BET isotherm.

BFW: It stands for boiler feed water. See boiler feed water.

BHP: It stands for brake horse power. See brake horse power.

Bifunctional catalyst: A bifunctional catalyst catalyzes two types of

catalytic transformations. For example, Pt metal loaded on an acid
support such as silica-alumina or zeolite is a bifunctional catalyst. The
Pt metal cares for the dehydrogenation and hydrogenation reactions
while acid support facilitates cracking and isomerization reactions.

Bimetallic catalyst: In contrast to a monometallic catalyst, in a

bimetallic catalyst two metals are loaded on the catalyst support. The
Pt-Re/Al2O3 catalyst is an example of a bimetallic catalyst as it is
loaded with platinum and rhenium metals over alumina support.

Binary distillation: The distillation of a binary (two component)

mixture. In binary distillation, the feed mixture contains only two
components out of which one is more volatile and the other is less
volatile. Due to the difference in volatilities of the two components, the
more volatile component is collected at the top while the less volatile

55
component is obtained at the bottom of the binary distillation column.
See binary mixture.

Binary interaction parameters: In applying an equation of state for a

mixture of gases/liquids, mixing rules are applied to determine the
parameters of the equation. The calculation of the mixing rules
necessitates the inclusion of binary interaction parameters which are
mostly obtained by fitting the p-T-x-y data.

Binary mixture: A mixture of two components is a binary mixture.

Usually the term is used in phase equilibrium calculations. The mixture
of benzene and toluene is a binary mixture.

Binary system: A system that deals with only two components.

Binary vapor-liquid equilibrium: When only two components are

present in a system, the equilibrium established between the vapor and
liquid phases is called as binary vapor-liquid equilibrium.

Binary vapor-liquid equilibrium diagram: A phase equilibrium

diagram that represents two component vapor-liquid equilibria (plural
for equilibrium) is termed as binary vapor-liquid equilibrium diagram.
T-x-y and x-y diagrams are the commonly employed binary vapor-liquid
equilibrium diagrams. In preparing the binary vapor-liquid equilibrium
diagrams, one often uses the composition of one of the components of
the mixture which is more volatile in nature. The composition of the
other component, the less volatile component, can be obtained by
difference. See binary vapor-liquid equilibrium.

Bingham plastic fluids: These are non-Newtonian fluids and differ

from the Newtonian behavior only in the way that they need a certain
shear stress value called yield stress in order to set flow. Therefore, the
deformation or velocity gradient appears only after exceeding the yield
stress value and after acquiring the necessary yield stress they behave
similar to Newtonian fluids (shear stress is proportional to shear rate).
Margarine and tooth pastes may be described as examples of such type
of fluids. See Fig. N-3. See also non-Newtonian fluids.

Binodal curve: Also called as binode. On a ternary phase diagram, the

56
curve separating the single phase or homogeneous region from the
heterogeneous region is known as binodal curve or binode. See Fig. T-
5. See also ternary phase diagram.

Binode: Same as binodal curve. See binodal curve.

Biological oxygen demand (BOD): The organics in wastewater

consume oxygen for the microbial reactions. The amount of oxygen that
is required for these decomposition reactions is called as biological
oxygen demand. Greater is the oxygen demand (BOD) greater will be
the organic matter in the waste. It is therefore a measure of water
quality in terms of the amount of organic waste capable of being
biologically decomposed. BOD is measured by a laboratory test under
prescribed conditions. See chemical oxygen demand.

Biot number: Consider a certain fluid flowing through a bed of solid

particles such as in a fixed bed of catalyst particles. Under these
conditions, Biot number may be defined as the ratio of internal or
conductive resistance within the solid to the external or convective
resistance between the fluid and the solid. A high value of Biot number
means the major resistance to transfer is within the solid particle itself.
It is denoted by Bi.

conductive resitance within the solid particle

Bi 
convenctiv e resitance at the outside surface of the particle

Birmingham wire gauge (BWG): Unlike pipes, tubes are specified on

the basis of outside diameter and Birmingham wire gauge. Like
schedule number, BWG specifies the thickness of a tube for the same
outside diameter of the tube. However, unlike schedule number, greater
is the BWG less will be the thickness. Thus, 16 BWG tube is thicker
than 20 BWG tube for the same outside diameter. See schedule number.

Black body: A black body absorbs all the incident radiation (of any
wavelength) falls upon it. Therefore, no portion of the radiations is
either reflected or transmitted through it. Black body, therefore, has
absorptivity equal to unity while reflectivity and transmittivity are both
zero. A black body is also a perfect radiator and its emissivity is also
unity. See gray body.
57
Blake jaw crusher: One of the two major types of jaw crushers, the
other is the Dodge jaw crusher. In the Blake jaw crusher design, the
movable jaw is pivoted at the top hence the maximum movement of the
moving jaw is at the bottom. This makes the crusher to avoid the
problems of choking, but to provide relatively non-uniform product. See
Fig. B-11. See also jaw crusher and Dodge jaw crusher.

Fig. B-11 Blake jaw crusher: a) single toggle, b) double toggle.

Blake-Kozeny equation: The equation is applied for estimating

pressure drop across the bed of solid particles for low values of
Reynolds number of the laminar range. See Burke-Plummer equation.

Blasius equation: For smooth surfaces (relative roughness is zero) and

turbulent flow conditions, a simple pressure drop correlation that of
Blasius may be used for calculating the friction factor and the pressure
drop in pipes and channels. See Nikuradse equation.

Bleed valve: The valve is capable of simultaneous shut off the fluid
flow from both sides of the valve (inlet and outlet). The resulting fluid
trapped in the valve body is allowed to bleed (drain or vent).

Blenders: Same as mixers. See mixers.

Blending: Same as mixing. See mixing.

Blind: A metal plate that is used to close the end of a process line. See
plug and cap.

58
Block diagram: A sequence of blocks (shapes like rectangles, squares,
and circles) connected by lines constitutes a block diagram. The blocks
themselves represent unit operations and unit processes occurring in a
process under consideration. The lines are flow lines that represent
input and output streams. Only crucial information such as conversion,
product purity, and important flow values are provided. Although block
diagram provides minimal of information about the process yet it is an
instant way of understanding the process. The diagram provides a useful
starting information upon which the corresponding process flow
diagram (PFD) can be developed.

Blowdown: In order to maintain the concentrations of salts, at a

required level, in a cooling tower water basin and in a steam generating
system, some of the water is allowed to drain. This is called as
blowdown. See Fig. F-15, Fig. I-3, and Fig. N-1.

Blower: Blowers are gas motive devices. They transport and increase
the pressure of a gas. The pressure increase is greater than fans, but less
than compressors. See fan and compressor.

BOD: It stands for biological oxygen demand. See biological oxygen

demand.

Body forces: Forces acting on a fluid are divided into two general
groups: body forces and surface forces. Body forces are forces which
act without physical contact, e.g. gravity and electrostatic forces. See
surface forces.

Boiler: A boiler is a heat transfer equipment in which a heat source (a

fuel is usually burned and the heat is produced) is used to boil off the
water to produce steam. Evaporators are different from boilers in which
water is boiled off from a solution. Generally, there are two types of
boilers, namely, fire tube boilers and water tube boilers. See fire tube
boiler and water tube boiler. Boilers are not usually covered in chemical
engineering curriculum.

Boiler feed water (BFW): The deaerated and demineralized water that
is fed to a boiler for the generation of steam.

59
Boiling point diagram: Temperature-composition (T-x-y) and
pressure-composition (p-x-y) diagrams are also called as boiling point
diagrams as the curves plotted show a series of boiling points. See
pressure-composition diagram and temperature-composition diagram.

Boiling point elevation (BPE): Same as boiling point rise. See boiling
point rise.

Boiling point rise (BPR): A pure component such as water boils at a

fixed temperature under a specified pressure. Water boils at 100°C at
101.3 kPa. However, if some non-volatile solute is present in water, the
boiling temperature of the solution may be elevated or increased. This
phenomenon of boiling point elevation is highly important in the
operation and design of evaporators.

Boiling range: It is a measure of initial and final boiling temperatures

of a mixture or a petroleum fraction. It is usually determined by
laboratory distillation test methods carried out at atmospheric pressure.
As an example, an oil sample may have a boiling range of 180°C to
350°C, where 180°C is the initial boiling point and 350°C is the final
boiling point of the fraction. See average boiling point and cut point.

Bollman extractor: A type of leaching equipment in which buckets or

baskets are used to hold the solid phase which is to be leached for the
recovery of the required, usually, valuable component. The extractor
works like a bucket elevator.

Bond’s law: The Bond’s law is an energy law that is used to estimate
the energy requirements for a size reduction process. It may be defined
as the energy required to reduce a very large feed size to the product of
the size of an opening through which 80% of the material passes is
proportional to the square root of the surface-to-volume ratio of the
product. Unlike Kick’s law and Rittinger’s law, Bond’s law may be
applied for the intermediate crushing [12]. See Rittinger’s law and
Kick’s law.

Bonnet: A part of a shell and tube heat exchanger. The end heads of
shell and tube heat exchangers may be of two types, namely, the
channel and the bonnet. Unlike channel heads, bonnet heads are made

60
in one piece and have no removable cover for cleaning and inspection.
Bonnet heads are less expensive and used with clean fluids on the tube
side.
Also, a bonnet is the main part of a valve body through which valve
stem moves to open or close a valve. See Fig. G-2 and Fig. U-6.

Booster pump: It is a low speed and low head pump and precedes the
main pump to raise the pressure at the suction of the main pump and
satisfies the NPSH available.

Boot: Same as water drawoff boot. See water drawoff boot.

Bottleneck: See debottleneck.

Bottom product: Same as bottoms. See bottoms.

Bottoms: Also called as bottom product. In a distillation column the

product that is obtained at the bottom of the column is called as
bottoms. See distillation column.

Bound moisture: The term is used in the unit operation of drying and
may be defined as the equilibrium moisture contents present at 100%
relative humidity of the air at a given value of temperature. These
moisture contents have vapor pressure less than the vapor pressure of
pure water at a given temperature. See Fig. U-2. See also unbound
moisture contents.

Boundary: Also called as system boundary. In thermodynamics, the

term boundary separates the system from the surroundings. A boundary
may be real or imaginary and rigid or flexible. The selection of a
boundary of the system is on the discretion of the observer. See Fig. B-
12. See also system, surroundings, and universe.

Boundary layer: Also called as hydrodynamic boundary layer and

Prandtl boundary layer. When a fluid flows past a solid body or the wall
of a conduit, due to viscosity of the fluid and the friction at the wall, a
fluid layer is formed which is known as boundary layer. The velocity of
the fluid within a boundary layer is less than the velocity of the free
flowing fluid due to resistance offered by the wall. The effect of wall

61
diminishes as one moves away from the wall. This necessarily produces
a distribution in velocity within a boundary layer. A fully developed
turbulent boundary layer is consisted of three separate zones, namely,
laminar sublayer, buffer zone, and turbulent flow layer. Boundary layer
has no specific outer limit and it is usual to assume the velocity at the
rim of the boundary layer as 99 percent of free stream velocity. See Fig.
T-14.

Fig. B-12 Concept of system boundary.

Boundary layer separation: Consider a fluid flowing towards a flat

plat parallel to the direction of the flow. Upon reaching the plate,
boundary layers start to build up on both sides of the plate. At rear end
of the flat plate, immediately after leaving the plate, the two boundary
layers intermingle and merge in the fluid. However, if the plate is
placed perpendicular to the fluid motion, the boundary layers are
separated due to momentum of the fluid and meet at a distance further
away from the plate. This phenomenon of boundary layer separation
gives rise to the eddy formation and intense turbulence and a lot of
mechanical energy is lost. A wake is said to be formed downstream
(behind) the plate. Wherever boundary layer separates, large amount of
mechanical energy is dissipated. If energy losses are to reduce the
boundary layer separation is to be avoided. In one way this can be done
by streamlining the contours of the body that causes boundary layer
separation. However, avoiding sharp turns in the piping system can help
in reducing boundary layer separation. Boundary layer separation is not
always undesirable, but in few cases of heat and mass transfer,
boundary layer separation is highly desirable. Examples are the
applications of baffles in the mixing tanks and the heat exchangers. Fig.
B-13 shows the concept of boundary layer separation for flow past a
62
sphere. It is important to note that if the Reynolds number is very low,
the fluid lines follow the contours of the body and the boundary layer
separation may not be observable. See boundary layer.

Fig. B-13 Concept of boundary layer separation.

Bourdon gauge: It is a pressure measuring instrument that essentially

consists of a hollow tube that when subjected to fluid pressure (inside)
tries to straighten itself. The movement produced is measured by a
pointer and hence the pressure of the fluid is measured. Three common
types of bourdon gauges are C-type, helical, and spiral. A C-type
bourdon gauge is shown in Fig. B-14.

Bowl centrifuge: See disc bowl and tubular bowl centrifuges.

Bowl classifier: A solid particles separator. It is a shallow cylindrical

pan with a slightly conical bottom fitted with a rake. The feed to be
classified enters at the center of the bowl, the lighter or smaller particles
are overflown with the liquid while heavier or larger particles are settled
at the bottom.

Box extractor: A type of mixer-settler that is used in liquid-liquid

extraction.

Boyle’s law: An ideal gas law that relates pressure and volume of a gas.
At a constant temperature, the volume of a gas is inversely proportional

63
to the absolute pressure of the gas so that the product of pressure and
volume at any point remains constant. See Charles’ law and ideal gas
law.

Fig. B-14 C-type Bourdon gauge.

Boyle’s temperature: The temperature at which Boyle’s law is

applicable for a wide range of pressure. At this temperature, the
repulsive and attractive forces of the intermolecular interactions cancel
each other and the gas behaves as an ideal gas. See Boyle’s law.

BPE: It stands for boiling point elevation. See boiling point elevation.

BPR: It stands for boiling point rise. See boiling point rise.

Brake horse power (BHP): It is the total energy required by the pump
per unit time and requires for the pump to deal with all the energy
losses and the energy the fluid needs for the pumping.

Brayton cycle, ideal: The air standard closed gas turbine cycle is also
called as ideal Brayton cycle. It consists of four processes: adiabatic
compression, constant pressure heat addition, adiabatic expansion, and
then constant pressure heat rejection. The working fluid remains in the
gaseous form at all points of the cycle (gas power cycle). When all the
four processes are ideal, the cycle is known as ideal Brayton cycle. See
Fig. B-15.
64
 Heat addition

3
Heater

2 Work
Compressor
output

Work
input 1
4
Cooler

Heat rejected
Fig. B-15 Brayton cycle.

Bright stock: Heavy lube oil fraction that is deasphalted, solvent

extracted (aromatics removed), and dewaxed (refined) and sent to the
lube oil blending plant.

Brinkman number: It is a dimensionless number and defined as the

ratio of the viscous heat dissipation to the heat transfer by conduction. It
is represented as Br. Brinkman number determines the effects of
viscous heat dissipation and a low value of Br means viscous heating is
not important compared to heat conduction.

heat generated by viscous dissipatio n

Br 
heat transfer by conduction

Briquette: A small block of a solid fuel material such as coal that may
be used to start a fire or even to sustain an existing fire. See briquetting.

Briquetting: The process of producing briquettes, i.e., small blocks of a

fuel such as charcoal. See briquette.

Brix gravity scale: Degree brix (°Brix) is extensively used in the sugar
industry to measure the concentration of sugar solution. One degree
Brix represents 1.0 wt% sugar solution.
65
Bromine number: It is the number of grams (g) of bromine that will
react with 100 grams (g) of a sample. Generally speaking, bromine
number is an indication of the olefinic (double bond) character of a
sample.

BS: It stands for British standards.

BSS: It stands for British standards screens.

BTX: It stands for benzene-toluene-xylene.

Bubble cap tray: It is one of the three general tray types that are used
with fractionators and absorbers. The other two types are sieve tray and
valve tray. A single bubble cap contains a riser or uptake for gas or
vapors to flow from the lower plate and to keep a liquid seal (level) on
the tray and a cap which may or may not contain slots. The function of
the cap and the slots is to disperse (form bubbles) vapors/gas stream
coming from the lower plate into the body of the liquid reaching from
the upper plate. Standard bubble cap is commonly specified and
satisfactory for the most of situations. Bubble caps are quite flexible
and have high turndown ratio (the highest flowrate or design flowrate to
the lowest flowrate), i.e., they handle wide ranges of liquid and gas
rates (little weeping). New installations mostly avoid bubble cap trays
due to their high initial cost. See Fig. B-16. See also sieve tray and
valve tray.

Bubble column: Also called as sparged column. Bubble columns are

mass transfer devices and used in gas-liquid operations such as gas
absorption. Gas nozzles, porous pipes, sintered metal plates, or even
porous ceramic plates may be used to inject the gas at the bottom of the
continuous body of liquid. For small diameter columns, a simple tube
can be used to bubble the gas into the liquid body. The selection of a
particular device used for bubble formation is dependent upon the
pressure drop considerations and on the solid contents present in the
fluids (gas and liquid) system. For smaller diameter holes there is a
greater pressure drop and greater tendency for clogging the holes.
However, smaller the bubbles are produced greater will be the mass
transfer efficiency. A taller tower should have greater efficiency, but at
the cost of greater pressure drop and greater wall thickness (caused due

66
to high pressure head at the bottom of the taller vessel). Height of the
vessel essentially depends upon the residence time required (mass
transfer required) for the system. A taller vessel should have more
transference than a shorter vessel, but as mentioned before, it requires
greater cost of pumping the gas. The height of the vessel is larger in
simple gas absorption system while in bubble column reactors the
height may considerably be reduced. One obvious advantage of the
bubble column is that it contains no moving parts and it requires very
little maintenance. Bubble column is also employed for agitation. It
may provide the gentlest of agitations. It may, therefore, be helpful in
mixing liquids which otherwise form emulsion in rigorous agitated
conditions (in agitated vessels). In contrast to spray towers which are
used where the controlling mass transfer resistance lies inside gas film,
bubble columns are used where liquid-phase resistance controls, i.e., for
gases with low solubility. Both cocurrent and countercurrent bubble
columns are available. They are frequently employed in fermentation
vessels (fermenters) and effluent treatment plants. See Fig. B-17.

Bubble flow: Also called as bubbly flow. In a two-phase flow of a gas

and liquid, different flow regimes are possible depending on the gas to
liquid ratios. In a vertical pipe with flow of the fluid in the upward
direction and at low gas to liquid rates, the bubble flow regime is
governed. The regime is characterized by the small individual gas
bubbles of various diameters distributed throughout the liquid body. In
the horizontal direction, the bubbles are distributed near the upper wall
due to greater liquid density. See Fig. B-18.

Bubble point: The bubble point is a saturated liquid point where the
first vapor bubble is about to form to start the transformation of the
liquid phase to the vapor phase, i.e., to start liquid to boil off. If an
infinitesimal amount of heat energy is withdrawn at the bubble point,
the saturated liquid enters the subcooled or compressed liquid (ordinary
liquid) region. One can reach at bubble point either by increasing
temperature of a subcooled liquid at constant pressure or by decreasing
the pressure of a subcooled liquid at a constant temperature. This way
one can define bubble point pressure and bubble point temperature. See
bubble point pressure and bubble point temperature. Bubble point is a
function of temperature, pressure, and composition of a liquid mixture,
however, for a pure component, it only depends on pressure and

67
temperature of the component. A simple temperature-volume diagram
of a pure component is shown in Fig. B-19 in order to describe the
concept of bubble point conditions. See bubble point pressure, bubble
point temperature, and dew point. See also Fig. T-3.

Fig. B-16 a) A single bubble cap, b) bubble cap tray.

Bubble point pressure: For a subcooled or compressed liquid, upon

decreasing pressure at constant temperature, a point (pressure) is
reached where first vapor bubble is about to form to start the liquid to
boil. Such a pressure is called as bubble point pressure. For pure water,
1.013 bar is the bubble point pressure at 100C. See bubble point.

Bubble point temperature: For a subcooled or compressed liquid,

upon increasing temperature at constant pressure, a point (temperature)
is reached where first vapor bubble is about to form to start the liquid to
boil. Such a temperature is called as bubble point temperature. For pure
water, 100C is the bubble point temperature at 1.013 bar pressure. For
a pure component, bubble point temperature is equal to the dew point
temperature and both are equal to the pure component boiling point. See
bubble point.
68
Fig. B-17 Bubble column.

Fig. B-18 Bubble flow.

69
 Fig. B-19 Simple T-v diagram of a pure component showing a single
constant pressure line.

Bubbling area: Same as active area. See active area.

Bubbling fluidization: A type of aggregative fluidization. It is a usual

characteristic of gas-solid fluidization. Increasing gas flow beyond the
minimum fluidization, solid particles come close to each other and form
aggregates and separately identifiable large gas bubbles are formed
within the solid bed. However, the bubble size is less than the slugging
fluidized bed regime in which the size of the bubbles approximately
reaches the diameter of the vessel. See aggregative fluidization and
slugging fluidized bed. See also Fig. B-20.

Bubbling fluidized bed: A fluidized bed characterizing bubbling

fluidization. A bubbling fluidized bed is shown in Fig. B-20. See
bubbling fluidization.

Bubbly flow: Same as bubble flow. See bubble flow.

Bucket elevator: A series of buckets or baskets are chained for vertical

transportation of solid particles.

Buckingham pi method: It is one of the two commonly used methods

of dimensional analysis. The other method is the Rayleigh method. The
70
Buckingham pi method of dimensional analysis is based on
Buckingham pi theorem which states that if a system is described by n
number of variables which are characterized by m fundamental
dimensions then the system can be described by (n  m) independent
dimensionless groups. The name pi (Π) suggests a product of variables
(group of variables) and the dimensionless groups are therefore referred
to as Πs. See Rayleigh method.

Fig. B-20 Bubbling fluidized bed.

Buffer layer: In the region of turbulent boundary layer, three separate

zones are identified. The turbulent zone, the laminar sublayer, and the
region that separates turbulent zone from the laminar sublayer and
called as buffer layer. The flow inside the buffer layer is of mixed
character that is a combination of laminar and turbulent characters. See
Fig. T-14. See also turbulent boundary layer.

Buhrstone mill: A fine grinder (size reduction machinery). Two heavy

discs lie in a horizontal plane between which material is crushed.

71
Bulk density: It is the ratio of the total mass of the solid particles
divided by the total volume occupied by the solid particles including
empty spaces within as well as between the particles. In calculating
bulk density, the mass of air is ignored as negligible.

Bulk diffusion: For porous structures as that of the most adsorbents and
catalysts, the term is employed in comparison to Knudsen diffusion and
refers to the ordinary molecular diffusion. See molecular diffusion and
Knudsen diffusion.

Bulk flow: Also called as convective flow. The flow of the whole body
of a fluid or solid particles.

Bulk velocity: Also called as convective velocity. It is the velocity

(average velocity) of the whole body of a flowing fluid. It is the
velocity calculated by taking ratio of the total volumetric flowrate to the
cross-sectional area of the flow channel.

Burke-Plummer equation: A pressure drop correlation for the packed

beds of solid particles. It is applicable at very high Reynolds numbers.
See Blake-Kozeny equation.

Burners: Burners are used for the controlled combustion of fuels such
as natural gas and aid in liberating heat energy required in heaters and
furnaces. There is a wide variety of burners and the type required
depends upon the specific use of the burner. See gas burner and oil
burner.

Bursting discs: Also called as rupture discs. These are safety devices
and failed at a set point to release pressure to save life and capital. See
safety valve.

Bushing: A bushing is a pipe fitting that connects two pipes of different

diameters. Unlike a reducer coupling, both the inside and outside of the
bushing are threaded where large diameter pipe is connected to the
outside while the smaller diameter pipe is connected to the inside. See
Fig. P-11. See also reducer coupling.

Butterfly valve: A variation of the gate valve in which a disc is

72
mounted on the central axis. When fully opened the disc comes parallel
to the fluid flow direction while for the fully closed position the disc is
perpendicular to the flow direction and covers the whole cross-section
of the pipe. The valve generally offers low resistance and therefore low
pressure drop occurs across the valve. There is a negligible tendency for
a fluid to be pocketed within the valve body. See Fig. B-21.

Fig. B-21 Butterfly valve.

BWG: It stands for Birmingham wire gauge. See Birmingham wire

gauge.

BWR: It stands for Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation of state. See

Benedict-Webb-Rubin equation of state.

Bypass stream: Fig. B-22 shows the concept of a bypass stream. It is a

portion of a feed stream (upstream) that is separated and directly mixed
with the product stream (downstream). See bypassing.

Bypassing: In bypassing, a portion of a feed stream (upstream) is

separated and mixed directly, without passing through the process
vessel, with the main or product stream (downstream). As an example,
bypassing is carried out when a portion of feed reactants is mixed with
the reaction products without undergoing chemical reaction in the
reactor vessel. The process of bypassing is generally required to control
the desired temperature or product composition. See Fig. B-22. See also
73
bypass stream.
In the shell side of a shell and tube heat exchanger, the portion of
the actual cross flow stream that flows through the clearance between
the shell and the periphery of the tube bundle is also called as a bypass
stream. This type of bypassing is an important parameter to consider in
the design of a shell and tube heat exchanger. See Bell-Delaware
method.

Fig. B-22 Concept of bypassing.

74
C
Cabinet dryer: Same as tray dryer and shelf dryer. See tray dryer.

CABP: It stands for cubic average boiling point. See cubic average
boiling point.

Cake filtration: In one approach, filtration may be classified into two

groups: cake filtration and depth or deep bed filtration. Fig. C-1 shows a
comparison between cake filtration and deep bed filtration. In cake
filtration, solids are caught at the surface of the filter medium (such as
filter cloth) and a cake of solids is built up with the passage of time. The
filtration proceeds with the increase in thickness of the cake and the rate
of filtration depends on the properties of the cake formed. See deep bed
filtration.

Fig. C-1 a) Cake filtration, b) deep bed filtration [13].

Calandria: The vertical shell and tube assembly such as that installed
within the short tube vertical evaporator is sometimes called as
calandria [14]. See Fig. S-5. See also calandria evaporator.

Calandria evaporator: The short tube vertical evaporator in which

steam is condensed outside the tubes while solution is heated inside the
tubes is also called as calandria evaporator. See calandria and short tube
vertical evaporator.

Calcination: In catalysis, it is the heat treatment of a catalyst at a

temperature higher than the reaction temperature at which the catalyst is
75
to be operated. Calcination is usually carried out in the presence of air
or oxygen and applied to stabilize the properties of a given catalytic
material. Pore structure, crystallinity, and material strength may be
affected by the calcination treatment. Metal loaded catalysts usually
require a reduction step (say treatment by hydrogen) after calcination to
reduce the metal oxide.

Calorific value: Also termed as heating value. It is the amount of heat

librated when a specified amount of a combustible material (fuel) is
burned in air. The specified amount is usually unit mass (kg) in the case
of solids and liquids and unit volume (m3) in the case of gases. It has
the SI units of kJ/kg or kJ/m3. See gross calorific value and net calorific
value.

Calorimeter: Calorimeter is used for the measurement of the calorific

value of a sample fuel. Junkers gas calorimeter, Boys gas calorimeter,
and bomb calorimeter are examples of calorimeters.

Cap: It is a type of pipe fitting that is used to blind or close a pipeline.

Unlike a plug, it is threaded from the inside. See Fig. P-11. See also
plug.

Capacity: Also called as throughput. It is the quantity handled or

produced by a system such as equipment, process, or plant per unit
time. It has units of mass, mole, or volume per time.

Capillary number: It is the ratio of the viscous forces to the surface

tension or capillary forces. This ratio comes out to be the ratio of Weber
number to Reynolds number. See Weber number and Reynolds number.

Capillary theory of drying: A porous solid material contains small

pores of varying dimensions. In these pores, capillary forces are
developed by the interfacial tension between water and the solid
surface. These forces help water moving to the outside surface of the
solid where it is evaporated and the material is dried.

Carbon residue: It is the amount of carbonaceous material left when a

sample of fuel (oil) is heated in the absence of oxygen and all the
volatiles are evaporated. It is neither the fixed carbon (stoichiometric

76
chemical carbon present in the fuel) nor the carbon soot (a result of bad
combustion). Two test methods, namely, Conradson carbon test and
Ramsbottom carbon test are applied for the determination of carbon
residue. See Canradson carbon test and Ramsbottom carbon test.

Carbonization: The process in which a carbonaceous material such as

coal is heated in the virtual absence of air or oxygen.

Carnot cycle: A thermodynamic cycle which essentially consists of

two isothermal and two adiabatic processes. All of the four processes
are internally reversible. A Carnot cycle has the maximum possible
efficiency. However, it is not practical to build power plants or
refrigeration cycles based on the Carnot cycle.

Carnot efficiency: As Carnot cycle is the most efficient cycle of all, the
maximum possible efficiency of a power cycle or a heat pump is termed
as Carnot efficiency.

Carnot gas power cycle: It consists of two isothermal and two

adiabatic processes. All the four processes are internally reversible. A
T-s diagram of a Carnot gas power cycle is shown in Fig. C-2. The
following four processes occur in a Carnot cycle:

o Process 1–2 is constant entropy (adiabatic plus reversible)

compression (work input) of the working fluid
o Process 2–3 is isothermal and reversible heat addition to the
working fluid
o Process 3–4 is constant entropy (adiabatic plus reversible)
expansion (work output) of the working fluid
o Process 4–1 is isothermal heat removal from the working fluid.

See Carnot vapor power cycle.

Carnot refrigeration cycle: Same as reversed Carnot cycle. See

reversed Carnot cycle.

Carnot vapor power cycle: It consists of two isothermal and two

adiabatic processes all occurring reversibly and within the saturated
zone of the phase diagram. A T-s diagram of Carnot vapor power cycle

77
is shown in Fig. C-3. Saturated liquid enters the boiler and receives the
latent heat of vaporization and becomes dry saturated vapor under
isothermal conditions. The dry saturated vapor enters the turbine or an
expansion engine and the isentropic expansion of the vapor produces a
wet vapor and work is produced. The wet vapor is partially condensed
and compressed isentropically in the compressor to complete the cycle.
The Carnot vapor power cycle is only a theoretical cycle and it is not
practical to build a vapor or steam power plant based on the principles
of Carnot vapor power cycle. Ideal cycle on which a vapor or steam
power plant is built is known as ideal Rankine cycle. See Rankine cycle
and Carnot gas power cycle.

Fig. C-2 Carnot gas power cycle.

Carrier gas: In gas absorption, the entering feed gas normally contains
two types of components, solute/s and the inert gas which is not soluble
in the solvent. This inert or non-diffusing gas is called as carrier gas. In
the gas absorption of ammonia from the air-ammonia mixture, when
water is the solvent, air is the carrier gas. See Fig. G-1. See also gas
absorption.

Cascade control: In a simple cascade control system there are two

control loops and two controllers for one manipulated variable. The
output of the primary or master controller adjusts the set point of the
secondary or slave controller. The secondary control loop is placed
78
inside the primary control loop and the two control loops are nested.
The secondary measuring element immediately measures the predicted
effect of the disturbance and maintains the controlled variable at the
desired set point. Cascade control is required where there is a
considerable time lag between the input disturbance (that occurs most
often or important) and its effect appeared in the controlled variable.
For a heat exchanger as shown in Fig. C-4, if the overall heat transfer
coefficient is very low, a considerable time is required to observe the
effect of disturbance (steam flowrate or steam pressure) on the outlet
temperature of the process stream.

Fig. C-3 Carnot vapor power cycle.

Cascade mini ring: A type of random packing that is used with packed
columns.

Cascade tray: A type of cross flow tray design that is used with tray
towers and consists of cascaded (placed at different levels) parallel
troughs. See Fig. C-5.

Catalysis: Catalysis deals with the preparation, evolution, design,

testing, and application of catalysts.

Catalyst: A catalyst is a substance that modifies (accelerates or

decelerates) the rate of a chemical reaction without itself being used up.
79
However, the term catalyst is usually employed when the objective is to
increase the rate of the desired reaction. The term inhibitor is used when
the rate of the desired reaction is required to decrease. A catalyst can
only alter the rate of a chemical reaction and cannot affect the
thermodynamics associated with the reaction. It is, therefore, cannot
affect equilibrium and energy changes per mole during the reaction. A
number of catalysts both homogeneous and heterogeneous are
employed in the industry. Sulfuric acid, hydrofluoric acid, vanadium
pentaoxide, platinum over alumina, and zeolites with and without
loading of metals or oxides are common examples.
Steam

FT FC TC

TT

Process
stream out

Process
stream in Condensate

Fig. A-4 General representation of active area for a single pass cross
flow tray assuming no significant non-perforated area other than areas
of two downcomers.

Catalyst bed: The arrangement of catalyst particles in the form of a

bed. See bed.

Catalyst carrier: It is the same as catalyst support. See catalyst

support.

Catalyst characterization: It deals with the information regarding

composition, structure, and surface morphology of a catalyst. Scanning
electron microscopy (SEM), x-ray diffraction (XRD), BET (Brunaur-
Emmett-Teller) surface area are examples of various techniques
80
required for characterizing a catalyst.

Fig. C-5 Cascade flow tray design.

Catalyst poison: The catalyst poison is a foreign material or impurity

that chemisorbed strongly to the catalyst surface and results usually in
permanent loss of the catalyst activity. See poisoning of a catalyst.

Catalyst support: Also called as catalyst carrier. Catalyst support

provides surface to the active component of a catalyst. A support is
usually a high surface area porous material on which the active
component is dispersed and that the support, itself, may be active or
inert. A support gives strength, shape, and size to a catalyst. As an
example, in 1.0 wt% Pt over alumina, Pt metal is the active component
dispersed over the alumina support. The same active component when
supported on a different support may greatly change the activity,
selectivity, regenerability, and life of the catalyst. Examples of catalyst
supports are alumina, silica, titania, and carbon.

Catalytic cracking: Cracking of higher hydrocarbons to form lower

hydrocarbons in the presence of a catalyst. Catalytic cracking requires
less severe operating conditions and usually improved products as
compared to the thermal cracking. Example of catalytic cracking is the
cracking of gas oil fraction from the vacuum distillation unit of the
crude oil refinery to gasoline range products in the presence of a zeolite
catalyst. Fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) is the most widely used
catalytic cracking technique used on industrial scale. See cracking.
81
Catalytic reactor: A catalytic reactor is loaded with a required catalyst
and the chemical reaction is carried out in the presence of that catalyst.
A fixed bed reactor containing a bed of solid particles is a typical
example.

Catalytic reforming: Generally, a rearrangement of predominantly

paraffinic and cycloparaffinic petroleum fraction having low octane
rating to produce the product of higher antiknock characteristics. Heavy
naphtha from the atmospheric distillation unit of the crude oil refinery is
treated in a catalytic reformer in the presence of platinum over alumina
catalyst to produce a product having high octane number.

Cathode: The negative electrode of an electrochemical cell at which

reduction takes place. See anode.

Cavitation: If the pressure of a liquid inside a centrifugal pump equals

that of its vapor pressure, the liquid starts forming vapors (bubbles).
These bubbles are formed, sheared, and collapsed by the mechanical
parts of the pump causing noise. This phenomenon of bubble formation
and collapse is called as cavitation.

Cell, cooling tower: For a cooling tower, one cell is one independent
unit with its own mechanical system (pumps, fans, etc.) and its water
and air distribution systems. In a large chemical plant, several such cells
are installed side by side to fulfill the desired cooling duty.

Centrifugal absorber: A type of gas absorption equipment in which a

rotating plate with ring baffles aids in the absorption.

Centrifugal compressor: Centrifugal compressor utilizes the

centrifugal force to add energy to a gas to increase its kinetic energy
which results in the compression of the gas. The main part of the
compressor is the rotating impeller driven by the pump motor that is
responsible for imparting energy to the gas and increasing the velocity
(kinetic energy) of the gas. The kinetic energy of the gas is transformed
into pressure energy at the discharge end of the compressor. A diffuser
ring may be used to efficiently converting the kinetic energy to the
pressure energy. In comparison to the positive displacement
compressor, it is considered providing high gas throughput, but less

82
pressure head. A multistage centrifugal compressor in which the
discharge of one compression stage becomes the suction of the adjacent
stage, on the other hand, has a high flow capacity as well as develops a
high pressure head. See Fig. C-6.

Fig. C-6 Centrifugal compressor.

Centrifugal decanter: Centrifugal decanters separate immiscible

liquids by imparting centrifugal motion to the feed liquid mixture.
When the difference between the densities of two immiscible liquids is
relatively small and a high rate of separation is desired, gravity
decanters are substituted by centrifugal decanters. See gravity decanter.

Centrifugal extraction: In solvent or liquid-liquid extraction, for the

case, when the raffinate and extract phases are difficult to separate, a
centrifugal extractor is employed instead of a mixer-settler unit. Both
mixing (intimate contacting of solvent and feed) and the separation of
phases take place in the same unit.

Centrifugal extractors: Centrifugal extractors are required for the

centrifugal extraction. Examples are Podbielniak extractor, Quadronic
extractor, and Alfa-Laval contactor. See centrifugal extraction.

83
Centrifugal filter: A basket type filter with perforated walls covered
with the filter medium. The material to be filtered is fed to the basket
and the basket rotates at a high speed. The solids are obtained in the
form of a cake at the walls and the relatively clear liquid leaves the
basket. Unlike a centrifuge, a filter medium is the essential part of a
centrifugal filter. See centrifugal filtration.

Centrifugal filtration: Centrifugal force is employed for the filtration

of the given slurry and separates the solids from the liquid filtrate in the
presence of a filter medium. It is different from centrifuging as it
requires a filter medium for the separation of solids from the liquid
phase. See centrifuging.

Centrifugal pump: In its simplest construction, it consists of a rotating

impeller hosted in a casing. The liquid enters at the eye of the impeller
and thrown outwardly (centrifuged) by the speed of the impeller. In
doing so, the impeller imparts energy to the liquid and increases its
velocity many times. The liquid leaving the impeller enters the outer
rim and its kinetic energy is converted into pressure energy. Centrifugal
pumps may be arranged either in parallel or series operation. When
connected in series, the multistage system increases the overall pressure
head of the liquid, however, when applied in parallel combination, it is
possible to increase the capacity of the pumping system. The centrifugal
pump can handle liquids with solids suspended in the liquid body and
has low initial cost and low maintenance cost. A general comparison of
a centrifugal pump and positive displacement reciprocating pump is
given in Table C-1. See Fig. V-10 and Fig. D-7.

Centrifugal separation: When rates of gravity settling are low,

centrifugal separation is required. In solid-liquid separation this may be
due to nearly the same densities of the solid and liquid or due to the
small solid particle size having very low terminal velocity. In liquid-
liquid separation, when there is a lower density difference between the
two phases or there is a formation of stable emulsion which cannot be
destroyed by gravity effects. In dairy industry, cream is separated from
milk using centrifugal separation. See centrifugal decanter and
centrifugal extractors.

Centrifugal separator: Also called as centrifuge. Centrifugal

84
separation requires a centrifugal separator. See centrifugal separation.

Table C-1 Comparison between centrifugal pump and reciprocating

positive displacement pump
Centrifugal pump
The liquid discharge is affected
by the discharge pressure.
It develops lower pressure head
and a multistage centrifugal
pump is usually required where
a high pressure is the
requirement.
It can handle higher liquid
throughputs.
The design of the pump is
simpler and requires less
maintenance.
It does not require suction and
delivery valves and the pump
shaft can be directly connected
to the driver shaft.
It requires priming.
The discharge of the pump is
uniform.
Usually less efficient.
It can handle liquids with solids
suspended.
It has low initial as well as
maintenance cost.
Reciprocating pump
It is a positive displacement
pump and the liquid flowrate
does not depend on the
discharge pressure.
It can develop greater pressure
heads.
The capacity of the pump is
lower.
The design of the pump is rather
complicated and requires greater
maintenance.
It requires the suction and
delivery valves and a crank shaft
is required in between the driver
shaft and the pump shaft.
It usually does not require
priming.
The discharge is intermittent or
pulsating.
Usually more efficient.
It is not recommended to use
when liquids contain solids.
It has higher initial as well as
maintenance cost.

Centrifuge: Same as centrifugal separator. See centrifugal separator.

Centrifuging: If the speed of rotation of a ball mill exceeds a certain

value (critical speed), the centrifugal force on a ball exceeds that of
gravity force and the ball does not fall, instead it moves along the inside
wall of the mill. This mal functioning of a ball mill is referred to as
85
centrifuging [14]. The term may also be referred to the function of a
trommel. See critical speed of a ball mill.

Cetane number: Like octane number defined for gasoline fuel, cetane
number is a measure of the quality of a diesel fuel. High cetane number
of a fuel suggests a short ignition delay. n-hexadecane (C16H34) also
called as cetane has been assigned a value of 100 cetane number while
α-methyl naphthalene is assigned a value of 0. It is important to
mention that n-hexadecane is the highest normal paraffin which is
liquid at room temperature. A sample diesel fuel is compared to a
standard mixture of n-hexadecane and α-methyl naphthalene to
ascertain the value of its cetane number. See octane number.

CFD: It stands for computational fluid dynamics.

CFSTR: It stands for constant flow stirred tank reactor. See constant
flow stirred tank reactor.

Chamber filter press: Same as recessed plate filter. See recessed plate
filter.

Channeling: The phenomenon related to packed columns, packed beds,

and fluidized beds, in which a portion of the gas or liquid flowing
through may find a certain route without effectively contacting the other
phase and/or the packing material is called as channeling. Channeling is
a characteristic of a packing, improper distribution of the fluid streams,
and packing arrangement in a column. A tall bed of packing without
proper redistributions is a typical cause of channeling in packed
columns. See Fig. C-7.

Chapman-Enskog equations: At low pressures, the equations are used

for the estimation of transport properties of non-polar gases. The
equations are based on Chapman-Enskog theory of monatomic gases at
low pressures.

Characteristic dimension: It characterizes a certain physical geometry

and used as its representative in engineering correlations. For a pipe, the
inside diameter is usually considered as its characteristic dimension.

86
 Fig. C-7 Concept of channeling.

Characteristic equation: For a given control system, the characteristic

equation is the denominator (polynomial) of the overall transfer
function of the control loop when set equal to zero. The knowledge of
the roots of the characteristic equation is normally employed in
determining the stability of a control system.

Characterization factor: Same as UOP characterization factor. See

UOP characterization factor.

Charles’ law: An ideal gas law that relates temperature and volume of
a gas. At a constant pressure, the volume of a gas is directly
proportional to its absolute temperature so that the ratio of the volume
to absolute temperature at any point is a constant. See Boyle’s law and
ideal gas law.

Check valve: Also called as non-return valve (NRV). A check valve

allows a fluid stream to flow only in one direction and does not require
any mechanical driver for its operation. The upstream pressure of the
fluid opens the valve and when the downstream pressure is higher than
the upstream pressure the valve is fully closed to stop the backward
flow. A check valve may be devised either by gravity or by spring
assembly. Swing check, lift check, ball check, and diaphragm check are
the various types of check valves. Equipments such as pumps are
normally fitted with check valves. See Fig. C-8.
87
 Fig. C-8 Check valve: a) Swing check, b) lift check, c) ball check.

Chemical adsorption: Same as chemisorption. See chemisorption.

Chemical engineering: Not easy to comprehend in a single definition

due to growing areas of chemical engineering. However, in simple
words it may be defined as designing, installing, operating, and
revamping a chemical product, process equipment, or a chemical plant.

Chemical kinetics: It deals with the rate and mechanism of a chemical

reaction. It is different from thermodynamics which deals with reactions
at equilibrium.

Chemical oxygen demand (COD): It is the amount of oxygen that is

required to oxidize the substances present in wastewater in the presence
of a strong chemical oxidant. Chemical oxygen demand is always
greater than biological oxygen demand (BOD). Greater the chemical
oxygen demand (COD) greater will be the organic matter in the waste.
Chemical oxygen demand therefore measures the water quality in terms
of the amount of organic substance present in wastewater. Like BOD,
COD is measured by a laboratory test under prescribed conditions. See
biological oxygen demand.

Chemical potential: Chemical potential is the partial molar Gibbs free

energy of a component in a binary or multicomponent system. It is
therefore the change in Gibbs free energy with the differential change in
number of moles of a component while keeping pressure, temperature,
and moles of all the other components as constant. Like entropy,
chemical potential is an abstract quantity and the introduction of
chemical potential in thermodynamic relationships is useful in
explaining various thermodynamic processes. Chemical potential is
considered as the escaping tendency of a component to leave a phase
where its value is higher and to enter the phase where its value is lower.
88
Chemical potential gradient is therefore the driving force for mass
transfer processes. Chemical potential is related to fugacity which is a
useful parameter in describing phase equilibrium behaviors. Chemical
potential is an intensive property. See fugacity.

Chemical reaction equilibrium: When a chemical reaction

equilibrium is established, the rate of the forward reaction becomes
equal to the rate of the reverse reaction and the net rate of the reactant
disappearance or the product formation is zero.

Chemical reaction equilibrium constant: See equilibrium constant.

Chemical reactor: Simply known as reactor. A chemical reactor is

required to accomplish a change in moles of a reactant to form the
desired product through a chemical reaction. Based on the shape of the
reactor, a reactor is either a tank reactor or a tubular reactor. Based on
the phases involved it is either a homogeneous or a heterogeneous
reactor. Fixed bed reactor, fluidized bed rector, and continuous stirred
tank reactor are examples of chemical reactors. See Fig. T-2 and Fig. I-
6.

Chemical vapor deposition (CVD): It may be defined as a process of

deposition of one or more solids as a result of vapor phase chemical
reaction. The deposition process is atomic or molecular scale process.

Chemisorption: Also called as chemical adsorption. It is different from

physical adsorption in that it involves chemical bonding. Electron
transfer occurs between adsorbate and adsorbent and heat of adsorption
is of the order of a chemical reaction. The process is irreversible and
applied in measuring the catalytic surface area. For example, for 1.0
wt% Pt/Al2O3 catalyst, the area of the exposed Pt metal on the surface
of alumina can be measured by chemisorption of hydrogen gas. See
Table C-2 for the comparison of chemisorption and physical adsorption.

Chen’s equation: Chen’s equation can be used for finding latent heat at
normal boiling point.

Chilton and Colburn analogy: This is also known as J-factor analogy.

The analogy is based on the experimental results both for the gases and

89
liquids in turbulent and laminar flows. The analogy can be written as

f
 jH  j D
2

Where, f is friction factor and jH and jD are the j-factors for heat
transfer and diffusion (mass transfer), respectively. If one of the transfer
coefficients is known, the analogy may be employed to predict the other
unknown transfer coefficient.

Table C-2 Comparison of physical adsorption and chemical adsorption

Physical adsorption
Binding forces are weak where
binding occurs through van der
Waals’ forces.
Reversible with the adsorbed
species unchanged when
desorbed.
Occurs through multilayer
coverage.
Applied in the determination of
surface area, pore volume, and
pore size of materials.
Low heat of adsorption is
involved such as that of
liquefaction.
Usually occurs at low
temperatures.
Rate of adsorption is fast.
Non-specific to the surface
(adsorbent).
Low activation energies are
involved.
Chemical adsorption
Binding forces are strong where
binding occurs through chemical
bonding and electron transfer
takes place.
Mostly irreversible with the
adsorbed species may be
different when desorbed.
Occurs through monolayer
coverage (only active sites are
covered).
Applied in the determination of
catalytic surface area.
Heat of adsorption is many times
greater and comparable to that of
heat of reaction.
Usually requires high
temperatures.
Rate of adsorption may be fast.
Any value between low and fast.
Specific to the surface
(adsorbent).
Usually high activation energies
are involved.

Chimney: Same as stack. See stack.

90
Chimney draft: Same as natural draft. See natural draft.

Chimney tray: Chimney tray is used to withdraw a side (liquid) stream

from a tray tower or packed tower. It collects the liquid and offers the
vapor to flow without contacting the liquid. It is important to mention
here that it does not fractionate. See Fig. C-9. See also drawoff tray.

Chimney

Drawoff
nozzle

Drawoff box or
accumulator
Column
Fig. C-9 Chimney tray.

Choked flow: It is the upper limiting case of the flowrate of a fluid, i.e.,
the flow conduit is bottlenecked. If the velocity of a gas is kept on
increasing a point is reached where the maximum flow condition occurs.
This usually occurs at a restricted opening in the flow. For an adiabatic
flow conditions, it occurs where the fluid velocity equals the velocity of
the sound in that fluid (sonic velocity).

Chord type downcomer: Same as segmental downcomer. See

segmental downcomer.

Chord type weir: In tray towers, weirs are employed to maintain the
liquid level on a tray. Such weirs may be of two types: Circular or
round weirs and chord type weirs. The chord type weir is the extension
of a vertical downcomer plate which forms a chord on the circular
tower plate. See weir. See also Fig. C-10.

Chute-and-sock method: The method is used to dump (load) random

91
packings in packed columns or catalyst particles in a reactor. A sock is
lowered into the column and by the help of chute the particles are
transported to the sock and dumped safely. See random packings.

CI engine: It stands for compression ignition engine.

Circular downcomer: Also called as round downcomer. Circular

downcomer is simply a pipe through which the liquid from the tray
above flows to the lower tray. Unlike a segmental downcomer, the
cross-sectional area is circular. See Fig. C-10. See also segmental
downcomer.

Circular pipe: See pipe.

Circular weir: Also called as round weir. In a tray tower, the circular
weir is the edge of the circular downcomer (pipe). See Fig. C-10. See
also circular downcomer and chord type weir.

Circulating reflux: Same as pumparound. See pumparound.

Clapeyron equation: For a pure component, on a p-T (pressure-

temperature) diagram, the slopes of equilibrium line at various
equilibrium points may be predicted using Clapeyron equation.
Clapeyron equation is a general phase equilibrium equation that may be
used for any type of phase change. See Clausius-Clapeyron equation.

Clarification: Clarification is a sedimentation process in which the

suspended solid particles are settled and the clarified liquid is
discharged at the top. In clarification, the objective is to clarify the feed
stream in contrast to thickening in which the purpose is to thicken the
slurry. See clarifier.

Clarification zone: During the operation of a thickener, two major

zones are formed. The bottom zone is the concentrated slurry and the
upper, clarification zone, is the clarified liquid.

Clarifier: The two main sedimentation operations are thickening and

clarification. The purpose of a thickener is to concentrate the slurry
before it goes to a filtration process. The purpose of a clarifier is to

92
produce a clear effluent by settling the suspended particles. The
equipments used for both clarification and thickening are the same. See
clarification.

Fig. C-10 a) Circular or round weir, b) chord type weir.

Classification: Classification is the separation of solid particles by

exploiting a suitable property difference of the particles. A property, the
difference of which is desired, may be size, color, density, magnetic
property, electrostatic property, or a surface property. See classifier.

Classifier: A classifier separates solid particles by utilizing the

difference in any of their suitable property such as size or magnetic
property. Examples are screens, magnetic separators, electrostatic
separators, jigs, and cyclones. See classification.

Clausius-Clapeyron equation: Clapeyron equation is a general phase

equilibrium relationship and may be used for any type of phase change.
Clausius-Clapeyron equation is a derivation of Clapeyron equation
which is only applicable for vapor-liquid and vapor-solid equilibria. As
the vapor volume is much greater than the saturated liquid or solid
volume, the change in volume in Clapeyron equation may be replaced
simply by the volume of the vapor. Assuming ideal gas conditions, the
vapor volume is easily determined. See Clapeyron equation.

93
Clay treatment: Clay treatment is applied to stabilize and to discolor a
petroleum fraction such as lube oil. It is an adsorption process in which
impurities are removed by contacting the liquid phase with the solid
clay which acts as an adsorbent as well as a catalyst. The contact may
either be made in a fixed bed adsorber or in a mixed vessel (clay and the
liquid phase are agitated).

Clear liquid: On each plate in a tray tower, vapor/gas and liquid are
contacted and a froth (mixture of liquid and vapor/gas) is produced.
Clear liquid does not contain any froth (or foam) and its aeration factor
is zero. See froth.

Clearance: For a shell and tube heat exchanger type equipment, it is the
shortest distance between two adjacent tubes or tube holes. See tube
pitch.

Climbing film evaporator: Also called as rising film evaporator and

long tube vertical (natural pumping) evaporator. The evaporator shell
contains a bundle of long vertical tubes. The feed is injected at the
bottom of the evaporator and flows upward inside the tubes while steam
condenses outside the tubes. Vapor formation causes natural pumping
and the liquid velocities are high due to which heat transfer coefficients
are enhanced. As liquid velocities are high so the use of impingement
baffle at the tubes outlet is effective for defrothing or defoaming the
vapor-liquid mixture. Climbing film evaporator is normally used as
circulation evaporator, however, it may also be operated once through.
Although the evaporator has a low cost, but it requires high headroom.
It is used with a variety of substances, but not with scaling liquids as
scaling is difficult to remove. See Fig. C-11. See also short tube vertical
evaporator and falling film evaporator.

Closed circuit feeding of a crusher: The crushing process in which the

oversized product is brought back (recycled) to the crusher and
subjected to further crushing to obtain the desired product size is known
as closed circuit feeding. Compared to the open circuit feeding of a
crusher, the overall reduction ratio of the crushing unit is higher in the
case of the closed circuit feeding system. See open circuit feeding of a
crusher.

94
 Fig. C-11 Once through climbing or rising film evaporator.

Closed gas turbine: See Brayton cycle.

Closed loop control system: A control loop with a controller is a

closed loop control system. All elements of a control system such as
sensor, process, controller, and final control element are in a closed
path. See Fig. F-2. See also open loop control system.

Closed system: In a closed system no mass enters or leaves the system,

however, energy in the form of heat or work can cross the system
boundary. See open system and isolated system.

95
Closure: Same as head for a process vessel. See head.

Cloud point: A petroleum fraction is a mixture of low melting and high

melting components. If the temperature of a sample is constantly
decreased (in a standardized cloud point test method) a temperature is
reached where the components having higher melting or solidification
point begin to solidify and causes haziness or cloudiness in the sample.
The temperature at which a part of a petroleum fraction begins to
crystallize (solidify) and causes haziness or cloudiness in the system is
called as cloud point. The term is often used along with pour point and
it is somewhat higher than the corresponding pour point. However, for
some oil cloud point may not appear and only pour point is possible. A
high cloud point is usually undesirable as the oil having high cloud
points may have fluidity problems under cold conditions. See pour
point.

CNG: It stands for compressed natural gas.

Coagulation: The process in which the charged forces of water and

suspended colloidal particles are destabilized and particles are allowed
to attach each other. Flocculation is different than coagulation in that it
increases the rate of attachment of particles to increase the size of the
particle (floc) and hence to increase the rate of settling.

Coarse crushers: Size reduction equipment may be classified as coarse

(primary and secondary), intermediate, fine, ultrafine, and cutting
machines. Coarse crushers take a feed size usually from a mine and
reduce the product size that is suitable for an intermediate crusher.
Coarse crushers are either primary coarse crushers or secondary coarse
crushers. Primary coarse crushers are usually directly fed from a mine
and the product of the primary crushers lies in the range of 150 to 250
mm (6 to 10 in) [14] and feeds the secondary coarse crushers.
Secondary coarse crusher reduces the material to a product size of
around 6 mm (1/4 in) [14]. Jaw crusher, gyratory crusher, and roll
crusher (single roll crusher) are examples of coarse crushers. See jaw
crusher, gyratory crusher, and single roll crusher.

Cocurrent flow: Also called as parallel flow. When the two flow

96
streams (which are to exchange heat or mass) flow in the same
direction, they are said to be in parallel or cocurrent flow. See Fig. C-
12. In heat exchangers, for cocurrent flow, the outlet temperature of the
cold fluid cannot be higher than the outlet temperature of the hot fluid.
See countercurrent flow. See also Table C-3 for the comparison of
cocurrent and countercurrent flow conditions.

Fig. C-12 Two fluid streams are in: a) countercurrent flow, b) cocurrent
flow, c) cross flow.

COD: It stands for chemical oxygen demand. See chemical oxygen

demand.

Coefficient of contraction: It is the ratio of the area of the fluid jet to

the area of the opening of the device (say orifice meter) through which
the fluid flows. The area of the fluid jet is the area at the point of vena
contracta (minimum cross-section).

Coefficient of discharge: It is the ratio of the actual discharge

(flowrate) through a device such as orifice meter to the theoretical
discharge (flowrate without friction). It is a product of the coefficient of
contraction and the coefficient of velocity and varies with the Reynolds
number.

Coefficient of performance (COP): It indicates the performance of a

refrigeration or a heat pump system. For a refrigeration system, the
coefficient of performance is defined as the ratio of the refrigeration
97
effect (heat energy taken from the refrigerated place) to the work energy
input. For a heat pump system, it is the ratio of heat energy delivered to
the work energy input. Higher is the coefficient of performance greater
will be the refrigeration or heat pump effect.

Table C-3 Comparison of cocurrent and countercurrent flow patterns

Cocurrent flow
The two streams flow in parallel
and in the same direction.
The overall driving force for heat
and mass transfer is lower so it is
less efficient in transferring heat
and mass transfer.
In a concurrent flow heat
exchanger, the outlet temperature
of the cold stream cannot be
greater than the outlet
temperature of the hot stream.
This is a limiting case for the
concurrent heat exchange
process.
As the driving force is greater
initially, this type of flow scheme
can be more efficient if only a
part of the exchanger length is
required in a heat or mass
exchanger.
It can be used for rapid cooling
or rapid heating of a process
stream.
Countercurrent flow
The two streams flow in parallel,
but in the opposite direction to
each other.
The overall driving force for heat
and mass transfer are greater so
greater amount of heat and mass
are transferred. A countercurrent
flow is, therefore, more efficient.
In countercurrent flow heat
exchanger, the outlet temperature
of the cold stream can be higher
than the outlet temperature of the
hot stream
The countercurrent direction is
beneficial if whole of the length
of the exchanger for heat or mass
transfer is to be used.
It cannot be used for rapid
cooling or rapid heating.

Coefficient of velocity: It is the ratio of the actual average velocity of a

fluid jet (velocity at vena contracta) to its theoretical velocity (without
friction).

Coefficient of viscosity: Same as dynamic viscosity. See dynamic

viscosity.
98
Coefficient of volume expansion: Same as volume expansivity. See
volume expansivity.

Cogeneration: The term is applied for producing more than one kind of
energy in a single process such as the production of electricity as well
as heat energy (steam) in a single process.

Cohen-Coon tuning method: An open loop controller tuning method.

The controller is removed and the control system is set to the manual
mode. A step change of known magnitude is introduced in the system
and the response in the controlled variable is measured. The response to
the step change is plotted as a function of time and a curve is developed.
The curve is known as process reaction curve and it provides the
necessary information that is used with Cohen-Coon tuning rules to
obtain the controller tuning parameters.

Coker: A coker is a thermal catalytic reactor that is required to carry

out the coking reactions. See coking and delayed coking.

Coking: It is a severe thermal cracking process that is carried out in a

petroleum refinery for the conversion of a heavy fraction to produce
coker gas, coker gas oil, and solid coke. See delayed coking.
Also, it is the phenomenon in which carbonaceous residues are
formed and deposited on a catalyst or tube wall surface. Coking
decreases the effective catalyst surface and decreases the rate of the
chemical reaction. When possible, a stream of air or oxygen may be
used to burn off the coke from the catalyst surface (regeneration). It also
decreases the thermal efficiency of a heat transfer equipment such as a
furnace (the furnace tubes are required to be cleaned after a specific
period of time). Addition of steam and high velocity of fluid streams
may be used to avoid deposition of coke inside the furnace tubes.

Colburn method: The method is employed for estimating the

minimum reflux ratio in multicomponent distillation systems.

Cold air standard assumptions: See air standard assumptions.

Cold reflux: The overhead vapor in a distillation column when

condensed and cooled, i.e., its temperature is decreased below its

99
bubble point.

Colebrook equation: A widely accepted friction factor correlation. The

equation is considered an equivalent of the Moody chart and can be
used for any Reynolds number and any relative surface roughness. Like
Nikuradse equation for smooth pipes and turbulent flow conditions, the
equation is implicit in friction factor and requires an iterative solution.
Based on the Colebrook equation, though less accurate, many equations
explicit in friction factor are proposed. Swamee-Jain equation and
Haaland equation are examples of the explicit type equations.

Combined cycle: A combination of gas turbine cycle and vapor power

(steam turbine) cycle. The combination usually has a higher thermal
efficiency than any of the individual cycle.

Combustion: Combustion is a rapid oxidation of combustible/s which

results in the combustion products accompanied by heat energy or heat
energy and light. The most important combustible elements are carbon
and hydrogen, CO2 and H2O are, therefore, the usual combustion
products.

Combustion efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the amount of heat

energy released in the combustion of a given fuel to the calorific value
of the fuel (i.e., the amount of energy that should be released
theoretically). See combustion.

Combustion gas turbine cycle: See open gas turbine cycle.

Comminution: Same as size reduction. See size reduction.

Compact heat exchanger: Double pipe heat exchangers and the

conventional shell and tube heat exchangers do not contain a high
surface area density (surface area per unit volume) and therefore where
a very large surface is mandatory in a small volume, a compact heat
exchanger is required. A compact heat exchanger is characterized by a
large surface area per unit volume usually greater than 650–700 m2/m3
[15] on any one side. The high surface area in such exchangers is
obtained usually by attaching thin narrowly spaced parallel strips (fins)
to the heat exchanger tubes (finned-tube exchangers) or by employing

100
corrugated surfaces attached to a plane wall (plate-fin). Owing to the
low heat transfer coefficients associated with gases, compact heat
exchangers are usually employed for gas-to-gas or gas-to-liquid
services. See Fig. C-13.

Fig. C-13 An example compact (plate-fin) heat exchanger.

Compartment dryer: Same as tray dryer. See tray dryer.

Complete combustion: The combustion process in which all of the

combustible constituents of a fuel are completely burned off. Therefore,
if a fuel contains carbon and hydrogen only, the product of combustion
should have only carbon dioxide and water other than nitrogen and
excess oxygen. The presence of carbon monoxide or any amount of fuel
in the reaction products shows an incomplete combustion process. See
incomplete combustion.

Compressed liquid: Same as subcooled liquid. The term compressed

liquid can be understood by the following description. For a liquid at its
bubble point (saturated liquid) if the pressure is increased (compression)
beyond the saturation pressure, the saturated liquid is transformed to the
ordinary liquid which is called as compressed liquid. See Fig. S-1 and
Fig. T-4. See also saturated liquid.

Compressibility: It is the property of a fluid by which its density is

increased (volume decreased) when applied pressure is increased. See
incompressibility and compressible fluid.

101
Compressibility factor: The real gas behavior of a gas can be predicted
using the ideal gas law while using an accommodating or compensating
factor. This compensating factor is an empirical correction factor and
defined as the ratio of the product of pressure and total volume to the
product of absolute temperature and the universal gas constant.

p V
z
R T

Where, z is compressibility factor, p is pressure, V is temperature, R

is universal gas constant, and T is absolute temperature. For ideal gases,
z is unity (z = 1.0). For gases at low pressure it is close to unity and
frequently taken as ≈1.0. The compressibility factor may be calculated
using reduced temperature and reduced pressure conditions. The
compressibility factor for inorganic fluids is almost always below those
of hydrocarbons.

Compressible filter cake: Filter cakes, formed during a filtration

process, that are affected by filtering pressure and become less and less
porous with time of filtration are called as compressible filter cakes. See
incompressible filter cake and cake filtration.

Compressible flow: The flow of a compressible fluid (gas or vapor).

Compressible flow is affected by the effect of physical conditions such
as pressure, temperature, and adiabaticity (no heat addition and
removal).

Compressible fluid: A fluid is considered compressible if the density

of the fluid varies with the application of pressure. Generally speaking,
all gases and vapors are considered compressible fluids. See
incompressible fluid.

Compression agglomeration: One of the methods of size enlargement

in which fine particles are agglomerated by the application of pressure.
Tablets, briquettes, pellets, and even solid sheets can be prepared in this
way. See agglomeration.

Compression force method: One of the four methods of application of

force for reducing the size of the solid particles. Compressive force is
102
applied when a material is pressed (compressed) between two solid
walls. Both of the surfaces may be moving (doing work) or one of the
surfaces may be stationary while the other is moving. The dominant
application of the compressive force is in jaw crushers, gyratory
crushers, and crushing rolls. See attrition force method, impact force
method, and shear force method.

Compression ratio: The ratio of the initial volume to the final volume
in a compression process.

Compression zone of sedimentation: During the batch sedimentation

of solid particles, the portion at the bottom of the settler is compressed
due to the weight of the solid particles and the liquid head and therefore
known as compression zone. See Fig. Z-4. See also zones of
sedimentation.

Compressor: Compressors add energy to a gas and increase the

pressure head of the gas. However, in increasing the pressure of the gas
they also increase the temperature of the gas. Compressors are either
positive displacement or dynamic [16]. Positive displacement
compressors may further be classified as reciprocating and rotary
compressors and dynamic compressors may include axial flow
compressors, centrifugal (radial flow) compressors, mixed flow
compressors, and ejectors [16]. In comparison to pumps (required for
increasing the pressure of liquids), compressors usually have higher
capital cost and require more power for their operation (operating cost).
Therefore, if conditions permit, it is better to increase the pressure of a
system when it is in the liquid phase rather when it is in the gas phase.
Industrial compressors, inherently behave more close to the adiabatic
conditions than the isothermal conditions. As the adiabatic compression
always requires more work of compression than the isothermal
compression, when the pressure ratio is large, multistage compression
(compressors in series) with interstage cooling is the usual choice. See
blower and fan.

Concarbon: It is Conradson carbon residue obtained in the Conradson

carbon residue test. See Conradson carbon test.

Concentrating table: Also called as shaking table. See shaking table.

103
Concentration: The amount of a component per unit volume of the
mixture of components is called as concentration. The amount of the
component may be expressed in terms of mass (mass concentration) or
number of moles (molar concentration) of the component. See mass
concentration and molar concentration.

Concentration gradient: It is the measure of change in concentration

of a component between two points of infinitely short distance. It is
therefore the deferential change of concentration of a component with
respect to distance. It may be regarded as the driving force for mass
transfer.

Concentration profile: The trajectory or path that shows variations in

concentration (composition) of a component with respect to distance.

Condensate: Condensed liquid product that is obtained by the

condensation of a saturated vapor. See steam condensate.

Condensation: The process in which the latent heat of condensation is

removed and a saturated vapor is transformed into the saturated liquid.
The condensation of a vapor (condensing) can be carried out either by
increasing pressure at constant temperature or by decreasing
temperature at constant pressure. See evaporation and vaporization.

Condenser: Condenser is a heat exchange device that removes latent

heat of condensation of a saturated vapor and transforms it to the
corresponding saturated liquid. A condenser may be a partial condenser
when it converts only a portion of the condensing vapor to the liquid or
a total condenser when it converts the entire vapor to the liquid. A
condenser by definition must not decrease the temperature of a vapor
below its bubble point (saturated liquid point). A condenser-cooler,
however, removes the latent as well as the sensible heat so as to
decrease the temperature below the bubble point of the liquid. See
evaporator, reboiler, and vaporizer.

Condensing steam: It is the saturated steam and that it is ready to be

condensed. It needs the latent heat of condensation to be removed to be
transformed to the saturated liquid water. Condensing steam is
frequently used in heat transfer applications because of large value of

104
the latent heat of water and high heat transfer coefficients associated
with it. Due to low thermal conductivity of the gaseous water, the
superheated steam has much lower heat transfer coefficient than that of
the saturated steam. See Table H-1.

Condensing vapor: Same as saturated vapor which only requires the

latent heat of condensation to be removed to be transformed to the
corresponding saturated liquid.

Conduction heat transfer: Conduction heat transfer takes place within

a body or between two bodies in physical contact. The mechanism of
heat transfer involves the internal energy exchange from one body to
another in contact or from one part of a single body to another part by
exchange of activity at molecular level. This exchange is the kinetic
energy exchange by the vibration of the atomic lattice, by the
movement of free electrons, or by the molecular motion. See convective
heat transfer and radiation heat transfer.

Conductivity equation: Also called as general heat conduction

equation. It is a three dimensional heat conduction equation including
heat generation and accumulation (unsteady-state) terms.

Cone crusher: A cone crusher is shown in Fig. C-14. A cone crusher

may be regarded as a modification of the gyratory crusher. Similar to
the gyratory crusher an eccentric motion is produced in the shaft and the
cone wobbles and crushes the feed between the conical surface and the
circular wall of the crusher. However, unlike the gyratory crusher which
is a primary coarse crusher, it is applied for secondary coarse crushing
or intermediate crushing. The product size is more uniform than the
product obtained from the gyratory crusher and that it has higher
reduction ratio than the corresponding gyratory crusher. See gyratory
crusher.

Configuration factor: Same as view factor. See view factor.

Conical ball mill: Same as Hardinge mill. See Hardinge mill.

Coning: In the operation of a tray tower, when the liquid flowrate is

quite low (relative gas velocity very high) the vapor or gas issuing form

105
the tray holes pushes the liquid aside and emerges in the form of a jet
(cone) without having sufficient contact with the liquid. This
phenomenon is called as coning. Coning is highly undesirable in the
operation of a tray tower. See Fig. C-15 and Fig. T-10.

Fig. C-14 Cone crusher.

Fig. C-15 Coning phenomenon.

Conradson carbon test: A test method that is applied on petroleum

fractions such as fuel oil to quantify carbon residue of the oil. See
carbon residue and Ramsbottom carbon test.

Consistency: Unlike a lubricating oil, viscosity of a grease (solid

lubricant) cannot be measured and the term consistency is used to
evaluate a given grease sample. Similar to viscosity which is a measure
of the resistance to flow of a lubricating oil and the thickness of stable
lubricating oil film, consistency may be defined as the measure of
resistance to deformation of a grease and its ability to stay and move
about at the given place in the machine. Consistency is measured in
terms of penetration (in tenths of millimeters) of a standard cone in a
106
standard test method. See penetration.

Consolute temperature: Also called as critical solution temperature.

On a liquid-liquid temperature-composition diagram, the maximum
temperature point above which two liquids are miscible in all
proportions is known as upper consolute temperature. Some liquid-
liquid systems show a lower consolute temperature as well. A lower
consulate temperature is the minimum temperature below which two
liquids are miscible in all proportions. See Fig. C-16. See also upper
consolute temperature and lower consolute temperature.

Fig. C-16 a) Upper consolute temperature, b) lower consolute

temperature, c) upper and lower consolute temperatures.

Constant boiling mixture: Same as azeotrope. See azeotrope.

Constant flow stirred tank reactor (CFSTR): It is the same as

continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR). See continuous stirred tank
reactor.

Constant rate drying period: The drying rate period for which the
drying rate remains constant is known as the constant rate drying
period. The constant rate drying period extends to the critical moisture
contents. See Fig. D-19. See also falling rate drying period.

Continuity equation: It is the law of conservation of mass. It states that

mass can neither be created nor be destroyed. For a steady-state flow
process (with rate of accumulation of mass equal to zero) at any point in
a flow conduit

rate of mass flow in  rate of mass flow out

107
 u1  A1  1  u2  A2   2

Where, ui, Ai, and i are average velocity, flow area, and density of
fluid, respectively, at ith position. The equation is one of the
fundamental equations of fluid flow.

Continuous phase: See dispersed phase.

Continuous process: Also called as flow process. In a continuous

process, the feed is continuously added to the process and the products
are continuously removed from the process. Compared to a batch
process, it gives higher production rates and for large scale units it is
usually more economical. However, batch process is more flexible and
capable of providing better control. See Fig. S-4 and Table B-1. See
also batch process.

Continuous rotary drum dryer: Rotary dryer is sometimes called as

continuous rotary drum dryer.

Continuous rotary drum vacuum filter: The vacuum version of

rotary drum filter is sometimes known as continuous rotary drum
vacuum filter as its operation is continuous (as compared to a filter
press). See rotary drum filter.

Continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR): Also referred to as constant

flow stirred tank reactor, backmixed reactor, and well mixed reactor. It
is a continuous flow agitated vessel in which agitation is accompanied
by a chemical reaction. See ideal continuous stirred tank reactor. See
Fig. T-2.

Continuum: A fluid consists of a large number of molecules that are

widely spaced and therefore a fluid is said to contain a discrete or non-
continuum matter. The concept of continuum is an idealization and
suggests the fluid to act as homogeneous continuous matter with no
empty spaces. The hypothesis allows the properties of the fluid to vary
continuously as a function of space and time and the concept is valid
when the size of the fluid body selected is large compared to molecular
distances. This allows a property value not to be affected by the changes
in variations in individual molecular properties and the variations in
108
properties of molecules are therefore averaged. Although defined above
for a fluid as the concept is widely applied in fluid mechanics, the same
concept can be applied for solids.

Control surface: The surface bounding the control volume is called as

control surface. It separates the control volume from the surroundings.
See control volume.

Control valve: Control valves are ordinary valves such as globe valves
and diaphragm valves fitted with pneumatic or electronic actuators
(motion controlling devices). The final control element in most control
systems is a control valve.

Control volume: In certain cases, for a system to be analyzed, a control

volume is chosen which is an arbitrary region selected in space and
behaves like an open system that is through which mass and energy can
enter and leave. The proper choice of a control volume depends upon
the convenience, the given information, and the required information to
be obtained.

Controlled variable: In a control system, it is the process variable

which is required to be maintained at a desired value. See Fig. F-2. See
also manipulated variable.

Controller: A controller is a device that compares the measured

variable with the given set point and sends the information to the final
control element (usually a valve) to function accordingly.

Controller tuning: See tuning of controllers.

Convection: The phenomenon of convection is due to the fluid motion

on a macroscopic scale. The mechanism of convection involves the
mixing of one portion of the fluid with another portion due to gross
movement of the bulk of the fluid. Rates of heat and mass transfer are
always higher for the convection in a fluid body than the rates without
convection. There are two types of convections: Natural or free
convection and forced convection. See free convection and forced
convection.

109
Convective boiling: Same as flow boiling. See flow boiling.

Convective flow: Same as bulk flow. See bulk flow.

Convective heat transfer: It is heat transfer by convection. See

convection.

Convective mass transfer: It is mass transfer by convection. See

convection.

Convective velocity: Same as bulk velocity. See bulk velocity.

Converging-diverging nozzle: In a converging-diverging nozzle, the

flow area, initially, is reduced and then increased in the direction of
fluid flow. See Fig. C-17.

Fig. C-17 Converging-diverging nozzle.

Conversion: More precisely as fractional conversion. It is the ratio of

the moles of a reactant (usually limiting reactant) consumed to the
moles of the reactant fed to a reactor.

Conveying of solid particles: It is the transportation of solid particles

from one point to another point. Conveyors such as belt conveyors and
bucket elevators are employed for conveying the solid particles. See
conveyors.

Conveying velocity: In fluidization of solid particles, the velocity of

the fluidizing medium (gas or liquid) at which the solid particles are
carried over (overflown) and leave the fluidizing vessel.

110
Conveyors: Conveyors are used for the transportation of solid particles.
Examples are belt conveyors, chute conveyors, bucket elevators, screw
conveyors, and pneumatic conveyors. See conveying.

Cooler: A cooler removes sensible heat from a process stream, i.e., it

decreases the temperature of the process stream usually by an external
cooling utility stream. Cooling water is the most commonly used
cooling utility stream. See heater.

Coolflo: A type of cooling tower packing.

Cooling coils: Coiled tubing fitted within a vessel such as stirred tank
for cooling the contents of the vessel. See Fig. J-1. See also heating
coils.

Cooling curve: A curve showing the relationship between heat energy

removal or time of cooling and temperature of a component is called as
cooling curve. The heat energy or time is plotted along x-coordinate and
temperature along y-coordinate. See Fig. H-3. See also heating curve.

Cooling pond: A confiscated body of water, opened to atmosphere,

where hot water is cooled down by evaporation to the free atmosphere.
Hot water from a chemical plant reaches the pond and mixes up with
the cold water of the pond. The relatively cold water from the bottom of
the pond is taken to the plant for the cooling purposes. This type of
cooling system is not in common use and may only be built when
favorable conditions such as low relative humidity of air are available in
the area. A large amount of free area is required for heavy loads of
water. In contrast, cooling towers are the most efficient and the most
commonly used systems for water cooling. See spray pond, cooling
tower, and water cooling.

Cooling tower: Same as cooling water tower. See cooling water tower.

Cooling tower basin: The cold water collection area at the bottom of a
cooling tower. See Fig. A-19, Fig. F-15, Fig. I-3, and Fig. N-1.

Cooling water: On industrial scale, a huge quantity of water is required

for cooling and condensing duties that remove heat energy from the

111
process streams. This cooling water utility is different from the process
water (water that takes part in a process) which may act as a cooling
stream in certain cases. Cooling ponds, spray ponds, and cooling towers
are used to cool down the hot (used) cooling water. See water cooling.

Cooling water tower: It is an air-water humidification equipment in

which hot water is cooled down by contact with ambient air. The tower
is packed with wood or plastic packing (fill). The hot water is pumped
to the top of the packing and flows downwards while the ambient air
flows countercurrent to the water. The hot water is dispersed in the form
of drops and films which enhances the rate of mass transfer by actually
enhancing the interfacial contact. Both sensible and latent heats of water
are removed by air and as a result cold water is collected at the bottom.
Induced draft and natural draft cooling towers are common examples.
See atmospheric, natural draft, induced draft, and forced draft cooling
towers.

COP: It stands for coefficient of performance. See coefficient of

performance.

Corresponding states principle: Same as principle of corresponding

states. See principle of corresponding states.

Corrosion allowance: The additional thickness of the wall of a vessel

that is incorporated in the design of a pressure vessel in order to
accommodate the loss in the strength due to corrosion of the material
over a period of time. In preliminary design calculations, a value of 1/8
in (3.2 mm) is normally employed.

Countercurrent flow: Two flow streams (which are to exchange heat

or mass) are considered in countercurrent flow when the flow of one
stream is in parallel, but in opposite to the direction of the other stream.
The two streams are thus anti-parallel in the flow direction. For a heat
exchanger system, countercurrent flow direction usually requires less
surface for heat transfer than cocurrent flow direction due to greater
average temperature difference. See Fig. C-12 and Table C-3. See also
cocurrent flow.

Counterflow tray: A tray design, used with a tray tower, in which

112
(say) vapor and liquid are contacted in a countercurrent fashion. This
type of tray design does not require downcomers. If a tray weeps
excessively, it is also operated under the counterflow conditions. See
cross flow tray.

Coupling: A coupling is a pipe fitting and used where two pipes of the
same diameter are joined together. It is different from union as it
requires movement of at least one of the pipes. See Fig. P-11. See also
bushing and union.

Crack open: Crack opening of a valve means a narrow opening of the

valve.

Cracking: The process in which heavy petroleum fractions of low

value that contain large hydrocarbon molecules are converted to lower
molecular weight products which may further be fractionated into high
value products. The cracking process may be thermal cracking or
catalytic cracking and even hydrocracking. See catalytic cracking and
hydrocracking.

Creeping flow: Also called as Stokes flow. The flow of a fluid at very
low velocity around a solid particle, when the contours of the fluid
stream are the same as that of the contours of the solid particle is called
as creeping flow. Stokes law is applied in the region of creeping flow
conditions. See Stokes flow.

Cricondenbar: It is the critical condensation pressure. The maximum

pressure above which a gas phase cannot exist is called as cricondenbar.
For a pure component, the maximum pressure is the critical pressure,
but the term is usually used for binary and multicomponent systems in
which the critical pressure is usually below the maximum saturation
pressure. For a p-T (pressure-temperature) diagram of a binary or
multicomponent system, it lies on the bubble point curve and shows the
maximum bubble point pressure. See Fig. C-18. See also
cricondentherm.

Cricondentherm: It is the critical condensation temperature. The

maximum temperature above which a gas phase cannot be liquefied is
called as cricondentherm. For a pure component, the maximum

113
temperature is the critical temperature, but the term is usually employed
with binary or multicomponent systems in which the critical
temperature is usually lower than the maximum saturation temperature.
For a p-T (pressure-temperature) diagram of a binary or
multicomponent system, it lies on the dew point curve and shows the
maximum dew point temperature. See Fig. C-18. See also cricondenbar.
Pressure

Fig. C-18 Concept of critical temperature, cricondenbar and

cricondentherm in a binary mixture vapor-liquid equilibrium.

Critical compressibility factor: It is defined as

pc vc
zc 
RTc

Where, zc , pc , vc , and Tc are critical compressibility factor,

critical pressure, critical volume, and critical temperature, respectively,
and R is the universal gas constant. zc values normally range between
0.23 and 0.31 [17]. In a three-parameter corresponding states approach
critical compressibility factor may be considered as the third
corresponding state parameter. See compressibility factor.

Critical constants: Thermophysical properties of a substance at its

critical point. Critical volume, critical viscosity, and critical temperature
are some examples of critical constants.
114
Critical locus: Unlike a pure component, for a binary component
mixture several vapor-liquid equilibrium lines each for its
corresponding fixed composition can be drawn (say) on a p-T (pressure-
temperature) diagram. Now as each of the binary mixtures has its own
critical point, a series of critical points are therefore obtained and can be
shown on the p-T diagram. The trajectory or line representing these
critical points is called as critical locus. The plural of critical locus is
critical loci.

Critical loci: It is plural of critical locus. See critical locus.

Critical moisture contents: At the critical moisture contents, the

constant rate period is finished and the falling rate period is started. See
Fig. D-19.

Critical point: The point at which liquid and vapor cannot be

distinguished and the latent heat of vaporization becomes zero. See Fig.
P-19.

Critical pressure: The pressure of a component at its critical point. No

gas phase exists above the critical pressure of the component. See Fig.
P-19.

Critical radius of insulation: See critical thickness of insulation.

Critical Reynolds number: The Reynolds number for a certain system,

where one type of flow behavior is transformed to the other type of flow
condition. For example, for a flow of a fluid in a pipe, at the Reynolds
number of 2100 the flow behavior usually transforms from the laminar
flow to the transition flow region while at 4000 it usually transforms
from transition flow region to turbulent flow condition. Reynolds
number of 2100 and 4000 are therefore critical Reynolds numbers.

Critical solution temperature: Same as consolute temperature. See

consolute temperature.

Critical speed of a ball mill: The rotating speed of a ball mill where
the gravity force on the ball becomes equal to the centrifugal force
(developed by the rotation of the ball mill) on the ball. A ball mill

115
operates efficiently when operates well below its critical speed. See ball
mill and centrifuging.

Critical speed of a trommel: The rotating speed of a trommel at which

the gravity force on the solid particles equals the centrifugal force
(developed by the rotation of the trommel) on the solid particles. For the
proper separation, the actual speed of a trommel should be less than the
critical speed of the trommel. See trommel.

Critical temperature: The temperature of a component at its critical

point is the critical temperature of that component. Critical temperature
plays a major role in liquefaction of gases as no gas can be liquefied
above its critical temperature. Along with the critical pressure, the
concept is used as an important parameter in many property prediction
methods. See Fig. P-19.

Critical thickness of insulation: For a plane wall, adding thickness of

insulation always decreases the rate of heat loss due to an increase in
the thermal resistance. For a cylinder (or a sphere), however, the
increase in the insulation thickness in certain cases increases the rate of
heat loss to the surrounding air instead of reducing it. This is due to the
fact that the added insulation layer increases the exposed surface area
for convective heat transfer to the air. This rate of heat loss keeps on
increasing with increase in the thickness of insulation till a point is
reached where it is the maximum, after which it decreases with the
increase in the insulation thickness. The thickness of the insulation at
the point of maximum rate of heat loss is called as critical thickness of
insulation and its radius as critical radius of insulation. For a large
diameter pipe, the radius of insulation lies within the pipe and adding
any thickness results in decrease in the rate of heat loss. See Fig. C-19.

Critical volume: It is the volume occupied by a pure component when

it is at its critical conditions (critical temperature and critical pressure).
See critical pressure and critical temperature.

Critically damped response: A second order control response with

equal and negative roots that is having the damping coefficient (  )
equal to unity and exhibits fastest response without oscillations is
termed as the critically damped response. See damping coefficient,
116
overdamped response, and underdamped response.

Fig. C-19 Critical thickness of insulation.

Critically damped system: A control system that is characterized by a

critically damped response. See overdamped response.

Cross flow: Unlike cocurrent and countercurrent flow patterns in which

the flow streams are flowing parallel to each other, in cross flow pattern
the flow streams form an angle of 90 with each other, i.e., flow streams
are normal to each other. The cross flow patterns are usually employed
in heat exchangers and tray towers. See Fig. C-12.

Cross flow heat exchanger: A heat exchanger in which hot and cold
fluid streams flow in a cross flow fashion. The flows of the two streams
are neither cocurrent nor countercurrent, but normal to each other. Air
coolers and some compact heat exchanger designs are cross flow heat
exchangers. See Fig. C-13. See also cross flow.

Cross flow tray: For a tray tower, although reverse flow tray, split flow
tray, and cascade flow tray designs are cross flow arrangements, but a
tray design in which (say) vapor and liquid flow in a single cross flow
fashion, as shown in Fig. C-20, is usually known as a cross flow tray.
The liquid flows over the tray in a horizontal direction from one end of
the tray to the other and the vapors coming from the bottom tray
117
vertically pass through the liquid body. See also cascade flow tray,
counterflow tray, radial flow tray, reverse flow tray, and split flow tray.

Fig. C-20 Cross flow tray.

Cross partition ring: A random packing that is used in the packed

columns. It is a modification of the Raschig ring with a cross wall
(cross partition) inside the ring body. Compared to the Raschig ring and
Lessing ring, its increased solid surface allows greater interfacial
contact, however, at the cost of greater pressure drop. See Fig. P.11.

Crucible swelling number: Same as swelling index. See swelling

index.

Crude oil refining: Same as petroleum refining. See petroleum

refining.

Crushing and grinding: Same as size reduction. See size reduction.

Crushing methods: In crushing and grinding of solid particles, four

methods of application of force may be defined by which larger size
particles are crushed to smaller size particles. These are impact,
compression, attrition or rubbing, and shear or cutting. See attrition
force method, compression force method, impact force method, and
shear force method.

Crushing rolls: A size reduction machinery that falls in the category of

secondary coarse crushers and intermediate crushers. Two identical
118
rolls usually made of steel are placed side-by-side and rotate towards
each other on the parallel horizontal shafts. As the roll surfaces are
smooth, it is sometimes called as the smooth roll crushers. Usually a
heavy compression spring is attached to one of the rolls which helps
pass through a hard material without damaging the crusher. The
material to be crushed is fed from the top and caught between the rolls.
The material is crushed by the compression of the rotating rolls and the
product flows through the clearance between the roll surfaces.
Adjustment of the clearance between the rolls may be used to control
the product size. See Fig. C-21.

Fig. C-21 Crushing rolls.

Cryogenics: Fluids that require extremely low temperatures to exist in

the liquid state are known as cryogenics. Liquid nitrogen and liquid
oxygen are examples of cryogenics. Cryogenic liquids are gases at
ordinary temperature and pressure conditions.

Crystallization: Although cooling pure water results in solid ice

crystals, however, it is preferred here to define crystallization as
crystallization from a solution and a separation process that is based on
mass transfer phenomenon. In crystallization, a solute is separated
(crystallized) out from a homogeneous mixture in the form of solid
crystals and mass is transferred from the liquid phase to the solid phase.
A saturated solution at a given temperature results in crystallization if it
is either evaporated or cooled. In both the cases, the condition of
solubility exceeds and the solid comes out of the solution.

Crystallizer: A crystallizer is an equipment that is required to carry out

119
the process of crystallization. Both batch and continuous crystallizers
are common. Swenson-Walker, Oslo, and pan crystallizers are examples
of crystallizers.

CSD: It stands for crystal size distribution.

CSTR: It stands for continuous stirred tank reactor. See continuous

stirred tank reactor.

Cubic average boiling point (CABP): Cubic average boiling point is

defined by the following expression

3
 i n 
CABP    vi  Tbi1 / 3 
 i 1 

CABP  2  MeABP  MABP

Where, CABP is cubic average boiling point, vi is volume fraction

of ith fraction, Tbi is boiling point of ith fraction, MeABP is mean
average boiling point, and MABP is molal average boiling point. See
average boiling point, mean average boiling point, and molal average
boiling point.

Cubic equation of state: An equation of state that can be written in

terms of a third degree polynomial in volume is a cubic equation of
state. The solution of such an equation provides three values (roots) of
the volume. Only real roots are accepted as the volume of the gas or
liquid. If all the roots are real and positive, then the highest root is
meant for gases, the lowest for liquids, and the middle root is
considered insignificant. Cubic equations of state are normally
applicable for non-polar systems. van der Waals’ equation of state,
Peng-Robinson (PR) equation of state, and Redlich-Kwong (RK)
equation of state are key examples.

Cut: A mixture of liquids upon distillation is divided or fractionated in

two or more products called as fractions. Each fraction with its own
average boiling point or boiling point range is called as cut. Although
the term may be applied in general, however, the term is usually
120
reserved for a fraction obtained from a laboratory distillation curve of a
crude oil or its fraction. See Fig. C-22. See also cut point.

Fig. C-22 Concept of cut and cut points.

Cut point: The temperature at which two adjacent fractions or cuts are
taken apart. The laboratory distillation curve such as true boiling point
curve may be divided into various fractions at their cut points. The
initial boiling point of one fraction and the final boiling point of the
adjacent fraction are at the same temperature which is called as cut
point. Each fraction is therefore has two cut points, namely upper cut
point and lower cut point. For a distillation operation at a large scale,
however, the cut points of the two adjacent fractions overlap and the
final boiling point of a fraction may be higher than the initial boiling
point of the next adjacent fraction. See Fig. C-22. See also cut.

Cutoff ratio: For the Diesel cycle, it is the ratio of the volume at the
end of combustion (heat addition) process to the volume at the start of
the combustion process. For the diagram shown in Fig. D-5, it is
therefore the ratio of the volume at the position 3 to the volume at the
position 2. As in a Diesel cycle, the fuel is continuously injected over an
interval (during the combustion process) therefore the term cutoff
suggests the cutoff of the fuel supply.

CVD: It stands for chemical vapor deposition. See chemical vapor

deposition.
121
cw: It stands for cooling water. See water cooling.

Cycle, thermodynamic: If a system undergoes a series of processes

and state changes and finally returns to its initial state, it is said to have
completed a cycle.

Cyclone separator: A mechanical separation device that separates fine

solids from gases. Cyclone separator is merely a cylinder attached to
which a conical bottom. The feed mixture of solids and gas tangentially
enters near the top of the separator that develops the centrifugal force
and throws the solid particles outward towards the walls of the
separator. The solids are collected at the bottom while the gas being
lighter escapes from an exit pipe at the top. The efficiency of a cyclone
system can be enhanced by employing such cyclones in series. It is
important to mention that cyclones are not powered by motors etc. to
develop centrifugal actions while the tangential inlet of the feed itself
provides the centrifugal effect. See Fig. C-23. See also hydrocyclone.

Gas out

Gas plus
particles

Particles
Fig. C-23 Cyclone separator.

122
D
Dall tube: Dall tube may be regarded as a modification of the Venturi
meter and falls in the category of head flow meters. It has short
converging and diverging zones with a circular slot at the throat. The
discharge coefficient is higher than an orifice meter, however, the value
is usually lower than a Venturi meter. See orifice meter and Venturi
meter.

Dalton’s law: In an ideal gas mixture the sum of the partial pressures of
all the gases is equal to the total pressure of the gas mixture. A corollary
of the Dalton’s law is that the partial pressure of a gas in a mixture of
gases is equal to its mole fraction multiplied by the total pressure.

Damping coefficient: For a control system, the damping coefficient is a

measure of oscillations produced due to the effect of a forcing factor
(disturbance) in the system. The coefficient is frequently denoted by ζ
and used to characterize a second order control system. Smaller the
value of the damping coefficient faster will be the response of the
system. Table D-1 shows the characteristics of a control system for the
various values of the damping coefficient.

Table D-1 Characteristics of a control system for the various values of

the damping coefficient
Case System characteristics
 1 system is overdamped, stable, and exhibits monotonic
response
0   1 system is underdamped, stable, and exhibits oscillator
response
 1 system is critically damped, stable, and monotonic
1    0 system is unstable with growing oscillations
 0 system is undamped with sustained oscillations
  1 system is unstable and monotonic

Danckwerts’ model: Also known as penetration theory. Danckwerts’

model is a modification of the original surface renewal or penetration
theory for the interface mass transfer put forwarded by Higbie. It is
123
different from the Higbie’s model in that the fluid element that reaches
the interface from the bulk phase remains there for a varying period of
time instead of a fixed period of time. See Higbie’s model.

Darcy’s law: Darcy’s law is applied to the packed beds (or porous
solids) when liquid flows through the bed in a laminar fashion. It states
that the liquid velocity through a packed bed is proportional to the
pressure drop across the bed and inversely proportional to the product
of the viscosity of the liquid and the length of the bed. The
proportionality coefficient is the permeability of the bed. See
permeability.

Daubert correlation: Also called as API method. It is a useful

correlation that is used to convert an ASTM distillation data to TBP
distillation data, and, vice versa. See Daubert-Riazi correlation.

Daubert-Riazi correlation: A more complex equation than the

Daubert correlation that can be used for the interconversion of TBP
distillation data and ASTM distillation data. See Daubert correlation.

DCS: It stands for distributed control system. See distributed control

system.

Deactivation of a catalyst: The loss of activity of a catalyst with time

on operation is referred to as deactivation of the catalyst. The
deactivation of a catalyst may take place in three different ways that are
sintering, fouling (coking), or poisoning. Deactivation reduces the
available active sites on the catalyst surface and therefore the rate of a
given reaction is also reduced. When the rate of the reaction is
decreased to an unacceptable limit, there is a need to reactivate
(regenerate) the catalyst or in the worst case to replace with a fresh
catalyst.

Deadweight tester: Dead weight tester is used for the calibration and
testing of pressure gauges. A known weight (force per unit area) is
balanced and sensed by the gauge being calibrated. It works on the
principle of Pascal’s law. See Pascal’s law.

Dealkylation: It is the removal of an alkyl group from a given

124
molecule. Dealkylation of toluene to produce benzene is a typical
example. The dealkylation is carried out either thermally or
catalytically. Catalytic dealkylation can also be carried out in the
presence of hydrogen and the process is known as hydrodealkylation.
The removal of methyl radical only is frequently called as
demethylation.

Deasphalting: It is the removal of asphaltenes from a petroleum

fraction usually a lube oil fraction. Deasphalting is a liquid-liquid
extraction process in which a solvent such as propane is required to
remove the asphalt like material. It is frequently known as solvent
deasphalting or when propane is the solvent it is propane deasphalting.

Debottleneck: An equipment or plant is debottlenecked when it is

modified to go beyond or exceed its maximum capacity.

Decanter: A decanter is a continuous gravity separator that separates

two liquid phases of different densities. The feed enters at one end of
the horizontal vessel and moves, at low speed, through the vessel to
separate the light and dense phases. Although the term is usually used
for gravity settling, but a centrifugal separator used for liquid-liquid
separation is sometimes called as centrifugal decanter. See gravity
decanter and centrifugal decanter.

Decay ratio: It is a characteristic of a second order underdamped

system (control system). It is the measure of proportion with which
oscillations are decaying in a system and expressed as the ratio of the
maximum amplitude of the two successive peaks. As a rule of thumb,
an adequate control respone is observed for ¼ decay ratio [18].

Decoction: Decoction is the boiling liquid solvent extraction that is

usually carried for flavors and medicinal products. The product of
decoction is also known as decoction.

Deep bed filter: See granular media filters and deep bed filtration.

Deep bed filtration: Also called as depth filtration. Unlike cake

filtration where the particles are retained at the surface of the filter
medium, in deep bed filtration the particles are retained within the body

125
(at some depth) of the filter medium as shown in Fig. C-1. This type of
filtration is normally used for liquids with low concentration of solids.
In a typical design, a deep bed filter is a cylindrical vessel with a
considerable height of the filter medium through which a given
suspension flows. Silica sand, gravels, coal, or some synthetic materials
may be used as the filter medium. Deep bed filters are either gravity
filters or pressure filters. See Fig. D-1. See also cake filtration.

Fig. D-1 Deep bed filter.

Degree of completion of a reaction: Same as conversion. See

conversion.

Degree of fractionation: In a distillation operation, it measures how

much the more volatile component (light key) and the less volatile
component (heavy key) are fractionated.

Degree of mixing: It is the measure of the extent of mixing that

indicates the degree of distribution of a component in the body of a
mixture.

Degrees of freedom: The number of independent variables that are to

be specified to completely solve a given problem.
In chemical thermodynamics, it is the number of independent
variables that are to be specified to completely define the state of a
system. See Gibbs phase rule.

126
Dehumidification: The process in which a solute is transferred from a
gas phase to a liquid phase which, however, is different from the gas
absorption in that the liquid phase contains only one component. In an
air-water system the process of decreasing humidity of the air is,
therefore, dehumidification. The process is useful in certain air
conditioning processes. Although the term dehumidification may be
used in general, but it is most often referred to only air-water system.
See humidification.

Dehydration: The process of removing water from a substance.

Removal of water from natural gas is a typical dehydration process.

Delayed coker: The coking reactor of the delayed coking process is

called as delayed coker. See delayed coking.

Delayed coking: It is a type of severe thermal cracking which is

applied to heavy feedstock such as vacuum residue. Sufficient reaction
time is given in the coke drums where the coking reactions are
completed due to which it is called as delayed coking. See coking.

Deliquescence: When a highly moist air is passed over a solid material

which is soluble in water, the moisture from the air will be adsorbed on
the solid surface to such an extent that the solid is completely dissolved,
such a process is called as deliquescence.

Deliquescent: A solid material which, by contact with a moist air, is

dissolved upon adsorbing moisture on its surface is called as
deliquescent. See deliquescence.

Demister: Also called as mist eliminator. In an absorption column or a

vapor-liquid phase separator, tiny liquid droplets are entrained in the
gas/vapor phase and leave with the gas/vapor phase (entrainment). If
not recovered these droplets are carried over and cause a loss in
efficiency of the process. Demister pads, normally made of knitted
stainless steel wires, are therefore required for collecting the liquid
droplets and to prevent them escaping with the gas/vapor phase.
Demister pads decrease the velocity of the exiting liquid droplets and
coalesce (increase size) the droplets and facilitate them to fall back in
the column. They usually have a large free area for flow and therefore

127
offer very low pressure drops. Sometimes demister pads are sloped that
is installed at some angle. This is done to facilitate the liquid to quickly
run back to the column. A waste heat boiler may be incorporated with a
slopped demister at the steam outlet to capture the liquid water droplets
and to increase the rate of flow of water coming back to the boiler. See
Fig. D-2, Fig. V-5, and Fig. W-2.

Fig. D-2 Demister pad.

Demister pad: See demister. See also Fig. D-2.

Dense phase fluidization: A fluidized bed without solids entrainment

is called as dense phase fluidized bed. See lean phase fluidization.

Density: It is the ratio of the mass of a material to the volume of the

material. The SI units of density are kgm–3. Density of a liquid has
practically no effect of pressure, but it decreases with increase in
temperature. However, under high pressures liquids do show some
compressibility behavior. At low pressures (dilute gas), density of a gas
is a function of both the temperature and pressure, however, at high
pressures (dense gas) the behavior usually follows that of a liquid.
Density of a gas or a gas mixture at low pressures may be estimated
using ideal gas law, however, at high pressures the use of generalized
compressibility factor charts or a suitable equation of state is
recommended.

Departure functions: Also called as residual properties. For a

thermodynamic property such as enthalpy or entropy, it is the difference
between a property value of a substance at given conditions and the
property value of that substance when it behaves as an ideal gas at the
same conditions.

De-Priester charts: These charts are used for obtaining the K-values of
chosen hydrocarbons.
128
Depth filtration: Same as deep bed filtration. See deep bed filtration.

Derivative control action: Also known as rate control action. In the

derivative control action, the controller output is directly proportional to
the rate of change of error signal. A derivative controller does not
change the error directly, but anticipates and helps to stabilize the
system by applying an early corretive action. It cannot be used alone
because it is effective only in transient period and not for the constant
error as derivative of constant error is zero. It is used with the
proportional or integral mode as PD, ID, and PID controllers.
Derivative kick is the main disadvantage of this type of mode in which
it takes higher corrective action for a small magnitude of error and
causes noise in the system.

Derivative kick: It is observed with the derivative mode in the

controllers. Due to a sudden, but temporary fluctuation in the set point
of a system, the derivative action contributes an infinite value to the
controller output. This leads to a large change in the action of the final
control element for a very small change in the input and the
phenomenon is called as derivative kick. See derivative control action.

Desalter: A desalter is required to remove the salt contents of a crude

oil. The desalter functions as a two-phase liquid-liquid separator and
separates the oil and water phases. A typical desalter is a horizontal
electrostatic vessel. See desalting and electrical desalter.

Desalting: Desalting is the removal of salts present in a crude oil. The

crude oil is washed with water and the salts are separated in an oil-water
two-phase separator. In crude oil refining, the desalting is the opening
treatment step followed by the crude oil entry to the preflash column or
to the atmospheric distillation column. Desalting of a crude oil is
required to avoid scaling, corrosion, and catalyst deactivation in the
subsequent refinery operations.

Design overall heat transfer coefficient: In the design of heat transfer

equipments such as heat exchangers, it is the overall heat transfer
coefficient including dirt (fouling) resistance. If U C is the clean overall
heat transfer coefficient and RD is the dirt resistance, then for the
design overall heat transfer coefficient, U D , it may be shown that
129
 1 1
  RD
U D UC

See overall heat transfer coefficient.

Desorption: It is the converse of gas absorption and adsorption. Gas

absorption and adsorption together are known as sorption. See stripping.

Desublimation: It is the converse of sublimation. See sublimation.

Desulfurization: It is the removal of sulfur or sulfur containing

compounds usually from a natural gas or a petroleum fraction such as
kerosene. If hydrogen is used for the desulfurization process, it is
known as hydrodesulfurization.

Dew point: The point at which a vapor is ready to condense and first
liquid droplet is about to form is called as dew point. If the temperature
of a superheated vapor (ordinary gas) is decreased at constant pressure,
a point will be reached where the superheated vapor will become a
saturated vapor and the first drop of the liquid will appear if an
infinitesimal amount of heat will be taken at this point. The same point
can be approached for a superheated vapor by increasing pressure while
keeping the temperature constant. This way one can define dew point
pressure and dew point temperature. For a pure component, dew point is
the same as bubble point. Pure water at 110C and 1.013 bar is a
superheated vapor (superheated steam). If the temperature is decreased
to 100C while keeping the pressure constant at 1.013 bar, the
superheated steam becomes saturated steam (saturated vapor). At this
point an infinitesimal amount of heat removal from the saturated steam
will start condensing the saturated steam and the first drop of the
saturated liquid water will appear. A simple temperature-volume
diagram of a pure component is shown in Fig. B-19 that describes the
dew point conditions. See dew point pressure, dew point temperature,
and bubble point. See also Fig. T-3.

Dew point pressure: If the pressure of a superheated vapor is increased

at a constant temperature, the point is reached where the superheated
vapor becomes a saturated vapor and it is ready to condense. Such a
pressure is the dew point pressure. See dew point.
130
Dew point temperature: If the temperature of a superheated vapor is
decreased at constant pressure, a point is reached where the superheated
vapor becomes a saturated vapor and it is ready to condense. This
temperature is the dew point temperature. See dew point.

Dewaxing: The process of removal of waxy materials from a petroleum

fraction such as lube oil to increase the pour point of the oil is called as
dewaxing. Dewaxing may be carried out by cooling the lube oil or by
using solvent extraction. When a solvent is used, it is known as solvent
dewaxing.

Diaphragm pump: A diaphragm pump is a positive displacement

reciprocating pump that essentially contains a diaphragm. A
reciprocating plunger forces the hydraulic oil and the pressurized oil
moves the diaphragm. A diaphragm is usually made of a flexible
material such as a thin metal or a polymer. The pump is usually used as
a metering pump for the dosage of chemicals and it is frequently
employed for pumping the hazardous chemicals. See Fig. D-3.

Fig. D-3 Diaphragm pump.

Diaphragm valve: A diaphragm valve is fitted with a metallic or

polymeric flexible diaphragm which is pushed up and down either by a
stem action or by gas pressure. The valve does not prone to stem
leakage and can be used both for on-off and throttling applications. The
valve may be used for corrosive liquids as diaphragm may be made of
any suitable material and as it has no moving parts. It is useful for
slurries (not clogged) and viscous fluids. See Fig. D-4.

131
 Stem to Bonnet
actuator

Diaphragm

Flow in Flow out

Weir
Fig. D-4 Diaphragm valve (fully opened weir type).

Diesel cycle, air standard: An ideal cycle in which air behaving as an

ideal gas is considered as the working fluid and the system undergoes
the following four reversible processes as shown in the p-v diagram,
Fig. D-5:

o Isentropic compression (12)

o Constant pressure heat energy addition (23). This is different from
Otto cycle in which heat is added at constant volume.
o Isentropic expansion (34)
o Constant volume heat rejection (41).

See Otto cycle, air standard and air standard assumptions.

Diesel index: It indicates the burning quality of a Diesel fuel in a

compression-ignition (CI, Diesel) engine. A higher Diesel index means
better ignition quality of the Diesel fuel. Diesel index can be related to
aniline point and API gravity as given below:

aniline point  API gravity

Diesel index 
100

Where, aniline point is in F. The Diesel index can be used to

predict cetane number of a fuel which is another measure of a Diesel
fuel quality. See cetane number.
132
 Fig. D-5 Pressure-volume diagram of an ideal Diesel cycle.

Differential contactors: Mass transfer devices may be classified as

stagewise contactors and differential contactors. In differential
contactors, the two phases (say gas and liquid phases as in a gas
absorption operation) remain in contact throughout the contactor and no
phase separation occurs at intermediate points (an essential feature of
stagewise contactors). The dispersed and continuous phases are
separated only at the outlets of the contactor. Packed column is a typical
example of differential contactors. See stagewise contactors.

Differential distillation: Also called as Rayleigh distillation. It is a

process of batch distillation in which the liquid vaporized is readily
condensed and withdrawn as it is formed. There is no reflux (reflux
ratio is zero) and the composition of the distillate (product collected
from the top) and the residue (liquid product remaining in the still or
column) as well as temperature vary at each instant of time. The
composition of the product, at each instant, changes due to the change
in the composition of the liquid in the still. The ASTM distillation test
method for the petroleum products works on the principle of differential
distillation. See fractional distillation.

Differential pressure: The difference in pressures between two points

of a given fluid stream either in a horizontal pipe or a column of a fluid.

133
Differential pressure (DP) cell: A differential pressure transmitter is a
device which measures differential pressures and pneumatically or
electronically transmits this information to a remote location (control
room).

Differential reactor: If the conversion in a reactor is limited to only a

few percent, say 1012%, the reactor is said to be operated under
differential conditions as opposed to integral conditions in which much
higher conversions are possible. For a plug flow reactor model under
differential conditions, the first order differential equation becomes
algebraic equation and the reactor calculations are simplified.

Diffuser: In contrast to a nozzle, a diffuser is a flow device with

increasing cross-section. The flow velocity decreases (while pressure
increases) in the direction of flow. See Fig. D-6.

Fig. D-6 a) Nozzle, b) diffuser.

Diffuser pump: Unlike a volute pump, a centrifugal pump in which a

stationary diffuser ring formed by fixed vanes (guide vanes of
increasing flow area) is fitted at the outer rim of the impeller blades. A
diffuser pump is more efficient than a simple volute pump as the
diffuser ring converts greater amount of kinetic energy of the fluid to
the pressure energy. See Fig. D-7. See also diffuser and volute pump.

Diffusion: It is usually considered as molecular mass transfer. See

molecular mass transfer.

Diffusion coefficient: Also called as mass diffusivity. Fick’s law

proportionality coefficient is called as diffusion coefficient or mass
diffusivity. It describes the ability of a component to diffuse
134
(molecularly) into other component or mixture of components. It is
defined as the rate of molecular mass transfer of a component in a
mixture per unit area normal to the direction of transfer per unit time for
a unit mass transfer gradient (say a concentration gradient). The SI units
of mass diffusivity are m2/s. Greater is the diffusion coefficient greater
will be the rate of mass transfer for a constant mass transfer gradient. It
is important to mention here that similar to viscosity and thermal
conductivity, mass diffusivity is only defined for molecular level
transfer (stationary or laminar flow conditions) and the definition is no
longer applicable for convective mass transfer. Diffusion coefficients of
gases range between about 0.05 10 4 m2/s and 1.0 104 m2/s [19]. See
Fick’s law.

Fig. D-7 Diffuser pump.

Diffusion limited reaction process: If the internal diffusion or external

diffusion is considered as the rate controlling step such a reaction
process is called as diffusion limited. Usually external diffusion
resistance is easily overcome by maintaining high gas rates and the term
diffusion limited process normally suggests internal diffusion limited
process or pore diffusion limited process. See rate controlling step.

Diffusion velocity: The velocity of a component in a mixture due to

molecular mass diffusion only. It is different from the convective
velocity which is attributed due to the bulk flow. Total velocity of the
component is therefore diffusion velocity of the component plus the
convective velocity of the bulk fluid. When bulk of the fluid is
stationary it is the velocity with respect to stationary coordinates.
135
However, if bulk of the fluid is moving it is the velocity with respect to
moving bulk coordinates.

Diffusional sublayer: For mass transfer between two phases, say,

solid-liquid phases, a thin liquid layer called as diffusional sublayer is
formed at the solid-liquid interface. In this layer, the mass transfer or
diffusion is due to molecular motion or at least dominantly due to
molecular movement and not by turbulent or eddy movement. See
laminar sublayer.

Diffusive mixing: It is the mixing of given components due to

molecular mass transfer alone and not by convective mass transfer.

Diffusivity: Same as diffusion coefficient. See diffusion coefficient.

Dilatancy: See dilatant fluids.

Dilatant fluids: Although sometimes called as shear thickening fluids

because dilatant fluids show shear thickening behavior, however, the
term dilatancy suggests a fluid behavior in which an increase in volume
takes place when the fluid flows and should be reserved only for
dilatant fluids and the terms dilatant fluids and shear thickening fluids
should not be regarded as the same [1]. See Fig. N-3. See also shear
thickening fluids.

Dilute phase fluidization: Same as lean phase fluidization. See lean

phase fluidization.

Dimensional analysis: A method in which a dimensionally

homogeneous correlation is developed between independent and
dependent variables affecting a process and the results are formulated in
the form of dimensionless groups. The Rayleigh method and the
Buckingham pi method are the two frequently used methods of
dimensional analysis. See Rayleigh method and Buckingham pi
method.

Dimensional homogeneity: For a theoretical equation, two or more

terms can be added only when they have the same dimensions.

136
Dimensionless activation energy: Same as Arrhenius number. See
Arrhenius number.

Dimensionless group: Instead of observing the effect of various

variables separately on a given quantity, a dimensionless group may
provide a combined effect of these variables on the given quantity. In
doing so, dimensionless groups facilitate in analyzing and interpreting
the data and help out in developing the new design correlations.
Dimensionless groups are usually the ratios of similar physical
quantities and that their value is independent of the system of units
used. They are extensively used in the design correlations and scaling
up and scaling down a system. Froude number, Nusselt number, Prandtl
number, Reynolds number, Schmidt number, and Sherwood number are
examples of dimensioless groups.

DIN: It stands for Deutsches institut für normung (German institute for
standardization).

Direct contact heat exchanger: In direct contact heat exchangers, the

hot and cold fluids are mixed and heat is transferred by direct heating
method. See direct heating.

Direct drying: The drying operation in which the heating medium such
as air is in direct contact with the material to be dried. See indirect
drying.

Direct heating: The heating source is in direct contact with the mass to
be heated. For example, when steam is directly injected (mixed) in the
body of a fluid it is direct heating. For direct cooling the cooling water
or like is directly mixed with the fluid to be cooled. High heat transfer
rates are possible and heat transfer is relatively fast. See indirect
heating.

Direct mass transfer operations: The essential feature of all

separation processes that are based on mass transfer is that a single
phase (homogeneous system) is present from which two phases are
generated either by the addition of some foreign component as it occurs
in liquid-liquid extraction or by raising or lowering the temperature or
pressure as it occurs in distillation. The operations in which the

137
separation is accomplished by the latter process, i.e., without the
addition of an external component are direct mass transfer operations.
Distillation is a principal example of such type of operations. See
indirect mass transfer operations.

Dirt: See fouling and fouling factor.

Dirt factor: Same as fouling factor. See fouling factor.

Dirt resistance: Same as fouling resistance. See fouling resistance.

Disc attrition mill: Same as disc mill. See disc mill.

Disc bowl centrifuge: Disc centrifuge is sometimes called as disc bowl

centrifuge. See disc bowl centrifuge.

Disc centrifuge: Also called as disc bowl centrifuge. In a disc

centrifuge, a stack of conical discs placed inside a bowl type geometry
rotates at a high speed to separate the light and the heavy phases. It can
develop a centrifugal force as large as 7000 times the gravity force [20].
The feed mixture enters the disc bundle from the bottom. The heavy
liquid moves outwardly towards the periphery of the centrifuge and the
light phase moves inwardly and the two phases discharge at their
respective outlets. In one type of disc centrifuge, as shown in Fig. D-8,
the discs contain orifices through which the feed mixture flows upward
and the phases are separated following their respective paths. The disc
centrifuge can be made either for liquid-liquid operation, liquid-solid
operation, or liquid-liquid-solid operation.

Disc filter: A disc filter consists of multiple thin discs (fitted with filter
cloths) mounted on a horizontal shaft. The discs are partially dipped
into the sump (tank) of the feed slurry and filter the slurry on their
rotation. The filtration is continuous and vacuum is applied to flow the
slurry through the filter discs. The operation is similar to the rotary
drum filter, however, the disc filter has more filtration area per unit
floor space. See rotary drum filter.

Disc mill: It is a size reduction machinery in which size of the feed

particles is reduced under the influence of attrition method of force. It

138
is, therefore, also called as attrition mill or disc attrition mill. In a disc
attrition mill, the solid particles are crushed between the two discs by
rubbing with the walls of the discs or by rubbing with each other. The
discs are placed close to each other and the clearance between the discs
may be adjusted to produce the required product size. Usually one of
the discs is fixed while the other rotates. The rotating disc is attached to
a horizontal shaft which is fitted with an eccentric bearing to provide
local pressure. Alternately, both of the discs may move in opposite
directions and a greater attrition force may be generated. See Fig. D-9.

Fig. D-8 Disc centrifuge.

Disc-and-doughnut baffle: See baffles. See also Fig. D-10 and Fig. B-
2.

Discharge coefficient: Same as coefficient of discharge. See coefficient

of discharge.

Dished heads: Hemispherical, ellipsoidal, and torispherical heads are

categorized as dished heads. See head (for a process vessel).

Dispersant: A dispersant enhances the dispersion of a dispersed phase.

Dispersed flow: A type of multiphase flow in which one or more

139
phases are dispersed (finely disintegrated) in a continuous phase.

Fig. D-9 Disc mill.

Fig. D-10 Disc-and-doughnut baffle.

Dispersed phase: In mass transfer contactors such as spray columns,

sparged vessels, and liquid pulsed columns, one of the phases is disintegrated
or finely divided into droplets (if a liquid) or bubbles (if a gas) and the
second phase behaves as more or less a continuous matrix. The former
(disintegrated) is called as dispersed phase and the latter is known as
continuous phase.

Dispersed phase holdup: The volume fraction of the dispersed phase

in a mass transfer contactor such as a liquid-liquid extractor. See
holdup.
140
Dispersion: In a mixture of phases it is the movement (diffusion) of a
component from one phase to another. Also, it is the distribution of one
phase in another phase, such as dispersion of gas bubbles in a
continuous liquid body or dispersion of liquid droplets in a continuous
gas phase. Also, it is the distribution of colloidal particles in a certain
gas, liquid, or solid phase.

Dispersion regime: See mixer-settler regime.

Distillate: The top product of a distillation column. See Fig. B-7 and
Fig. D-11.

Distillation: In a distillation operation, a mixture of one or more

miscible components are partially vaporized and condensed. The
condensed product is rich in low boiling component than the original
solution. In distillation, the liquid phase is at its bubble point while the
vapor phase is at its dew point and all of the components of the feed
mixture are present in both the liquid and the vapor phases. Distillation
requires a difference in volatility between the components of a mixture.
Greater is the difference in the volatilities of the components easier and
more economical will be the separation by distillation. Energy
requirements are usually quite large in a distillation operation because
of the involvements of vaporization and condensation processes.
Increasing pressure in a distillation column, relative volatility decreases
so the separation becomes more difficult. More number of plates is
therefore required at higher pressures. Moreover, high pressure requires
more column thickness and reboiler and condenser temperatures are
increased. Decomposition of process fluids may occur at high
temperature in the reboiler. However, at higher pressures, density of the
vapors increases so a smaller diameter column may be the result. Also,
at higher pressures latent heat of vaporization decreases and the boiler
and condenser duties are decreased. On the other hand, at low pressures,
the boiling points may be decreased so that the condenser may require a
refrigeration unit instead of cheaper cooling water utility. Vacuum
operation is suitable for components which require high temperature for
distilling or are decomposed at ordinary pressure conditions. Under
vacuum is a costly operation and usually not the first choice.
Components with close boiling points or with low relative volatility are
not separated by distillation. Azeotropes are also a limitation to the

141
normal distillation method. Distillation fails when selective separation
is to be obtained as it can differentiate between the components on the
basis of their boiling points, but not on their structures. For example, it
cannot distinguish between an aromatic and an aliphatic hydrocarbon.

Distillation column: Also called as distillation tower. A distillation

column is required to carry out a distillation operation. Tray towers and
packed columns are widely used as distillation columns. A reboiler and
a condenser are the integral parts of a distillation column. See Fig. D-
11. See also distillation and fractionating column.

Distillation curve: It is a plot of %volume vaporized and the

temperature of distillation. The distillation curve is prepared by
vaporizing and condensing a known volume of a liquid product usually
petroleum fraction at specified temperatures under standard test
procedure. Distillation curves are usually used to characterize crude oils
and their products. A typical distillation curve is shown in Fig. D-12.
ASTM distillation curve and TBP distillation curve are common
examples.

Distillation tower: Same as distillation column. See distillation

column.

Distributed control system (DCS): Distributed control system is a

complex control scheme that integrates multiple control loops involved
in a process to develop an interactive control system. It helps in
managing the relationships among various subsystems at a single place
to improve efficiency, safety, and quality of the process.

Distribution coefficient: Also called as partition coefficient. It is the

ratio of concentrations of a component in two different liquid phases in
equilibrium. A mixture of acetic acid and water is agitated rigorously
with toluene and settled. The part of the acetic acid will move into the
toluene phase and part will remain in the aqueous phase. The ratio of
the concentration of acetic acid in toluene phase to the concentration of
acetic acid in aqueous phase is called as distribution coefficient. The
information regarding the distribution coefficient is helpful in the
selection of a solvent for a given leaching or liquid-liquid extraction
system.

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 Fig. D-11 A tray distillation column.

Distribution law: See Nernst’s distribution law.

Distributor: See liquid distributor.

Dittus-Boelter correlation: For turbulent flow conditions, it is a well

known heat transfer correlation for estimating heat transfer coefficients
in pipes.

Divided flow: There is one central shell inlet and two off center outlets
as shown in Fig. S-11. Alternately, there may be two off center inlets
and outlet may be at the center of the shell. Divided flow is different
from the split flow in which there is only one inlet and one outlet and
143
there is a longitudinal baffle which splits the flow in the shell and
distributes the fluid over the tubes. See also split flow.

Fig. D-12 A typical distillation curve.

Dixon packing: A gauze type wire mesh random packing that is used
with packed columns. It is in fact a wire mesh Lessing ring. See Lessing
ring.

Dixon ring: Same as Dixon packing. See Dixon packing.

Dodge jaw crusher: Dodge jaw crusher is different in design to the

Blake jaw crusher as one of the jaws is pivoted at the bottom, therefore,
the maximum movement of the moving jaw is at the top. The crusher is
prone to the choking conditions, however, a relatively uniform product
is obtained. See Fig. D-13. See also Jaw crusher and Blake jaw crusher.

Double cone classifier: It separates fine and coarse solid particles with
the help of an upward flow of water which flows in the annular region
between the two cones of the classifier.

Double cone mixer: A double cone mixer is shown in Fig. D-14. The
mixer is a solid-solid mixing device that consists of two conical shaped
vessels joined together at their wider ends. The blender, normally half
144
filled with the solids, tumbles at a horizontal axis. It is used for the
mixing of free flowing solids.

Fig. D-13 Dodge jaw crusher.

Fig. D-14 Double cone blender.

Double pass flow: In a tray tower, for a split flow configuration, if the
liquid flow is divided into two flow paths, it is called as double pass
flow. For a double pass flow, one plate has a downcomer in the center
of the plate while the adjacent plate has two downcomers at the two
ends of the plate. The liquid flow is divided in two halves and flows
across the tray (cross flow) to reach the two downcomers at each end.
See Fig. D-15. See also split flow.
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 Fig. D-15 Double pass flow tray design.

Double pipe heat exchanger: In its simplest design, a double pipe heat
exchanger consists of two concentric pipes. One fluid flows in the inner
pipe while the other fluid flows outside the inner pipe, i.e., in the
annular space between the two pipes. The two fluids usually flow in a
countercurrent manner and true countercurrent flow advantages may be
obtained. Double pipe heat exchangers are easy to clean and easy to
manufacture and they are generally of low cost especially when surface
area requirements are low. Double pipe heat exchangers are usually
formed in a hairpin (U-shaped) fashion and in this form they are called
as hairpin heat exchangers. See Fig. D-16. When relatively large surface
area is required, banks of these hairpins are required. A series-parallel
arrangement may be suggested to avoid the excessive pressure drop.
See also hairpin heat exchanger.

Double split flow: See split flow.

Double suction impeller: The feed liquid enters on both sides of the
impeller.

Downcomer: Also called as downspout and downtake. Generally, it is

the flow path through which a liquid flows vertically under the
influence of gravity. See Fig. A-12, Fig. D-11, and Fig. S-5. For a
distillation tray tower, a downcomer is required to transfer liquid from a
tray to the adjacent lower tray. Segmental or chord type and circular or
round downcomers are used with tray towers. See chord type
146
downcomer and circular downcomer.

Fig. D-16 Double pipe heat exchanger: a) simple double pipe heat
exchanger, b) hair-pin heat exchanger.

Downcomer backup: In the operation of a tray tower, it is the measure

of the rising up of the froth or aerated liquid (intimate mixture of vapor
and liquid), produced on a plate, in the downcomer passage.
Downcomer backup is defined as the sum of the clear liquid height on a
tray, pressure drop between the two adjacent trays, and the frictional
losses in the downcomer path, all expressed in terms of liquid head. If
the pressure drop between the plates increases to such an extent that the
liquid in the downcomer path reaches the tray above, downcomer
flooding is said to exist.

Downcomer flooding: See downcomer backup.

Downcomer plate: Also called as apron. Both vertical and sloped

downcomer plates are used. Sloped downcomer plates provide greater
bubbling area on the tray deck. See Fig. C-10. See also apron.

Downspout: Same as downcomer. See downcomer.

Downtake: Same as downcomer. See downcomer.

Downtime: The time for which an operation is interrupted or

postponed.

DP cell: It stands for differential pressure cell. See differential pressure

cell.

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Draft: The pressure below barometric pressure is called as vacuum and
a low value of the vacuum is usually known as draft. A draft is either a
natural draft or a mechanical draft. A fan is usually required to produce
a mechanical draft such as that required in mechanical draft cooling
towers. See natural draft and mechanical draft.

Drag coefficient: The drag coefficient is a dimensionless measure of

the drag force on a body immersed in a fluid. It is an empirical quantity
that should be obtained through experiments. It depends on the
geometry of the body and the Reynolds number of the fluid. See drag
force.

Drag force: When a fluid flows past an immersed body, the body
experiences a force in the direction of flow. This force is known as drag
force. The same force is applied on the body when the body flows
through a stationary fluid. Total drag force is the sum of the form drag
and the skin friction drag. See form drag and skin friction.

Drag reduction: The phenomena in which the frictional losses in a

pipeline are reduced and the capacity (flowrate) of a fluid is increased.
There are various ways of doing the drag reduction. The injection of a
polymeric substance is one of the important methods of drag reduction
[14].

Drawoff tray: In a fractionator such as a crude distillation column,

along with the top and bottom products, a side stream is also desired.
The tray from where the side stream (liquid fraction) is drawn is known
as drawoff tray. The tray may have a drawoff nozzle and a drawoff
sump (pit) to collect the desired liquid fraction. See Fig. D-17. See also
chimney tray and side stream.

Fig. D-17 Drawoff tray.

148
Drift: The phenomenon in which water droplets are entrained in air and
carried away from an air-water contactor.
In process control technology, it is the unpredictable variation in a
measuring instrument with time and highly undesirable in the
instrument.
In a diffusion cell used for measuring the diffusivity of a volatile
liquid into a non-condensable gas, it is the upward movement of the
vapor-gas column, above the liquid surface within the diffusion cell,
occurs to adjust the system pressure.

Drift eliminator: A baffled device that is used to collect the liquid

water leaving with the air. Drift eliminator causes the water droplets to
strike against the solid surfaces where they agglomerate and fall back.
See drift losses. Although the terms mist eliminator and drift eliminator
may be changed interchangeably, however, the term drift eliminator is
more commonly used with cooling towers while the term mist
eliminator is used with equipments such as vapor-liquid separators. See
Fig. F-15, Fig. I-3, and Fig. N-1. See also mist eliminator.

Drift losses: Also called as windage losses. The droplets of water that
are entrained in air, carried away from a cooling tower or a spray pond,
and leave into the atmosphere are called as drift losses (of water). These
water contents are different from the evaporated water and contain
solids that decrease the concentration of solids in the cooled water. If
the velocity of the exit air is high then the drift losses are high. Induced
draft cooling towers due to the high velocity of air at the outlet are more
prone to drift losses as compared to forced draft cooling towers. See
drift eliminator.

Drip point grid tile: A type of packing that is used with packed
columns. It may be used as support plate or a first layer over the support
plate over which a random packing is dumped.

Drop size distribution: In equipments such as spray column and

pulsed sieve plate extraction column, one of the phases (liquid) is
dispersed in the form of drops. The drops formed are not uniform in
size and show a variation in drop size. This non-uniformity in the size
of the drops determines the size distribution which describes the range
of drop size and the frequency of the various sizes.

149
Dropwise condensation: A condensing vapor may be condensed on a
cold surface either by filmwise or dropwise fashion. In filmwise
condensation, the condensed liquid forms a notable continuous layer on
the solid surface. This layer causes additional resistance to the heat
transfer. In dropwise condensation, the vapor condenses in the form of
tiny drops (nuclei) which may develop or/and coalesce to form sizeable
drops and a part of the solid surface always remains bare. Although an
infinitesimally thin film of negligible resistance may be present along
the surface of the solid, the absence of the notable film as apposed to
the case of filmwise condensation provides higher heat transfer
coefficients. The heat transfer coefficient for the case of dropwise
condensation is usually about 2 to 10 times greater than that of the
ordinary filmwise condensation [21, 22]. Special surfaces may have to
be developed for attaining dropwise condensation and impurities may
be added to shift from the filmwise condensation to the dropwise
condensation. Heat transfer equipments are generally designed on the
basis of filmwise condensation unless it is sure that the dropwise
condensation will be the mechanism of condensation. See filmwise
condensation.

Drum dryer: Also called as film dryer as a thin film of material, to be

dried, is formed on the outside surface of the drum. The heated drum
(inside by condensing steam) rotates and picks up the material on its
surface. The film is exposed to the ambient atmosphere and is dried
quickly due to heated surface. The dried material is scraped off from the
drum baring the surface of the drum for the next cycle. Single and
double (twin) drum dryers are the two variations. Nip feeding, dip
feeding, and spray or splash feeding are the different types of feeding
methods for the dryer. Final moisture contents can be controlled using
film thickness on the drum, rpm, and temperature of the surface. If the
product is required in the form of flakes, drum dryers are a good choice.
They are used for continuous drying of slurries and applied mostly for
organics. See Fig. D-18.

Drum filter: Same as rotary drum filter. See rotary drum filter.

Dry basis: The basis of analysis of materials such as fuels and

combustion products without reporting the water contents. It is different
from wet basis which includes water contents. See wet basis.

150
 Fig. D-18 Drum dryer.

Dry bulb temperature: It is the ordinary temperature that a

thermometer (liquid in glass thermometer) senses or measures when its
bulb is dry (i.e., not wet). Although the term is perfectly general, but it
is defined in reference to the humidification operation in order to
differentiate it from the wet bulb temperature. See wet bulb
temperature.

Dry grinding: Grinding (size reduction) of solids may be carried out

either in the presence of water (wet grinding) or in the absence of water.
Grinding of solid particles in the absence of water is called as dry
grinding. See wet grinding.

Dryer flights: In rotary dryers, extended wall lifts inside the cylindrical
shell are used to pick up and rain down the granular solids to expose the
mass transfer surface to the drying medium and enhance the efficiency
of the dryer. These extended wall lifts are known as dryer flights. See
rotary dryer.

Dryers: Dryers are required to carry out the drying of solid materials.
Tray or shelf dryers, drum dryers, and rotary dryers are typical
examples of dryers.

Drying: Generally, drying is the separation process based on mass

transfer in which a small quantity (usually final moisture contents) of
water is removed from the solids. Drying generally deals with drying
operation involving humidity and temperature of the drying agent (air).
Drying by adsorption or cooling (condensation) is suggested to be
separately studied from the unit operation of drying. A material cannot
151
be dried below its equilibrium moisture contents and only free moisture
contents of a material can be removed. Air velocity, air temperature, air
humidity, and extent of drying surface are the common factors that
affect the rate of drying.

Drying rate curve: A plot of the rate of drying of solid against the free
moisture contents of the solid is called as drying rate curve. A typical
drying rate curve is shown in Fig. D-19. Moisture contents of the solid
are usually reported as mass of water per mass of water free solid (dry
solid).

Fig. D-19 Drying rate curve.

Dryness fraction: Same as quality. See quality.

Dühring’s plot: A plot in which boiling point of a solution such as

NaOH solution is plotted against the boiling point of water. The chart is
based on the Dühring’s rule and it is useful in the calculations of
evaporators where boiling point rise is applicable. See Dühring’s rule.

Dühring’s rule: The boiling point of a solution such as NaCl-water

152
solution is a linear function of the boiling point of water, so a plot of
boiling points of solution and water will be a straight line. On such a
diagram (Dühring’s plot), if the boiling point of a solution with known
concentration is available at two different pressures, a straight line can
be drawn. Therefore, the boiling point of solution can be interpolated
and extrapolated by knowing only two values of the boiling points of
solution at any two boiling points of water.

Dulong formula: The formula is used to estimate the gross calorific

value of a coal on the basis of elemental contributions.

Dumping: In the operation of a tray tower, when the gas rate is very
low the liquid does not reach the downcomer and all of the liquid rains
down through the sieve holes. This severe condition of weeping is
termed as dumping. Under these conditions, instead of following the
cross flow patterns, the two phases are in countercurrent flow direction.
See Fig. T-10. See also weeping.

Duplex pump: A reciprocating pump that has two cylinders is known

as duplex pump. See reciprocating pump.

Dynamic compressors: In a dynamic compressor, energy is added to

increase the velocity or kinetic energy of a gas which is later converted
to pressure energy. Centrifugal compressor is a typical example of this
type of compressor. See compressors.

Dynamic equilibrium: The equilibrium condition characterized by

constant movement of the molecules of the species involved. In a
chemical reaction equilibrium, the products keep on forming the
reactants while the reactants keep on producing the products and the
rates of forward and reverse reactions are equal. Similarly at a vapor-
liquid equilibrium, the vapors constantly form the liquid phase by
condensing on the liquid surface and the liquid constantly forms vapors
by vaporizing into the vapor phase, however, the net rate of formation
of the vapors and liquid is zero. Such an equilibrium condition
characterized by constant motions of molecules where molecular
motion has not been seized is termed as dynamic equilibrium. All
thermodynamic physical and chemical equilibria are dynamic in nature.

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Dynamic pressure: Same as kinetic pressure. See kinetic pressure.

Dynamic process: Same as unsteady-state process. See unsteady-state

process.

Dynamic pumps: In a dynamic pump, energy is added to increase the

velocity or kinetic energy of a liquid which is later converted to
pressure energy. Centrifugal pump is a typical example of this type of
pump. See pumps.

Dynamic similarity: Dynamic similarity provides the similarity of

forces between the systems at two scales. For geometrically similar
systems of different sizes if the ratios of the forces in the two systems
(scales) at corresponding positions are the same then the systems are
said to have dynamic similarity. See geometric similarity and kinetic
similarity.

Dynamic viscosity: Also called as absolute viscosity, coefficient of

viscosity, or simply viscosity. It is the internal resistance or friction
(within a fluid) to the flow of a fluid and it is defined as the force,
opposite to the direction of inherent force appears due to viscosity of
the fluid, that is required to keep unit velocity gradient at right angles to
the direction of flow between two parallel layers of the fluid flowing
past each other having unit area of contact and are unit distance apart.
Newton’s law of viscosity is, therefore, considered as the definition of
viscosity where it is the proportionality coefficient between the shear
stress and shear rate. Viscosity remains constant for Newtonian fluids
while it varies with time and shear rate for non-Newtonian fluids. The
definition of absolute viscosity is valid only for the laminar flow and
experimentally it should be measured only in the laminar region such as
in a capillary viscometer (say an Ostwald’s viscometer). Viscosity of
liquids decreases with temperature, however, pressure has a negligible
effect on the viscosity of the liquid upto many times the atmospheric
pressure. For gases, viscosity at low pressures known as dilute gases
increases with increasing temperature while its behavior is similar to
liquids for gases at high pressures (dense gases). Although viscosity of
gases increases with pressure, however, the viscosity of a gas is
practically taken independent of pressure near atmospheric pressure and
for the pressure ranges upto 5 to 10 bar the effect of pressure is usually

154
considered negligible. Viscosity of the gases typically ranges between
5 10 6 to 3  105 Pas [19]. Viscosity of pure water is taken as 1.0 cp
(mPas). See kinematic viscosity.

155
E
Eckert number: It is the ratio of the kinetic energy to thermal energy,
which also comes out be the ratio of Brinkman number to Prandtl
number. Eckert number is important in the study of boundary layer and
measures the effect of heat dissipation. However, it is important only at
high velocity flows. See Brinkman number and Prandtl number.

Economic pipe diameter: Same as optimum pipe diameter. See

optimum pipe diameter.

Economic thickness of insulation: Increasing thickness of an

insulation (beyond critical thickness), the cost of the insulation
increases while the cost of steam (say) flowing through the pipe
decreases due to decrease in the heat loss. However, decreasing the
thickness of insulation, decreases the cost of the insulation, but
increases the heat loss and hence the cost of steam. At a certain value of
the thickness of insulation, the sum of the costs of steam and insulation
is the lowest. The thickness of the insulation at which the total cost of
the insulation and steam is the minimum is called as the economic
thickness of insulation.

Economizer: An economizer is a heat exchanger that utilizes some of

the heat of flue gases coming out of the boiler furnace to heat the boiler
feed water (BFW). It thus helps in integrating the heat energy and
economizes the process.

Economy: Also called as steam economy. The term is frequently

employed in the design and operation of evaporators and relates to the
cost of the operation of an evaporator system. It is defined as the ratio
of mass of the vapor produced by evaporation to mass of the steam
consumed. Economy of an evaporation system can be enhanced by
vapor-recompression or using multiple effect evaporators.

Eddies: Eddies are the characteristics of a turbulent flow and a single

eddy is a bunch of large number of molecules that move randomly in a
fluid body. The size of the smallest eddy lies between 10 and 100 m
[14]. Although eddy formation is an attribute of turbulent flow, the flow

156
inside a single eddy may still be considered as laminar. See boundary
layer separation and turbulent flow.

Eddy currents: Same as convective currents. See convective currents.

Eddy diffusivity of heat: Heat transfer mechanism in a turbulent flow

is the sum of molecular heat transfer and heat transfer associated with
eddy effects. Analogous to thermal diffusivity defined for molecular
heat transfer, a new diffusivity can be defined for heat transfer
associated with eddy effects in turbulent flow conditions. This new type
of thermal diffusivity is named eddy diffusivity of heat. It is important
to note that unlike thermal diffusivity, it is not a property of the fluid
and depends upon the intensity of turbulence.

Eddy diffusivity of mass: Mass transfer mechanism in a turbulent flow

is the sum of molecular mass transfer and mass transfer associated with
eddy effects. Analogous to mass diffusivity defined for molecular mass
transfer, diffusivity can be defined for mass transfer associated with
eddy effects in turbulent flow conditions. This new type of mass
diffusivity is named eddy diffusivity of mass. It is important to note that
unlike mass diffusivity, it is not a property of the fluid and depends
upon the intensity of turbulence.

Eddy diffusivity of momentum: It is also known as eddy kinematic

viscosity. Momentum transfer or shear stress mechanism in a turbulent
flow is the sum of molecular momentum transfer and momentum
transfer associated with eddy effects. Analogous to momentum
diffusivity defined for molecular momentum transfer, diffusivity can be
defined for momentum transfer associated with eddy effects in turbulent
flow conditions. This new type of momentum diffusivity is named eddy
diffusivity of momentum. It is important to note that unlike momentum
diffusivity, it is not a property of a fluid and depends upon the intensity
of turbulence.

Eddy kinematic viscosity: Same as eddy diffusivity of momentum. See

eddy diffusivity of momentum.

Eddy thermal conductivity: Analogous to Fourier’s law of heat

conduction applicable in molecular heat transfer, an expression can be

157
written for the heat transfer due to eddy effects in a turbulent flow. For
the new expression, one can define eddy thermal conductivity by
analogy to thermal conductivity defined in Fourier’s law. Eddy thermal
conductivity is not a property of a fluid and depends upon the intensity
of turbulence.

Eddy viscosity: Analogous to Newton’s law of viscosity applicable in

molecular momentum transfer, an expression can be written for the
momentum transfer due to eddy effects in a turbulent flow. For the new
expression, one can define eddy viscosity by analogy to viscosity
defined in Newton’s law of viscosity. Eddy viscosity is not a property
of a fluid and depends upon the intensity of turbulence.

Edge runner mill: It is an intermediate grinder and consists of a

horizontal pan with one or two wheels also called as mullers. The
muller is attached to a horizontal shaft (unlike end runner mill) and
either muller or pan is driven by a motor. When pan is driven, during
the course of grinding, the material moves outwardly towards the walls
of the grinder. A scraper is therefore needed to throw the material back
to the grinding zone. Compression force developed by the weight of the
wheel and attrition force due to the relative movement of pan and
muller are responsible for the grinding. The mill is used for both wet
and dry grindings and both batch and continuous designs are possible.
In the continuous form, the bottom of the side walls may be made
perforated and the product size can be controlled by the size of the
perforations. In the batch type mill, however, the product size can be
controlled by the time of crushing. The edge runner mill may be used
probably for any material, however, common examples of materials
handeled are clays, salts, and fibrous materials. See Fig. E-1. See also
end runner mill.

Effective diffusivity: In a multicomponent system, the rate of

molecular mass transfer of component A is defined in terms of effective
diffusivity of component A in the mixture. By defining effective
diffusivity, the mass flux of component A can be calculated in the same
way as in the case of binary system by knowing only the concentration
gradient of species A in the multicomponent mixture. The effective
diffusivity is estimated using binary diffusivities of the components
(pseudobinary approach). The effective diffusivity is also defined for

158
describing the diffusion in porous materials such as porous catalysts due
to complicated and narrow pore structure of these materials where
ordinary diffusion coefficients are unable to predict the mass flux. See
diffusion coefficient.

Fig. E-1 Edge runner mill.

Effectiveness factor: For a heterogeneous catalytic reaction, it is

defined as the ratio of the observed rate of a reaction to the rate that
would be possible if there is no internal diffusion resistance (i.e.,
intrinsic chemical reaction rate). In other words, it is defined as the ratio
of the apparent rate of the reaction over the whole catalyst particle to
the intrinsic rate of the reaction at the surface of the catalyst particle. In
a porous catalyst particle (for the pore diffusion controlled problem),
the concentration and temperature at the outside surface may be
different than the concentration and temperature in the interior of the
catalyst. In fact, the concentration and temperature may vary along the
radius of the catalyst particle and the catalyst performance may also
vary along the radius. This effect causes the observed or apparent rate
of the reaction to be different than the intrinsic rate of the reaction. The
effectiveness factor may be employed to accommodate this pore
diffusion effect. If there is negligible diffusional limitation offered to
the reacting species, effectiveness factor is unity. See Thiele modulus.

Effectiveness of heat exchanger: The thermal performance of a heat

exchanger equipment is expressed in terms of heat exchanger
effectiveness which is defined as the ratio of the actual rate of heat
transfer to the theoretically possible (maximum) rate of heat transfer.

Effectiveness of screen: Same as screen efficiency. See screen

efficiency.

159
Effluent: The exit stream from a process equipment or plant.

Ejector: Ejectors are used to remove vapors from a vessel and to create
subatmospheric environment in the vessel. High pressure fluid stream
usually steam enters the ejector through a nozzle and passes through a
Venturi type construction. Due to increased velocity of the fluid stream,
pressure is decreased inside the suction chamber of the ejector and
drags the vapors (gas) from the process vessel and a partial vacuum is
created in the vessel. The process fluid and the ejector fluid (motive
fluid) are mixed with each other and pass through the diffuser section of
the ejector where they gain pressure and leave the ejector. Single or
more stages may be applied depending on the amount of vacuum
desired. Ejectors have the advantage of having no moving parts in
contrast to most pumping machines. See Fig. E-2.

Fig. E-2 Ejector.

Elbow: A type of pipe fitting, shown in Fig. P-11, that is used to give a
bend in the direction (changes the direction) of fluid flow (piping).
Elbows are short radius or long radius where long radius elbows give
less pressure drop compared to short radius elbows. 45 and 90 are the
common elbows. It is important to mention here that the degree angle of
an elbow is the angle a fluid bends and not the bend in the piping (Fig.
E-3). A 45 elbow will, therefore, give less frictional energy loss as
compared to a 90 elbow.

Elbow meter: Like orifice and Venturi meters, elbow meter is a type of
head flow meter. However, in contrast to orifice and Venturi meters, it
utilizes centrifugal head difference between the two radii of the elbow
geometry. When a fluid flows through the elbow, due to centrifugal
160
force on the fluid, the fluid exerts higher pressure on the outer radius
wall as compared to inner radius wall of the elbow. This difference in
the pressures is a measure of the flowrate through the elbow. See Fig.
E-4.

Fig. E-3 45 elbow to explain the angle of elbow.

Fig. E-4 Elbow meter (flowmeter).

Electrical desalter: Crude oil desalting is carried out in a gravity

separator vessel that is equipped with high voltage electrodes to aid in
the rate of settling of the salts. See electrical desalting.

Electrical desalting: A crude oil contains appreciable amounts of salts

such as sodium and magnesium chlorides. If not removed these salts
may cause corrosion and scaling in the process equipments and may be
161
detrimental to catalyst stability. Desalting is the starting operation in the
refining of a petroleum (series of separation and conversion processes)
in which crude oil containing salts is mixed with water and heated and
desalting is caused in the presence of high voltage electrodes. The water
and salts are settled at the bottom of the desalter while crude oil is
obtained as an upper layer.

Electrokinetic potential: Same as zeta potential. See zeta potential.

Electromagnetic flowmeter: Electromagnetic flowmeter unlike orifice

type meters and rotameter does not require any disturbance of flow
through a constriction and therefore the flow in a pipe encounters
negligible additional frictional energy losses. The flow measurement by
an electromagnetic meter requires a magnetic field to be applied at the
outside of a non-magnetic pipe where the velocity of an electrical
conductive fluid flowing through the pipe produces a voltage which is a
measure of the flowrate. The voltage is detected by the electrodes
attached at the inside surface of the pipe wall. Only flowrates of
electrical conductive fluids such as that of water and not of
hydrocarbons are possible to measure. Both installation and operating
costs are usually higher.

Electromagnetic screens: A class of vibrating screens in which the

screen deck is vibrated by an electromagnetic drive system to grade the
solid particles.

Electrostatic precipitation: Solid particles or liquid droplets in a gas

or liquid suspension are charged by applying an electric field and
directed towards the collecting surface.

Electrostatic separator: Solid particles with different electrical

conductivities are separated by electrostatic separation. A stream of fine
particles is passed over a drum surface and subjected to the influence of
electrical field. The difference in the degree of accumulation of charge
on different particles causes the separation.

Elevation head: Same as potential head. See potential head.

Eluate: See elution.

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Eluent: Same as elutant. See elutant.

Elutant: See elution.

Elution: In elution, an adsorbed solute is desorbed or extracted usually

by a solvent. The solvent is called as elutant or eluent and the stream
leaving after the desorption that contains the solvent and the desorbed
solute is called as eluate.

Elutriation: In contrast to sedimentation in which solid particles flow

in a fluid under the influence of gravity and settle according to their size
(or density), in elutriation the fluid carries the particles upwards and the
particles of different sizes or different densities (having the same size)
are separated accordingly.

Elutriator: The classifier is used for the separation of particles of

various sizes (or densities) based on the principle of elutriation. See
elutriation.

Emissive power: It is the rate of energy emitted by a body in the form

of radiations at a certain wavelength per unit surface of the body.

Emissivity: It is a surface property and defined as the ratio of emissive

power of a body to the emissive power of the black body. For a black
body emissivity is unity and for a non-black body emissivity is less than
unity. As an example, emissivity of rough steel plate is 0.94 [23].

Empty site: Same as vacant site. See vacant site.

Emulsion: A colloidal solution of liquid in liquid. Milk is an emulsion

of liquid fat in water.

Emulsion regime: See mixer-settler regime.

End point (EP): End point of ASTM distillation test on a petroleum

fraction. See ASTM distillation. Also, the final boiling point of a cut
based on the true boiling point distillation data. See Fig. C-22. See also
cut point.

163
End runner mill: It is an intermediate class of grinders that principally
employs the compression and attrition methods of force to crush a
material. It usually operates batchwise, however, can be modified to a
continuous operation. The mill consists of a horizontal pan called as
mortar with an off center pestle that is attached to a vertical shaft
(unlike edge runner mill where the wheel is attached to a horizontal
shaft). The pan rotates in a horizontal plane and the pestle moves due to
friction. During the course of grinding, the material moves outwardly
towards the walls of the grinder, a scraper is therefore needed to throw
the material back to the grinding zone. Both dry and wet grindings of
materials are possible in such type of device. See Fig. E-1. See also
edge runner mill.

Energy balance: Energy balance is an application of the law of

conservation of energy which states that energy can neither be created
nor it be destroyed. However, it can be converted from one form to
another. The general energy balance equation applied to a system may
be written as below:

 Rate of energy into   Rate of energy out 

    
 the system   of the system 
 Rate of energy generation   Rate of energy consumptio n   Rate of accumulati on of 
        
 within the system   within the system   energy within the system 

Kinetic energy, potential energy, enthalpy, internal energy, work, and

heat are the important terms of the energy balance. For large enthalpy
changes (heat addition and subtractions), the kinetic and potential
energy terms are generally neglected. Energy balance for an open
system is of utmost importance as most of the chemical and
petrochemical plants are continuous processes. Closed system energy
balances are helpful in designing batch systems.

Energy index: Same as work index. See work index.

Energy of activation: Also called as activation energy. The amount of

energy required to raise the reactants to such a state where they can pass
onto the products. Activation energy affects the rate of a chemical
reaction and a decrease in the activation energy upon introducing a
catalyst enhances the speed of the reaction. The units of activation

164
energy are those of energy. See Arrhenius equation.

Engler distillation: A standard laboratory distillation test that is used

for petroleum products such as gasoline, diesel, and kerosene to
workout their volatility characteristics. See ASTM distillation and true
boiling point distillation.

Engler viscometer: A type of efflux or orifice viscometer. The volume

of the oil cup is so selected that the time of efflux of 200 ml water is 52
s at 20C [24]. The results of Engler viscometery are reported in
degrees Engler which is the ratio of the time of efflux of a sample oil to
the time of efflux of equal volume of water (200 ml) at 20C. The
working principle is similar to the Redwood viscometer and Saybolt
viscometer. See industrial viscometer.

Enriching section: Also called as rectifying section. The section of a

distillation column above the feed point (tray) is called as the enriching
or rectifying section. See Fig. M-2. See also stripping section.

Enrichment: It is the increase in the composition of the more volatile

component (light key) along the length of a distillation column, more
specifically above the feed point.

Enthalpy: Enthalpy is the sum of internal energy and product of

pressure and volume. The definition of enthalpy requires the inclusion
of pressure-volume work which is required to expand a system against
the external pressure or to force the system (to flow) against an external
pressure. As internal energy, pressure, and volume are point functions,
enthalpy is also a point function. Enthalpy is an important parameter in
the analysis of open or continuous flow systems. Absolute value of
enthalpy cannot be measured, however, changes in enthalpy can be
measured and calculated. See flow work.

Enthalpy of combustion: Same as heat of combustion. See heat of

combustion.

Enthalpy of condensation: Same as latent heat of condensation. See

latent heat of condensation.

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Enthalpy of formation: Same as heat of formation. See heat of
formation.

Enthalpy of fusion: Same as latent heat of fusion. See latent heat of

fusion.

Enthalpy of reaction: Same as heat of reaction. See heat of reaction.

Enthalpy of sublimation: Same as latent heat of sublimation. See

latent heat of sublimation.

Enthalpy of vaporization: Same as latent heat of vaporization. See

latent heat of vaporization.

Enthalpy-concentration diagram: A thermodynamic property

diagram in which enthalpy of a solution is plotted as ordinate (along the
y-axis) while composition of the solution is plotted as abscissa (along
the x-axis).

Entrainer: In azeotropic or extractive distillation (the term is used

more specifically with azeotropic distillation), an extraneous component
is added that increases the relative volatility and permits the separation
of one of the constituents of the original mixture. This extraneous
component is called as entrainer. See azeotropic distillation.

Entrainment: Increasing superficial gas/vapor velocity increases the

efficiency of a tray tower, however, this is valid only upto a certain
limit of gas/vapor velocity. A high gas/vapor velocity may entrain
liquid droplets and pass these liquid droplets to the next tray above.
This process is called as entrainment. As a consequence, low quality
liquid from the lower tray is mixed with the high quality liquid on the
upper tray and decreases the efficiency of the process. A greater tray
spacing is therefore required to avoid entrainment. Bubble cap trays are
the most disreputable for the entrainment.
In a gas-liquid or vapor-liquid phase separator, the liquid droplets
may entrain into the gas/vapor phase and may reach the gas/vapor line
and decrease the separation efficiency of the separator. A demister or
mist eliminator at the gas/vapor exit of the separator may be required in
such cases. See drift losses.

166
Entrance losses: Same as entry losses. See entry losses.

Entropy: First law of thermodynamics introduces the terms internal

energy and enthalpy and the second law of thermodynamics requires
defining a new property called as entropy. Entropy is a thermodynamic
property which measures the disorder or randomness of a system.
Entropy is an abstract property and cannot be measured directly using a
measuring element. For a reversible process, a differential change in
entropy may be defined as the ratio of infinitesimal heat energy
involved to the absolute temperature. The SI units of molar entropy
(entropy per mole) are Jmol‒1K‒1. See second law of thermodynamics.

Entry length: When a fluid flows over a flat plate or enters a pipe it
travels some distance before it fully develops its flow patterns or
velocity profile. The distance required for a fluid to fully develop its
flow patterns or velocity profile is called as entry length. Pressure drop
is greater in the entry length than in the fully developed flow. See Fig.
E-5.

Fig. E-5 Description of entry length.

Entry losses: When a fluid enters a pipe or an equipment some of the

fluid energy is lost due to sudden expansion or contraction (change in
velocity). Such fluid energy losses associated with the entrance of the
fluid to a system are entry losses. See exit losses.

Environment: Same as surroundings. See surroundings.

Enzyme: Enzymes are proteins and act as biological catalyst in

biochemical reactions. Amylase, cellulase, invertase, maltase, pepsin,
167
urease, and zymase are examples of enzymes.

EP: It stands for end point. See end point.

EPA: It stands for environmental protection agency.

Equation of state: Any relationship between thermodynamic state

variables is called as equation of state. In usual descriptions, the
equations expressed in terms of measurable properties such as pressure,
volume, and temperature are known as equations of state. Other
properties may be found from the knowledge of these three properties.
Equations of state are normally applied for gas phase only and usually
not suitable for liquid phase especially polar liquid phase. However,
they are frequently applied for hydrocarbon liquids. Many equations of
state are developed over the years. van der Waals, Peng-Robinson (PR),
Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equations of state are examples of
equations of state. Three-parameter equations of state such as Peng-
Robinson (PR) and Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equations are found
to be more reliable than two-parameter equations of state such as van
der Waals and Redlich-Kwong (RK) equations of state.

Equilateral triangular diagram: It is a ternary mixture phase diagram

on an equilateral triangular plane. Each corner (apex) of the triangle
represents a pure (100%) component and the side opposite to the apex
shows 0% of that component. The diagram is commonly used to present
ternary equilibrium data such as that used in liquid-liquid extraction.
See triangular diagrams.

Equilibrium: Equilibrium is a state of no change. See thermodynamic

equilibrium.

Equilibrium constant: It is mostly referred to as chemical reaction

equilibrium constant. However, the term may also be applied with the
physical equilibrium such as vapor-liquid equilibrium and liquid-liquid
equilibrium. For a chemical reaction, it is defined as the product of
equilibrium activities of all the components present in a reaction
mixture raised to their stoichiometry coefficient. As it is a product of
dimensionless quantities (activities), it is also a dimensionless quantity.
For gas phase reactions at low pressures, activities may be replaced by

168
partial pressures of reacting species and in dilute solutions or ideal
solutions activities may be replaced by molar concentrations. See K-
value and distribution coefficient.

Equilibrium conversion: It is the fractional conversion at equilibrium

conditions. It is regarded as the maximum possible conversion of a
reactant in a chemical reaction under the given conditions of
temperature, pressure, and feed composition.

Equilibrium diagram: A thermodynamic diagram in which

equilibrium relationships between phases are graphically described. See
phase diagram.

Equilibrium distillation: Also known as flash distillation. See flash

distillation.

Equilibrium line: In contrast to the operating line (material balance

line), it represents a series of equilibrium points (say on a y-x diagram
for a distillation column design). See Fig. M-2.

Equilibrium moisture contents: Moisture contents of a material in

equilibrium with the moisture contents (partial pressure of water
vapors) of air. A material cannot be dried beyond its equilibrium
moisture contents. See Fig. D-19.

Equilibrium stage: Same as theoretical stage. See theoretical stage.

Equilibrium vaporization constant: Same as K-value. See K-value.

Equimolar counterdiffusion: For a binary mixture of A and B

components, when molar flux of A is equal, but opposite in direction to
molar flux of B it is known as equimolar counterdiffusion. It finds its
application in binary distillation operations.

Equivalence ratio: It is the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to the

theoretical (required) fuel-air ratio. Theoretically required fuel-air ratio
is that stoichiometrically required for the complete combustion (based
on the principal reaction). As equivalence ratio is a dimensionless
quantity therefore the fuel-air ratios may either be expressed in mass or

169
moles. If the actual fuel-air ratio is the same as that required
stoichiometrically, equivalence ratio is unity. If it is less than unity the
fuel-air mixture is a lean mixture, for greater than unity the fuel-air
mixture is known as rich (in fuel) mixture.

Equivalent diameter: Equivalent diameter is defined for the non-

circular cross-sectional area conduits. It is the diameter of a circular
cross-sectional area pipe (hypothetical) that gives the same pressure
drop as the given geometry of the conduit (other than circular cross-
sectional area pipe). See hydraulic mean diameter.

Equivalent length: For pipe fittings such as couplings, unions, valves,

etc. it is the length of a pipe (hypothetical) which gives the same
frictional loss as that is offered by a fitting under the same conditions of
operation.

Ergun equation: A widely acceptable equation that is used extensively

for estimating the pressure drop across a packed bed. The equation is
used for both laminar and turbulent flow regimes and applied only for
the single phase flow of either a gas or liquid.

Error: The terminology is used in process control technology and may

be defined as the difference between the value of a measured variable
and its set point value. See Fig. F-2.

Euler equation: The equation is applied in frictionless fluid flow

problems.

Euler number: It is the ratio of the pressure force to the inertial force.
It is denoted by Eu. It deals with friction factors and finds its
application in the flowing fluids.

Eutectic point: It is the point in a phase diagram at which two solids

are formed from a single liquid phase. Therefore, at the eutectic point,
three phases coexist and may resemble to the triple point for a single
component. See Fig. E-6.

Evaporation: A separation process in which a solution is boiled off to

concentrate the solution. The solute is relatively non-volatile, therefore,

170
not all of the components are present or appreciably present in both the
vapor and liquid phases. A difference between vaporization and
evaporation may be described on the basis that if water is the solvent (to
be vaporized), it is evaporation, however, if the solvent is other than
water such as an organic liquid it may be called as vaporization. See
Table E-1 for the difference between distillation and evaporation. See
also vaporization.

Table E-1 Difference between distillation and evaporation

Distillation
It is applied when the relative
volatility of the components to
be separated is moderate.
All of the components are
present in both the vapor and
liquid phases.
The vapor is a valuable product.
Evaporation
It is applied when relative
volatility of the components to
be separated is very large.
The vapor phase does not
contain or appreciably contain all
the components present in the
liquid phase.
The vapor product in most cases
is water and is not the valuable
product.

Fig. E-6 Representation of the eutectic point.

Evaporation loss: In water cooling process, say, in a cooling water
tower, hot water evaporates into the contacting air and leaves with the
exit air causing loss of water (molecular water). It is different from drift
171
losses in which water droplets (bulk water and not the molecular water)
are entrained in the air and move away with the air.

Evaporative-cooler: It utilizes the concept of evaporative-cooling to

cool down the water as well as the air surrounding the water. See
evaporative-cooling.

Evaporative-cooling: When water evaporates it causes cooling due to

the loss of high energetic molecules from the surface of water. In doing
so, the surroundings to the water provide latent heat of vaporization to
the evaporating water molecules. This concept is used in a cost effective
air cooling technology called as evaporative-cooling. In direct
evaporative-cooling, the water is circulated through a wetting media
and disintegrated in the form of films or drops and air contacting the
water is therefore cooled down.

Evaporator: A heat transfer equipment which is used to concentrate a

solution while boiling off the solution. The most commonly used
heating medium is steam at a temperature greater than the temperature
of the solution. Decreasing pressure and increasing temperature
difference generally increase the rate of evaporation and reduce the size
of the evaporator. Although not necessary, the solution is usually an
aqueous solution. Natural circulation evaporator, forced circulation
evaporator, and falling film evaporator are common examples. Both
single effect (single unit) and multiple effect (more than one evaporator
unit) evaporators are common. See evaporation and vaporizer.

Evaporator-crystallizer system: An evaporator in which concentration

is affected so as to produce solid crystals.

EXAFS: It sands for extended x-ray absorption fine structure.

Excelsior packing: Corrugated and perforated metal sheet packing that

is used in packed towers.

Excess air: It is a usual practice to have air in excess to that required

for the complete combustion of a fuel. This excess air may be defined
as the ratio of the excess air (total air in the system less the air
theoretically required for the complete combustion) to the air required

172
theoretically for the complete combustion. The amount of theoretically
required air is calculated by stoichiometry and assuming 100%
conversion of the principal reaction. Excess air is provided to complete
the combustion process, to avoid the fuel loss in the stack, and to avoid
coking of the fuel that forms an objectionable solid layer on the furnace
tubes. Excess air although advantageous, but it has disadvantages of
reducing the furnace temperature and increasing the size of a given fired
heater. Excess air is usually ranges between 5 and 20% [25].

air in  required air excess air

% age excess air   100   100
required air required air

oxygen in  required oxygen excess oxygen

% age excess air   100   100
required oxygen required oxygen

See theoretical or required air.

Excess oxygen: It is the oxygen content that are used in excess to that
theoretically required for the complete combustion of a combustible.
See excess air.

Excess property: A thermodynamic excess property is the difference

between an actual value of the property of a mixture (experimental
value) and the value that would be obtained if the mixture behaves
ideally.

Excess reactant: In a chemical reaction, one of the reactants is usually

present in excess to the others and is useful in increasing the degree of
completion of the reaction. Moreover, it may be helpful in controlling
the temperature for an exothermic reaction or in improving the
selectivity of a chemical reaction. However, it may be disadvantageous
as a reactor and subsequent separation equipments may require larger
sizes. The choice of an excess reactant is arbitrary and usually a less
valuable reactant is selected as the excess reactant. See excess air and
limiting reactant.

Exergy: Also called as availability. Exergy is defined as the maximum

possible work that can be produced by a system under specified
conditions. The maximum possible work is the work during a reversible
173
process. If there is no loss in exergy, the efficiency of an ideal system is
possible. See unavailability.

Exit losses: When a fluid exits or leaves a pipe or an equipment some

of the fluid energy is lost due to sudden expansion or contraction
(change in velocity) effects. The fluid energy losses associated with the
exit of the fluid from a system are the exit losses. See entry losses.

Expansion joint: In fixed tube sheet heat exchangers, where large

temperature gradients exist, expansion joints (made of bellows) are
incorporated to the design to accommodate thermal expansion effects.
See Fig. E-7. Expansion loops may also be required in piping layout
systems.

Fig. E-7 Expansion joint in a heat exchanger shell.

Explosive limits: Same as flammability limits. See flammability limits.

Ex-situ process: The process which does not take place at the original
position and the processing contents are transferred to another location.
See in-situ process.

Extended form of Bernoulli’s equation: Bernoulli’s equation is

applicable for the case of inviscid flow with no heat dissipation due to
frictional forces and no shaft work involved. For practical applications
of fluid flow problems, an extended form of Bernoulli’s equation is
required that includes the effect of viscosity, mechanical energy losses,
and shaft work. See mechanical energy balance.

Extended surface heat exchanger: Where large heat transfer surface

area is required in a restricted volume, the heat transfer surface is
174
increased by incorporating extended surfaces or fins. This is usually
required in the cases where one of the heat transfer coefficients is quite
low compared to the other such as gas side heat transfer coefficient. Air
cooled heat exchanger and extended surface double pipe heat exchanger
are typical examples. See air cooled heat exchanger.

Extensive property: A thermodynamic property, the value of which

does depend on the size or the extent of the system. Examples are
volume, heat capacity (not specific heat capacity), and enthalpy of a
system. See intensive property.

Extent of a chemical reaction: It is defined as the ratio of the initial

moles of a component subtracted from the moles of the component
present at any time to the stoichiometric coefficient of the component in
the reaction. Mathematically, it may be shown that

n A  n A0

A

Where,  is the extent of a chemical reaction, n A are the number of

moles of species A present at any time, nA0 are the initial moles of
species A, and  A is the stoichiometric coefficient of species A. As
stoichiometric coefficient is negative for reactants and positive for
products, the extent of a reaction is always positive. See fractional
conversion.

External diffusion: The process in which reactants or products move

(diffuse) through the external fluid film formed at the outside particle
(catalyst) surface. It is different from the internal or pore diffusion in
which reactants or products move from the outside surface of the
particle to the inside pores of the catalyst, i.e., move through the pores
of the catalyst. See internal diffusion.

External diffusion controlled system: If the overall or global rate of a

reaction is controlled by the external diffusion, i.e., when the main or
controlling resistance to the overall rate of the reaction is present within
the external fluid film formed at the outside catalyst surface, the system
is said to be external diffusion controlled system. External diffusion
175
resistance can be reduced by increasing the velocity of the fluid stream.
See external diffusion and rate controlling step.

External floating head heat exchanger: The type of shell and tube
heat exchanger in which the floating head (tube sheet assembly) extends
outside the shell on the rear end. Packing glands are employed to avoid
leakage on the shell side. See floating head heat exchanger.

External reboiler: External reboilers are installed outside the body of a

distillation column. Unlike internal reboilers, the assembly does require
a separate shell and therefore a lot of piping is also required. The type
of reboiler is more expensive than a corresponding internal reboiler,
however, it provides greater heat transfer surface. Kettle type reboiler is
an example. See internal reboiler and kettle type reboiler.

Externally reversible process: A process is said to be externally

reversible if no irreversibilities occur outside the system boundary
during the course of a process. A reversible or totally reversible process
should be both externally as well as internally reversible. See internally
reversible process.

Extract: In liquid-liquid extraction, the solvent phase leaving the

extractor is called as extract or extract phase. The solvent extracts the
desired component (solute) from the original mixture (feed) and leaves
the extractor. See Fig. R-2. See also raffinate.

Extractant: Same as solvent. See solvent.

Extraction: It refers to the unit operations of leaching and liquid-liquid

extraction. Mechanical extraction such as extraction of oil from seeds
may also be included in extraction. See solvent extraction.

Extraction column: Also called as extraction tower. A vertical vessel

usually cylindrical that is used for the solvent extraction. See extractor.

Extraction time: It is the time required to carry out a desired extraction

process. See extraction.

Extraction tower: Same as extraction column. See extraction column.

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Extractive distillation: Normal distillation is not practically possible
for the components that have virtually the same boiling points or that
form an azeotrope. In such cases, extractive or azeotropic distillation
may be carried out. In extractive distillation, a solvent is added that
alters the activity coefficient of one of the components (key
components) of the original mixture and changes the relative volatility
which enables the components to be separated by normal distillation.
The added solvent is miscible with both the key components, but unlike
azeotropic distillation it does not form an azeotrope. See azeoptropic
distillation.

Extractor: An extractor is a device that is used for the extraction of one

or more components from a liquid phase (liquid-liquid extractor) or a
solid phase (solid-liquid extractor). See extraction.

Extrudate: The product of an extrusion process as of some catalyst

supports.

Extruder: An extruder is a device containing a long barrel that forces a

material to pass through a die to give a desired shape to the material.
See extrusion.

Extrusion: The process in which a material such as polymer is forced

to pass through a die to shape the material.

Eye of impeller: The inlet (opening) of the impeller of a centrifugal

pump may be called as eye of the impeller. See Fig. V-10.

177
F
Fail closed valve: The control valve which requires energy input to be
opened and if the supply of the energy is cut off, the valve will be fully
closed. Air-to-open valve is a fail closed valve. See air-to-open valve.

Fail open valve: The control valve which requires energy input to be
closed and if the supply of the energy is cut off, the valve will be fully
opened. Air-to-close valve is a fail open valve. See air-to-close valve.

Falling film evaporator: A falling film evaporator is shown in Fig. F-

1. Liquid feed is introduced at the top of the evaporator and flows
downward under the influence of gravity. Feed flows inside the
evaporator tubes while steam condenses outside the tubes. Evaporation
occurs on the falling film and not on the tube wall surface, so
temperature differences are relatively low. Due to gravity flow, liquid
velocities are high and therefore heat transfer coefficients are even
greater than the climbing film evaporators. Similar to climbing film
evaporators, they are used with non-salting liquids. As they have low
residence time even compared to climbing film evaporator, they are
particularly useful with heat sensitive materials. See climbing film
evaporator.

Falling rate drying period: A drying rate curve as shown in Fig. D-19
may be divided into two principal sections, namely, the constant rate
period and the falling rate period. In the constant rate period the rate of
drying remains constant while in the falling rate period the rate of
drying continuously decreases. The falling rate period by itself may
consist of two parts, namely, the first falling rate period and the second
falling rate period. However, depending upon the characteristics of the
given material, the second falling rate period may not appear at all.
Starting from the critical moisture contents, drying in the falling rate
period continues until the equilibrium moisture contents are reached.
See constant rate drying period.

Fan blade pitch: It is the angle of the blade of a fan normal to the axis
of rotation. A greater pitch means greater air flow.

178
 Feed
soution

Steam

Vapor

Vapor
Long space
tube

Impingement
baffle
Condensate

Liquid
level
Concentrated Concentrated
product product
Fig. F-1 Falling film evaporator.

Fan: A fan is used to drive a gas and it develops a small amount of

pressure. Axial flow fans and centrifugal fans are the two types of the
fans. In comparison to blowers and compressors, fans produce the
lowest increase in pressure upto 0.028 bar [20]. Blowers develop a
relatively large increase in pressure upto 0.28 bar while compressors
develop the greatest pressure in the range of 0.28 to 4137 bar [20]. As
fans only slightly increase the pressure of the gas, there is a little change
in volume which can be neglected and therefore flow equations for
incompressible fluids may well be applied for the fan calculations. See
axial flow fan, blower, and compressor.

Fanning friction factor: Fanning friction factor is ¼ of the Darcy

friction factor. See friction factor and Darcy friction factor.

179
Fast fluidization: It is the fluidization regime between the turbulent
fluidized bed regime and the pneumatic transport of solids. See
turbulent fluidization and pneumatic transport of solids.

FCC: It stands for fluid catalytic cracking. See catalytic cracking.

FD fan: It stands for forced draft fan. See forced draft fan.

Feedback control: The block diagram of a feedback control system is

shown in Fig. F-2. In a feedback control system the output variable or
controlled variable (say temperature of a mixing tank) is measured and
the information is sent to a feedback controller where it is compared
with the set point and the controller takes action according to the
magnitude of the error between the set point and the value of the
controlled variable. The information from the controller is passed to the
final control element which changes the manipulated variable to keep
the controlled variable at the desired value. In a feedback control
system, unlike feedforward control system, the controller takes action
after the disturbance has affected the process and the controlled variable
and the information is fedback to the controller. See feedforward
control.

Fig. F-2 Block diagram of a feedback control system.

Feedforward control: A block diagram of a feedforward control

system is shown in Fig. F-3. In a feedforward control system, the
disturbance variable is measured and the required corrective action is
taken before the disturbance variable upsets the process and affects the
output variable. A comprehensive mathematical model is required to
predict the disturbance caused by the disturbance variable in order to
take a preemptive action. See feedback control.
180
 Fig. F-3 Block diagram for a feedforward control system.

Feedstock: It is the raw material that is required for the production of

an industrial product. Usually the term is applied in reference to
petroleum refinery where the crude oil or a crude oil fraction such as
vacuum gas oil is processed to obtain the desired product.

Fenske equation: The equation is proposed by Fenske for the

calculations of number of plates required in a distillation column under
total reflux conditions. It is applied when relative volatilities are
assumed constant. It is a part of the Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland
(FUG) short cut method required for estimating the number of stages in
a fractionating column. See Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland short cut
method.

Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland (FUG) short cut method: It is a short

cut method for estimating the number of stages in a fractionating
column. It utilizes three separate correlations of Fenske, Underwood,
and Gilliland to estimate the number of stages in a fractionating
column. See Fenske equation, Underwood equation, and Gilliland
equation.

Fermenter: A fermenter is a reaction vessel (reactor) in which a

biochemical reaction takes place. It may be a bubble column (sparged
vessel), agitated vessel, air lift reactor, or a fluidized bed reactor.

Fick’s law for mass transfer: Under isobaric and isothermal

conditions, the molecular rate of mass transfer per unit area (mass
transfer flux) is proportional to the concentration gradient and the
diffusion coefficient is the proportionality factor. Fick’s law is defined

181
only for the molecular mass transfer and it is not applicable for
convective mass transfer. See concentration gradient and diffusion
coefficient.

Fill: Same as packing. See packing.

Filler: A filler is a substance that is added to a product such as soap or

polymer in order to improve or modify its properties.

Film boiling: Boiling phenomena may be categorized as either pool

boiling or flow boiling. Pool boiling refers to the situation in which
heated surface is submerged in a liquid (pool). Water heating in a
boiling kettle is an example of pool boiling. The concept of pool boiling
is shown in Fig. F-4. Flow boiling also called as convective boiling
refers to boiling in a flowing liquid such as inside heat exchanger tubes.
With an increase in the change in the surface temperature and the
boiling solution temperature (ΔT), various pool boiling regimes may be
described: a) natural or free convection boiling, b) nucleate boiling, c)
transition film boiling, and d) film boiling. At a high value of ΔT, a
vapor film is started to buildup on the heating surface and heat transfer
coefficient starts to decrease with an increase in ΔT. With a further
increase in temperature difference, a point is reached where all the
heating surface is covered by the vapors and the stable film region
prevails. See Fig. P-18. See also pool boiling.

Fig. F-4 Concept of film boiling.

Film coefficient: The term is more commonly used for heat transfer
coefficient, although mass transfer coefficient is also called as film
182
coefficient. See heat transfer coefficient.

Film dryer: Same as drum dryer. See drum dryer.

Film penetration theory: A generalized interphase mass transfer

theory which accounts for both the two-film and the penetration
theories.

Film resistance: When a fluid flows past a solid surface, it is believed

that a thin film of the fluid is formed at the solid-fluid interface. It is
suggested that due to the lack of turbulence in the film the main
resistance to heat and mass transfer is in the body of this film. Also, for
a liquid-liquid or a gas-liquid system, a film is formed on each side of
the fluid interface and considered as the resistance to mass transfer. See
two-film theory and heat transfer coefficient.

Film type evaporator: Same as agitated film evaporator. See agitated

film evaporator.

Filmwise condensation: In filmwise condensation, the condensing

vapor such as saturated steam upon condensation wets the surface and
forms a layer or film of liquid condensate on the condensing surface
and further condensation occurs on the surface of the film. In almost all
condensation processes, the filmwise condensation is predicted and
therefore normal design calculations are based on filmwise
condensation rather than dropwise condensation. The heat transfer
coefficients associated with this type of condensation are lower as
compared to dropwise condensation. See dropwise condensation.

Filter aids: Filter aids are insoluble powdered materials that are added
to improve the solid-liquid operation. These are used in order to
enhance the rate of filtration. However, the use is only recommended
when the purity of the filter cake is not an issue.

Filter cake: During the process of cake filtration, it is the aggregation

of fine solid particles that is retained by the filter medium. See Fig. C-1
and Fig. F-5. See also cake filtration. Depending upon the properties of
cake material, a filter cake may be compressible or incompressible. See
compressible filter cake and incompressible filter cake.

183
Filter press: See plate and frame filter and recessed plate filter.

Filters: A filter is required to carry out a filtration operation. Deep bed

filters, filter presses, and bag filters are examples of filters. See
filtration.

Filtrate: If a solid suspension is subjected to a filtration operation, the

solids are the residue and the liquid is the filtrate. See Fig. F-5. See also
filtration.

Filtration: Filtration is a mechanical-physical separation process in

which a slurry or suspension (solids in gas or liquid) is passed through a
filter medium (such as porous cloth) where the solids are retained by the
filter medium and a rather clear fluid called as filtrate is obtained at the
downstream. The flow of the fluid across the filter medium may be
induced by gravity (gravity filters), centrifugal force (centrifugal
filters), increasing pressure on the upstream (pressure filters), or
applying vacuum on the downstream (vacuum filters). These methods
of fluid movement across the filter medium may be used to classify the
filtration equipments. See Fig. 5.

Fig. F-5 Concept of filtration.

Fin effectiveness: It is the ratio of the rate of heat transfer from the fin
with base area (say) AB to the rate of heat transfer from the surface that
has an area equal to the base area. If  fin is the fin effectiveness, then

184
 rate of heat transfer form the fin with base area AB
 fin 
rate of heat transfer from the surface having area AB

Fin efficiency: It is the ratio of the actual heat transfer from the fin
surface to the ideal heat transfer from the fin surface if the entire fin is
taken at the base temperature. If  fin is the fin efficiency, then

actual heat transfer from the fin

 fin 
ideal heat transfer from the fin if the fin is taken at the base temperaure

Fin-fan air cooler: Same as air cooled heat exchanger. See air cooled
heat exchanger.

Finned surfaces: Extended heat transfer surfaces, i.e., heat transfer

surfaces with fins. See fins.

Finned tube: A tube attached with outside or inside fins (extended

surfaces).

Finned tube heat exchanger: A heat exchanger such as a double pipe

exchanger in which the longitudinal fins are attached usually to the
outside surface of the inner pipe. This is done to increase the heat
transfer surface per unit volume of the exchanger and to increase the
rate of heat exchange. See extended surface heat exchanger.

Fins: The gas side heat transfer coefficients are usually of low value as
gases have low thermal conductivities. In such cases, in order to
increase the heat transfer rate, metallic extended surfaces on tubes
(pipes) or plane surfaces are usually employed and are called as fins.
Fins increase the surface area required for heat transfer and hence
increase the rate of heat transfer. Air cooled or fin-fan heat exchanger is
a good example where fins are attached to the air side surface of the
tubes. Fins are either traverse or longitudinal or outside or inside a tube.
Fig. F-6 shows the outside longitudinal and transverse fins.

Fire tube boiler: The concept of a fire tube boiler is shown in Fig. F-7.
In a fire tube boiler, unlike a water tube boiler, the hot gases (that heat
the boiler feed water) flow inside the boiler tubes and the feed water

185
surrounds the tubes. See boiler and water tube boiler.

Fig. F-6 Outside surface fins: a) longitudinal fins, b) traverse fins.

Fig. F-7 Types of boilers: a) water tube boiler, b) fire tube boiler.

Fired heater: A fired heater provides heat energy to a process stream to

raise its temperature to a desired degree. Fire heaters are usually
required when a large change in temperature or a high heat flux is
required for a process stream which is normally not possible using
steam or by exchanging heat with another process stream. Most fired
heaters contain three sections: Radiant section or fire box, convection
section, and stack. The burners employed are upshot or side entering
and the tubes are placed along the refractory lined walls of the heater
either horizontally or vertically. A fuel such as natural gas is burned and
heating is accomplished by radiation or radiation and convection
(heating by the products of combustion). See Fig. F-8. See also furnace.

First law of thermodynamics: The law of conservation of energy is

known as first law of thermodynamics. It can simply be defined as
energy can neither be created nor it be destroyed. In other words, the
total change in energy of a system is equal to the energy exchange
186
between the system and its surroundings. For a closed system energy
exchange between the system and surroundings can occur only by work
and heat.

Fig. F-8 Fired heater.

Fittings: Same as pipe fittings. See pipe fittings.

Fixed bed: Same as packed bed. See packed bed.

Fixed bed reactor: Also called as packed bed reactor. It is a

heterogeneous reactor where catalyst particles are arranged in a reactor
vessel forming a bed of solid particles. A fixed bed reactor is different
from a moving bed reactor in that the solid particles have no motion
relative to the stationary wall of the reactor. Moreover, it is different
from a fluidized bed reactor in which catalyst particles move both with
respect to each other and with the stationary wall of the reactor.
187
Particles are packed either directly in the shell or packed in tubes where
tubes are arranged within the shell. In the latter case, it is a multitubular
fixed bed reactor. The multitubular reactor is commonly used when an
exothermic or endothermic reaction is to be carried out and heat energy
has to be added or removed from the contents of the reaction mixture.
In the usual case, the reactants enter from the top and products leave at
the bottom and the reactor is assumed to follow the plug flow
characteristics. Sulfuric acid production and ammonia synthesis are two
examples that utilize a fixed bed reactor.

Fixed carbon: The solid carbonaceous matter obtained by subtracting

moisture contents, ash content, and volatile matter from a given solid
fuel sample such as coal. The fixed carbon is not the pure carbon and it
is different from the carbon found in the ultimate analysis as the fixed
carbon may contain some hydrogen, sulfur, etc. and that some of the
carbon is lost in the volatile matter. A standardized procedure in the
absence of air is carried out to find out the fixed carbon.

Fixed tubesheet heat exchanger: Also called as stationary tubesheet

heat exchanger. A type of shell and tube heat exchanger in which the
heat exchanger tubes are straight and both of the tubesheets are fixed
(none of them is floating). It is the cheapest type of shell and tube heat
exchanger as it is simple in construction and easy to fabricate. Tube
bundle cannot be pulled out and the exchanger is not easy to dismantle
therefore cleaning is not easy. No provision is made for the tube bundle
thermal expansion and the shell. Therefore, it is recommended for the
cases where temperature differences are only moderate. See Fig. F-9.

Flame arrestors: Also called as flame traps. These are employed to

prevent the flame propagation and used at the vents of the equipments
in which some flammable material is processed. The flame arrestors
absorb the heat from the flame and discontinue it. Metal grids and alike
may be used as flame arrestors.

Flame traps: Same as flame arrestors. See flame arrestors.

Flammability limits: Also called as explosive limits. It is a flammable

range of a material mixed with air and describes the upper and lower
limits of concentrations of a fuel in air beyond which it does not support

188
the normal combustion. A fuel will burn only if its concentration with
air lies between its flammability limits (upper and lower flammability
limits). See upper flammability limit and lower flammability limit. The
knowledge of flammability limits is important in handling flammable
liquids.

Fig. F-9 Fixed tubesheet heat exchanger.

Flash distillation: Also called as equilibrium distillation. It is a single

stage distillation process in which a given feed mixture is partially
vaporized by reducing the pressure (flashing) in a flash drum. Sufficient
time is given so that the vapor and liquid phases reach in equilibrium.
The vapor formed is rich in more volatile components and the liquid has
higher concentrations of heavier components compared to the feed
mixture. The pressure and temperature of the feed have nothing to do
with the separation in a flash vessel, because equilibrium attained
within the vessel is responsible for the phase separation.

Flash drum: Also called as flash vessel. A flash drum is a gas-liquid or

vapor-liquid separator. The gas-liquid or vapor-liquid mixture enters the
separator and its pressure is reduced and sufficient time is provided to
separate the vapor and liquid phases in equilibrium. The name flash is
given because the pressure of the feed stream is reduced to a lower
value in order to separate vapor-liquid mixture. The phenomenon is
termed as flashing.

Flash dryer: Flash dryer is a type of pneumatic dryer. It mainly

189
consists of a flash column (drying column), air fan, air heater, feed
conveyor, and solids collection system. Heated air enters at the bottom
of the flash column and suspends the feed particles and drying takes
place in a short period of time. The dried product leaves the column and
collected thereafter. Heat sensitive and powdered materials are dried in
this kind of dryer.

Flash gas: The gas phase obtained during the flashing process. See
flashing.

Flash point: The lowest temperature at which a given sample of a

liquid momentarily catches fire. It suggests the volatility characteristics
of a fuel. Cleveland open cup tester and Pensky-Martens (for higher
flash point liquids) and Abel (lower flash point liquids) closed cup
testers may be used for the flash point measurement.

Flash vaporization: Vaporization affected by decrease in pressure is

flash vaporization. See flash distillation.

Flash vessel: Same as flash drum. See flash drum.

Flash zone: The region in a distillation column where the high pressure
feed is entered and it is flash vaporized.

Flashing: The phenomenon in which pressure is reduced and a vapor-

liquid (gas-liquid) mixture is formed and vapor (gas) and liquid are
separated accordingly is called as flashing. See flash distillation and
flash drum.

Flexirings: The packing is considered equivalent to Pall rings traded

under different name by Koch Engineering company, Inc. [7]. See Pall
rings.

Floating head heat exchanger: A type of shell and tube heat

exchanger in which one end of the tube bundle is not fixed to the shell,
but free to float in the shell. This is required to avoid damages that may
be caused by thermal expansion. Floating head exchangers are either
internal floating head or external floating head. See internal floating
head exchanger and external floating head exchanger.

190
Floating head storage tanks: Same as floating roof storage tanks. See
floating roof storage tanks.

Floating roof storage tanks: Also called as floating head storage tanks.
In floating roof storage tanks, the roof (top cover) of the tank floats on
the surface of the stored liquid in order to minimize the vapor space.
The tank roof moves in a vertical position adjusted by the level of the
liquid in the tank. Floating roof storage tanks are normally employed
for the storage of materials at atmospheric pressure and have wide
applications in storage of flammable and volatile liquids.

Flocculation: See coagulation.

Flooding: Flooding may be defined in various ways depending on the

operation to which it is referred to. Here, it is preferred to define
flooding in a general manner as the condition at which one of the phases
is just to reach the product (exit) nozzle of the other phase. Taking an
example of a liquid-liquid extraction column in which a principal
interface is formed at the top of the column (in the top reservoir) so that
the heavy phase does not run with the light phase leaving the column. If
now, the principal interface moves up due to high liquid/s velocity/ies
and reaches the exit nozzle of the light phase, it is said that the column
is flooded. For a distillation tray tower, when only the downcomer is
filled up with the liquid, it is downcomer flooding while if the spaces
between the trays are filled up with the liquid, the whole column is said
to be flooded. For a packed column, when the liquid just starts to
accumulate over the packing height, column is said to be flooded.
Flooding is the maximum possible operating point and the separation
efficiency is markedly affected beyond this point. Flooding is therefore
an unwanted condition.

Flooding velocity: The superficial velocity of a phase such as the gas

phase in a gas absorption system at which flooding occurs is called as
flooding velocity. For a gas-liquid operation in a packed column,
increasing gas velocity, upto a certain point, for a constant liquid
flowrate, increases the pressure drop steadily in the column and the
liquid holdup (volume fraction of liquid in the column) remains almost
constant. Upon continuous increase in gas velocity a point is reached
where the pressure drop increases abruptly and the liquid holdup starts

191
to increase. The velocity of the gas at this point is called as loading
velocity. Upon further increase in gas velocity, a point is reached where
another steep rise in pressure drop is observed and the liquid phase is
about to enter the gas phase exit line. The velocity of the gas at this
point is called as flooding velocity. The upper limit of the superficial
gas velocity for the loading point and the flooding point changes with
the change in liquid flowrates and type of packing. See flooding.

Flow boiling: Also called as convective boiling. In flow boiling, unlike

pool boiling where the heating surface is submerged in the body of the
liquid and there is little or no forced movement of the liquid relative to
the heating surface, but the fluid movement is mainly due to natural
convection, the fluid flows through a heated tube or over a heated plate.
See pool boiling.

Flow energy: Same as flow work. See flow work.

Flow nozzle: Flow nozzle is a flow measuring device that is

categorized in head flowmeters. As the fluid moves through the nozzle
its velocity increases, however, its pressure decreases and at the exit
opening of the nozzle, the velocity of the fluid is the maximum while its
pressure is the minimum (a vena contracta is therefore formed at the
exit opening of the nozzle). This change in pressure across the nozzle is
a measure of the flowrate of the fluid. As the minimum cross-sectional
area of the fluid jet is at the nozzle opening, the contraction coefficient
of a flow nozzle is unity. Similar to an orifice meter, but unlike a
Venturi meter, a flow nozzle has no pressure recovery section. A large
amount of energy is wasted in the formation of eddies due to which the
discharge coefficient is quite low. See Fig. F-10.

Flow number: Same as pumping number. See pumping number.

Flow process: Same as continuous process. See continuous process.

Flow reactors: Continuous flow reactors are also called as flow

reactors. See continuous process.

Flow system: Same as open system. See open system.

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 Fig. F-10 Flow nozzle.

Flow work: Also called as flow energy. Consider the section AB of a

pipe as shown in Fig. F-11. The fluid enters the section at AA and
leaves the section at BB . In order to enter the fluid in the section it
pushes the fluid ahead of it, and it actually does work. Similarly the
fluid leaving the section forces the fluid ahead of it to leave the system
and again it does work. The work that is required for a fluid to enter or
leave a system is a product of the fluid pressure and fluid volume at the
point of interest and is termed as flow work or flow energy. See
enthalpy.

Fig. F-11 Concept of flow work. pA is pressure and VA is volume of

fluid at position A while pB is pressure and VB is volume of fluid at
position B.

Flowmeter: A flowmeter is a device that is employed to measure the

flowrate of a flowing stream of fluid. Orifice meter, rotameter, Venturi
meter, turbine meter, electromagnetic flowmeter, and hot wire
anemometer are common examples of flowmeters. See flowrate.

193
Flowrate: It is the quantity of a fluid flowing per unit time. The
quantity of the fluid may be defined as mass (mass flowrate), number of
moles (molar flowrate), or volume (volumetric flowrate) of the fluid.

Flowsheet symbols: These are the symbols of equipments and piping

and required to prepare a process flowsheet that communicates the
process details. Some of the common flowsheet symbols are shown in
Fig. F-12. Different standards such as BS (British standards) and ANSI
(American national standardsi) provide flowsheet symbols. However, it
is not necessary to follow the standard symbols while building a flow
diagram. Combination of symbols from different standards or even
symbols developed by the designer himself can be used [26].

Fig. F-12 Example flowsheet symbols.

Flue gas: The gaseous product formed by burning off a fuel in a

furnace which leaves through the flues or chimney of the furnace. A
flue gas most often contains gaseous water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, and
nitrogen.

Fluid: A fluid is a substance that deforms continuously when shear

stress is applied, no matter how much small is the value of the shear
stress.

Fluid bed dryer: Also known as fluidized bed dryer. Solid particles to
be dried are fluidized by the help of a gas.

Fluid dynamics: Branch of fluid mechanics that deals with the study of
fluids in motion. See fluid mechanics and fluid statics.

Fluid energy mill: Same as jet mill. See jet mill.

Fluid friction: See skin friction and form friction.

194
Fluid mechanics: The study of the behavior of fluids at rest and in
motion under the influence of forces acting on the fluids. The two main
branches of fluid mechanics are fluid statics (fluids at rest) and fluid
dynamics (moving fluids). See fluid statics and fluid dynamics.

Fluid statics: Branch of fluid mechanics which deals with the study of
the behavior of fluids at rest (no fluid motion and no shear stress). See
fluid dynamics and fluid mechanics.

Fluidization: A process in which solid particles are set suspended in a

gas or liquid and the fluid-solid system behaves like a liquid. Large
fluid-solid contact area is possible and high rates of heat and mass
transfer are obtained. In contrast to a fixed bed, it does not require
shaping of the particles such as the formation of rings. Heat and mass
transfer rates are usually higher in a fluidized bed system as compared
to a fixed bed system. As particle size is usually smaller there is a less
resistance to internal diffusion. Removal and addition of solid particles
are easier therefore a fluidized bed reactor is preferred over a fixed bed
reactor where a catalyst requires frequent regeneration. However, the
catalyst particle may be reduced due to attrition. The flow of solids and
fluid are in cocurrent and therefore advantages of countercurrent are not
possible to obtain. Fine particles may be conveyed which may result in
the loss of solids and there is a need for a separator downstream to
recover the solids.

Fluidized bed: A bed of solid particles in a fluidized state. In a

fluidized bed, unlike a fixed bed and moving bed, solid particles move
both with respect to each other and with respect to the wall of the
container. See fluidization.

Fluidized bed dryer: Same as fluid bed dryer. See fluid bed dryer.

Fluidizing point: It is the point of minimum fluidization and the same

as incipient fluidization. See incipient fluidization.

Flux: It is the rate of a quantity per unit area of flow (area normal to the
direction of flow). As an example, heat flux is heat transfer per unit
time per unit heat transfer area. See heat flux, mass flux, and
momentum flux.

195
Foaming: It is a process in which small bubbles of a gas are
accumulated (dispersed) in a liquid and the volume fraction of the gas is
relatively large than the volume fraction of the liquid.

Forced circulation evaporator: In a forced circulation evaporator, a

centrifugal type pump is employed to increase the solution velocity
which increases the heat transfer coefficients. High values of heat
transfer coefficients cause a small size of the equipment. As velocities
are high so impingement baffles are used to reduce the entrainment. The
heat exchanger required for heating the solution is either used inside or
outside the evaporator body. External heaters are advantageous as they
offer easy cleaning and maintenance, however, operating costs are
usually higher. High circulation rates prevent boiling in the tubes and
prevent tubes from the excessive fouling. The evaporators have
relatively greater residence time so they must not be used with heat
sensitive materials. They are used with solutions in which solids may
tend to deposit as the solution is not vaporized in the heating tubes and
the high velocity tends to suspend the solids. They are also suitable for
highly viscous liquids. See Fig. F-13. See also natural circulation
evaporator.

Forced circulation reboiler: Unlike natural circulation reboiler, in

forced circulation reboiler, the fluid flow circulation is achieved by a
pump and not by gravity alone. Extra cost of pumping usually
discourages the use of these types of reboilers. However, they may be
important when used with viscous fluids and in fouling services. See
Fig. F-14. See also thermosyphon reboiler.

Forced convection: The convection or mixing of one portion of a fluid

with another where the mixing currents are predominantly produced by
the use of some mechanical (artificial) means such as fans, pumps,
blowers, compressors, or agitators is called as forced convection.
Forced convection greatly enhances the rates of heat and mass transfer.
See free convection.

Forced draft: A type of mechanical draft in which a fan is required to

push the air into the system such as furnace, air cooled heat exchanger,
or cooling tower. The system pressure is slightly above atmospheric
pressure. See Fig. B-3. See also balanced draft and induced draft.

196
 Fig. F-13 Forced circulation evaporator.

Fig. F-14 a) Forced circulation reboiler, b) thermosyphon reboiler.

Forced draft cooling tower: A mechanical draft cooling tower in

which a forced draft fan is required for the air to flow through the
cooling tower packing. Water is sprayed from the top of the tower,
distributed over the packing (fill), and collected in the water basin.
Much of the construction is the same as that of induced tower design,
however, one or more fans are installed at the bottom of a side wall and
197
side walls are essentially blocked to the air passage. The high air
velocity at the bottom causes difficulty in uniform air distribution. In
winter cold air comes into contact with the fan so problem of icing may
affect the fan performance. The fan comes in contact with the dry air as
compared to induced draft fan, so no extra cost is expended to protect it
from corrosion. There may be a problem of recirculation or short
circuiting in such towers. The warm and humid air leaving the tower top
is at a low velocity and may mix with the air entering the cooling tower.
However, low velocity may cause reduction in the drift losses. Table F-
1 gives a comparison between the forced draft and induced draft cooling
towers. See Fig. F-15. See also induced draft cooling tower.

Fig. F-15 Forced draft cooling tower.

Forced draft (FD) fan: The fan that is required to produce a forced
draft in a system. It pushes or forces the air into the system such as
furnace or cooling tower and produces a slightly positive pressure in the
system. See Fig. B-3 and Fig. F-15. See also forced draft.

Forced vortex: Forced vortex is characterized by the rotation of a fluid

under the influence of a constant torque and the fluid moves with
constant angular velocity. No shear stress exists in the liquid. The fluid
moves as a solid about an axis.

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 Table F-1 Comparison of forced and induced draft cooling towers
Forced draft cooling tower
Fan is installed at the bottom side
of the tower body and the air is
pushed into the cooling tower.
Walls are essentially blocked to
the air passage.
High air velocity causes
difficulty in uniform distribution.
In winter cold air comes into
contact with the fan, so the
problem of icing may deteriorate
the performance of the cooling
tower.
The fan comes into contact with
a relatively dry air, so less
corrosion problems and less
corrosion protection cost.
As the leaving air velocity is low,
so there is a problem of
recirculation of humid air, i.e.,
the back draft of humid air.
The problem of entrainment is
not as severe as for the induced
draft because the air velocity is
lower at the exit.
It is relatively noisier.
Induced draft cooling tower
Fan is installed at the top of the
tower body and the air is pulled
into the cooling tower. .
In cross flow or double flow
cooling towers, two sides of the
tower are opened for air to flow
into the tower.
Low air velocity at the bottom
does not create the problem of
distribution.
Problem of icing is avoided as
hot air comes into contact with
the fan.
The fan comes into contact with
a humid air, so corrosion
protection cost is higher.
As the air leaves at a relatively
high velocity, so the air
recirculation is not a problem.
Entrainment losses are higher
due to higher air velocity at the
exit.
Lower noise.

Forcing function: A forcing function is an input function such as step

input, impulse input, sinusoidal input, and ramp input that produces a
disturbance in a control process.

Form drag: Also called as pressure drag. When a fluid flows past an
immersed body, due to boundary layer separation, a low pressure area is
developed behind the body and a drag force is developed, due to
difference in pressures, on the body in the direction of flow. In return to
199
that, the body applies a force on the fluid and attempts to restrict the
flow of the fluid which is called as form drag. As the drag force is
dependent upon the shape and geometry of the body so is the term form
drag. See Fig. B-13. See also drag force.

Form friction: The frictional energy loss that is caused by free

turbulence is called as form friction. This type of friction is usually
caused across a fitting. For example, when a fluid flows through an
elbow, the velocity variations caused within the elbow give rise to free
turbulence and a lot of energy is lost in the eddy formation. Unlike skin
friction, form friction depends on the geometry and orientation of the
flow channel (fitting). The drag force is also form friction but the
definition requires the presence of a solid geometry immersed in the
fluid body. See skin friction, free turbulence, and form drag.

Forward feed evaporator system: In a forward feed multiple effect

evaporator as shown in Fig. F-16, the flow path of the feed and vapor
(steam) are in the same direction. Taking an example of a three effect
system, feed enters the 1st effect and flows downstream to the 2nd effect
and then to the 3rd effect. Steam required for the heating enters the
steam side of the 1st effect and vapors from the 1st effect travel to the
steam side of the 2nd effect and so on to the last effect. As the vapors
from the first effect are used as the heating source in the second effect
and so on, therefore, in order to create a substantial temperature
difference between the heating vapors and the solution, the pressure has
to be reduced in the second and third effects. Therefore, the first effect
has the highest pressure while the pressure is the lowest in the last
effect. Table F-2 gives a comparison between forward feed and
backward feed systems.

Fouling: The deposition of dirt (coke deposits, salts, sediments, fungi,

etc.) on the surface of the heat exchanger tubes with the passage of
operation. The fouling layer usually provides a resistance to heat
transfer and therefore not desired. See fouling factor.

Fouling factor: Also called as dirt factor. The dirt deposited on the heat
transfer surfaces has low thermal conductivity and offers resistance to
heat transfer. To account for the effect of this fouling resistance in heat
exchanger design calculations, a factor has to be introduced which is

200
known as fouling factor. Based on the previous fouling data of a
relevant exchanger, an estimated value of the fouling factor may be
selected for the exchanger in hand. A large value of fouling factor, if
selected, requires building a large heat transfer surface (large
exchanger) so high initial cost while a small value of fouling factor
needs a small exchanger. The final value required for a service is
optimized between the time for which the exchanger is operated and the
initial cost. In most of the services, fouling factors are incorporated in
the design based on one year operation of the exchanger without
cleaning. The reason behind is the annual turnaround.

Fig. F-16 Forward feed multiple effect evaporator system.

Fouling resistance: Also called as dirt resistance. The resistance to heat

transfer that is offered by the fouling (layer) on a heat transfer surface.
Fouling resistance provides an extra resistance to heat transfer in a heat
exchanger type equipment. See Fig. O-5. See also fouling and fouling
factor.

Fourier number: It is proportional to the ratio of the rate of heat

transfer by conduction to the rate of thermal energy stored in the
material. A large value of Fourier number means greater heat transfer
by conduction compared to ability of the material to store the thermal
energy. It is denoted by Fo.

 t k t
Fo  
l 2
 cp l2

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 Where, α, t, k, ρ, cp, and l are thermal diffusivity, time, thermal
conductivity, density, specific heat capacity at constant pressure, and
characteristic length, respectively.

Table F-2 Comparison between forward and backward feed systems

Forward feed
Feed flows in the same direction
as the condensing vapor. Feed
enters in the first effect and
product is recovered in the last
effect.
It requires no pumps for feed
movement from one effect to the
other.
It is suggested when liquid feed
is hot and where high
temperature is detrimental to
more concentrated product.
Backward feed
Feed is admitted to the last effect
and direction of flow of the feed
is opposite to the flow of the
condensing vapor. The product is
obtained from the first effect.
As feed flows from low pressure
effect to a high pressure effect,
pumps are needed for the feed to
flow.
Treating cold stream in backward
feed multiple effect evaporation
system is advantageous as low
pressure may cause flashing and
hence evaporation.

See multiple effect evaporator system.

Fourier’s law of heat conduction: It states that the rate of heat transfer
through a material is directly proportional to the temperature gradient
and the area for heat transfer. The proportionality factor is thermal
conductivity of the material. See temperature gradient and thermal
conductivity.

Fourier’s second law of heat conduction: The general conductivity

equation without the heat generation term is called as the Fourier’s
second law of heat conduction.

T
    2T
t
Where, T, t, and α are temperature, time, and thermal diffusivity,
respectively. See thermal diffusivity and Fourier’s law of heat
conduction.

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Fractional conversion: Same as conversion. See conversion.

Fractional crystallization: It is a purification process of crystallizing

multiple solutes from the mother liquid. The separation of various
solutes may be affected by variation in temperature or by the presence
of other salts which affect the solubility of a given salt. See
crystallization.

Fractional distillation: Also called as fractionation. It is the distillation

process with reflux. Partial vaporization and partial condensation occur
at successive stages and the rising vapor is enriched in the more volatile
component. See distillation.

Fractional voidage: Frequently known as simply voidage. See voidage.

Fractionating column: Also called as fractionator. Distillation column

with reflux in which part of the overhead condensed product is returned
back to the column. Partial vaporization and partial condensation occur
at successive stages and the rising vapor is enriched in the more volatile
component. See distillation and distillation column.

Fractionation: Same as fractional distillation. See fractional

distillation.

Fractionator: Same as fractionating column. See fractionating column.

Francis weir formula: The empirical formula that predicts volumetric

flowrates over the rectangular weirs. See rectangular weir.

Free convection: Also called as natural convection. Unlike forced

convection, the convective currents are produced automatically or
naturally, i.e., one portion of the fluid mixes with the other portion by
itself without the aid of external mechanical force (agency). Free or
natural convection is a result of the density differences at two points
which may be caused by temperature difference or concentration
difference at the two points. Heat and mass transfer rates are higher
compared to conduction heat transfer, but are lower than the forced
convection heat transfer. See forced convection.

203
Free energy: It is a measure of the maximum available (obtainable)
useful work from a system under prescribed conditions. Free energy is a
state property and absolute values of free energy cannot be measured.
Change in free energy is a useful criterion to predict the spontaneous
occurrence of a process. If the change in free energy is negative, the
process is said to be spontaneous, and vice versa. If the change in free
energy is zero, the system is said to be at equilibrium. Two types of free
energies are used in thermodynamic literature, namely, Gibbs free
energy and Helmholtz free energy. See Gibbs free energy and
Helmholtz free energy.

Free expansion: Same as throttling. See throttling.

Free moisture contents: The moisture contents above the equilibrium

moisture contents are called as free moisture contents. Free moisture
contents are the only possible moisture contents that can be removed.
Moisture contents below the free moisture contents cannot be removed
for the given conditions of temperature and humidity. See Fig. D-19.
See also equilibrium moisture contents.

Free settling: In sedimentation or settling when the settling velocity of

a particle is not affected by the wall or by the presence of the other
particles. See hindered settling.

Free swelling index: Same as swelling index. See swelling index.

Free turbulence: Unlike wall turbulence that is caused by the presence

of wall shear effects, free turbulence is caused by adjacent regions of a
fluid flowing at different velocities in the absence of wall shear effects.
A high velocity fluid jet penetrates into a low velocity liquid and gives
rise to free turbulence. See wall turbulence.

Freeze drying: In freeze drying, the drying of a material is affected by

the sublimation of water. There are substances such as some foodstuffs
and pharmaceutical products that require low temperatures for drying
and are unable or not recommended to be dried by the ordinary drying
methods. In freeze drying, the desired material to be dried is frozen and
vacuum is applied, i.e., the material is brought to the region of the phase
diagram where the solid water can only sublime to vapor without first

204
transforming into the liquid state. The vapors formed are collected using
vacuum pumps.

Frequency factor: It is the preexponential factor in the Arrhenius

equation. See Arrhenius equation.

Freundlich adsorption isotherm: An empirical adsorption isotherm

that is applied to correlate adsorption equilibrium data at constant
temperature. Unlike Langmuir adsorption isotherm (which assumes that
the heat of adsorption does not depend on surface coverage), Freundlich
adsorption isotherm assumes that the heat of adsorption is a function of
surface coverage and decreases logarithmically with surface coverage.
Moreover, surface coverage does not restrict to monolayer. See
Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

Friction factor: A dimensionless quantity which measures the energy

loss due to friction in a straight pipe. The concept is frequently applied
in a fluid flow pressure drop correlation and to find out the work
required to overcome the frictional forces. Various friction factors have
been defined in the literature such as Fanning and Darcy friction
factors, and Newton number. Friction factor is considered as a function
of Reynolds number and relative surface roughness of the pipe. In the
laminar flow regime, it is considered independent of relative surface
roughness and depends only on Reynolds number. In contrast, for very
high Reynolds numbers in the turbulent flow regime, it is taken as a
function only of relative surface roughness.

Darcy friction factor  4  Fanning friction factor  2  Newton number

See Moody diagram.

Frictional head: Same as head loss (due to friction). See head loss.

Frictional loss: The loss in the energy of a fluid due to frictional effects
caused by the piping flow rig. The frictional loss may be due to form
friction or skin friction or both and appears in the form of heat and often
called as mechanical energy loss. See head loss.

Frictionless flow: Same as inviscid flow. See inviscid flow.

205
Froth: Froth is a dispersion of gas bubbles in a continuous liquid phase.
In a distillation column, the intimate mixing of the vapor and liquid
over a single plate gives rise to an aerated liquid or froth. The aerated
liquid or froth has a lower density than the clear liquid (without froth).
See clear liquid.

Froth flotation: A separation process in which one of the components

is attached to the aerated froth becomes lighter and separated at the top.
The process usually requires the presence of a wetting agent.

Froude number: It measures the ratio of inertial forces to gravity

forces. It is denoted by Fr. It finds its application in free surface liquid
flows. See also mixing Froude number.

FT factor: Same as LMTD correction factor. See LMTD correction

factor.

FTIR: It stands for Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy.

Fuel: A fuel may be defined as an economically feasible gas, liquid, or

solid material that when burned releases heat energy or heat energy and
light. Natural gas, furnace oil, and coke are few examples of fuels.

Fuel cell: A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts chemical

energy of a fuel into electrical energy. The fuel is supplied on the anode
while an oxidant such as air is supplied at the cathode. Hydrogen is the
commonly used fuel.

FUG short cut method: It stands for Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland

short cut method. See Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland short cut method.

Fugacity: Fugacity of component is considered as a measure of its

escaping tendency to leave a phase. Though abstract, the concept is
widely used in solution thermodynamics (in phase and chemical
equilibria). Fugacity has units of pressure and as pressure approaches
zero fugacity approaches pressure.

Fugacity coefficient: It is the ratio of fugacity to the pressure of a

system. At low pressures where fugacity approaches pressure, fugacity

206
coefficient approaches unity. See fugacity.

Fully developed flow: The flow of a fluid where velocity profile is

fully developed is called as fully developed flow. This is usually the
case for some distance after and before a flow disturbance. See fully
developed velocity profile.

Fully developed velocity profile: A fluid flowing in a closed conduit

or over a flat plate requires some distance from the entry point to
completely develop its velocity profile. In other words, its velocity
profile shows some variations with respect to length and grows upto
some distance from the entry point after which the velocity profile is
fully developed and unchanged unless encountered another flow
disturbance.

Furnace: A furnace is a heat transfer equipment that is needed where a

large amount of heat energy has to be supplied to a given process
stream. In a usual design, the process stream to be heated flows through
the tubing arrangement within the furnace body and a fuel such as
furnace oil, natural gas or coal is burned in suitable burners to give the
required heat by radiation or by radiation and convection. Box furnace
and cylindrical furnace either at vertical or horizontal axes are the basic
designs of furnaces used in the process industry. See fired heater.

207
G
Gain: It is a measure of the change in output variable to the change in
input variable which causes the variation in the output variable. In
control technology, it is the proportionality coeffcient between Laplace
transform of the outpout variable to the Laplace transform of the input
variable where both the output and input variables are in the deviation
form (deviation from the steady-state value). Different terms such as
process gain, controller gain, proportional gain, and loop gain may be
used in the process control technology. Process gain describes the
steady-state change in the output of process variable due to disturbance
(input variable) in the system. Controller gain represents the variation in
controller output due to disturbance in the controller input. Proportional
gain is the name given due to proportional action of controller. A higher
value of gain indicates that system will show higher variation in output
variable. Loop gain is obatined by multiplying all the gains in a given
control loop. The term may alternately be used for the sensitivity of a
system.

Galileo number: It is the ratio of the gravitational force to the viscous

force and comes out to be a ratio of the Reynolds number squared to the
Froude number. See Archimedes number, Reynolds number, and
Froude number.

Galvanic cell: The electrochemical cell in which energy of a chemical

reaction is transformed into electrical energy. The cell is formed
between two different metals (having different galvanic potentials) or
two similar metals when present in different electrolytic solutions.

Gas: One of the three states of matter, namely, solid, liquid, and gas. A
gas does not have a fixed volume and shape in contrast to a solid and
liquid which have fixed volume. A liquid, however, does not have fixed
shape, but solid does. A vapor is also a gas. However, a vapor may be
distinguished, when required, from a gas and may be defined as a state
which can be compressed isothermally to a liquid or a solid. A gas, on
the other hand, cannot be isothermally compressed to a liquid or a solid.
A gas is therefore a state that exists above the critical temperature of a
pure component.

208
Gas absorber: Same as absorber. See absorber.

Gas absorption: Sometimes simply called as absorption. It is a

separation process based on the mass transfer phenomenon in which
one or more soluble components (solutes) are transferred from a gas
phase to a liquid phase (solvent or absorbent). For an air-NH3 mixture,
NH3 can be separated by the gas absorption using a suitable solvent. In
the air-NH3 mixture, NH3 is called as solute, and air is the carrier gas.
When water is used as a solvent it absorbs NH3 from the air-NH3
mixture (gas phase) and NH3 is transferred from the gas phase to the
water (solvent) phase. A relatively pure air and relatively contaminated
solvent leave the system. An absorption process may be a chemical or
physical process. Heat effects are usually not important in gas
absorption unless reacting components are present. High pressure and
low temperature favor gas absorption. Increasing pressure increases the
cost of the column (due to thickness of the column) or decreases the
cost of the column due to higher density of the gas at high pressure.
Moreover, a high pressure system needs more compressor power, if
required, which is again not desired. Chemical engineers thus need to
optimize the pressure conditions in the column. Increasing solvent to
gas (flowrates) ratio increases gas absorption and decreases the height
of an absorber. Decreasing solvent to gas (flowrates) ratio, the reverse is
true. In many cases of gas absorption, the liquid absorbent (solvent)
does not vaporize into the gas phase and the carrier gas is inert (i.e., not
soluble in the liquid phase). Therefore, unlike common cases of
distillation, not all of the components are present in both the liquid and
gas phases. The gas phase is well above its dew point and the liquid
phase is quite below its bubble point. The rich solvent leaving the
absorber requires some kind of stripping or distillation before it is used
again, i.e., to reclaim its absorption capacity. Many types of equipments
are used for the gas absorption, however, tray towers and packed
columns are the most widely used gas absorption equipments. See Fig.
G-1. See also absorber.

Gas burner: A gas burner ignites and burns a gaseous fuel such as
natural gas. A gas burner is either an atmospheric or a mechanical draft
(forced or induced) burner. For a mechanical draft burner a fan or
blower is required to supply the required amount air to the burner.

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 Fig. G-1 A typical gas absorption unit scheme.

Gas cleaning: The process in which gas phase is relatively cleaned or

made free from impurities such as dust, mist, carbon particles, etc. Gas
cleaning is different from gas absorption in that the cleaning
(separation) is not based on mass transfer. Bag filters, cyclone
separators, electrostatic separators, and washing (with water) are some
of the common ways of cleaning a gas.

Gas constant: Same as universal gas constant. See universal gas

constant.

Gas dispersed system: In mass transfer operations, one of the phases is

disintegrated or finely divided into droplets (if a liquid) or bubbles (if a
gas) and the second phase behaves as more or less a continuous matrix.
If a gas phase is disintegrated into tiny bubbles, the system is called as
gas dispersed system. See gas absorption.

Gas film: For a gas-liquid system, it is the gas side film. See liquid film
and two-film theory.

Gas film coefficient: It is the gas side mass transfer coefficient. When a
gas phase and a liquid phase come into contact, the ease of the transfer
of mass to or form the gas phase is expressed in terms of gas film
coefficient. A large value of the coefficient means there is hardly any
resistance on the gas side to transfer mass while the reverse is true when
the value is small. See liquid film coefficient and two-film theory.
210
Gas film controlled system: Also known as gas phase controlled
system. In a gas-liquid mass transfer process such as gas absorption,
according to two-film theory, the main resistance to mass transfer lies in
the two films, formed on each side of the interface. If the liquid side
film is offering negligible resistance to mass transfer as when the gas is
readily soluble in the liquid then the main resistance to mass transfer
lies in the gas film. Such a system is called as gas film controlled
system. See liquid film controlled system.

Gas holdup: In gas-liquid equipments such as sparged vessels and

bubble columns, it is the ratio of the volume occupied by the gas phase
to the total volume of the vessel. It is an important parameter in the
performance of a gas-liquid contactor. See holdup and liquid holdup.

Gas hourly space velocity (GHSV): In chemical reaction engineering,

space velocity is sometimes reported in terms of gas hourly space
velocity, which is the ratio of volume per time in hours of the gaseous
feed to the volume of the reactor. It is abbreviated as GHSV.

volumetric flowrate of the gaseous feed in cubic meter per hour

GHSV 
volume of reactor in cubic meter

It is normally reported for volumes measured at temperature of 25°C

and pressure of 1.013 bar. See space velocity.

Gas injection support plate: It has separate openings for the gas inlet
and the liquid discharge. The gas inlets are above the liquid flow outlets
and the gas is directly injected into the packing bed. A gas injection
support plate offers low pressure drop and does not prone to local
flooding. See packing support.

Gas meter: A gas meter is a quantity meter. The flowmeter measures

the quantity (volume) of a gas flowing over a period of time. The total
volume and total time are measured and an average flowrate is
obtained. See quantity meter.

Gas phase controlled system: Same as gas film controlled system. See
gas film controlled system.

211
Gas power cycle: For a gas power cycle, the working fluid is in a
gaseous state at all points of the cycle. See Brayton cycle and open gas
turbine cycle.

Gas turbine cycle, closed: See Brayton cycle.

Gas turbine cycle, open: See open gas turbine cycle.

Gasification: Gasification is process in which a solid material

(carbonaceous material) such as coal, biomass, or plastic is changed to a
gaseous product useful for energy generation and synthesizing
chemicals. In coal gasification, for example, a set of chemical reactions
with air, oxygen, steam, carbon dioxide, or mixture of these gases at
high temperature yields a gasified product.

Gasifier: A solid-gas contacting reactor in which gasification of a solid

material such as coal is carried out. Circulating fluidized bed gasifier is
a typical example. See gasification.

Gas-liquid equilibrium: The equilibrium established between a gas

phase and a liquid phase. It is different from a vapor-liquid equilibrium
as the gas phase is usually above its dew point while the liquid phase is
commonly below its bubble point. This type of equilibrium frequently
finds its application in gas absorption systems.

Gas-liquid equipment: Gas liquid equipment may be classified as gas

dispersed equipment and liquid dispersed equipment. Gas dispersed
equipments are those in which primarily gas phase (vapor phase) is
dispersed into small bubbles in order to enhance the rate of mass
transfer. Examples are bubble columns or sparged vessels, agitated
vessels, and tray towers. Liquid dispersed equipments are those in
which primarily liquid is disintegrated into small droplets or thin films.
Examples are Venturi scrubbers, wetted wall columns, spray columns,
baffles towers, tray towers, and packed columns.

Gasohol: It is a mixture of gasoline and alcohol and used as a motor

fuel.

Gas-solid equilibrium: The equilibrium established between a gas

212
phase and a solid phase. It is different from a vapor-solid equilibrium as
the gas phase is usually above its dew point while the solid phase is
commonly below its saturation (melting or sublimation) point. This type
of equilibrium frequently finds its application in gas adsorption
systems.

Gate paddle agitator: A gate paddle agitator, as shown in Fig. M-7,

consists of parallel vertical bars connected to a single vertical shaft that
turns at a very low speed. It is used for the high viscosity liquids where
mixing currents are difficult to produce and designed so that the
impeller can reach most of the places in the vessel.

Gate valve: A gate valve is shown in Fig. G-2. A disc or gate is

attached to a stem which is raised or lowered in the valve body to open
or close the valve. When closed, the gate rests on the valve seatings (on
each side of the disc). A gate valve is recommended to fully open or
fully close the fluid lines and it is not suggested for flow controlling
(throttling). However, if used for throttling, one side of the gate and the
relevant seating may be worn out. When fully opened, the flow area
provided by the valve opening is almost the same as the flow area of the
pipe and unlike a globe valve, the flow path is straight, therefore, when
fully opened it provides a low drop in pressure and that the pressure
drop is lower than that of a fully opened globe valve. See globe valve.

Fig. G-2 Gate valve.

213
Gauge pressure: The pressure above the atmospheric pressure or the
difference between the absolute pressure and the atmospheric pressure
when the absolute pressure is higher than the atmospheric pressure. A
manometer whose one limb is opened to atmosphere measures the
gauge pressure. The gauge pressure is usually represented by writing
letter “g” with pressure units, such as psig.

Gauge pressure  absolute pressure  atmospheric pressure

See absolute pressure.

Gay-Lussac’s law: It relates pressure and temperature of an ideal gas.

It states that for a constant volume and a given number of moles, the
pressure of a gas is directly proportional the absolute temperature of the
gas. See Boyle’s law and Charles’ law.

GC: It stands for gas chromatograph/y.

GC-MS: It stands for gas chromatograph/y-mass spectrometer or

spectrometry.

Gear pump: A gear pump is a rotary positive displacement pump.

There is a variety of gear pumps out of which spur gear pumps are the
commonly used gear pumps which are further classified as external gear
pumps and internal gear pumps. An external gear pump is shown in Fig.
G-3 which consists of two interlocking gears, enclosed in the casing,
that rotate in opposite directions to each other. Out of the two gears, one
is powered while the other is guided by the power gear (driving gear).
The liquid to be pumped enters the casing and trapped in the spaces
between the gear and the wall of the casing and directed towards the
outlet of the pump. A gear pump provides inline flow and unlike the
reciprocating pump, the flow is uniform (continuous) and not
intermittent. The pumping rate is controlled by the speed of the shaft to
which the driving gear is attached. Gear pumps are used for the high
viscosity liquids which also act as lubricants between the teeth of the
gears. See lobe pump.

Gempak: A corrugated structured packing.

214
 Direction
of rotation

Entrapped
Gear liquid

Fig. G-3 An external spur gear pump.

General heat conduction equation: Same as conductivity equation.

See conductivity equation.

Generalized compressibility factor chart: It is a graphical

relationship in which compressibility factor (z) is plotted against
reduced pressure and reduced temperature. The chart is used for
estimating the compressibility factor for the given temperature and
pressure of a gas or a mixture of gases. Critical properties of a pure gas
or pseudocritical properties of a gaseous mixture are required to
calculate the reduced temperature and reduced pressure. See
compressibility factor.

Generalized pressure drop correlation: Generalized pressure drop

correlation is applied for estimating the pressure drop in a packed
column for all types of random packings.

Geometric factor: Same as view factor in radiation. See view factor.

Geometric similarity: For two systems (a model and a prototype) to be

in a complete similarity, the systems should have geometric similarity,
kinematic similarity, and dynamic similarity. Geometric similarity
demands ratios of the corresponding dimensions of the two systems to
be equal. See kinematic similarity and dynamic similarity.
215
GHSV: It stands for gas hourly space velocity. See gas hourly space
velocity.

Gibbs free energy: Gibbs free energy measures the useful work that
can be obtained from a system involving pressure-volume (p-v) work. It
is defined as

G  H  TS

Where, G is Gibbs free energy, H is enthalpy, T is absolute

temperature, and S is entropy. See free energy.

Gibbs phase rule: It indicates for a given number of components and

phases, how many values of independent variables are to be specified to
completely define the state of a system at thermodynamic equilibrium.
For a system without chemical reaction, Gibbs phase rule may be
written as follows:

F CP2

Where, F, C, and P are degrees of freedom, number of non-reacting

components, and number of phases of a given system, respectively. For
a single phase and one component system, two independent variables
are to be specified to define the state of the system.

Gibbs-Duhem equation: The equation relates the changes in

temperature, pressure, and chemical potential to describe a
thermodynamic equilibrium. The following equation is known as the
Gibbs-Duhem equation.

k
S  dT  V  dp   ni  d i  0
i

Where, S is entropy, T is temperature, V is volume, p is pressure, ni

is number of moles of ith component, and μi is chemical potential of ith
component. The equation has wide applications in thermodynamic
phase equilibria.

Gilliland correlation: Gilliland correlation is used to determine the

216
number of theoretical stages required in a distillation column. It requires
the information of reflux ratio and the minimum number of stages. It is
the third step in FUG (Fenske-Underwood-Gilland) short cut method
for estimating the number of stages in a distillation column. See
Fenske-Underwood-Gilland short cut method.

Glitsch Ballast tray: It is a proprietary valve tray design.

Global warming: It is the slow rise in temperature of the Earth’s

atmosphere due to green house effect. See green house effect.

Globe valve: A globe valve places a plug in the line of flow to control
the rate of flow of a fluid. The plug is raised or lowered by a stem and
when the valve is fully closed it rests on the valve seating. The seating,
unlike a gate valve, is parallel to the flow direction. The seating (the
valve opening) is built on a somewhat raised platform, therefore, the
fluid needs to go round to flow through the valve opening. As the fluid
flowing through a globe valve has to take turns extra frictional losses
increase the pressure drop across the valve. Even when the valve is fully
opened there is always a constriction to flow and when fully opened it
offers greater pressure drop than a corresponding gate valve (straight
flow). While a gate valve is recommended for on-off (fully opened-fully
closed) purposes, a globe valve is designed for controlling (throttling)
the flowrate. This is because, unlike gate valve, the wear to the valve
seating and to the plug of the valve is uniform throughout. It is therefore
better than a gate valve when used for flow control or flow regulations.
However, it usually costs more than a gate valve. See Fig. G-4. See also
angle valve and gate valve.

Goodloe packing: A metallic gauze type packing that is used with

packed columns. It offers low pressure drop and large interfacial surface
per unit volume of the packing.

Graesser extractor: Also known as raining bucket extractor. It is a

liquid-liquid extraction device that consists of a horizontal shell with
vertical rotating discs mounted on a central shaft. The discs are fitted
with cups or buckets that rain down the liquids (phases) to increase the
rate of mass transfer between the phases. A Graesser extractor is shown
in Fig. G-5.

217
 Stem attached
to actuator

Stem

Globe Valve seat

Fig. G-4 Globe valve.

Fig. G-5 Graesser raining bucket extractor.

Graetz number: It is defined as the ratio of the thermal capacity of a

flowing fluid to the convective heat transfer. It relates to the thermal
entry length of a fully developed flow. A large value of Graetz number
shows a long thermal entry length.

Granular media filters: These are deep bed gravity filters. They
contain layers of solid particles such as sand and gravel. They are used
218
for slurries of low concentration of solids where solids are usually not
required. See deep bed filtration.

Granulation: Agglomeration by agitation is called as granulation.

Powdered particles are granulated to increase the size of the particles
and to decrease the surface area. The product of granulation is granules
of desired particle size. Granulation decreases the chances of lumping
or caking (caused by high surface area) and modifies the material
handling properties. Granulation may be caused by rotating paddles
mounted on a horizontal shaft in a stationary trough (pug mill), by
rotating whole body of granulator (pan granulators and drum
granulators), and by fluidizing the solid particles (fluidized bed
granulators). See agglomeration.

Granulators: Granulators are required to carry out the granulation of

solid particles. See granulation.

Grashof number: The dimensionless number is the ratio of the buoyant

forces to the viscous forces and denoted by Gr.

buoyant forces
Gr 
viscous forces

It has wide applications in natural convection heat transfer. For forced

convection heat transfer its contribution to convective heat transfer is
usually little and therefore it is ignored in the calculations of forced
convection heat transfer.

Grassroot design: In contrast to retrofit or revamp which refers to the

modification of an existing plant, it is the design of a new plant. See
revamp.

Gravity decanter: A liquid-liquid gravity separator which separates

two liquid phases using the gravity force. In a continuous gravity
decanter the velocity of the flow must be low enough that within the
decanter the heavy phase droplets must have sufficient time to coalesce
and settle down while the light phase droplets must rise across the
interface. Gravity decanters are usually horizontal vessels in which the
interfacial area between the phases is relatively increased and the
219
separation is facilitated. High voltage may be employed to increase the
rate of coalescence. See Fig. G-6.

Fig. G-6 Gravity decanter.

Gravity filter: Also called as bed filter. In a gravity filter, the slurry or
suspension flows under the influence of gravity force and a septum
(filter medium) placed in the flow of the slurry or suspension phase
separates the solids from the liquid phase. Gravity filters are used for
the cases in which small quantities of solids are to be removed and
solids handled are back washable and do not attach strongly to the filter
medium. Common laboratory filters and deep bed filters are gravity
filters. See deep bed filtration.

Gravity separator: In a gravity separator, phases of different densities

are separated under the influence of gravity force. Solid-liquid, solid-
gas, and liquid-liquid phases that form a heterogeneous mixture may be
separated in a gravity separator. The separator is frequently employed in
water treatment technology and in liquid-liquid extraction systems.
Gravity filters and settling tanks are common examples. See gravity
decanter, gravity filter, and settling tank.

Gravity settler: Same as gravity separator. See gravity separator.

Gravity settling: The process of separation of two or more phases of

different densities under the influence of gravity force. It is used to
separate solid particles from a fluid-solid mixture or a heavy liquid
phase from a heterogeneous liquid-liquid mixture. It is important to
mention here that gravity settling is applied only for a heterogeneous
mixture and not for a homogeneous mixture (solution). See gravity
220
separator.

Gray body: A gray body is the one for which the absorptivity does not
change with the wavelength of the incident radiation. A gray body does
not exist in reality. Real bodies are neither black bodies nor gray bodies.
However, gray bodies are good suppositions for real bodies [19]. See
absorptivity and black body.

Greenhouse effect: The warming up of the earth’s atmosphere as a

result of radiations from the sun which are not reflected back in the
required amount, but absorbed by the gases such as carbon dioxide and
water vapors present in the atmosphere. See sequestration.

Grid packing: Same as grids. See grids.

Grid support: Cross bars when suitably spaced can form the simplest
kind of packing support known as grid support. Depending on the
material of construction, the support usually has a high free area
available for the gas flow. The support has a tendency to be choked
when the column is dumped with a random packing which then
necessitates the initial layers to be stacked with large size packings such
as large size rings.

Grids: Also called as hurdles and grid packing. Grids are a type of
packing that is used in packed column especially in cooling towers.
Grids have a large free volume (high capacity) and offer very low
pressure drops. They give low efficiency and employed where
interfacial area is not important. They are useful in operations where
solid particles may choke the bed of packing. See Fig. G-7.

Fig. G-7 Grids.

Grind limit: For a given material and machine combination, if one

221
keeps on reducing the size of the material, the particle size will reach a
limit called as grind limit after which it is not possible to further
decrease the size of the particle.

Grinding medium: In some size reduction machineries such as

tumbling mills (ball mill, rod mill, and tube mill) a grinding medium is
required that brings about the size reduction process. Balls and rods in a
ball mill and rod mill, respectively are examples of grinding media. See
ball mill and rod mill.

Grizzly screens: Set of heavy bars or rods fitted parallel in a frame

with spaces available for screening coarse particles.

Gross calorific value: Also called as higher heating value. It is the total
amount of heat released without deduction when a specified quantity of
fuel is subjected to combustion and the water vapors formed are
condensed accordingly. The usual SI units for solid and liquid fuels are
kJ/kg while for gaseous fuels the units are kJ/m3. See net calorific
value.

Grosvenor humidity: Same as absolute humidity because it was first

introduced by Grosvenor. See absolute humidity.

Group contribution method: The structure of a component for which

a given physical property is to be determined is explored and the
contributions of various chemical groups present in the component are
accounted for to estimate the given property.

Gyratory crusher: It is a size reduction machinery that falls in the

category of coarse crushers. It is employed for primary and secondary
coarse crushing of very large size of material such as material from a
mine. It consists of a conical vessel that contains a heavy shaft. The
shaft is pivoted at the top while an eccentric bearing is attached at the
bottom of the shaft which causes the shaft to wobble. The material is
fed at the top of the crusher and crushed between the conical heads
(attached to the shaft) and the concave jaws (the wall of the equipment)
where the crushing operation is dominated by compression. Gyratory
crusher has a larger capacity and it requires less maintenance as
compared to a jaw crusher and load on the motor is more uniform than a

222
jaw crusher. It consumes less amount of power for the same crushing
duty and gives finer and more uniform product than a jaw crusher,
however, it is more expensive. A simplified diagram of a gyratory
crusher is shown in Fig. G-8 and comparison of a gyratory crusher with
a jaw crusher is given in Table G-1. See jaw crusher.

Fig. G-8 Gyratory crusher.

Table G-1 Comparison of jaw crusher and gyratory crusher

Jaw crusher
Motion is reciprocating.
Straight rectangular jaws.
Operation is not smooth.
Requires greater maintenance.
Low capacity.
It consumes greater power.
Low first cost, but high
operation cost.
Gyratory crusher
Motion of the shaft is gyratory.
Jaws are circular or concave.
Smooth operation.
Less maintenance is required.
High capacity.
It consumes less power for the
same duty.
High first cost, but low
operation cost.

223
H
Hagen-Poiseuille law: Also known as Poiseuille law. It relates
volumetric flowrate, viscosity, density, and pressure drop of an
incompressible fluid flowing through a circular pipe or tube. The law
applies only within the laminar flow regime and therefore it can be
applied to measure the absolute viscosity of a fluid.

Hairpin heat exchanger: A hair pin heat exchanger is essentially a

double pipe heat exchanger that shapes like a hairpin. See Fig. D-16.
See also double pipe heat exchanger.

Half life method of analysis: The method in which concept of half life
of a reaction is used for studying the kinetics of the reaction. See half
life of a reaction.

Half life of a reaction: It is the time elapsed in which half of a

chemical reaction is completed, i.e., half of a reactant is consumed.

Hammer mill: A size reduction machinery. It consists of a metal casing

which contains a horizontal shaft fitted with one or more circular discs.
Each circular disc carries four to eight hammers. These hammers are
loosely connected, dangling to the discs and club the material as the
discs rotate. There are both ordinary speed and high speed hammer
mills. The former falls in the category of intermediate crushers while
the latter falls in the category of fine (ultrafine) grinders. The method of
application of force is dominantly the impact and therefore the mill is
sometimes called as impact mill. In most hammer mill designs, the
material enters tangentially from the top and as it enters it experiences
blows of the hammers that cause it to strike with the breaker plate
attached to the side wall of the mill. The material continues to be
clubbed unless fine enough to pass through the screen, at the bottom.
The product size is controlled by replacing the screens placed at the
outlet of the mill. The speed of the mill and size and weight of the
hammers may also be used to increase the rate of crushing and the
product quality. This type of mill is used for the crushing of brittle
materials. Fibrous materials may also be crushed. When fibrous
materials are used, screens with sharp edges may be employed. A

224
common design of hammer mill is shown in Fig. H-1.

Fig. H-1 Hammer mill.

Hard water: Hard water has soap precipitation ability and contains
significant amounts of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions. Other
multivalent ions such as zinc, iron, etc. also contribute towards
hardness, but their role is usually insignificant because they are mostly
present in very low concentrations. Hard water is usually treated to
obtain soft water (contrary to the characteristics of hard water). See
hardness and soft water.

Hardinge mill: Sometimes called as conical ball mill. A modified form

of the ball mill that is used for the continuous fine grinding of solid
particles. The mill is conical in shape and contains different sizes of
balls segregated in different regions of the mill. The bigger sized balls
rest in the main part of the shell, where large sized feed is handled,
while smaller sized balls are placed near the end of the shell and handle
smaller particles. In this way, energy is saved as the small balls do not
fall on the large solid particles and large balls do not fall on the small
particles which otherwise can be handled by the small balls. See ball
mill.

225
Hardness: Traditionally, the ability of water to soap precipitation is
called as hardness. In water treatment technology, hardness is
(normally) a measure of dissolved calcium and magnesium ions in
water. The presence of other polyvalent ions such as iron, aluminum,
zinc, etc. also contributes to the total hardness, but their contribution is
usually not significant. The hardness caused by bicarbonates is called as
temporary hardness as it is possible to remove this type of hardness by
merely heating the water. Hardness caused by sulfates of calcium and
magnesium is called as permanent hardness as it cannot be removed by
simple heating of the water. See hard water.
In material science, it is the ability of a material to resist
indentation.

Hatta number: For gas-liquid systems, the dimensionless number is

defined to indicate the enhancement of gas absorption rate with
chemical reaction. It is the ratio of the flux of component A with
chemical reaction (chemical absorption) to the flux of component A
without chemical reaction (physical absorption).

Hazard and operability (HAZOP) analysis: Hazard and operability

analysis means a systematic assessment of identification of plant and
process hazards and operability problems.

HAZOP: It stands for hazard and operability analysis. See hazard and
operability analysis

Head: It is energy per unit weight of a fluid and it is the energy present
in a fluid due to its elevation, velocity, pressure, or any combination of
all these. The head due to elevation alone is called as elevation head or
potential head, due to velocity alone is velocity head or kinetic head,
due to pressure alone is pressure head and due to frictional energy loss
is called as frictional head. The sum of all these individual heads is
called as total head (frictional head will be subtracted as it is loss in
energy).
For a process vessel, a head or closure forms the closed end of the
vessel. Flat, torispherical (part of a torus plus part of a sphere),
ellipsoidal (elliptical), hemispherical, and conical heads are the various
kinds of end closures. Conical and flat heads are weaker than their
corresponding ellipsoidal, torispherical, and hemispherical heads.

226
Hemispherical heads are difficult to fabricate and therefore expensive.
Ellipsoidal and torispehrical heads are the commonly used heads with
the process vessels.

Head loss: Also called as frictional head. It is the energy loss per unit
weight of a fluid. When a fluid flows through a pipe or an equipment
some of the energy of the fluid is lost due to friction (skin friction and
form friction). Therefore, the total energy of the fluid before and after
passing through the system is not the same. This loss in energy
expressed in terms of head is called as head loss. Ultimately, these
frictional losses appear as pressure energy loss, so head loss usually
suggests pressure drop in terms of head, i.e., pressure head loss. In the
laminar flow, energy losses are proportional to the first power of the
velocity, but in the turbulent flow the losses are proportional to nearly
1.7 to 2.0 power of the velocity [27]. See frictional loss.

Head meters: Unlike variable area meters, head meters work on the
principle of change in pressure (differential pressure) or head developed
due to a constriction in the flow. Examples are orifice meter, Venturi
meter, elbow meter, and Dall tube. See head and variable area meters.

Header: A box or a large diameter pipe where many pipes (branch

pipes) emerge or end. Fig. H-2 shows the concept of a header.

Fig. H-2 Concept of header.

Heat: Also called as thermal energy. Heat is energy in transit (on a

way) when there is a temperature difference between the two points.
227
When energy travels from one point to another due to difference in
temperature between the points it is said that it travels in the form of
heat. Heat is a career of energy and conveys energy from one point to
the other and cannot be stored or possessed by a body. It is therefore not
a property of a body. Heat is a path function (not a point or state
function) and there is no point saying change in heat between the two
points. See work.

Heat balance: Energy balance, usually in combustion calculations, is

sometimes referred to as heat balance. See energy balance.

Heat capacity ratio: It is the ratio of the specific heat capacity at a

constant pressure to the specific heat capacity at a constant volume. As
both specific heat capacity at constant pressure and specific heat
capacity at constant volume are strong function of temperature, the ratio
of the two is not a strong function of temperature and therefore in most
engineering calculations, the ratio is usually taken as constant. For
monoatomic gases such as helium it may be taken as 1.6 while for air
and diatomic gases such as carbon monoxide and hydrogen, the ratio is
usually taken as 1.4. See specific heat capacity.

Heat diffusion: Also called as thermal diffusion. Molecular heat

transfer or heat transfer by conduction is sometimes called as heat
diffusion.

Heat duty: Same as heat load. See heat load.

Heat engine: It is device that converts heat energy to work (more

useful energy). As heat is a lower grade energy than work only a part of
heat energy is converted to work.

Heat exchanger: A heat exchanger is a heat transfer device which

exchanges heat energy between two process streams. However,
generally the term also includes coolers, condensers, and heaters that
utilize a utility stream to cool or heat a process stream. Double pipe,
shell and tube, plate type, compact, and spiral heat exchangers are the
common types of heat exchangers.

Heat exchanger effectiveness: See effectiveness, heat exchanger.

228
Heat flux: It is heat transfer per unit time per unit heat transfer area or
the rate of heat transfer per unit heat transfer area. The SI unit are
Js1m2 or Wm‒2. Heat flux measures the heat rate based on unit
surface and eliminates the dependence on the extent of surface. It,
therefore, facilitates in comparing the rates of heat transfer in various
systems. For curved surfaces (pipes and tubes), heat flux must be
specified whether it is based on the inside or the outside surface.

Heat load: Also called as heat duty. Heat load is the amount of heat
energy required to add or remove in a process to perform a given duty.

Heat of combustion: It is the heat of reaction for a combustion reaction

such as combustion of hydrogen to produce water. If the reactants and
products are both at standard state (1.013 bar and 25°C) it is standard
heat of combustion. See calorific value and heat of reaction.

Heat of condensation: Same as latent heat of condensation. See latent

heat of condensation.

Heat of formation: Also called as enthalpy of formation. Heat of

formation of a compound is the enthalpy change involved when that
compound is formed from its elements. If one mole of the compound is
formed it is molar heat of formation and if one mole of compound is
formed and the substances (reactants and products) involved in the
formation are at standard state (1.013 bar and 25°C) it is standard heat
of formation. By definition, heat of formation of a pure element is zero.

Heat of fusion: Same as latent heat of fusion. See latent heat of fusion.

Heat of reaction: Also called as enthalpy of reaction. It is defined as

the enthalpy change involved when stoichiometric number of moles of
the reactants react to produce the product. If the reaction occurs at
standard state (1.013 bar and 25°C) it is standard heat of reaction. Heat
of reaction is obtained by subtracting the sum of heats of formation of
the reactants from the sum of heats of formation of the products.

Heat of sublimation: Same as latent heat of sublimation. See latent

heat of sublimation.

229
Heat of vaporization: Same as latent heat of vaporization. See latent
heat of vaporization.

Heat pump: Heat pumps are refrigeration cycles that require work
input to transfer heat from a low temperature region to a high
temperature region. A refrigerator is an example of a heat pump.
However, the primary purpose of refrigeration is to maintain a given
space at a lower temperature than the temperature of the environment.
A heat pump, on the other hand, can be used both for the heating and
cooling of a given environment depending upon the direction of flow of
the working fluid.

Heat reservoir: Same as thermal reservoir. See thermal reservoir.

Heat sensitive materials: Materials that may be decomposed or

transformed when exposed to a high temperature are heat sensitive in
nature. In drying and evaporation operations, these materials are needed
to be treated in a short period of time in order to prevent appreciable
transformation. See falling film and climbing film evaporators, drum
dryers, and agitated film evaporators.

Heat sink: A thermal reservoir that absorbs heat energy. See thermal
reservoir.

Heat source: A thermal reservoir that supplies heat energy. See thermal
reservoir.

Heat transfer: It is a branch of physical sciences which deals with the

study of rates of heat transfer. The applications of the principles of
conduction, convection, and radiation are the subject of heat transfer. It
is important to mention here the difference between heat transfer and
thermodynamics. Thermodynamics deals with processes at equilibrium
and has no concern with the duration of time. It predicts the maximum
amount of energy that can be transferred and cannot suggest how much
time will be required for heat to transfer. On the other hand, heat
transfer describes the rate of heat transfer and suggests how fast or slow
the heat energy will be transferred.

Heat transfer coefficient: It measures the heat transfer ability of a

230
system and describes how fast the system can transfer heat. Newton’s
rate equation may be used to define the heat transfer coefficient as the
rate of heat transfer per unit area per degree change in temperature as
given by the following expression:

Q
h
A  T

Where, h is heat transfer coefficient, Q is rate of heat transfer, A is

heat transfer surface area, and T is temperature difference. Unlike
thermal conductivity, heat transfer coefficient is a complex function of
fluid properties, fluid velocity, system configurations, and temperature
difference. Table H-1 gives typical values of heat transfer coefficients
for the commonly used systems. See individual and overall heat transfer
coefficients.

Heat transfer equipment: A heat transfer equipment adds/extracts the

desired amount of heat energy to/from a process stream. The heat
energy may be added by burning a fuel (fired heater or furnace), by a
hot process stream that is required to be cooled or condensed (heat
exchanger), and by a utility stream such as steam (heater, evaporator,
and reboiler), while it may be extracted by a process stream that is
required to be heated or vaporized and by a utility stream such as
cooling water.

Table H-1 Typical values of heat transfer coefficients

Heat transfer coefficient
System Reference
(Wm‒2K‒1)
Condensing steam 5700–28000 [19]
Condensing organics 1100–2800 [19]
Boiling water 1700–50000 [28]
Moving water 280–17000 [19]
Moving hydrocarbons 55–1700 [19]
Superheated steam 30–100 [28]
Still air 2.8–23 [19]
Moving air 11.3–55 [19]

See individual and overall heat transfer coefficients.

231
Heat transfer fluid: A fluid that is required to exchange heat energy
with a process stream. Steam and cooling water are the most commonly
used heat transfer fluids. The selection of a heat transfer fluid depends
on the required operating temperature range, thermal stability, viscosity,
compatibility to the material of construction, etc. Combustion products,
molten salts, and some organic fluids may also be employed as the heat
transfer fluids.

Heat transfer j-factor (jH-factor): A parameter, proportional to heat

transfer coefficient and Prandtl number and that used extensively in
heat transfer correlations. It has its origin in Chilton and Colburn j-
factor analogy. See Chilton and Colburn analogy.

Heat treatment: The process of heating and/or cooling a material in

order to have the required properties in the material.

Heater: A heater adds sensible heat to a process stream and increases

its temperature usually by an external hot utility stream. Steam is the
commonly used heating medium. See cooler and heat transfer fluids.

Heating coils: Coiled tubing fitted within a vessel such as stirred tank
for heating the contents of the vessel. See Fig. J-1. See also cooling
coils.

Heating curve: A curve showing the relationship between heat energy

addition or time of heating and temperature of a substance is called as
heating curve. The heat energy or time is plotted along x-coordinate and
temperature along y-coordinate. See Fig. H-3. See also cooling curve.

Heavy ends: For a mixture of hydrocarbons such as crude oil, the

fractions that contain longer carbon chains and have higher boiling
points are called as heavy ends. See light ends.

Heavy key: Out of the two key components selected the component
which is heavier or less volatile is called as heavy key. See light key
and key components.

Heavy phase: For a binary liquid phase system, the phase having the
higher density is called as heavy phase. The concept is usually applied

232
in gravity settling or liquid-liquid extraction. In a column extractor, for
the liquid-liquid extraction, such as a pulsed sieve plate extraction
column the heavy phase is introduced from the top of the column. See
light phase.

Fig. H-3 a) Heating curve of liquid transforming to gas, b) cooling

curve of gas transforming to liquid.

Height equivalent to a theoretical plate (HETP): Also called as

height equivalent to a theoretical stage (HETS). It is equivalent to the
height of the packing that gives the same separation effect as an
equilibrium stage. Thus one HETP for a certain packing (say Pall rings)
gives the same composition change as a single equilibrium plate (stage).
HETP has no theoretical basis and for a known height of a packing, the
HETP can be calculated in the laboratory. In some cases correlations
are available to predict the HETP. The concept is used for calculating
the height of a packed column where the theoretical height required for
the packing = HETP  number of theoretical stages (plates) required for
a given duty. See height of transfer unit.

Height equivalent to a theoretical stage (HETS): Same as height

equivalent to a theoretical plate. See height equivalent to a theoretical
plate.

Height of a transfer unit (HTU): In order to calculate the overall

height of a differential contactor such as packed column, the concept of
transfer unit and height of transfer unit is frequently applied and the
height of a column is taken as the product of number of transfer units
and height of a transfer unit.
233
Height of column  Height of a transfer unit  number of transfer units

The part “number of transfer units” contains the equilibrium relations

and suggests the ease of separation. Greater the ease of separation less
will be the number of transfer units. The part “height of transfer unit”
suggests the rate of mass transfer and includes the mass transfer
coefficient and interfacial area. Greater is the mass transfer coefficient
and/or interfacial area within the column smaller will be the height of
the column. See number of transfer units.

Helical conveyor: Same as screw conveyor. See screw conveyor.

Helmholtz free energy: Also called as work function. It is the free

energy which measures the useful work that can be obtained from a
closed thermodynamic system at constant volume (no pressure-volume
work). It is defined as:

A  U  TS

Where, A is Helmholtz free energy, U is internal energy of the

system, T is absolute temperature, and S is entropy. See free energy.

Hempel distillation: A laboratory method of distillation for the

evaluation of crude oils.

Henry’s constant: It is the Henry’s law proportionality constant. It

represents the slope of the equilibrium line that follows the Henry’s
law. The units of the constant depend on the concentration units used in
the definition of Henry’s law. See Henry’s law.

Henry’s law: In a gas-liquid system, at a constant temperature, the

equilibrium partial pressure of a non-reactive gas is directly
proportional to the mole fraction of the gas in the solution. Or, at a
constant temperature, the solubility of a non-reactive gas in a liquid is
directly proportional to the partial pressure of the gas in the gas phase.
Even for non-ideal systems, this law is applicable when the solute
concentration in the liquid phase approaches zero. See Raoult’s law.

Heterogeneous catalysis: The study of catalysts and their use in

234
reactions where catalyst has a different phase to that of reactants. For
example, the study of the use of Pt over alumina catalyst for the gas
phase dehydrogenation reaction of cyclohexane to benzene is an
example of heterogeneous catalysis. See homogeneous catalysis.

Heterogeneous equilibrium: Unlike homogeneous equilibrium, it

involves more than one phase in the equilibrium mixture. Gas-liquid
equilibrium (gas absorption), vapor-liquid equilibrium (distillation),
liquid-liquid equilibrium (liquid-liquid extraction), and gas-solid
equilibrium (adsorption) are common examples of heterogeneous
equilibria.

Heterogeneous fluidization: Same as aggregative fluidization. See

aggregative fluidization.

Heterogeneous fluidized bed: Same as aggregative fluidized bed. See

aggregative fluidized bed.

Heterogeneous reactor: A heterogeneous reactor carries out a reaction

involving more than one phase in the reaction mixture (heterogeneous
chemical reaction). A gas phase reaction in the presence of a solid
catalyst requires a heterogeneous reactor such as fixed bed reactor and
fluidized bed reactor. A heterogeneous reactor may be a fluid-fluid,
fluid-solid, or fluid-fluid-solid reactor. A fixed bed catalytic (fluid-
solid) reactor is a principal example of such type of reactors. See
homogeneous reactor.

HETP: It stands for height equivalent to a theoretical plate. See height

equivalent to a theoretical plate.

HETS: It stands for height equivalent to a theoretical stage. See height

equivalent to a theoretical stage.

Higbie’s model: See penetration theory.

Higgins contactor: It is used for contacting solid and liquid phases in a

countercurrent continuous flow fashion.

Higher heating value: Same as gross calorific value. See gross

235
calorific value.

Hildebrandt extractor: Hildebrandt extractor is a type of solid-liquid

contactor (leaching equipment). It consists of a U-shaped screw
conveyor (three screw conveyors that form a U-shaped assembly) which
helps in the continuous countercurrent immersion type contacting of
solids and solvent. The solids are fed in one leg of the U-shaped
contactor and move (flow downward, then horizontal, and then
upwards) by the help of the screw conveyor while the solvent is
introduced in the other leg and a countercurrent flow direction is
obtained.

Himsley contactor: A continuous countercurrent ion exchanger in

which solid resin particles are fluidized by the flow of the liquid feed.

Hindered settling: In contrast to free settling, in hindered settling

(sedimentation) the settling velocity of a particle is influenced by the
wall or by the presence of other particles. See free settling.

Hold down grid: A heavy open grid plate that rests on the top of the
packing (without attaching to the tower) in a packed column. It helps in
avoiding the breakage of the brittle packings such as ceramic packings
and blowing or fluidizing out of the light packings. Hold down grid
keeps the bed fixed and secure during the pressure surges and flow
fluctuations. See bed limiters and packing restrainers.

Holdup: It is the ratio of volume of a phase to the total volume of the

mixture of phases, i.e., volume fraction of a phase in a mixture of
phases. For a liquid-liquid extractor, it is usually the volume fraction of
the dispersed phase (dispersed phase holdup) in a dispersion of
continuous and dispersed phases. For a gas absorption system, gas
holdup is the volume fraction of the gas in the gas-liquid mixture while
liquid holdup is the volume fraction of the liquid in the gas-liquid
mixture.

Homogeneous catalysis: The study of catalysts and their use in

reactions where catalyst has the same phase as that of reactants.
Production of biodiesel using sodium hydroxide catalyst is an example
of homogeneous catalysis. See heterogeneous catalysis.

236
Homogeneous fluidization: Same as particulate fluidization. See
particulate fluidization.

Homogeneous fluidized bed: Same as particulate fluidized bed. See

particulate fluidized bed.

Homogeneous reactor: Homogeneous reactors involve single phase

chemical reactions. Both reactants and products have the same phase
and if a catalyst is present in the reactor system it is also in the same
phase as the reaction mixture. See heterogeneous reactor.

Homogenizing: Homogenizing is a process of mixing dissimilar

components to produce a colloidal suspension or emulsion. Reducing
the size of fat globules in a milk in order to form a relatively stable
emulsion is a typical example.

Homogenizer: Essentially an agitator device that carries out the process

of homogenization. See homogenizing.

Hopper: Hoppers are used to feed the solid processing equipment such
as that used in leaching and size reduction operations. See Fig. H-4.

Fig. H-4 Hopper

Horizontal screw mixer: A solid-solid mixer which consists of a

horizontal trough with semi-circular bottom that contains one or two
screw conveyors. See screw mixer and vertical screw mixer.

Horizontal tube evaporator: It is a natural circulation type evaporator

in which heat transfer tubes are placed horizontally and steam
condenses inside the tubes while the solution boils off outside the tubes.
237
Overall heat transfer coefficients are low due to poor circulation
(convection) therefore it should be used with solutions having high heat
transfer coefficients. It is therefore not recommended for the viscous
liquids, but preferred to use with low viscosity liquids. The evaporator
is relatively easy to build and thus cheaper than a short tube vertical
evaporator. It needs relatively small headroom requirements and
acquires greater vapor-liquid space. It is used for non-scaling solutions
because fouling is difficult to remove as solution is present outside the
tubes. It is seldom used now-a-days in the process industry, however, it
may be employed for small capacity and non-scaling and non-salting
liquids. See Fig. H-5. See also short tube vertical evaporator.

Fig. H-5 Horizontal tube heat exchanger.

Hot spot: The glowing spot or area of intense heating.

Hot wire anemometer: An electrically heated fine wire probe is placed

in a flowing fluid. The flowing fluid removes heat from the wire and
causes cooling of the wire and changes its electrical resistance. The
change in the resistance is a measure of flow velocity. This is the

238
principle of a constant current hot wire anemometer. In a variation of
hot wire anemometer called as constant temperature hot wire
anemometer, the probe is placed in a fluid at a specified temperature
and to maintain the specified temperature of the wire electrical energy is
added by varying the voltage. The measure of the voltage is a measure
of flow velocity.

HP: It stands for high pressure. See LP.

HPLC: It stands for high performance liquid chromatograph/y and high

pressure liquid chromatograph/y.

HTU: It stands for height of a transfer unit. See height of a transfer

unit.

Humid heat: It is the amount of heat required to raise (or heat removed
to decrease) the temperature of unit mass of air-water mixture (sum of
dry air and water vapors) through one degree temperature. In other
words, it is the specific heat capacity of an air-water mixture. The SI
units of humid heat are Jkg–1K–1. It may be taken as the weighted sum
of specific heats of water vapor and dry air. The definition is useful in
humidification calculations. See humidity.

Humid volume: It is the ratio of the volume of air-water mixture (sum

of dry air and water vapors) to the mass of dry air (without water
vapors). It has a linear relationship with humidity. See humidity.

Humidification: The process which increases the humidity of air (adds

water vapors to air) is called as humidification. It is different from
stripping as the liquid phase is pure water. See humidity.

Humidifier: A humidifier increases the humidity of air and adds water

vapor to the air. Cooling towers, spray ponds, and house hold air
coolers are examples of humidifiers. See humidity.

Humidity: Also called as absolute humidity. Although the term may be

used in general for any gas-vapor system, however, it is frequently
referred to air-water system. For an air-water system, it is defined as the
ratio of the mass of the water vapor to the mass of dry air. Knowing dry

239
bulb temperature and wet bulb temperature of air (say using a sling
psychrometer), humidity of an air-water mixture can be determined
with the use of the psychrometric chart. See partial saturation and
psychrometric chart.

Humidity chart: Same as psychrometric chart. See psychrometric

chart.

Hurdles: Same as grids. See grids.

Hydram pump: Same as hydraulic ram pump. See hydraulic ram

pump.

Hydraulic hammer: Same as water hammer. See water hammer.

Hydraulic jig: It is used for the classification or separation of solid

particles according to the difference in their specific weights. In a
hydraulic jig, the water is pulsated upward and downward by a
reciprocating pulsator. During the action, the light particles flow to the
top and are separated by the heavy particles.

Hydraulic jump: The term relates to liquid flows in open channels. It

is a sudden loss in energy that occurs by a change from the supercritical
to subcritical flow. At the beginning of a hydraulic jump the flow height
starts to increase and the low velocity region gives rise to turbulence
and a lot of energy is lost in irreversibilities. At the end of the
phenomenon, again the fluid starts flowing smoothly. The supercritical
and subcritical flow regimes may be defined on the basis of Froude
number (Fr) similar to compressible flow regimes defined by Mach
number. Fr  1.0 , the flow is subcritical; Fr  1.0 , critical flow
conditions; and Fr  1.0 , supercritical flow regime [2]. See Froude
number.

Hydraulic mean diameter: For geometries other than circular cross-

sectional area (pipe) such as annular, the calculations of Reynolds
number and alike for the pressure drop and other correlations, hydraulic
mean diameter is defined. It is the ratio of 4 times the cross-sectional
area (flow area) to the wetted perimeter.

240
 4  cross - sectional area ( flow area )
Hydraulic mean diameter 
wetted perimeter

The concept is usually valid for turbulent flow. See wetted perimeter
and hydraulic mean radius.

Hydraulic mean radius: It is defined as the ratio of cross-sectional

area to the wetted perimeter. It is therefore one-fourth of the mean
hydraulic diameter.

cross - sectional area hydraulic mean diamter

Hydraulic mean radius  
wetted perimeter 4

See wetted perimeter and hydraulic mean diameter.

Hydraulic pressure: Based on the Pascal’s law, it may be said that

liquid enclosed in a confined space when subjected under pressure
transmits equal pressure in all directions. The pressure mentioned above
is called as hydraulic pressure. See Pascal’s law.

Hydraulic ram pump: Also called as hydram pump. It is a simple

pump which uses the energy of flowing water to pump a small quantity
of water to a much higher altitude. Hydram pumps do not require fuel
or electricity, but utilize the power of flowing water.

Hydraulic transport: The transportation (moving form one place to

another) of solid particles while suspended in a liquid. Water (low cost,
easily available, and non toxic) is the commonly used liquid for the
hydraulic transport. See pneumatic conveying.

Hydroclone: Same as hydrocyclone. See hydrocyclone.

Hydrocracking: It is the cracking of heavy fractions such as

atmospheric and vacuum residua to lighter useful products such as
diesel and kerosene fuels.

Hydrocyclone: Also called as hydroclone. Hydrocyclone imparts

centrifugal force and separates light and heavy phases. The action is
similar to a cyclone separator except the feed is a liquid. The feed enters
241
tangentially to the upper (cylindrical) part of the cyclone and the fluid
mixture swirls inside the body of the separator. The light material
moves upward and leaves at the top while the heavy material moves
downwards through the conical section and collected at the bottom. It is
important to mention here that like cyclones, hydrocyclones are
stationary devices and do not rotate. They impart moderate centrifugal
forces as compared to centrifuges which themselves rotate and are
capable of providing high centrifugal forces. See cyclone separator.

Hydrodynamic boundary layer: Frequently known as simply

boundary layer. See boundary layer.

Hydrodynamics: The study of dynamic characteristics of

incompressible fluids (liquids) is called as hydrodynamics.

Hydrofoil impeller: An axial flow impeller used with agitated vessels.

See impellers.

Hydrometer: A hydrometer is a calibrated device that is used for the

measurement of specific gravity (density) of a liquid (usually liquid
mixture such as ethyl alcohol-water mixture). It works on the principle
of buoyancy.

Hydrophilic material: It means water loving. A substance having high

affinity for water is called as hydrophilic. Polar compounds such as
ethyl alcohol, sodium chloride, and sucrose are examples of hydrophilic
material. See hydrophobic material.

Hydrophobic material: In contrast to hydrophilic (water loving)

hydrophobic means water hating. A substance that has little or no
affinity with water is called as hydrophobic. Oils, greases, and waxes
are examples of hydrophobic materials. See hydrophilic material.

Hydrosizer: Hydrosizer is a classifier in which upward flow of water

separates the solid particles. The feed usually enters form the top and
water flows upwards from the bottom to the top.

Hydrostatic equilibrium: For a fluid at rest, the pressure exerted by

the fluid is the same at all points where the effect of gravity is the same

242
(plane parallel to the earth’s surface).

Hydrostatic pressure: At a certain point within the body of a static

fluid, the pressure exerted by the fluid is the same in all directions. This
is known as hydrostatic pressure. Hydrostatic pressure is dependent on
the height of the fluid column and does not vary in the horizontal
direction where the effect of gravity is the same.

Hydrotreating: Hydrotreating is a purification process for treating

petroleum fractions such as naphtha to remove sulfur, nitrogen,
oxygenated compounds, aromatics, etc. in the presence of a catalyst and
hydrogen.

Hygrometer: The device is used for the measurement of humidity of

air. The electrical hygrometer, dew point hygrometer, and wet and dry
bulb thermometers hygrometer (psychrometer) are examples of
hygrometers. See psychrometer.

Hy-Pak rings: A type of random packing that is used with packed

columns. It is a modification of pall rings. The internal surface area of
the packing element is even greater than the Pall rings. See Pall rings.

Hyperbolic cooling towers: Same as natural draft cooling towers. Due

to the shape given to the natural draft cooling tower it is sometimes
called as hyperbolic cooling tower. See natural draft cooling tower.

Hyperfil: A wire gauze type packing used with packed columns. It has
large interfacial area and offers very low pressure drop.

Hysteresis in adsorption: In some cases of adsorption, the adsorption

and desorption equilibrium isotherms are not identical, at least for a
small part of the isotherms. This is called as hysteresis. Under these
circumstances, the concentration of adsorbed species is different in
adsorption and desorption under the same conditions of temperature and
pressure. Fig. H-6 shows hysteresis in adsorption. See adsorption.

243
Fig. H-6 Hysteresis in adsorption operation.

244
I
IBP: It stands for initial boiling point. See initial boiling point.

IC engine: It stands for internal combustion engine. See internal

combustion engine.

ID: It stands for inside diameter. See OD.

ID fan: It stands for induced draft fan. See induced draft fan.

Ideal batch reactor: An ideal batch reactor has the following

characteristics:

o No reactant enters or product is taken out during the course of

reaction.
o Concentration of a reactant is a function of time and decreases with
time.
o Mixing is so perfect that the temperature and composition
throughout the reactor system is uniform and concentration is not a
function of position.
o Residence time for each packet of the fluid is the same.

Ideal continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR): An ideal continuous

stirred tank reactor needs the following criteria to be fulfilled:

o An ideal CSTR is a 100% backmixed reactor.

o The reaction system is perfectly mixed and there is no composition
change with respect to the position in the reactor. Also, temperature
is the same at every point in the reactor.
o The compositions of the exit stream and the reaction mixture within
the reactor are the same.
o Due to the reasons outlined above, the residence time for the
individual fluid packets is not the same. The average of all these
residence times is the space time for the given reaction system.

See ideal plug flow reactor. See also Table I-2.

245
Ideal cycle: Also called as reversible cycle. A thermodynamic cycle in
which all of the processes, that constitute the cycle, are internally
reversible.

Ideal fluid: An imaginary fluid whose viscosity is zero. When flowing

through a conduit, its velocity profile is a straight line (no velocity
variation in the direction perpendicular to the flow direction) as shown
in Fig. I-1a. On a shear stress-shear rate diagram the line representing
an ideal fluid lies over the x-axis (continuous flow requiring no stress)
[29] as shown in Fig. I-1b.

(b)
Shear stress

(a) Newtonian fluid

Ideal fluid

Shear rate

Fig. I-1 Ideal fluid characteristics: a) velocity profile, b) Shear stress-

shear rate diagram.

Ideal gas: A model or hypothetical gas which follows the kinetic theory
of gases. A real gas behaves as an ideal gas when pressure of the gas
approaches zero and temperature is relatively high. Properties of an
ideal gas vary only with temperature and not with pressure. Therefore,
heat capacity, enthalpy, and internal energy of an ideal gas are
independent of pressure. See kinetic theory of gases.

Ideal gas constant: Same as universal gas constant. See universal gas
constant.

Ideal gas law: Also called as universal gas law. The simplest
relationship (equation of state) among pressure, volume, and
temperature of a gas is the ideal gas law. It is based on the kinetic
246
theory of gases and may predict the pvT behavior of a real gas when
pressure approaches zero and temperature is above the critical
temperature of the gas. In engineering calculations, it may be applied
for real gas problems when pressure is not greater than 5 to 10 bar.
Table I-1 shows the volumes occupied by an ideal gas under various
conditions and units of temperature and pressure. See ideal gas.

Table I-1 Volumes of an ideal gas occupied at standard conditions

Temperature Pressure No. of moles Volume
0°C (273.15 K) 101.325 kPa 1 kmol 22.4 m3
0°C (273.15 K) 101.325 kPa 1 gmol 22.4 L
0°C (273.15 K) 14.696 psia 1 lbmol 359 ft3
60°F (15.56°C = 288.71 K) 14.696 psia 1 lbmol 379 ft3
25°C (298.15 K) 101.325 kPa 1 kmol 24.5 m3

Ideal plug flow reactor (PFR): The following may be said about an
ideal plug flow reactor:

o Due to the plug flow nature, the residence time of all the fluid
packets is the same.
o There is 0% backmixing, so there is no axial mixing or mixing
ahead or behind a fluid element under consideration. There is only
radial mixing where radial mixing is so fast that there are no
gradients of temperature and composition present in the radial
direction.
o Concentration and temperature of the reaction mixture are the
function of the length (position) of the reactor.

See Table I-2.

Ideal solution: An ideal solution is the one for which the sum of the
volumes of the individual components is the same as that of the total
volume of the solution and there is no heat of solution. It obeys Raoult’s
law. Molecules of the components of the solution having the same size
and the same attractive forces (intermolecular forces) may form an ideal
solution. Mixture of isomers (o-, m-, and p-xylenes) and mixture of
adjacent members of homologous series (n-pentane and n-hexane)
normally form ideal solutions. For an ideal solution, liquid phase

247
activity coefficient is unity.

Table I-2 Comparison of an ideal plug flow reactor (PFR) and an ideal
continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR)
Ideal PFR
In an ideal PFR, the
concentrations of reactants and
products change along the length
of the reactor. Concentration is
therefore a function of the
position of the component in the
reactor.
There is no backmixing in an
ideal PFR, so it is the 0%
backmixed reactor.
The residence times of all the
elements of the fluid are the
same.
As the feed concentration
decreases progressively with the
length of the reactor, for the
same outlet concentration
(conversion) an ideal PFR
always requires a less volume
than a corresponding ideal
CSTR.
Ideal CSTR
In an ideal CSTR, the
concentration of the reactants
and products is the same
throughout the reactor, so
concentration is not a function of
position in the reactor.
Moreover, the outlet
concentration is the same as that
of the concentration within the
reactor.
It is the 100% backmixed
reactor.
The residence times for all
elements of the fluid are not the
same, but vary from very short
time to very long time.
As the feed is diluted upon
entering to the reactor, the rate is
lower. The volume of an ideal
CSTR is thus always greater than
the volume of a corresponding
ideal PFR. A large number of
CSTRs connected in series
approach to the behavior of a
plug flow reactor.

Ideal stage: Same as theoretical stage or equilibrium stage. See

theoretical stage.

Ignition temperature: Same as autoignition temperature. See

autoignition temperature.

Immiscibility: See miscibility.

248
Impact force method: In the impact crushing method, a single force is
hammered or clubbed on a particle. The particle may be stationary or
moving. The hitting of a ball with a cricket bat or a base ball bat is an
example of impact crushing method. Hammer mill is a typical example
of impact crushers. See attrition force method, compression force
method, and shear force method.

Impact mill: See hammer mill.

Impact pressure: Also called as stagnation pressure. The sum of the

static and dynamic pressure of a fluid is called as impact pressure. The
pressure in a flowing fluid is the static pressure which can be measured
normal to the direction of the flow of the fluid. Now if the flowing fluid
is allowed to rest against a wall, its kinetic energy is converted into
pressure energy which is known as dynamic pressure or kinetic
pressure. Due to this added pressure, the total pressure is now the sum
of the fluid static pressure and dynamic pressure and it is called as
impact pressure.

Impellers: Impellers are required to add energy to a fluid. They are

usually mounted on a shaft which is rotated by an electrical motor or a
turbine and therefore convert shaft work into energy of the fluid.
Impellers are used in pumps and agitated vessels. See mixing impellers
and pump impellers.

Impingement: The hitting of a high velocity fluid stream against a

metal surface (sheet) is called as impingement. See impingement plate.

Impingement baffle: Same as impingement plate. See impingement

plate.

Impingement plate: Also called as impingement baffle. A metal plate

that is used to reduce the velocity of an incoming fluid stream by
changing its momentum. This rate of change of momentum is the acting
force applied upon the metal plate. In heat exchangers, it the used to
protect the tube bundle from the high velocity effects such as erosion of
the tubes. In vapor-liquid separators, it is employed to reduce the
momentum of the incoming liquid droplets to help settle them at the
bottom. See Fig. C-11, Fig. F-1, and Fig. F-13. See also impingement.

249
Incineration: In waste management technology, the controlled burning
of solid wastes at high temperature is called as incineration. This is
carried out to dispose off solid wastes and to recover valuable heat
energy.

Incinerator: The reactor used for the incineration. See incineration.

Incipient fluidization: Also called as fluidizing point and describes the

point of minimum fluidization [30]. At incipient fluidization, the
pressure drop against the bed (the net upward force) is as much as that
is necessary to support the weight of the particles.

Incipient fluidization velocity: It is the same as minimum fluidization

velocity. See minimum fluidization velocity.

Inclined manometer: An inclined manometer is often used where very

low pressure differences are to be measured. One leg of the manometer
is made well type while the other is inclined at some angle. In inclining
the leg, the linear displacement is enhanced and therefore sensitivity of
the measurement is greatly increased. It is usually used for small
differential pressure measurements in gases. See Fig. I-2. See also
manometer and U-tube manometer.

Inclined tube evaporator: In an inclined tube evaporator, heater tubes

are inclined with the horizontal. Feed is entered from the bottom of the
tubes and flows upward as it is heated. The evaporator requires low
headroom and the heater tubes are easy to clean.

Incomplete combustion: The combustion process in which all of the

combustibles are not consumed and unburned combustibles from the
original reactants and/or the intermediate combustibles are found in the
combustion products. The presence of carbon monoxide, carbon, or
hydrogen in the product gases is an indication of incomplete
combustion. The presence of oxygen in excess to that excess oxygen
used for the combustion process may also be used as an index of
incomplete combustion. See complete combustion.

Incompressibility: The property of a material by which it maintains its

volume or density when subjected to a change in pressure. Liquids are

250
considered to have high value of incompressibility due to which they
are frequently used in hydraulic presses and brakes. See compressibility
and incompressible fluid.

Fig. I-2 Inclined manometer.

Incompressible filter cake: Filter cake, formed during a filtration

process, the properties of which are not affected by the applied pressure
at its surface. See compressible filter cake and cake filtration.

Incompressible fluid: If the density (specific volume) of a fluid does

not change appreciably with the change in pressure of the fluid, the
fluid is called as an incompressible fluid. Practically the density is not a
function of the pressure of liquids, therefore, liquids are normally
considered as incompressible. Gases are considered incompressible
only if the pressure variations are not significant. Under these
conditions, all the equations for incompressible fluids may also be
applied for the gases. See incompressibility and compressible fluids.

Indirect drying: The drying operation in which the heat supplied to dry
the product is not available primarily from the air, but some heated
metal plate, etc. is used to dry the material. See direct drying.

Indirect heating: Unlike direct heating, the heating medium such as

steam does not have a direct contact with the material to be heated
instead the steam is condensed outside or inside a tube or coil and heat

251
is transferred to the material on the other side of the wall. See direct
heating.

Indirect mass transfer operations: These are the mass transfer

operations which require a foreign or external component (solvent) to
separate the soluble component from the original homogenous phase.
Liquid-liquid extraction is an example. See direct mass transfer
operations.

Individual heat transfer coefficient: The inside and outside surface

heat transfer coefficients are the individual heat transfer coefficients and
together with wall resistance and fouling resistance coefficients they
define an overall heat transfer coefficient. See inside, outside, and
overall heat transfer coefficients.

Individual mass transfer coefficient: For interphase mass transfer,

according to two-film theory, a film is formed on each side of the
interface. The mass transfer coefficient based on each of this film is
individual mass transfer coefficient. See overall mass transfer
coefficient and two-film theory.

Induced draft: A type of mechanical draft in which a fan (suction fan),

unlike the forced draft, is placed at the exit of the system (say a furnace
or cooling tower) and draws or pulls the contents (say air) from the
system and throws them into the atmosphere. This way it creates a
negative pressure or draft in the system. For example, in induced draft
cooling towers, an induced draft fan is placed at the roof top of the
tower where air leaves the tower. See Fig. B-3. See also forced draft
and balanced draft.

Induced draft cooling towers: Mechanical draft cooling towers in

which induced draft is created to flow the air through the cooling tower
packing. A large diameter suction fan is installed at the top of the tower
which breathes in air from the bottom of the cooling tower and breathes
out at the top of the tower. Warm water descends down over the
packing (fill) and meets the air in the tower body. The cooled water is
collected in the cooling tower water basin. Induced draft towers are
either countercurrent or cross flow. In the countercurrent tower, the air
is admitted relatively from the bottom and flows upward while in cross

252
flow towers the packing is split into two sections. Two end sides of the
packing are opened for air to flow in. The air crossing through the
packing enters a central duct (the space without packing between the
two packing sections) and then flows upward to discharge at the top.
Drift eliminators at the exit of the tower are used in order to reduce
entrainment or drift losses. Induced towers have advantage over forced
towers as recirculation of the outgoing air is not a problem. This is
because the air leaving the tower is at a much higher velocity. However,
an increase in velocity may cause greater entrainment losses. See Fig. I-
3. See also forced draft cooling towers.

Fig. I-3 Induced draft cooling tower.

Induced draft (FD) fan: The suction fan that is required to produce an
induced draft in a system. It pulls out the air from the system such as
furnace or cooling tower and produces a slight vacuum. See induced
draft and forced draft fan. See also Fig. B-3 and Fig. I-3.

Industrial viscometer: Viscometers such as Redwood, Saybolt, and

Engler viscometers are often known as industrial viscometers. Unlike
Ostwald type viscometers, true laminar flow may not be achieved and
calibrations (correlations) are required for these types of viscometers.
The time of efflux is measured for a definite quantity of a liquid sample
to flow through the viscometer capillary and results are reported usually
in terms of kinematic viscosity.

Inert: In a chemical reaction such as oxidation (with air) of a

combustible, nitrogen remains unreacted and does not take part in the
reaction. Here, nitrogen is an inert. The presence of an inert component
253
is required when a large amount of heat is to be absorbed during an
exothermic reaction. However, separation of inert before the feed enters
to the reactor can reduce the size of the reactor and a greater amount of
heat is required for endothermic reactions when inert is present along
the feed reactant.

Inhibitor: An inhibitor is a catalytic material that retards the rate of a

reaction instead of accelerating the rate. Inhibitors may be used in
cooling waters for controlling corrosion in pipelines and process
equipments. Inhibitors may also be present as impurities or produced
during the course of a chemical reaction. See catalyst.

Initial boiling point (IBP): In ASTM distillation test method, the

temperature of the test sample at which the first drop of the vapor is
collected in the receiver. Generally, it is the starting boiling point of a
fraction (cut). See Fig. C-22. See also cut point.

Injection molding: A process that is used to form or shape

thermoplastic polymers. An injection molding machine heats the plastic
material, melts it, and pushes it to the mold of the desired shape.

Inline mixer: The inlet and discharge of the mixer are in the same line.
See static mixer.

Inline pump: The inlet and discharge of the pump are in the same line.
See gear pump and lobe pump.

Inside heat transfer coefficient: The individual heat transfer

coefficient for the inside surface of a plane wall, pipe, sphere, etc.
Consider a hot fluid is flowing inside a tube and a cold fluid is flowing
outside the tube. The heat will transfer from the hot fluid to the cold
fluid. The heat transfer coefficient based on the inside fluid resistance
(film) is called as inside heat transfer coefficient. See individual heat
transfer coefficient. See Fig. O-5.

In-situ process: The process which takes place at the original position
and the processing contents are not transferred to another location. As
an example, in-situ treatment of solid waste is the treatment of waste
where it is located and not by transferring it to another place and then

254
treating (ex-situ). Also, if the regeneration of a catalyst is carried out
within the reactor where the reaction takes place and not in a separate
vessel (ex-situ), the process is in-situ regeneration. See ex-situ process.

Instrumentation: It is the use of measurement and regulatory devices

for the control of a process.

Insulation, thermal: See thermal insulation.

Intalox saddles: A type of random packing that is used with packed

columns. It is a modification of the Berl saddles and has some
advantages over the Berl saddles. It is easier to manufacture and has
lower pressure drop and higher surface area per unit volume of the
packed column. Moreover, it has higher capacity than the Berl saddles.
See Fig. P-3. See also Berl saddles.

Integral control action: Also called as automatic reset. It refers to the

control action in which the controller output is proportional to the
integral of the error. It removes offset, however, it gives rise to
oscillations. See derivative control action.

Integral reactor: See differential reactor.

Integral time: Also called as reset time. It is an important parameter of

the integral mode of a controller. Integral mode removes offset by
repeating proportional action and integral time represents the time in
which integral mode repeats the proportional action. Smaller is the
integral time faster will be the response of the controller, and vice versa.
See integral control action.

Integral windup: Same as reset windup. See reset windup.

Intensive property: Intensive property does not depend on the extent

or quantity of a substance. The composition of a salt solution will not
change even if it is divided into 10 parts (say). Each part will have the
same composition. A thermodynamic property per unit mass such as
specific enthalpy and specific volume are intensive properties. See
extensive property.

255
Intercooler: Intercoolers are simply heat exchangers that are used to
cool down a process stream between two heating stages. In a multistage
compression system (compressor), an intercooler is required to decrease
the temperature of the gas between any two stages. This is done in order
to enhance the efficiency of the multistage equipment as the adiabatic
compression of gases requires more energy than the isothermal
compression of gases. See intercooling. See also Fig. M-8.

Intercooling: Also called as interstage cooling. The cooling of a

process stream between two stages of a heating process. As an example,
intercooling is carried out in multistage compression systems to
decrease the temperature of the gas entering the next stage. See
intercooler.

Interface: The boundary surface formed at the contact of two

immiscible or partially miscible phases. The two phases may be liquid-
liquid, liquid-solid, gas-solid, gas-liquid or solid-solid phases.

Interfacial area: The surface area of contact for the two phases at the
interface. See interface.

Interfacial surface: Same as interfacial area. See interfacial area.

Interfacial tension: It is the force acting per unit length of the interface
(formed between two immiscible or partially miscible phases)
perpendicular to the force. It is a measure of the molecular tension
(stretch) at the interface developed between the phases. A greater
interfacial tension means a greater amount of energy is required to
increase the interfacial area. Interfacial tension is of great importance in
liquid-liquid extraction and gravity settling of the liquid phases. A large
value of interfacial tension means the formation of large size of drops
for the dispersed liquid phase. A large drop size affects the holdup and
interfacial surface and therefore affects the performance of an extractor.
A large drop size also increases the rate of settling of the dispersed
phase.

Interfacial turbulence: Apart from the turbulence generated by usual

fluid dynamic principles, during mass transfer between phases
(interphase mass transfer) interfacial turbulence may arise from the

256
interfacial tension gradients generated at the interface. The interfacial
turbulence causes rates of mass transfer to enhance substantially than
what expected without interfacial turbulence.

Intermediate reflux: Same as pumparound. See pumparound.

Internal combustion (IC) engine: In an internal combustion engine, a

fuel is injected directly into the cylinders of the engine and the energy is
given off by the combustion taking place within the cylinders of the
engine. Otto engine and Diesel engine are typical examples. See Otto
cycle and Diesel cycle.

Internal diffusion: Same as pore diffusion. See pore diffusion.

Internal diffusion controlled system: Also called as pore diffusion

controlled system. If the overall or global rate of a reaction is controlled
by the internal or pore diffusion, i.e., when the main or controlling
resistance to the overall rate of the reaction is present in the internal or
pore diffusion of the catalyst, the system is said to be internal diffusion
controlled system. See pore diffusion and rate controlling step.

Internal energy: The sum of both the kinetic and potential energies of
molecules of a material is called as internal energy. The energy due to
attractive and repulsive forces between the molecules is potential
energy while the translational, rotational, and vibrational motions of
molecules give rise to the kinetic energy. The same may be interpreted
for ionic and atomic materials. See enthalpy.

Internal floating head heat exchanger: In an internal floating head

heat exchanger, the rear end of the tube bundle is not fixed to the shell
and therefore free to move within the body of the shell. An internal
floating head may be categorized as pull through floating head and the
one that uses a split ring assembly. A pull through floating head needs a
larger diameter shell and is usually not a first choice. The use of split
ring reduces the shell size (cost of the shell) and facilitates in
dismantling the exchanger for cleaning and maintenance. See floating
head heat exchanger.

Internal reboiler: Reboilers integrated with distillation columns are

257
either used externally or internally. Internal reboilers are fitted within
the body of a distillation column. The assembly of this type of reboiler
does not require a separate shell and a lot of piping is also saved.
Internal reboiler is cheaper than a corresponding external reboiler,
however, it provides lower surface area for the heat transfer. See Fig. I-
4. See also external reboiler.

(a) (b)

Vapors
Steam Vapors

Steam

Condensate

Vertical baffle Condensate

Bottom product Bottom product
Fig. I-4 a) Internal reboiler, b) external reboiler

Internal reflux ratio: In contrast to the external reflux ratio (reflux

ratio) which is the ratio of the molar flowrate of the reflux (liquid
returned to the column) to the distillate (condensed liquid product),
internal reflux ratio is the ratio of the molar flowrate of the reflux
(liquid returned to the column) to the molar flowrate of the vapor
exiting at the top of the column. See Fig. D-11. See also external reflux
ratio.

Internally reversible process: A process is said to be internally

reversible if no irreversibilities occur within a system, i.e., within a
system boundary. A reversible or totally reversible process should be
both externally as well as internally reversible. See externally reversible
process.

Interphase mass transfer: Interphase mass transfer describes the

transfer of mass between phases. In interphase mass transfer two or
more phases are brought in intimate contact and mass is transferred
from one phase to the other and the phases are then separated
258
accordingly. The equilibrium between the phases may or may not be
reached.

Interstage cooling: Same as intercooling. See intercooling.

Invariant system: An invariant system is the one which has zero

degrees of freedom.

Inverted manometer: It is an inverted U-tube manometer that is used

where the manometeric fluid is lighter (less dense) than the process
fluid. See Fig. I-5. See also U-tube manometer.

Inviscid flow: Also called as frictionless flow. Under certain

circumstances, real fluids may show negligible effect of viscosity and
the flow is considered as inviscid flow. The velocity profile for such a
flow behavior is a straight line showing no variation in velocity in the
direction perpendicular to the flow. See ideal fluid. See also Fig. I-1a.

Iodine number: Same as iodine value. See iodine value.

Iodine value: Also called as iodine number. It is the number of grams

(g) of iodine absorbed by 100 grams (g) of a given oil sample. It is a
measure of unsaturation in an oil and greater is the iodine value greater
will be the unsaturation in the oil sample.

Fig. I-5 Inverted manometer.

259
Ion exchange: The process of exchanging an ion from a solution
usually with a resin or a zeolite. Ion exchange process is a widely used
technique in the water softening and the catalyst preparation. See water
softening.

IPS: It stands for iron pipe size. It is a pipe size standard system.

IR spectroscopy: It stands for infrared spectroscopy.

Irradiation: Irradiation is the rate at which radiation is incident upon a

surface per unit area.

Irreversible process: A process which is not reversible and occurs with

dissipation of energy (degradation of useful energy), i.e., accompanied
by an increase in entropy of the universe is an irreversible process. In
contrast to a reversible process, in an irreversible process both the
system and the surroundings together cannot be restored to their
original state. See reversible process.

Irrotational flow: It is the flow of a fluid with zero angular velocity.

Isenthalpic process: Also known as isoenthalpic process. A

thermodynamic process in which enthalpy of a system remains constant
is called as isenthalpic process. Throttling process is generally assumed
to occur under isenthalpic conditions.

Isentropic efficiency: The thermal efficiency of a turbine or

compressor defined with respect to an adiabatic and reversible, i.e.,
isentropic process. For a turbine, it is the ratio of the actual work
obtained from a turbine to the work obtained if the turbine operates
under isentropic conditions. For a compressor, it is the ratio of
isentropic work input to the compressor to the actual work input to the
compressor.

Isentropic process: Also termed as isoentropic process. A

thermodynamic process in which entropy of a system remains constant
is called as isentropic process. An adiabatic and reversible process is an
isentropic process. Under isentropic conditions, the maximum wok can
be extracted from a turbine and the minimum work is required by a

260
compressor and a pump.

ISO: It stands for international organization for standardization.

Isobar: The path (series of points shown on a coordinate plane) of

constant pressure is called as isobar. Each of the points of an isobar is at
the same pressure. See isobaric process.

Isobaric process: Also called as isopiestic process. A process in which

pressure remains constant is an isobaric process.

Isochore: The path (series of points shown on a coordinate plane) of

constant volume is called as isochore. Each of the points of an isochore
is at the same volume. See isochoric process.

Isochoric process: Also called as isometric process. A process in which

volume remains constant is an isochoric process.

Isoenthalpic process: Same as isenthalpic process. See isenthalpic

process.

Isoentropic process: Same as isentropic process. See isentropic

process.

Isolated pores: A porous solid (adsorbent or catalyst) may contain

various kinds of pore structures. Some of the pore channels may be
opened to the fluid from one end only, some may be accessible from
both ends, and still some of the pores may be blocked and not
accessible to the surrounding fluid from any direction. The pores which
are not accessible to the fluid from any direction are called as isolated
pores.

Isolated system: The system in which neither mass nor energy can
enter and leave the system. See open system and closed system.

Isolation valve: The valve is used to isolate a process equipment from

the main process flows for the purpose of bypassing or maintenance.

Isoline: A path along which a scalar is constant.

261
Isometric process: Same as isochoric process. See isochoric process.

Isopiestic process: Isobaric or constant pressure process is sometimes

called as isopiestic process. See isobaric process.

Isostere, adsorption: See adsoprtion isostere.

Isotherm: The path (series of points shown on a coordinate plane) of

constant temperature is called as isotherm. Each of the points of an
isotherm is at the same temperature. See isothermal process.

Isothermal compressibility: It measures the change in volume of a

substance with a differential change in pressure divided by original
volume of the substance while keeping temperature as constant.
Mathematically, it may be shown as:

1  V 
     
V  p T

Where,  is the isothermal compressibility and p, V, and T are

pressure, volume, and temperature, respectively. Negative sign is used
to make  as positive. The divider V is used for  to be independent of
volume for the given substance. The SI units of  are Pa1. See volume
expansivity.

Isothermal process: The process in which temperature remains

constant.

Isothermal reactor: A reactor in which the reaction mixture is

maintained at a constant temperature is called as an isothermal reactor.
Unlike adiabatic reactor, heat energy is added or removed in order to
maintain the temperature at the desired level. Jacketed, coiled, and
multitubular reactor systems are the common configurations for the
isothermal reactors. However, mixing cold or preheated feed to the
reaction mixture at some intermediate stage in the reactor may also be
carried out. Mixing a part of the feed not only controls the temperature,
but it is also useful in altering the rate of the reaction. See Fig. I-6. See
also adiabatic reactor.

262
 Fig. I-6 Types of reactors: a) multitubular isothermal reactor, b)
adiabatic reactor, c) multibed fixed bed isothermal reactor.

Isotropic material: For an isotropic material, a physical property such

as density is the same in all directions and does not vary with the
change in the direction. Homogeneous materials such as aluminum,
water, and air are examples of isotropic materials. See isotropy and
anisotropic material.

Isotropy: A material may have the same value of a property such as

density in each direction. This characteristic of the material is called as
isotropy. See anisotropy.

263
J
Jacketed vessel: A double walled heat transfer vessel in which hot or
cold fluid flows in the jacket (the space between the two walls) to heat
up or cool down the contents of the vessel. A jacketed vessel is usually
used with stirred tank reactors or reboilers in batch stills. See Fig. J-1.

Fig. J-1 a) Agitated vessel with internal heating/cooling coils,

b) agitated vessel with heating/cooling jacket.

Jakob number: A dimensionless number that is the ratio of the

maximum sensible heat transfer to the maximum latent heat transfer.

Jaw crusher: It is a size reduction machinery that is used for coarse

crushing of the solid particles. It consists of two jaws that form a V-
shaped opening at the top as shown in Fig. J-2. One of the jaws is
moving (reciprocates) while the other is stationary and used as an anvil.
As the operation is intermittent, a heavy flywheel is needed to uniform
the operation. Material is fed at the top of the V-shaped opening and
crushed under the action of dominantly compression force. The crushed
material is discharged through the jaws via an opening at the bottom.
The size of the discharge opening, the angle between the jaws, and
material of the jaws are the important factors in determining the size of
the product. See Blake jaw crusher, Dodge jaw crusher, and universal
jaw crusher.

Jet condenser: In a jet condenser, the cooling medium (cooling water)

comes in direct contact with the vapors (steam) to be condensed. The
264
cooling medium is sprayed through the nozzles and mixes lively with
the vapors. Barometric condenser is a type of jet condenser. See
barometric condenser.

Fig. J-2 Jaw crusher.

Jet mill: Also called as fluid energy mill. A jet mill is a size reduction
machinery used for the fine grinding of solid particles. The mill is a
stationary device with no moving parts. High velocity air or nitrogen
enters the mill and the solid particles experience the impact forces by
colliding with each other or with the wall of the container.

Jet mixing: In a jet mixing operation, a stream of liquid is pumped

from the jet mixing tank and forced to flow through a series of nozzles
and injected back to the tank in the form of high velocity fluid jets. The
liquid surrounding the jets having high pressure penetrates into the jets
and therefore mixed.

j-factor: The parameter appears in the development of Chilton and

Colburn analogy. Two types of j-factors are defined: j-factor for the
mass transfer (jD-factor) and j-factor for the heat transfer (jH-factor).
The j-factors are involved in many heat and mass transfer correlations
and according to the j-factor analogy, j-factors for heat and mass
transfer are equal under the same conditions which suggests that the
mass transfer coefficient may be predicted while knowing the heat
transfer coefficient, and vice versa. See Chilton and Colborn analogy.

265
j-factor analogy: Same as Chilton and Colburn analogy. See Chilton
and Colburn analogy.

jD-factor: It is the j-factor for mass transfer (diffusion). See j-factor

and mass transfer j-factor.

jH-factor: It is the j-factor for heat transfer. See j-factor and heat
transfer j-factor.

Jig: See hydraulic jig.

Jigging: Jigging is a hydraulic classification process that is used for the

separation of solid particles. In a jigging operation, the water employed
is pulsated upward and downward to expand and contract the bed of
solid particles of varying densities. The light particles flow upward and
separated by the heavy particles. See hydraulic jig.

Joule-Thomson coefficient: It measures the change in temperature as a

result of the Joule-Thomson effect for a given decrease in pressure
(under constant enthalpy conditions). The coefficient is represented by
 JT . When  JT  0 , the result is the cooling or decrease in temperature,
while for  JT  0 an increase in temperature is the result. See Joule-
Thomson effect.

Joule-Thomson effect: If a gas is passed through a constriction in such

a way that no heat enters or leaves the system, the process (adiabatic
throttling process) is called as Joule-Thomson effect or Joule-Thomson
expansion. The effect results in a reduction in pressure at constant
enthalpy process (isenthalpic process) usually with a decrease in
temperature. However, depending upon the nature of gas, a rise in
temperature may result instead of a drop in temperature. For an ideal
gas, a decrease in pressure at constant enthalpy does not affect the
temperature, therefore, temperature remains constant. The process is
usually employed in cooling and liquefaction processes.

266
K
Karr extraction column: It is a type of agitated liquid-liquid column
extractor. In the Karr column, perforated plates are attached to a central
vertical shaft. Unlike other agitated column extractors such as RDC
(rotating disc contactor), Scheibel extractor, and Kühni extractor, the
agitation is caused by reciprocating (upwards and downwards) the plate
cartridge at a small amplitude. Backmixing is minimized by the use of
annular (ring) baffles. See Fig. K-1. See also reciprocating pulsed
extraction column.

Fig. K-1 Karr reciprocating plate extractor.

Kauri-butanol value: The result of a test on hydrocarbon solvents to

measure the relative power of solvents. It is the number of milliliters
(mL) of a solvent required to produce the defined degree of turbidity
267
when mixed with a standard solution of kauri resin in butanol. A higher
value shows a greater solvent power.

Kay’s rule: For a mixture of components, Kay has developed the

concept of pseudocritical properties. The pseudocritical properties of a
mixture have the same importance as the critical properties of pure
components. According to the rule, pseudocritical value of a mixture of
two or more components can be taken as the simple molar average of
the critical values of all the components present. These pseudo
properties are then employed for the estimation of the mixture
compressibility factor or other physical properties.

Kelvin temperature scale: It is an absolute temperature scale on which

the boiling point of water is taken as 373.15 K and the freezing point of
water is taken as 273.15 K. The size of the degree on the Kelvin scale is
the same as that on the Celsius scale. It is related to the Celsius scale as
T (K) = T (°C) + 273.15. See Rankine temperature scale.

Kennedy extractor: A continuous device used for a leaching operation.

Ker-McGee uranium extractor: A combined mixer-settler device for

the liquid-liquid extraction.

Kern method: A heat exchanger design method that is based on the

actual data of industrial exchangers. The method is simple and easily
approachable. However, it is usually not recommended for the shell side
calculations as it does not account for the shell side leakages and
bypassing. Bell-Delaware method is a better choice at the cost of more
complexity. See Bell-Delaware method.

Kettle type reboiler: A kettle type reboiler (an integral part of a

distillation column) is shown in Fig. K-2. It is an external type of
reboiler and has the design similar to a shell and tube heat exchanger
(with TEMA K-type shell) with substantial head space for the vapors. It
contains U-tube bundle that forms a floating head and pull through
assembly. Vapor, instead of a liquid-vapor mixture, leaves the reboiler
and enters the column (main part of the distillation column). It acts as a
single stage because the rising vapor is richer in more volatile
component than the boiling liquid. See thermosyphon reboiler.

268
 Fig. K-2 Kettle type reboiler.

Key components: In multicomponent distillation, the process

requirements usually desire the separation of the two important
components of intermediate volatility. These two components are called
as key components. Out of the two components, the component which
is more volatile is called as light key and the other is called as heavy
key.

Keys: Same as key components. See key components.

K-factor: Same as K-value. See K-value.

Kick’s constant: The constant in the Kick’s law of size reduction. See
Kick’s law.

Kick’s law: It is an energy law that is applied in estimating the energy

required for a given size reduction process. It states that the energy
required for crushing a solid material is the same for the same reduction
ratio. Therefore, the same amount of energy is required to reduce the
size of a material from 200 to 100 mm as that required for 100 mm to
50 mm. The Kick’s law is recommended for estimating the energy
requirements in the range of coarse crushing. See Bond’s law and
Rittinger’s law.
269
Kiln: A type of tubular furnace that is used in calcining and drying of
solids such as that used in producing cement clinkers.

Kinematic similarity: Kinematics refers to motion (not causes of

motion), therefore, kinematic similarity provides the similarity of
motion between the systems at two scales. For geometrically similar
systems of different sizes if the ratios of the velocities in the two
systems (scales) at corresponding positions are the same then the
systems are said to have kinematic similarity. See dynamic similarity
and geometric similarity.

Kinematic viscosity: Also known as momentum diffusivity. It is the

ratio of the absolute viscosity of a fluid to the absolute density of the
fluid. Unlike dynamic viscosity, the value of kinematic viscosity for
gases is usually higher than liquids. The SI units of kinematic viscosity
are m2/s. See dynamic viscosity.

Kinetic energy: An external form of energy that is possessed by a body

due to its motion. The motion of the body may be translational,
rotational, or vibrational. See potential energy.

Kinetic energy correction factor: The Bernoulli’s equation assumes

inviscid flow, so there are no velocity variations in the flowing fluid
across the diameter of the pipe in which the fluid is flowing. In real
fluids (viscid fluids), on the other hand, there are variations in the
moving fluid past a solid surface and for the real fluids average velocity
can be used in the kinetic energy term of the Bernoulli’s equation.
However, as the sum of the individual velocities and the sum of the
squares of the individual velocities (required by the definition of kinetic
energy term) are not the same, a correction factor known as kinetic
energy correction factor is introduced to compensate the situation.
When it is used in the denominator of the kinetic energy term, it has a
value of 0.5 for the laminar flow and ~1.0 for the turbulent flow. See
extended form of Bernoulli equation.

Kinetic head: Same as velocity head. See velocity head.

Kinetic pressure: Also called as dynamic pressure. See impact

pressure.

270
Kinetic theory of gases: The postulates of kinetic theory of gases are:

o Each gas consists of a large number of spherical shaped molecules.

o There are no attractive or repulsive forces between the gas
molecules.
o The gas molecules occupy negligible volume as compared to the
molecular distances between them.
o The molecules move in linear, but random motion. The direction of
their movement changes only when they collide with each other or
with the walls of a container.
o Collision between the gas molecules or between the gas molecules
and the wall of a container are perfectly elastic.

See ideal gas.

Kirchoff’s law: Kirchoff’s law is defined for radiation heat transfer and
suggests that at thermal equilibrium between a body and the
surroundings, absorptivity and emissivity of the body are equal.

Kirkbride method: An empirical method that is used to estimate the

feed plate location.

Kittel tray: A type of radial flow tray that is used with tray towers. The
tray does not contain a downcomer and the liquid and gas/vapor pass
through the same slots. See radial flow tray.

KMC formula: King, Maries, and Crossley formula. This is applied to

find out the proportion of inorganic matter in a coal from the ash
content.

Kneader: Same as kneader mixer. See kneader mixer.

Kneader mixer: Also called simply as kneader. The mixer is a solid-

solid mixing device and used for pasty and plastic matter such as dough.
A batch kneader in its simplest construction consists of a trough fitted
with blades more commonly sigma blades or Z blades, due to which it
is sometimes called as sigma blade mixer or Z blade mixer. The trough
is partially filled with the material and the material is squashed, folded,
and sheared in the trough to get the desired mixed product. Z blade

271
mixer and Banbury mixer are typical examples of kneaders. See Z blade
mixer.

Knitmesh separator: It is wire gauze knitted demister. See demister.

Knocking: Also called as pinging. The unwanted detonating or

bumping sound produced in an internal combustion engine is called as
knocking. Knocking in gasoline (SI) engines is due to the autoignition
of the air-fuel mixture caused by the compression of low quality (low
compression ratio) fuels. Knocking is highly undesirable phenomenon
which greatly reduces the thermal efficiency of an engine.

Knockout drum: It is a special gas-liquid separation vessel that is used

to separate (knockout) small quantity of liquid (water or hydrocarbons)
present in a gas stream. Knockout drums are usually used before a
compressor in order to avoid two phases to enter into the compressor
which otherwise cause erosion of the compressor parts. Knockout
drums are mostly vertically installed. In one design, the gas phase with
liquid contents strikes on the impingement baffle as it enters the vessel.
The gas leaves at the top and the liquid is collected at the bottom. A
tangential entry to impart centrifugal force may possibly be employed.
See vapor-liquid separator.

Knudsen diffusion: Consider a gas diffusing through a small capillary.

If the capillary pore is smaller than the mean molecular free path of the
gas molecules, the molecules collide with the wall of the capillary while
diffusing through the capillary and the process of diffusion is known as
Knudsen diffusion. Such type of diffusion is important in catalytic
reactions and adsorption studies.

Knudsen flow: If a gas flows through a capillary (pore) where the flow
diameter is less than the mean free path of the gas molecules, the flow
of the gas is characterized as Knudsen flow. In case of Knudsen flow,
Knudsen number is of the order of one or greater than one. See
Knudsen number.

Knudsen number: It is the dimensionless ratio of the mean free path of

the diffusing molecules to the pore size (diameter of the pore). It is
denoted by Kn.

272
 molecular mean free path
Kn 
average pore diameter

Knudsen number decreases with the system pressure while it increases

with absolute temperature. When the Knudsen number is far greater
than 1, then the Knudsen diffusion is important. See Knudsen diffusion.

Koch flexitray: A type of valve tray design.

Koch Sulzer packing: A gauze type structured packing that is used

with packed columns. It offers large surface for mass transfer and
exhibits low pressure drop.

Kohlrausch’s law: At infinite dilution, the equivalent conductance of

an electrolyte is the same as the sum of the equivalent conductances of
its constituent ions. Thus equivalent conductance of NaCl is the same as
the sum of equivalent conductances of Na+ and Cl−.

Kooij equation: A two-parameter equation that gives the effect of

temperature on the reaction rate constant.

Kopp’s constants: The constants are used with Kopp’s rule for the
estimation of heat capacity of solids and liquids at 20°C. The constants
are the numerical values allotted to each element present in a substance.
The Kopp’s constants for liquids are different from the Kopp’s
constants for solids. See Kopp’s rule.

Kopp’s rule: An empirical elemental contribution method used to

estimate the heat capacity of liquids or solids at 20°C. The method
utilizes the Kopp’s constants that are allotted to individual elements.
The contributions (Kopp’s constants) of all the elements present in a
substance are summed upto estimate the heat capacity. The method is
advised only when no other source or method is applicable as the case
usually with solids. There may be  30% error in the estimated value.

Kozeny-Carman equation: The equation is employed to calculate the

pressure drop for the flow through packed beds of particles.

Kremser equations: Analytical relationships that are used to estimate

273
the number of equilibrium stages for the gas absorption and the
stripping systems. These equations are applied only when both the
equilibrium and operating lines are straight at least for the region of
concern.

Kühni extractor: Kühni extractor is a type of mechanically agitated

liquid-liquid extraction column. The shrouded turbines mounted on a
vertical shaft are used for the agitation of the contents and the
perforated stator discs separate the mixing zones. See Fig. K-3.

Fig. K-3 Kühni extractor.

K-Value: Also called as equilibrium vaporization constant. The vapor-

liquid equilibrium relationship is sometimes written in the form
y A  K  xA , where K is equilibrium constant and referred to as K-value,
xA and yA are the mole fractions of component “A” in the liquid and the
vapor phase, respectively. It is therefore defined as the ratio of the mole
fraction of component “A” in the vapor phase to the mole fraction of
“A” in the liquid phase when the vapor and liquid phases are in
274
equilibrium. K-values account for the non-idealities in the vapor-liquid
systems. The values are commonly reported in the form of K-factor
charts for the hydrocarbons systems and may be applied in the
calculations of multicomponent systems.

275
L
Ladder pipe distributor: A ladder pipe distributor is shown in Fig. L-
1. It is a type of perforated pipe distributor that is used with packed
columns for the appropriate liquid distribution. See perforated pipe
distributors.

Fig. L-1 Ladder pipe distributor.

Lamella heat exchanger: The shell of the lamella heat exchanger

contains bundle of lamellas (instead of tube bundle) which may be
referred to as rectangular flow channels. The exchanger is 1-shell 1-tube
pass with no baffles. Only one end of the lamella bundle is fixed
(floating head), therefore thermal expansions are easily accommodated.
See Fig. L-2 for the construction of a lamella channel.

Fig. L-2 a) Circular tube channel, b) lamella channel.

Laminar boundary layer: The boundary layer in which the flow

276
behavior is essentially laminar. See Fig. T-14. See also turbulent
boundary layer.

Laminar flow: The flow behavior of a fluid may be classified as either

laminar or turbulent. Unlike turbulent flow, the laminar flow is an
ordered flow in which a fluid flows in parallel layers, i.e., the fluid
layers flow over each other like playing cards. One portion of the fluid
does not mix with the other portion and there is no intermixing of the
fluid layers. For pipe flow, flow behavior is always laminar below
Reynolds number of 2100. See Fig. T-15. See also turbulent flow.

Laminar sublayer: Also called as viscous sublayer. In a fully

developed (turbulent) hydrodynamic boundary layer, three separate
portions can be identified, namely, the turbulent flow region, buffer
layer, and laminar sublayer. The laminar sublayer is formed adjacent to
the wall and flow inside the laminar sublayer is essentially laminar. The
laminar sublayer is an important concept in studying heat and mass
transfer phenomena. According to the film model, it is believed to be
the main resistance to the transfer of heat and mass as transfer through
this layer is only due to molecular phenomena (no convective currents).
See Fig. T-14.

Langmuir adsorption isotherm: One of the principal adsorption

equilibrium models for constant temperature that relates the quantities
of solute in the fluid and adsorbate (solute on the adsorbent surface) at
equilibrium. It assumes that all adsorption (active) sites are identical
and upon adsorption, adsorbed species do not interact with species
already adsorbed. The active sites have similar kinetic and
thermodynamic characteristics and the entropy and enthalpy of
adsorption are constant and not a function of the adsorbed amount. The
species adsorption restricts itself to only monolayer coverage and the
rate of adsorption is proportional to the concentration of the active sites
not occupied (empty) and the concentration of the component in the
fluid phase.

Langmuir-Hinshelwood (LH) kinetics: Same as Langmuir-

Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) kinetics. See Langmuir-
Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) kinetics.

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Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) kinetics: Also
called as Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics. The Langmuir-Hinshelwood-
Hougen-Watson (LHHW) approach accounts for the surface
concentrations of the species taking part in the reaction. The approach is
based on the theory of Langmuir adsorption model and used to analyze
surface catalyzed reactions. Based on the Langmuir adsorption
isotherm, the approach was first developed by Hinshelwood and
therefore sometimes termed as Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics.
Hougen and Watson developed a similar approach and to account for
the contributions of each of the workers, the term Langmuir-
Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson kinetics is coined. Usually a rate limiting
step is assumed in a sequence of reaction steps and the concentration of
adsorbed species is related to the measurable phase concentrations.

Latent heat: The amount of heat required to change the phase of a

component is called as latent heat. For a pure component, it is the
amount of heat added or subtracted to change the phase of the
component, say, from liquid phase to gas phase without a change in
temperature and pressure. Specific latent heat has the SI units of Jkg1.
For design purposes latent heat for a mixture of components may be
taken as additive. However, this may be true for similar components.
Saturated steam table is a good source for finding latent heats of water.
See Fig. H-3 and Fig. T-4.

Latent heat of condensation: Also called as enthalpy of condensation

and heat of condensation. The amount of heat released when a saturated
vapor is transformed into the saturated liquid. In other words, the
amount of heat that is required to remove to change a vapor at its dew
point to the liquid at its bubble point. It is similar in magnitude to the
latent heat of vaporization. Specific latent heat of condensation has the
SI units of Jkg1. See latent heat.

Latent heat of fusion: Also called as enthalpy of fusion and heat of

fusion. The amount of heat required to convert a solid at its melting
point to the liquid in equilibrium with the solid. Specific latent heat of
fusion has the SI units of Jkg1. See latent heat.

Latent heat of sublimation: Also called as enthalpy of sublimation and

heat of sublimation. The amount of heat required to convert a solid at its
278
sublimation point to the vapor in equilibrium with the solid. Specific
latent heat of sublimation has the SI units of Jkg1. See latent heat.

Latent heat of vaporization: Also called as enthalpy of vaporization

and heat of vaporization. The amount of heat required to change a
saturated liquid to the saturated vapor. In other words, the amount of
heat required to change a liquid at its bubble point to the vapor at its
dew point. It is similar in magnitude to the latent heat of condensation.
Specific latent heat of vaporization has the SI units of Jkg1. See latent
heat.

Laval nozzle: Also written as de Laval nozzle. A coverging-diverging

nozzle that is used to produce supersonic flow. See converging-
diverging nozzle.

Law of additive volumes: Same as Amagat’s law. See Amagat’s law.

LD50: It stands for lethal dose fifty (%). The amount of a substance
given to a set of animals in a standard procedure which kills 50% of the
animals.

Leaching: Also known as lixiviation. A mass transfer process in which

one or more components are transferred from a solid phase to a liquid
phase. The extraction of oil from oil seeds using a suitable solvent is a
common leaching example.

Leaching extractor: The process of leaching is carried out in a

leaching extractor. Common examples of leaching extractors are
Bollman extractor, Bonotto extractor, Hildebrandt extractor, Rotocel
extractor, and Kennedy extractor. See leaching.

Leaf filter: A single leaf is a wire framework encapsulated by the filter

cloth. A number of these leaves are installed parallel in a closed
container. The feed slurry flows through the leaves and a cake is
deposited on the outer side of the leaves. When the capacity is reduced
down to an unacceptable level, the filter is washed and opened to take
away the solids. Both positive and vacuum versions as well as vertical
and horizontal types of leaf filters are available. Leaf filters handle
larger quantities of slurries and use smaller amounts of wash water
279
compared to plate and frame filters as washing is more efficient than
plate and frame filters. Like filter presses, the operation is intermittent
(batch operation) and requires cleaning of the filter medium.

Lean phase fluidization: Also called as dilute phase fluidization. As

the gas velocity is increased beyond the condition of bubbling fluidized
bed, the rate of particle leaving the bed (conveying of particles) is
increased and to maintain the desired particle concentration in the bed, a
continuous feeding of the particles is required. The bed, here, in
contrast to the dense phase is dilute and known as lean phase fluidized
bed. See dense phase fluidization.

Lean solution: In gas absorption, it is the regenerated solvent with only

a small amount of the solute concentration. In contrast, a rich solution
leaves the absorption column after recovering the solute and contains a
high concentration of the solute. See rich solution.

LEED: It stands for low energy electron diffraction.

Lee-Kesler equation of state: A virial type equation of state that is an

extension of Benedict-Webb-Rubin (BWR) equation of state. It has 12
constants and can be applied to any substance. The equation is usually
presented in the tabulated or graphical form where compressibility
factor for simple fluid, z (0) , and compressibility factor for some
reference fluid, z (1) , are required to measure the compressibility factor
of the given substance.

Lee-Kesler-Plocker equation of state: It is the modification of the

Lee-Kesler equation of state. Mixing rules are modified and binary
interaction parameters are found to improve the Lee-Kesler equation of
state. The equation is not fit for the polar compounds. See Lee-Kesler
equation of state.

Length mean diameter: It is defined as the ratio of the sum of the

surface areas of all the particles (total surface area of the particles) to
the sum of the diameters of all the particles [8]. See average particle
size.

Lessing rings: A type of random packing that is used with packed

280
columns. It is a simple modification of the Raschig rings with an extra
bifurcating curtain or partition placed inside the hollow cylinder. Due to
extra surface available it provides greater interfacial area to the
contacting fluids, however, it offers more pressure drop. It also offers
greater strength to the ring structure. See Fig. P-3. See also Raschig
rings and Dixon packing.

Letdown valve: The valve sustains high pressure differentials and used
to reduce high pressures to low pressures for safety or low pressure
downstream processing.

Lever arm rule: Consider A and B as the two points on a ternary phase
diagram representing the composition of the corresponding fluid
streams. See Fig. L-3. When these streams are mixed, the product
stream represented by point M is obtained. If the two points A and B are
joined by a straight line then the point M should also be located on the
same line and the ratio of the mass of stream representing B and mass of
stream representing A can be calculated by the following expression:

Distance AM mass of stream representing B


Distance MB mass of stream representing A

Also, it is true that:

Distance AM mass of stream representing B


Distance BA mass of stream representing M

The lever arm rule is used to find out the desired compositions and the
rates of the flow streams such as mass of the solvent required for a
desired product composition.

Lewis number: A dimensionless number defined as the ratio of thermal

diffusivity to mass diffusivity and comes out be the ratio of Schmidt
number to Prandtl number. If Lewis number is represented as Le, then it
may be shown that:

thermal diffusivit y  Sc
Le   
mass diffusivit y D AB Pr
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 Where,  is thermal diffusivity, DAB is mass diffusivity, Sc is
Schmidt number, and Pr is Prandtl number. It is applied in simultaneous
mass and heat transfer problems such as humidification. See thermal
diffusivity and mass diffusivity.

Fig. L-3 Lever arm rule.

Lewis-Matheson method: A rigorous stage-by-stage (tray-by-tray)

calculation method that is used in multicomponent distillation column
design. The method is suitable for manual calculations. See Thiele-
Geddes method.

Lewis-Randall rule: Fugacity of a component in a gas mixture is equal

to the product of mole fraction of the component in the mixture and the
pure component fugacity at the temperature and pressure of the mixture.

Lewis-Sorel method: A modified Sorel method for step-by-step

calculations of binary distillation column in which the assumption of
constant molar flowrates greatly simplifies the calculations.

LFL: It stands for lower flammability limit. See lower flammability

limit.

LH kinetics: It stands for Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics. See

Langmuir-Hinshelwood kinetics.

LHHW kinetics: It stands for Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson

kinetics. See Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson kinetics.

LHSV: It stands for liquid hourly space velocity. See liquid hourly
282
space velocity.

Light ends: For a mixture of hydrocarbons such as crude oil, the

fractions that usually contain shorter carbon chains and have lower
boiling points are called as lighter ends. See heavy ends.

Light key: In multicomponent distillation calculations, out of the two

key components selected, the component which is lighter or more
volatile is called as light key. See heavy key and key components.

Light phase: For a binary liquid phase system, the phase having the
lower density is called as the light phase. The concept is usually applied
in gravity settling or liquid-liquid extraction. In a column extractor, for
the liquid-liquid extraction, such as the pulsed sieve plate extraction
column, the light phase is introduced from the bottom of the column.
See heavy phase.

Limiting reactant: In usual cases of reaction chemistry, one or more of

the reactants are present in excess to that required stoichiometrically. If
the reactants are fed in stoichiometric amounts there is no point using
the concept of limiting reactant. The limiting reactant is the one which
is consumed first and may be identified by dividing the number of
moles of each reactant in the feed divided by its stoichiometric amount.
The reactant with the lowest numerical ratio is the limiting reactant. The
choice of the limiting reactant is arbitrary. The component which is
more expensive is usually fed in limiting amounts. See excess reactant.

Linde process: Linde process is applied for the liquefaction of gases. It

is a refrigeration system that is based on the principle of Joule-Thomson
expansion. A gas to be liquefied is compressed and cooled down in a
cooler. A further decrease in temperature occurs in a heat exchanger
where the gas exchanges heat with the low temperature vapor coming
out of the liquefied gas vessel. The gas is then throttled (undergoes
Joule-Thomson expansion) and collected as a vapor-liquid mixture. The
vapor is recycled and mixed with the feed gas while the liquid is sent
for the storage.

Linde trays: A modification of the sieve tray design in which there are
some inclined slots on the sieve tray surface. These slots reduce the

283
liquid gradient on a large tray and improve liquid distribution and
therefore improve overall efficiency. The design of Linde trays is of
proprietary kind.

Liquefaction: It is a process in which a cryogenic gas is cooled down

to produce a saturated liquid and vapor mixture. The cryogenic gases
such as helium, hydrogen, oxygen, etc. have very low critical
temperatures and require to be cooled down below their critical
temperatures for the liquefaction. It is important to mention here that a
gas cannot be liquefied above its critical temperature. Joule-Thomson
expansion is a typical example of the liquefaction techniques. Linde
process utilizing the Joule-Thomson effect is an example of the
liquefaction processes. See Linde process.

Liquid dispersed system: In mass transfer operations, one of the

phases is disintegrated or finely divided into droplets (if a liquid) or
bubbles (if a gas) and the second phase behaves as more or less a
continuous matrix. If liquid phase is disintegrated into tiny droplets, the
system is called as liquid dispersed system. See gas dispersed system
and gas absorption.

Liquid distributor: Liquid distributor is an essential part of a packed

column and applied to evenly distribute the liquid feed (solvent) over
the top of the packing (bed). If the distribution is not proper, some of
the portion of the packing remains relatively dry and contributes little
towards the mass transfer efficiency of the column. Various types of
distributors are used with packed columns. Orifice type distributors,
perforated ring type distributors, and trough type distributors are
examples of liquid distributors. Knitted wire mesh and spray nozzles
may also be used as liquid distributors.

Liquid film: For a gas-liquid system, it is the liquid side film. In a

liquid-liquid system, however, both of the films are liquid films. See
gas film and two-film theory.

Liquid film coefficient: The mass transfer coefficient for the liquid
side film resistance. See gas film coefficient and two-film theory.

Liquid film controlled system: Also called as liquid phase controlled

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system. In a gas-liquid (gas absorption) system, if the main resistance to
mass transfer lies in the liquid side film, the system is termed as the
liquid film controlled system. In such circumstances, the design
considerations should focus on increasing the liquid phase mass transfer
coefficient. If a gas is only slightly soluble in the liquid, the main
resistance to mass transfer is considered lying in the liquid phase. See
two-film theory.

Liquid holdup: In a gas-liquid operation such as gas absorption, it is

the ratio of the volume of the liquid to the total volume of the gas-liquid
mixture. See gas holdup and holdup.

Liquid hole model: Unlike gas model (say kinetic theory of gases),
liquid models are not well established. Under high pressures, liquids
show little compressibility which may support the theory of holes (free
space) for liquids. According to the theory, there are small holes of the
size of the liquid molecules in the matter of a liquid. Under the applied
stresses, a molecule may slip into the hole leaving back a new hole for
another molecule.

Liquid hourly space velocity (LHSV): It is defined as the ratio of the

volume of the liquid feed per hour to the volume of the reactor or
catalyst required. The volume of the liquid feed is usually taken at 60°F.
60°F is not worth mentioning as volume (density) of a liquid does not
appreciably change with small changes in temperature. See space
velocity.

Liquid phase controlled system: Same as liquid film controlled

system. See liquid film controlled system.

Liquid pulsed extraction column: Unlike the reciprocating pulsed

extraction column in which pulsations are produced in the liquid body
by reciprocating the plate stack, in the liquid pulsed extraction column
the pulsations are produced in the liquid body by directly forcing the
liquid, say, by a piston while the plate stack remains motionless. See
Fig. L-4. See also pulsed extraction column.

Liquid redistributor: It is a packed column internal. In a relatively tall

packed column, the liquid tends to flow towards the wall of the column

285
and it may find some pathways within the main body of the packing
where gas or vapor does not have an effective contact with the liquid
(channeling). A liquid redistributor is therefore required to collect and
to redistribute the liquid uniformly over the top of the remaining bed of
packing. See wall wiper.

Light
interface phase out
Heavy
phase in

Liquid pulse
device Light
phase in

Heavy
phase out
Fig. L-4 Liquid pulsed extraction column.

Liquid-liquid equilibrium: The equilibrium established between two

liquid phases.

Liquid-liquid extraction: A unit operation of chemical engineering in

which one or more components are transferred from a liquid phase to
another liquid phase. The original solution is intimately contacted with
a third component called as solvent and a part of the solute in the
original solution is transferred to the solvent phase. The two phases are
then separated. Here, the solvent phase is called as the extract phase
while the original solution phase is called as the raffinate. Mixer-
settlers, sieve tray towers (bubble cap and valve trays are not usually

286
suitable), packed columns, Oldshue-Rushton columns, Karr columns,
pulsed extraction columns, and centrifugal extractors are examples of
liquid-liquid extractors. Liquid-liquid extraction is normally the choice
when distillation of the components to be separated is not practical that
is when the value of the relative volatility of the phases is low (near
1.0), components to be separated require high temperature or very low
pressure or there is a problem of decomposition of the components.
Also, liquid-liquid extraction can perform selective separation based on
the structure of the components. Compared to distillation, liquid-liquid
extraction is disadvantageous as another separation unit often a
distillation column is to be installed along with the extractor in order to
recover the solvent. See Fig. R-2.

Lixiviation: Same as leaching. See leaching.

LMTD: It stands for logarithmic mean temperature difference. See

logarithmic mean temperature difference.

LMTD correction factor: Also called as FT factor. In a multipass shell

and tube heat exchanger, the flow scheme of the hot and cold fluid
streams is neither true countercurrent nor true concurrent, but a mixture
of both these types. In such circumstances, the LMTD is no longer
applicable in its original form and there is a need to use a correction
factor known as LMTD correction factor. The LMTD correction factor,
therefore, accounts for the limitations in the use of LMTD. The
correction factor is multiplied by the LMTD obtained for a
countercurrent flow pattern and provides a right kind of (true) mean
temperature difference.

LNG: It stands for liquefied natural gas.

LP: It stands for low pressure. See HP.

LPG: It stands for liquefied petroleum gas.

Load cell: A load cell is a transducer and converts weight (force)

measurement to an equivalent electrical signal. Strain gauges are
normally employed for the conversion of force into the electrical output.

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Loading: The charging of a vessel such as packed column, reactor,
adsorber and deep bed gravity filter with a packing, catalyst, adsorbent,
and filter medium, respectively is called as loading the vessel.

Loading point: See loading velocity.

Loading velocity: See flooding velocity.

Lobe pump: Lobe pumps are positive displacement rotary pumps and
their action closely resembles to gear pumps. However, unlike a gear
pump, the rotors have two or more lobes and that rotors keep clearance
between them at each moment of the pump operation (no metallic
wear). The lobe pump is an inline pump. The liquid enters from one
side of the pump, entrapped between the cavities of the rotors, and the
rotors while rotating opposite to each other force the entrapped liquid
(without changing the volume) towards the exit (at the other side inline
to the entry point) of the pump. See Fig. L-5. See also gear pump.

Local efficiency: See point efficiency.

Local heat transfer coefficient: Heat transfer coefficient at a single

point in a system.

Fig. L-5 a) Lobe pump, b) types of lobes used with lobe pumps.

Local mass transfer coefficient: Mass transfer coefficient at a single

point in a system.

Lockhart-Martinelli correlation: A useful correlation that is used in

288
finding the frictional pressure drop in two-phase fluid flow problems.

Logarithmic mean concentration difference: The concentration

difference of a component between two phases along the length of a
mass exchanger does not remain constant and varies along the length of
the contactor. Under these circumstances, average concentration
difference based on arithmetic average is usually not valid and the
logarithmic mean concentration difference may be defined for
averaging the concentration difference for the whole length of the
contactor. See logarithmic mean temperature difference.

Logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD): The

temperature difference between hot and cold fluids does not remain
constant along the length of a heat exchanger. Therefore, in order to
calculate the rate of heat transfer when overall heat transfer coefficient
is given or the overall heat transfer coefficient when total heat transfer
rate is given, an average temperature difference along the whole length
of the exchanger is required. Under these circumstances, the arithmetic
averaging approach is no longer applicable (in most of the cases) and
the logarithmic mean approach for averaging the temperature difference
is desired. However, arithmetic average temperature can be used
instead of logarithmic mean temperature difference when the ratio of
temperature differences at the two ends of the exchanger is not more
than 2.0 [31]. The ratio should be calculated keeping larger temperature
difference in the numerator.

Long tube vertical evaporator: See climbing film evaporator.

Longitudinal dispersion: Same as longitudinal mixing. See

longitudinal mixing.

Longitudinal fins: Thin rectangular projections (strips) attached

usually to the outside surface of a pipe/tube and parallel to the axis of
the tube/pipe. The longitudinal fins are required when the direction of
flow of the fluid is parallel to the axis of the tube/pipe. Finned tube
double pipe heat exchanger is a typical example of the application of
longitudinal fins. See Fig. F-6. See also fins and traverse fins.

Longitudinal mixing: Same as axial mixing. See axial mixing.

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Lorenz number: See Wiedemann, Franz, Lorenz law.

Loss prevention: The term loss prevention means the financial loss
including any kind of direct loss such as loss in profit or indirect loss
such as that occurs due to accidents or repairing.

Lost work: It is a measure of the irreversibilities of a system and

represents the energy that is wasted or lost due to irreversibilities in the
system. Lost work is the amount of work required to overcome the
irreversibilities of the system and therefore it does not appear as a
useful work. For a reversible or ideal process, the lost work is zero. For
an actual (real) process, the lost work is obtained by subtracting the
ideal or reversible work from the actual or irreversible work.

Louvers: These are the parallel pitched (at an angle) baffles that are
used for altering the direction of the air flow entering into a cooling
tower. See Fig. A-19.

Lower consolute temperature: Also called as lower critical solution

temperature. For a two liquid system, the minimum temperature below
which the two liquids are miscible in all proportions and constitute one
liquid phase. It is thus the lowest temperature at which the two liquid
phases coexist in equilibrium. On a mutual solubility diagram, the
minimum peak point on the equilibrium curve is the lower consolute
temperature. See Fig. C-16. See also consolute temperature and upper
consolute temperature.

Lower critical solution temperature: Same as lower consolute

temperature. See lower consolute temperature.

Lower explosive limit: Same as lower flammability limit. See lower

flammability limit.

Lower flammability limit (LFL): Also called as lower explosive limit.

It is the minimum (lower limit) concentration of a fuel in air below
which the fuel does not get burned. Unlike upper flammability limit, air
to fuel ratio is so high (highly lean solution) that there is insufficient
fuel to support the combustion reaction. See flammability limits.

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Lower heating value: Same as net calorific value. See net calorific
value.

Lumped capacity analysis: The analysis of an unsteady-state heat

transfer system (material), where the temperature varies only with time
and it does not vary with position. The internal resistance of the
material is considered negligible so that the temperature is uniform
throughout the body.

Lurgi tower extractor: A type of mixer-settler unit that is developed

by Lurgi company and used for the liquid-liquid extraction. Several
stages of mixer-settler units are arranged in a vertical fashion. The
settlers are placed in a tower while the mixers are located outside the
tower. This arrangement saves a lot of floor spacing, however, it
requires large headroom.

291
M
MABP: It stands for molal average boiling point. See molal average
boiling point.

Mach number: A dimensionless number that is defined as the ratio of

the velocity of a fluid to the velocity of the sound in that fluid
(medium). It is commonly represented as Ma.

velcoity of a fluid
Ma 
velocity of sound in that fluid medium

Mach number provides a useful criterion of flow behavior for

compressible flows, thus in closed conduits, when

Ma  1 the fluid flow is subsonic

Ma  1 the fluid flow is sonic
Ma  1 the fluid flow is supersonic

For incompressible fluids (liquids), Mach number has a very small

value approaches to zero [1].

Macropores: See micropores.

Macroscopic energy: The form of energy which is due to bulk

conditions of the body and not dependent on the molecular behavior of
the body. Kinetic energy due to the bulk velocity of a body and
potential energy due to elevation of the body are the macroscopic
energies. Sum of the microscopic and macroscopic energies is the total
energy possessed by a body. See microscopic energy.

Macroscopic system: Macroscopic system describes bulk quantities

and bulk dimensions. It is different from the microscopic system which
is based on molecular scale.

Magnetic flow meter: See electromagnetic flowmeter.

Magnetic pulley: In a typical configuration as shown in Fig. M-1, the

292
solid particles are conveyed by a belt conveyor that moves over a
magnetic pulley. The non-magnetic material is not attracted by the
pulley and falls off immediately while magnetic material adheres to the
conveyor belt and detaches and falls off at a different position. It is then
collected as a separate fraction. See magnetic separation.

Fig. M-1 Magnetic pulley.

Magnetic separation: A mechanical separation process that is used

where magnetic properties of the particles are exploited to separate the
ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials. Both slurries and dry
powders can be subjected to magnetic separation.

Magnetic separators: These are the equipments used for the magnetic
separation of the solid particles. Magnetic pulley is a typical example.
See magnetic separation and magnetic pulley.

Makeup water: In a cooling tower, some of the water is lost in

evaporation, drift, and blowdown losses and the fresh (treated) water is
added to the system to accommodate the losses. This added water is
called as makeup water. See Fig. I-3.

Manifold: Usually a large diameter pipe connected to two or more

branched pipes. See header.

Manipulated variable: In a control system, the variable which is

adjusted or manipulated to control the controlled or measured variable
is called as manipulated variable. Steam flowrate through the use of a
control valve is a common manipulated variable. See Fig. F-2.

Manometer: A manometer is a simple pressure measuring instrument

293
that is used commonly where differential pressure (pressure difference
between two points) is required to be measured. The principle of
operation is simple. The difference in the levels of the manometeric
fluid is a measure of the pressure difference between the two desired
points. The density of the manometeric fluid relative to the density of
the process fluid is a measure of the sensitivity of the manometeric
measurement. A manometer is simple to install, requires low
maintenance, and has low cost. However, a manometer is applied only
to a low pressure range. See Fig. U-7. See also manometeric fluid.

Manometeric fluid: A manometer requires one or two kinds of liquids

for its operation as the difference in the levels of the manometeric fluid
is the indication of the required pressure differential. The manometeric
fluid should be heavier than the process fluid (except in the inverted U-
tube manometer). It should be immiscible and non-reactive with the
process fluid. The ratio of the density of the manometeric fluid to the
density of the process fluid is a measure of the sensitivity of the
manometeric device. See Fig. U-7. See also manometer.

Maragoni effect: The flow occurrence that may arise from the surface
tension gradients is known as Maragoni effect. Mass transfer rates may
be significantly influenced in the presence of the Maragoni effect.

Margules equations: One of the thermodynamic excess Gibbs free

energy models that is employed to correlate activity coefficients. One-
parameter and two-parameter Marguels forms are the two variations.

Martinelli analogy: An analogy between heat and momentum transfer

that may be applied for the whole range of Prandtl number. See
Reynolds analogy.

Mass average velocity: The term is used in mass transfer applications

and refers to the velocity of a fluid as measured by a pitot tube. Thus it
is the same velocity as one defines in usual fluid flow problems. It is
neither the molecular diffusion velocity nor the total velocity (including
bulk motion and molecular motion). It is only the bulk fluid velocity.
For a mixture of species, it is the ratio of the sum of the mass flux of
each component present in the mixture to the average density of the
mixture (mass density of each component summed up).

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Mass balance: Same as material balance. See material balance.

Mass concentration: For a mixture of components, it is the mass of a

component per unit volume of the mixture. Total mass concentration
which is the sum of mass concentrations of each component present in a
mixture of components is the same as density of the mixture. See
density.

Mass diffusivity: Same as diffusion coefficient. See diffusion

coefficient.

Mass flowrate: The amount of mass flowing per unit time. It has the SI
units of kgs1.

Mass flux: The term is normally defined for mass transfer phenomenon
and not for fluid flow (momentum transfer) applications. It is defined as
the ratio of the quantity of mass transfer per unit time per unit area
required for mass to transfer. However, when defined for the fluid flow
problems, it is the same as the mass velocity.

Mass fraction: Same as weight fraction. See weight fraction.

Mass percent: Same as weight percent. See weight percent.

Mass transfer: In mass transfer phenomenon, mass is transferred from

one point to the other due to mass transfer gradient present between the
points. For a single phase, concentration gradient may possibly be the
mass transfer gradient, however, in interphase (between two phases)
mass transfer the term concentration gradient should be avoided and the
term concentration potential (chemical potential) should be used. See
mass transfer operations.

Mass transfer coefficient: It may be described as the ability of a

certain system to transfer mass. The term is applicable in interphase
mass transfer and may be defined as the convective mass flux (or total
mass flux) divided by the available mass transfer gradient. The mass
transfer gradient may be taken in the units of mole fraction,
concentration, or partial pressure. Like heat transfer coefficient, mass
transfer coefficient depends on a number of factors such as properties of

295
materials involved, system characteristic length, fluid velocities, etc.
and both individual and overall mass transfer coefficients are defined.

Mass transfer j-factor (jD-factor): A parameter, proportional to mass

transfer coefficient and Schmidt number, and that used extensively in
mass transfer correlations. It has its origin in Chilton and Colburn j-
factor analogy. See Chilton and Colburn analogy.

Mass transfer operations: Mass transfer operations are the separation

processes that require some mass transfer gradient (the chemical
potential difference) between phases to separate the required
components. In other words, those separation processes in which
separation is based on the mass transfer phenomena, i.e., diffusion of
one or more components occurs during the course of separation.
Distillation, gas absorption, liquid-liquid extraction, drying, adsorption,
leaching, crystallization, and membrane separation are examples of
mass transfer operations. See mechanical-physical separation processes
and separation processes. See mass transfer.

Mass velocity: It is the mass flowrate divided by the area for flow, i.e.,
the rate of mass flow per unit area for flow. Also, it may be defined as
the product of average velocity and average density of the fluid under
the given conditions. It has the advantage of not being dependent upon
the flow area.

Material balance: Also called as mass balance. The basis of material

balance is the law of conservation of mass (mass can neither be created
nor be destroyed). Elemental, component, and total mass balances based
on mass or mole may be applied around a given system to determine the
compositions and flowrates of the process streams entering and leaving
the system. A general material balance equation may be written as
below:

 Rate of mass   Rate of mass   Rate of mass generation 

       
 into the system   out of the system   within the system 
 Rate of mass consumption   Rate of accumulation of mass 
     
 within the system   within the system 

296
See energy balance.

Material of construction (MoC): Materials such as alloys, ceramics,

and plastics are required for the fabrication of a process equipment or
plant. Carbon steel is the most widely used material of construction.
The proper selection of a material of construction ensures life, capital,
and quality of the product.

Maximum allowable vapor/gas velocity: Maximum allowable

vapor/gas velocity determines the minimum diameter required to allow
the vapors to flow through the column without exceeding flooding. This
information is helpful in the design of distillation columns, gas
absorbers, and vapor-liquid phase separators. Various correlations have
been developed for estimating the maximum allowable vapor velocity
in distillation and gas absorbers. Methods of Souders and Brown and
Fair are common examples.

Maximum boiling azeotrope: When an azeotropic mixture (constant

boiling mixture) has boiling temperature higher than the boiling
temperature of each of the pure components, it is termed as maximum
boiling azeotrope. For such an azeotrope, the deviation from ideal
solution is negative. Water-formic acid at the molar composition of
0.427 water (azeotropic temperature as 107.2C) is an example of the
maximum boiling azeotrope. See Fig. A-23. See also minimum boiling
azeotrope and azeotrope.

Maxwell relations: A set of thermodynamic relationships that is useful

in measuring the changes in entropy, internal energy, and enthalpy by
the help of measurable properties such as pressure, temperature, and
volume.

McCabe-Thiele method: A graphical method for estimating the

theoretical number of plates in a binary (containing two components)
distillation column. McCabe-Thiele method is applicable for the binary
systems with constant molar flowrates. Top and bottom operating lines
are drawn on a y-x plane and by using the stepping off method total
number of theoretical stages is calculated. See Fig. M-2.

MeABP: It stands for mean average boiling point. See mean average

297
boiling point.

Fig. M-2 McCabe-Thiele method diagram.

Mean average boiling point (MeABP): It is defined as the arithmetic

average of molal average boiling point and cubic average boiling point.

MABP  CABP
MeABP 
2

Where, MeABP is mean average boiling point, MABP is molal

average boiling point, and CABP is cubic average boiling point. See
average boiling point, molal average boiling point and cubic average
boiling point.

Mean particle diameter: Same as average particle diameter. See

average particle diameter.

Mean particle size: Same as average particle size. See average particle
size.

Mean velocity: Same as average velocity. See average velocity.

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Mechanical agitated vessel: See agitated vessel.

Mechanical agitator: See agitator.

Mechanical draft: Unlike natural draft, mechanical draft uses a source

of external energy such as fan that moves the air to produce the required
conditions of draft. A mechanical draft is classified as induced draft,
forced draft, or balanced draft. See natural draft.

Mechanical draft cooling tower: Unlike natural draft cooling tower,

some mechanical force is required to drive the air flow. Forced draft
cooling tower and induced draft cooling tower are the mechanical draft
cooling towers. See forced draft cooling tower, induced draft cooling
tower, and natural draft cooling tower.

Mechanical energy balance: For fluid flow problems where heat

effects or enthalpy changes are small and mechanical frictional losses
and shaft work considerations are important, the general energy balance
is written in the form known as mechanical energy balance. See
extended form of Bernoulli’s equation.

Mechanical energy loss: Same as frictional loss. See frictional loss.

Mechanical equilibrium: It is one of the three conditions of

thermodynamic equilibrium. The other two are thermal and chemical
equilibria. If the pressure of the interacting phases is the same, the
phases are said to be in mechanical equilibrium. See thermodynamic
equilibrium.

Mechanical equivalent of heat: It is a conversion factor that is applied

to convert the units of mechanical energy (mechanical work) to the
units of thermal energy (heat). In the SI units, its value is unity as 1.0
Nm = 1.0 J. However, in American engineering system of units,
converting ftlbf to Btu, a factor of 778.169 (commonly used as 778) has
to be multiplied. It is represented as J and J = 778.169 ftlbf/Btu.

Mechanical flow diagram (MFD): Same as piping and

instrumentation diagram (P&ID). See piping and instrumentation
diagram.
299
Mechanical-physical separation processes: Separation processes such
as filtration, sedimentation, sieving, and cyclone separation that require
some mechanical-physical force such as pressure difference, gravity
force, electrical force, magnetic force, and centrifugal force for their
occurrence are known as mechanical-physical separation processes.
Unlike mass transfer operations, no mass transfer gradients are required
between the phases. See separation processes.

Median mean diameter: In a particle or drop size distribution, the

diameter of a particle or drop in comparison to which 50% of the
particles have larger size and 50% of the particles have smaller size.

Mellapak®: Corrugated type structured packing for packed columns.

Membrane separation: The process in which one or more components

from a solution are separated by a suitable driving force in the presence
of a thin material called as membrane. The membrane controls the rate
of flow of the components and allows the selective components to pass
through while retaining the others. A membrane separation process may
either be a mass transfer process (separation by diffusion) or a
mechanical-physical separation process. Fig. M-3 shows the concept of
a membrane separation process.

Fig. M-3 Concept of membrane separation.

Mesopores: See micropores.

Metering pump: Metering pumps are used to accurately transport a

measured volume of a liquid. Metering pumps are normally employed
to add small quantities of liquids (e.g. inhibitors) to the main process
streams. Positive displacement pumps such as diaphragm pumps and
plunger pumps are among the best choices suitable for these
300
applications. See positive displacement pump.

Methylcyclohexane-toluene-hydrogen (MTH) system: Methyl-

cyclohexane is an organic hydride which can be used as a storage
material for hydrogen. In the MTH system, hydrogen produced (say) by
electrolysis of water is used to hydrogenate toluene which produces
methylcyclohexane. This methylcyclohexane is then employed for the
energy production at any time of year or at any place (ex-situ to
hydrogen production from water even within vehicles) by the
dehydrogenation reaction. The dehydrogenation reaction produces
hydrogen and toluene. Hydrogen is used as a fuel and toluene is sent
back to the hydrogenation plant where it is hydrogenated back to
produce methylcyclohexane. See Fig. M-4.

Fig. M-4 The methylcyclohexane-toluene-hydrogen system. MCH

stands for methylcyclohexane and TOL stands for toluene [32].

MFD: It stands for mechanical flow diagram. See mechanical flow

diagram.

Micropores: Porous solid materials may contain three types of pores,

namely, micropores, mesopores, and macropores based on which it is
possible to classify these materials. If the pore diameter is ≤ 2.0 nm, the
301
material is considered microporous material. Meseporous materials
have pore diameter > 2.0 nm and ≤ 50 nm while macroporous materials
have pore size > 50 nm [33]. Zeolites are a common example of
microporous materials. See pore size.

Microscopic energy: The form of energy which is due to molecular

activity of the body such as enthalpy and internal energy. Sum of
microscopic and macroscopic energies of a body is the total energy
possessed by the body. See macroscopic energy.

Mil: It is the unit of length where 1.0 mil = 0.001 in. The unit is
commonly employed in measuring rates of corrosion such as in
mil/year.

Minimum boiling azeotrope: When an azeotropic mixture (constant

boiling mixture) has boiling temperature lower than the boiling point of
each of the pure components, it is termed as the minimum boiling
azeotrope. For such an azeotrope, the deviation from the ideal solution
behavior is positive. Minimum boiling azeotropes are more common
than maximum boiling azeotropes and most of the azeotropes are
minimum boiling azeootopes. Ethanol-water at the composition of
89.43 mol% ethyl alcohol is an example of a minimum boiling
azeotrope. See Fig. A-23. See also maximum boiling azeotrope and
azeotrope.

Minimum bubbling velocity: In a gas-solid fluidization, it is the

minimum velocity of the gas at which bubbling fluidization is just
started, i.e., inception of gas bubbles occurs to produce a bubbling
fluidized bed. See bubbling fluidized bed.

Minimum fluidization velocity: Also called as incipient fluidization

velocity. It is the lowest fluid velocity at which the solid particles are
fluidized and behave like a fluid. Here, at the minimum fluidizing
velocity, the weight of the solid particles (that are to be fluidized) are
supported by the fluidizing medium (gas or liquid).

Miscibility: Two liquids are said to be miscible if they mix

homogeneously and form a single phase upon mixing. On the other
hand, if two liquids are not miscible or immiscible they do not form a

302
homogeneous phase. Acetone and water are miscible with each other
while toluene and water are immiscible with each other. It is important
to mention here that unlike solubility, miscibility has no degree of
miscibility such as partially miscible or slightly miscible. Two liquids
are either miscible or immiscible.

Mist eliminator: Same as demister. See demister.

Mixed feed evaporator system: It is a combination of forward feed

and backward feed feeding systems. In a three effect evaporation
system, the feed enters in the second (middle) effect and the product is
pumped to the first effect. The product of the first effect is sent to the
third (last) effect. Steam enters in the first effect and the vapors
generated in the first effect flow to the heating tubes of the second
effect and the vapors of the second effect run to the heating tubes of the
third effect. See Fig. M-5. See also multiple effect evaporator system.

Fig. M-5 Mixed feed evaporator system.

Mixed stream: It is the final product of a mixer that is obtained after

the desired mixing of two or more process streams. See mixing.

Mixers: Also called as blenders. Mixers are used to mix two or more
process materials. Agitated vessels with various types of impellers are
commonly applied for the liquid-liquid and the liquid-solid mixing
while kneaders, drum mixers, and screw mixers are examples of solid-
solid mixing devices.

303
Mixer-settler: It is a liquid-liquid extraction device which essentially
consists of two parts: a mixing unit and a phase settling unit. Mixer-
settlers are either separate or combined mixer-settlers. A simplified
separate mixer-settler unit is shown in Fig. M-6. In a combined mixer-
settler, both mixing and settling of the phases are combined in a single
unit and the intersatge piping is not required. Kerr-McGee uranium
extractor, IMI mixer settler, and Lurgi horizontal and tower extractors
are some typical examples of combined mixer-settler units.

Mixer-settler regime: Depending on the intensity of mixing, three

separate flow regimes, namely, mixer-settler, dispersion, and emulsion
regimes are possible in the operation of a pulsed extraction column. The
mixer-settler regime is a region of low mixing and characterized by the
presence of discrete zones in the column, i.e., one of the phases may
accumulate above or below each of the plate to produce discontinuity in
the column. Dispersion regime avoids such discontinuity and dispersed
phase drops are more uniformly distributed in the column. Emulsion
regime is the operation of highly intense mixing process where column
tends to approach flooding.

Fig. M-6 Simplified separate mixer-settler extractor.

Mixing: In mixing, two or more initially separated components are

mixed to the desired degree of homogeneity. See agitation.

Mixing Froude number: It is a modified form of the most commonly

used form of the Froude number. In mixing Froude number, the linear
velocity is replaced by the speed of rotation of the agitator shaft and the
304
characteristic dimension is the diameter of the impeller. It is applied in
studying the agitation and mixing in agitated vessels. See Froude
number.

Mixing impellers: There is a wide variety of impellers used with the

agitated mixing vessels. Generally, these impellers are categorized as
either axial flow impellers or radial flow impellers. Axial flow impellers
give the flow direction parallel to the axis of rotation and they are a
good choice for suspending solid particles. Examples of axial flow
impellers are three-blade marine propeller, pitched blade turbines, and
hydrofoil impellers. Radial flow impellers give the flow direction in the
radial direction. Examples of radial flow impellers are paddle impellers
and flat blade open and flat blade disc turbines. The prime factor in the
selection of an impeller type is the viscosity of the agitated liquid. See
Fig. M-7.

(a) (b) (c)

(e) (f) (g)

(d)

(h) (i) (j)

Fig. M-7 Mixing impellers: a) open flat blade turbine, b) open pitched
blade turbine, c) paddle impeller, d) short blade disc turbine, e) curved
blade disc turbine, f) open curved blade turbine, g) three-blade marine
propeller, h) anchor agitator, i) ribbon agitator, j) gate paddle agitator.

Mixing Reynolds number: It is the modified form of the most

305
commonly used form of the Reynolds number. In mixing Reynolds
number, the linear velocity is replaced by the speed of rotation of the
agitator shaft and the characteristic dimension is the diameter of the
impeller. It is applied in studying the agitation and mixing in agitated
vessels. See Reynolds number.

Mixing rules: Mixing rules are required when equations of state

developed for pure components are applied to the mixture of
components. van der Waals one-fluid mixing rules are common
examples.

Mixing time: The time required to mix two or more initially separated
components to the required degree of homogeneity (mixing).

Mixing Weber number: In the mixing Weber number, the linear

velocity is replaced by the speed of rotation of the agitator shaft and the
characteristics dimension is the diameter of the impeller.

MMSCF: It means million (1,000,000) standard cubic feet.

MMSCFD: It stands for million standard cubic feet per calendar day.

MoC: It stands for material of construction. See material of

construction.

Modified Raoult’s law: The vapor-liquid equilibrium law that is

applicable when vapor phase is ideal, but liquid phase is non-ideal at
low to moderate pressures is called as modified Raoult’s law. Unlike
simple Raoult’s law, this law requires the information regarding liquid
phase activity coefficients. See Raoult’s law.

Molal average boiling point (MABP): Sometimes called as true

boiling point. For a hydrocarbon mixture, it is the sum of the product of
mole fraction and boiling temperature of each fraction (cut).

i n
MABP   xi  Tbi
i 1

Where, MABP is molal average boiling point, xi and Tbi are mole

306
fraction and boiling point of ith fraction, respectively. See average
boiling point and cubic average boiling point.

Molar average velocity: For a mixture of species, it is the ratio of the

sum of the molar flux of each component present in the mixture to the
molar density (concentration) of each component summed up. Molar
average velocity is the bulk velocity, i.e., flow of fluid in a pipe, etc.
and it is different from absolute velocity which necessitates the addition
of diffusional velocity to the molar average velocity. The term is used in
mass transfer applications and refers to the velocity of a component
(when fluid is moving) with respect to the stationary coordinates. See
diffusion velocity.

Molar concentration: See concentration.

Molar density: It is the reciprocal of molar volume and may be defined

as the moles of a component per unit volume of the component. For a
mixture of components, it may be defined as moles of a component
divided by the total volume of the mixture. This way it is the same as
concentration (molar concentration) of a component.

Molar flux: It is the number of moles transferring per unit time per unit
area. The term is frequently used in mass transfer applications. It has
the SI units of mols1m2.

Molar humidity: It is the ratio of the moles of a vapor (condensable) to

the moles of a dry gas (non-condensable) in a gas-vapor mixture.
Although the term may be applied in general, however, it is most
commonly used for the air-water system. See humidity.

Molar quantity: It is quantity per unit number of moles of a

component.

Molar saturation: It is the ratio of the moles of vapor (condensable) to

the moles of dry gas (non-condensable) in a gas-vapor mixture such as
air-water mixture. The term molar saturation is used as a general term
while molar humidity may be reserved only for air-water system. See
molar humidity.

307
Molar volume: It is the volume per unit mole of a substance. The SI
units are m3mol1.

Mole fraction: It is the ratio of individual moles of a component in a

mixture to the total moles of the mixture.

Mole percent: It is the number of moles of a component in hundred

moles of the mixture. See mole fraction.

Molecular mass transfer: Transfer of mass due to random motion of

molecules only and not contributed by convective or turbulent effects.
Molecular mass transfer is a microscopic phenomenon and occurs at the
molecular level analogous to transfer of heat by conduction.

Mollier diagram: Any thermodynamic property diagram in which

enthalpy is plotted along one of the principal coordinates may be
regarded as Mollier diagram. However, commonly an enthalpy-entropy
(h-s) thermodynamic diagram is referred to as Mollier diagram. The
specific enthalpy (h) is taken as y-coordinate while specific entropy (s)
is taken as x-coordinate. The diagram is helpful in calculating isentropic
works involved in turbines and compressors.

Momentum balance: It may be written as follows:

rate of momentum in   rate of momentum out 

 sum of the forces acting on the system   rate of accumulation of momentum 

Momentum diffusivity: Kinematic viscosity is also known as

momentum diffusivity. See kinematic viscosity.

Momentum flux: It is the rate of momentum transfer per unit area of

transfer. It has the SI units of Nm2.

Momentum transfer: The study of momentum transfer is also known

as fluid flow. In a flowing fluid, the momentum transfer may be defined
as the magnitude of the shear force applied per unit area (shear stress)
normal to the direction of transfer. Newton’s law of viscosity suggests
that the rate of momentum transfer is proportional to the velocity
gradient between adjacent fluid layers where the proportionality factor
308
is the viscosity of the fluid. Greater is the viscosity greater will be the
momentum transfer, and vice versa. For the explanation of the term
momentum transfer, consider two layers A and B, within the body of a
flowing fluid, at different velocities. Assume that layer A has higher
velocity than layer B. The molecules of the fluid in layer A with higher
velocity enter into the lower velocity layer B and try to speed up layer B
a little. Similarly the molecules leaving layer B will contribute their
lower momentum to layer A and try to speed down or retard layer A.
The net effect will be the transfer of momentum from layer A to layer B.
The high velocity layer is applying a shear force on the low velocity
layer and transferring the momentum to the low velocity layer.

Monolayer adsorption: Unlike multilayer adsorption, adsorption

restricted to only first layer of molecules of an adsorbate (species to be
adsorbed). Adsorption with chemical reaction (chemisorption) is
considered as the monolayer adsorption. The Langmuir adsorption
theory is helpful in describing the monolayer adsorption and hence in
studying the kinetics of the heterogeneous catalytic reactions. See
Langmuir-Hinshelwood-Hougen-Watson (LHHW) kinetics.

Monolithic catalyst: Unlike a bed of discrete catalyst particles, a

monolithic catalyst is a single piece of a porous solid such as alumina.

Monolithic reactor: A chemical reactor that contains a monolithic

catalyst. See monolithic catalyst.

Moody chart: Same as Moody diagram. The word chart may be

required to distinguish it from Stanton diagram as Moody chart is a type
of Stanton diagram [27]. See Moody diagram and Stanton diagram.

Moody diagram: Also called as Moody chart. However, sometimes it

is also called as Stanton diagram or Stanton and Pannell diagram. The
diagram is used for the quantitative determination of friction factor and
therefore determines frictional energy loss in straight pipes. The
diagram is a three-parameter plot of friction factor, Reynolds number,
and relative roughness. Series of curves are plotted for a wide range of
relative roughness on log-log coordinates. Reynolds number is plotted
as x-coordinate while friction factor is plotted as y-coordinate. Based on
Reynolds number, the diagram has been divided into three separate

309
zones: the laminar region, transition region, and turbulent region. In the
laminar region, the friction factor is considered independent of surface
roughness while in turbulent region at very high Reynolds numbers the
friction factor is considered independent of Reynolds number and a
function only of surface roughness. See Stanton diagram and friction
factor.

More volatile component: In a binary mixture, the component which

has higher volatility or K-value (lower boiling point) is known as more
volatile component while the other with lower volatility or K-value
(higher boiling temperature) is called as less volatile component. In a
mixture of benzene and toluene, benzene having higher K-value is the
more volatile component while toluene is the less volatile component.

Morton number: It is a dimensionless number that finds its use in

determining the shapes of drops and bubbles.

Motionless mixer: Same as static mixer. See static mixer.

Moving bed: For a moving bed, the bed particles (catalysts, adsorbents,
etc.) move with respect to the stationary vessel, but they do not move
with respect to each other. See fixed bed and fluidized bed.

Moving bed reactor: Unlike a fixed bed reactor, for a moving bed
reactor, the catalyst bed is not stationary with respect to the walls of the
reactor and unlike a fluidized bed, the catalyst particles do not move
about with respect to each other.

MSCF: It means thousand (1000) standard cubic feet.

MSDS: It stands for material safety data sheet.

MTH system: It stands for methylcyclohexane-toluene-hydrogen

system. See methylcyclohexane-toluene-hydrogen system.

Multicomponent diffusion: Diffusion process in which more than two

components are involved.

Multicomponent distillation: The distillation operation that is

310
subjected to a feed containing more than two components. Distillation
of a mixture of benzene, toluene, and methylcyclohexane is an example
of a multicomponent distillation.

Multicomponent mixture: A mixture containing more than two

components. A mixture comprising n-hexane, n-heptane, and n-heptane
is a multicomponent mixture.

Multiphase system: A system which consists of more than two phases

is a multiphase system.

Multiple effect evaporator system: Two or more evaporators are

interlinked by the vapors produced in the system. Each evaporator in
the train of evaporators is called as an effect. Therefore, three-
evaporator system is a triple effect evaporator system. The essential
feature of a multiple effect evaporator system is that the vapors rising
from the first evaporator (at higher pressure) are used as the condensing
vapors (steam) in the second evaporator (at lower pressure) and so on.
The multiple effect evaporator system may be a forward feed, backward
feed, parallel feed, or mixed feed depending on the positions of the feed
and the condensing vapor inlets.

Multistage compression: The compression of gases in more than two

compression systems arranged in series is called as multistage
compression. Usually for a multistage compression system, the same
pressure ratio is set in each of the compressor units. The number of
compressors required depends upon the overall cost of compression
which may include the installation cost of the compressors, the cost of
maintenance, and the cost of compression (energy required). An
isothermal operation using interstage cooling is normally desired which
consumes less energy of compression than a corresponding adiabatic
operation.

Multistage system: A system which consists of more than two stages is

known as multistage system. Multistage compression systems,
distillation columns, and absorption towers are typical examples.

Multitube fixed bed reactor: In a multitube fixed bed reactor, the

catalyst is packed in several tubes instead of a single tube or shell. This

311
type of configuration is useful in isothermal reactors where cooling or
heating is provided outside the tubes usually by flowing a cold or hot
fluid, respectively, in the shell. See Fig. I-6.

Murphree plate efficiency: Also called as Murphree tray efficiency.

Three types of column efficiencies: Overall column efficiency, plate
efficiency, and point efficiency are commonly used with tray tower
performance and design. Murphree plate efficiency is defined for a
single plate and defined as the change in the average vapor
compositions of the entering and leaving vapors divided by the change
in compositions of the entering and leaving vapors if the plate acts as an
equilibrium plate, i.e., if the vapors leaving the tray are in equilibrium
with the liquid leaving the tray. See overall column efficiency and
Murphree point efficiency.

Murphree point efficiency: It may also be called as local efficiency.

The tray efficiency may vary from one location to another which may
be defined in terms of point efficiency. On a single given point of a
plate, it is defined as the ratio of the change in average vapor
composition between the vapor leaving and entering to the equilibrium
change in the vapor composition between the vapor leaving and
entering. Where, equilibrium change is the change in vapor composition
when the vapor leaving the point is in equilibrium with the liquid
leaving the point.

Murphree tray efficiency: Same as Murphree plate efficiency. See

Murphree plate efficiency.

312
N
Natural circulation evaporator: In a natural circulation evaporator,
the solution inside the evaporator body circulates due to density
difference between the solution in tubes and the solution above the
calandria (vertical tube bundle). Due to natural circulation, heat transfer
coefficients are increased and lead to a more economical evaporator.
Calandria evaporator or short tube vertical evaporator works on the
principle of natural circulation. See short tube vertical evaporator.

Natural convection: Same as free convection. See free convection.

Natural draft: Also known as chimney draft. A low value of vacuum is

known as draft and if it is created without the help of a fan or ejector, it
is known as natural draft. Natural draft is produced when a gas such as
air is heated up and rises through a stack or chimney (draft pipe) due to
its lower density. As a result, small pressure difference is created
between the chimney gases and the air surrounding them. The stack
must therefore be high enough to provide the adequate draft. See
mechanical draft.

Natural draft cooling tower: Also known as hyperbolic cooling tower.

Fig. N-1 shows a natural draft cooling tower. The hyperbolic shape is
made so as to save the construction material [20] as warm air ascends in
the tower in a hyperbolic shape. No mechanical force (fan) is required
for air to flow through the cooling tower body. The entering air flows
upwards due to the natural draft produced within the tower. The draft
produced is due to the density difference between the warm and humid
air in the tower and relatively cold outside atmospheric air. Natural
draft cooling towers are normally huge constructions and relatively
small portion of the tower is used by packing and the rest, above the
packing, of the tower is kept empty and used as chimney. They are used
for large water loads. Obviously, the tower construction cost is high,
however, no fan is used so low noise and no cost of fan power, but cost
of pumping the hot water (to the top) may be high. These types of
cooling towers usually create environmental hazards due to the
formation of misty exhaust (plume) which entrains salts and corrosion
products. See atmospheric cooling tower and mechanical draft cooling

313
tower.

Fig. N-1 Natural draft cooling tower.

Navier-Stokes equations: Momentum balance equations or equations

of motion written for a fluid with constant density (incompressible) and
viscosity are known as Navier-Stokes equations.

Needle valve: A needle valve is shown in Fig. N-2. The valve is used
for the fine control of a flow stream which is normally desired in
laboratories. The working of a needle valve is similar to a globe valve.
However, instead of a round plug a needle type configuration is used at
the end of the stem and when fully closed, the needle plug rests snugly
in a small opening. The valve is normally employed for low fluid
flowrates. See globe valve.

Neo-Kloss packing: The type of regular or stacked packing. It is wire

screen cloth shaped in the form of large cylinders. It provides large
interfacial area and low pressure drop.

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 Fig. N-2 Needle valve.

Nernst’s distribution law: At a given temperature, the ratio of the

concentrations of a component in each of the solvent phases is a
constant. The constant ratio is known as the distribution coefficient. See
distribution coefficient.

Net calorific value: Also known as lower heating value or net heating
value. When a fuel containing hydrogen such as natural gas is burned in
air or oxygen, it produces water along with other combustion products.
Now, if that water is allowed to condense, the latent heat of
condensation of the water is also used for the heating purpose.
However, if the water leaves with the flue gases as vapor then its latent
heat of condensation does not contribute towards the total heating value.
Net calorific value is the amount of heat released when a specified
quantity of fuel is burned and the water vapors formed are not
condensed. If the total heating value is the gross calorific value then the
net calorific value is the difference between the gross calorific value
and the latent heat of water formed during the combustion process.

NCV  GCV  m  hap 

Where, NCV is net calorific value, GCV is gross calorific value, m

is mass of water produced during the combustion process, and Δhvap is
latent heat of vaporization or condensation of water. See calorific value
and gross calorific value.

Net heating value: Same as net calorific value. See net calorific value.

315
Net positive suction head (NPSH): It is the minimum pressure energy
in terms of head at the pump inlet (suction pressure) that is required for
a pump that avoids cavitation (improper operation) for any pump speed
(flowrate). There are two types of NPSH values, the NPSH available
and the NPSH required. The NPSH available is determined or specified
by the process engineer or process designer while the NPSH required is
supplied by the manufacturer through experimentation and dependent
on size, speed, design, and capacity of the pump. For satisfactory
operation the value of the former should be greater than the latter.

Newton’s law of cooling: Also known as Newton’s rate equation. The

defining equation of heat transfer coefficient is the Newton’s law of
cooling. When a relatively cold fluid comes in contact with a hot solid
surface, heat energy flows from the hot surface of the solid to the cold
fluid body according to the Newton’s rate equation:

Q  h  A  Ts  T f 
Where, Q is rate of heat transfer, h is heat transfer coefficient, A is
heat transfer area, Ts is temperature of hot solid surface, and Tf is
temperature of the bulk of cold fluid. The same law is also applicable
for heat transfer from a hot fluid to a cold surface.

Newton’s law of viscosity: Shear stress (shear force per unit area) is
proportional to shear rate (velocity gradient) and the transport property
viscosity is the proportionally factor, this is called as Newton’s law of
viscosity. The viscosity of a Newtonian fluid itself depends on
temperature, pressure, and composition of the fluid and not on the
magnitude of the shear rate. Therefore, the ratio of shear stress to shear
rate is a constant quantity (definition of viscosity) and a straight line is
obtained between the shear stress and the shear rate for a fluid that
follows the Newton’s law of viscosity. See Fig. N-3. It is important to
mention here that the law is applied only for molecular momentum
transfer and can only be used for a laminar flow region. Most of the
liquids and gases obey the Newton’s law of viscosity. See Newtonian
fluids, velocity gradient, and viscosity.

Newton’s rate equation: Newton’s law of cooling is also known as

Newton’s rate equation. See Newton’s law of cooling.
316
 Fig. N-3 Shear stress and shear rate diagram for the Newtonian and
some Non-Newtonian fluids.

Newtonian fluids: Fluids that follow the Newton’s law of viscosity are
called as Newtonian fluids. All gases and most of the liquids show
Newtonian behavior. Examples include water, methyl alcohol, air, and
hydrogen. For a Newtonian fluid at specific temperature and pressure,
the viscosity of the fluid is not a function of shear rate and the slope of
the line on a shear stress-shear rate diagram is a constant value for each
value of the shear stress (not to be confused with Bingham fluid). See
Newton’s law of viscosity and non-Newtonian fluids. See also Fig. N-3.

Nikuradse equation: The equation can be used for calculating the

friction factor and the pressure drop in pipes and channels for smooth
surfaces (relative roughness equal to zero) under turbulent flow
conditions. The equation is implicit in friction factor and requires
iterative method for the solution. See Blasius equation.

Nipple: A nipple is required to join to pipes (fittings). Nipple is

threaded from the outside and on both ends. Close nipple (threads on
two ends meet at the center and there is no shoulder), shoulder nipple
(having a short shoulder between the two threaded ends), and long
nipple (that has a long shoulder between the two sets of threads) are the
various types of nipples. See Fig. P-11.

NMR: It stands for nuclear magnetic resonance.

317
No slip condition: Also called as zero wall slip. If a fluid flows past a
stationary solid surface such as the fluid flowing in a pipe, due to the
wall shear effects, the fluid layer adjacent to the solid surface has zero
velocity. The condition that the velocity of a fluid at the walls of a solid
surface is zero is called as no slip condition.

Nominal diameter: Pipes are commonly specified by their nominal

diameter and the schedule number. Nominal diameter is the
approximate diameter and not really the outside or inside diameter of a
pipe and used only for specifying (naming) the pipe sizes. However, a
pipe of nominal diameter greater than 12 in has the same outside
diameter as its nominal diameter [14]. See schedule number.

Nomographs: Special graphical formations of the physical data,

equations, or design procedures for rapid estimations and calculations.
The nomographs for the specific heat capacity and viscosity of liquids
and gases are commonly used examples.

Non-condensable gas: A gas which remains above its critical

temperature and below its critical pressure under the conditions of an
operation is a non-condensable gas. Under ordinary conditions, air,
hydrogen, and CO2 are examples of non-condensable gases.

Non-diffusing component: In some binary systems, one of the

components remains stationary and does not diffuse into the other
component and it is therefore called as the non-diffusing component.
When air is passed over carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), CCl4 vaporizes and
diffuses into the air while the air does not diffuse into the body of CCl4.

Non-ideal gas: A non-ideal gas does not obey the ideal gas law.
Usually, the gases at high pressures and low temperatures behave non-
ideally while at the low pressures (pressure approaches zero) and
temperatures greater than their critical temperatures they behave ideally.
See ideal gas law.

Non-ideal solution: A solution that does not fulfill the criteria of an

ideal solution is a non-ideal solution. Mixtures of polar and non-polar
compounds and azeotropes are highly non-ideal solutions. See ideal
solution.

318
Non-ideal system: For a (say) gas-liquid system, if the gas phase
follows the ideal gas law and the liquid phase is an ideal solution, the
system is an ideal system. If, however, both the gas and the liquid
phases or any one of the two phases does not behave ideally, the system
is called as a non-ideal system.

Non-Newtonian fluids: In contrast to Newtonian fluids, non-

Newtonian fluids do not follow the Newton’s law of viscosity. For such
types of fluids, the coefficient of viscosity does not remain constant
with the applied shear stress. Examples are drilling muds, tooth pastes,
and greases. Fig. N-3 shows the shear stress-shear rate behavior for a
Newtonian as well as various kinds of non-Newtonian fluids. See
Newton’s law of viscosity and Newtonian fluids.

Non-return valve (NRV): Same as check valve. See check valve.

Normal boiling point: The boiling point of a substance at standard

atmospheric pressure (1 atm).

Normal temperature and pressure (NTP): It is the same as standard

temperature and pressure. See standard temperature and pressure.

Notched chimney type distributor: A liquid distributor design that is

used with packed columns. It may be viewed as a modification of the
orifice distributor. The design includes multiple notched gas riser pipes
(circular weirs). Unlike orifice distributors, there is no chance of
blockage and the column can handle a wider range of liquid flowrates
than the orifice type distributors. See liquid distributor.

Notched trough distributor: A liquid distributor design that is used

with the packed columns. The design includes parallel notched troughs
for the liquid distribution through which the liquid overflows and
travels downwards over the packing. The space between the troughs is
used for the gas flow. The notched trough distributor is used with large
diameter columns and for large gas rates. There is a large free area
available for the gas phase flow and therefore low pressure drops are
obtained for the gas phase.

NOx: It means nitrogen oxides.

319
Nozzle: A nozzle is a flow geometry of decreasing cross-section that
increases the kinetic energy (velocity) of a flowing stream. It may be
used in spray columns, spray ponds, spray dryers, prilling towers,
impulse turbines, or as a flow measuring device. A nozzle is assumed to
be an adiabatic device as the fluid moves through the nozzle at a high
speed and there is not enough time for the fluid to exchange heat with
the surroundings. See converging-diverging nozzle and flow nozzle.
The inlet and outlet sections to a process equipment such as
distillation column are also called as nozzles. See Fig. F-9.

NPSH: It stands for net positive suction head. See net positive suction
head.

NRTL equation: It stands for non-random two-liquid equation. The

equation is an activity equation model for describing the liquid-liquid
equilibria.

NRV: It stands for non-return valve. See non-return valve.

NTP: It stands for normal temperature and pressure. See normal

temperature and pressure.

NTU: It stands for number of transfer units. See number of transfer

units.

Nucleate boiling: The concept of nucleate boiling is shown in Fig. N-4.

It is essentially a two-phase boiling process in which bubbles of vapors
are formed or nucleated, detached from the boiling surface, and agitate
the system resulting in an increased heat transfer coefficient. The
nucleate boiling region is of great importance for many of the industrial
heat transfer equipments. See pool boiling.

Nucleation: The process of the formation of new crystals from the

solution with or without the presence of preformed crystals. When no
previous crystal is present, the process is called as primary nucleation
while the process is secondary nucleation if crystals are already present
in the system. Secondary nucleation is the important one for the
industrial crystallizers. It is important to mention that the nucleation
either primary or secondary is different from the crystal growth in

320
which a solid is deposited on the already formed crystals.

Fig. N-4 Concept of nucleate boiling.

Number mean diameter: Same as the arithmetic mean diameter [8].

See arithmetic mean diameter.

Number of transfer units: It is the ratio of total change in composition

of a phase between two given points to the total driving potential
available between these two points. The concept of number of transfer
units is used in the designing of differential stage contactors such as
packed columns. The definition may be referred to any of the phases
under consideration. For example, for a gas-liquid system, the definition
may be based on the liquid phase (number of transfer units based on the
liquid phase) or gas phase (number of transfer units based on the gas
phase).

Nusselt equation: It is one of the basic heat transfer equations and

employed for estimating the heat transfer coefficients. Generally, it may
be written in the following form:

Nu  K  Rea  Pr b  Gr c

Where, Nu is Nusselt number, Re is Reynolds number, Pr is Prandtl

number, Gr is Grashof number, and K, a, b, and c are constants.

321
For free convection, the Reynolds number is insignificant and may be
removed from the equation. For forced convection, the Grashof number
may be eliminated from the basic form.

Nusselt number: It is the ratio of the convective heat transfer to the

heat transfer by conduction for a characteristic length “l”. It is denoted
by Nu.

convective heat transfer hl

Nu  
conductive heat ttransfer k

Or, it may be defined as the ratio of the conductive heat transfer

resistance to the convective heat transfer resistance for a characteristic
length “l”.

conductive heat trasfer resistance l/k

Nu  
convective heat transfer resistance 1 / h

Where, h is heat transfer coefficient and k is thermal conductivity

of the fluid. The dimensionless number has wide applications in heat
transfer phenomenon associated with flowing fluids. See Nusselt
equation.

Nutter float valves: A type of valve tray design. See valve tray.

Nutter rings: A type of random packing that is used with packed

columns. See random packings.

322
O
Occupied site: In studying a catalytic reaction mechanism, an occupied
site is the active site which is occupied by an adsorbed species (inert or
reactant) and therefore not available readily. See vacant site.

OʹConnell’s correlation: The correlation is used in estimating the

overall column efficiency for plate columns used for the fractionation
and gas absorption. Only the factors such as average molal viscosity of
the liquid and relative volatility or gas solubility are considered in the
correlation. The correlation is a useful tool for estimating the overall
column efficiencies of hydrocarbon systems [34]. See overall column
efficiency.

Octane number: Octane number is primarily a property of gasoline

like liquid fuels. A higher value of octane number means a better
quality gasoline and, vice versa. i-octane and n-heptane are taken as
standards for measuring octane rating of a test fuel. i-octane has
assigned an octane number of 100 while n-heptane is given zero octane
number. A 50% mixture of these two has an octane number of 50. The
burning characteristics of a test fuel are compared with the
corresponding mixture of i-octane and n-heptane to estimate its octane
number. There are three types of octane numbers defined in the motor
fuel technology. They are research octane number or RON (laboratory
test under mild engine conditions), motor octane number or MON
(laboratory test under relatively rigorous engine conditions), and road
octane number (average of research and motor octane numbers).

OD: It stands for outside diameter. See ID.

Offset: The term is frequently applied in control system technology. It

is the difference between the value of the steady-state process
measurement and the set point value. When a disturbance occurs, a
controller tries the measured variable to drag back to the set point value.
However, for proportional (P) only and proportional-derivative (PD)
controller modes the new steady-state value is still different than the set
point. This difference between the new steady-state value and the set
point is called as offset. An integral action, however, can bring the

323
system back to its set point. See Fig.U-3.

Oil burner: An oil burner utilizes a liquid fuel and either atomizes or
vaporizes the liquid fuel to mix it with air and to provide the controlled
combustion.

Oldshue-Rushton extractor: Fig. O-1 shows the Oldshue-Rushton

extractor. It is a liquid-liquid extraction equipment and falls in the
category of mechanically agitated column extractors. The cylindrical
column carries a central shaft on which a number of flat-blade disc
turbine impellers are mounted. Each turbine impeller moves in a
compartment bounded by the horizontal stator baffles. Each
compartment contains vertical baffles as well. The function of the
agitator is the dispersion while horizontal baffles are used to avoid
longitudinal mixing.

Fig. O-1 Oldshue-Rushton extractor.

On-off control: A control action in which the final control element acts
like an on-off switch. For example, if a control valve has only two
324
positions: a fully closed (the minimum flow position) and fully opened
(the maximum flow position), the control action is said to be an on-off
control. When a proportional controller is set to a very high value of
gain, it behaves as an on-off controller. On-off controllers are seldom
important at the industrial scale.

Open channel flow: Unlike pipe flow (flow through closed conduit),
the flow of a fluid in an open conduit is called as open channel flow.
The flows in rivers and canals are examples of open channel flows.

Open circuit feeding of a crusher: Once through crushing process in

which the oversize product is not brought back (recycled) to the crusher
for recrushing the particles is known as open circuit feeding. In this type
of feeding system, the overall reduction ratio of the crushing unit is
usually lower than its counter feeding option, the closed circuit feeding.
See closed circuit feeding of a crusher.

Open gas turbine cycle: Sometimes called as combustion gas turbine

cycle [35]. Open gas turbine cycle is shown in Fig. O-2. Not really a
cycle as the working fluid does not return to initial state, but leaves the
cycle. Compressed air enters the combustion chamber where it reacts
with a fuel and the combustion reaction takes place. The hot exhaust
gases from the combustion chamber are expanded in a turbine and work
is said to be produced. A part of the gross work output in the turbine is
used in driving the air compressor (work input) and to accommodate the
energy losses. The exhaust gases ultimately leave the turbine. For an
ideal open gas turbine cycle, the process 1-2 is isentropic compression
(no frictional or energy losses) of the intake air, process 2-3 is the
reversible constant pressure heat addition, and the process 3-4 is the
isentropic expansion (no frictional or energy losses). See Brayton cycle.

Open loop control system: A process control loop that lacks a

controller, i.e., without a controller. The information about the
measured variable is not sent to the controller (controller may be absent
or disconnected) and no corrective action is taken by the controller. See
closed loop control system.

Open system: Also called as flow system. An open system is the one in
which both mass and energy can enter and leave the system. In other

325
words, both mass and energy can be exchanged between the system and
its surroundings. See closed system and isolated system.

Fig. O-2 Open gas turbine cycle.

Operating line: In the design of a multistage mass transfer contactor

such as a tray tower for the distillation or gas absorption, the concept of
operating line (McCabe-Thiele method) is usually applied. The
operating line may be obtained simply by applying mass balance across
the nth stage. It provides the composition of the phases in contact at any
given stage of the contactor. See Fig. M-2.

Optical pyrometer: A type of radiation thermometer that is used for

measuring high temperatures. An optical pyrometer consists of a
telescope and a tungsten filament. For a temperature measurement, the
target location at which the temperature is to be measured is viewed
through the telescope. The current to filament is so tuned that the
filament disappears against the image of the target (whose temperature
is to be measured).

Optimum design: The design of a process or equipment for the

minimum total cost under the given circumstances.

Optimum pipe diameter: Also called as economic pipe diameter.

Increasing the diameter of a pipe increases the cost of piping while
decreasing the pipe diameter the cost of pumping increases due to
326
increased pressure drop. A pipe diameter is therefore required at the
minimum total cost. Such a pipe diameter at the minimum total cost is
the optimum pipe diameter. The pumping cost increases with a decrease
in the pipe diameter because frictional effects get stronger under such
conditions. However, smaller diameter pipes are cheaper. Thus an
economic balance is required to find the optimum diameter of a pipe.

Optimum reflux ratio: Increasing the reflux ratio in a distillation

column reduces the number of stages required, but it results in an
increase in the diameter of the column and sizes and duties of the
reboiler and condenser. On the other hand, a decrease in the reflux ratio
results in an increase in the number of plates (number of plates reaches
infinity at the minimum reflux ratio), however, the diameter of the
column and the utility costs are decreased. Under such circumstances
there exists a value of reflux ratio at which the total cost is the
minimum. The reflux ratio at the minimum cost is called as the
optimum reflux ratio.

Order of a control system: Dynamic modeling of a control system

results in a differential equation that relates the output and input
variables of the control system. The order of the resulting differential
equation is the order of the control system.

Orifice distributor: Also known as pan distributor. A type of liquid

distributor that is used with packed columns. The distributor plate has
small holes (orifices) through which liquid flows downward in the
column. The gas flows countercurrently through short pipes (risers) in
the distributor plate and does not interfere with the liquid inlets
(orifices). This type of distributor may not be a first choice where there
is a chance of clogging the orifice holes with solid particles.

Orifice meter: Orifice meter is a simple circular plate with a circular

opening (orifice) placed in a pipe normal to the direction of the flow. It
is a type of head flowmeter and the pressure drop measured across the
orifice plate is a measure of the flowrate of the fluid. In majority of the
cases, the hole is made concentric, however, eccentric hole orifice
plates are also available. The hole is usually sharp edged or a square
shoulder. When a fluid passes through the orifice, a vena contracta is
formed downstream the orifice plate. A large amount of energy is lost

327
due to the poor pressure recovery characteristics. There are no
converging and diverging sections to the orifice plate and a free fluid jet
is formed downstream the plate that causes a huge amount of
irrecoverable energy loss. The discharge coefficient of an orifice meter
is therefore quite low as only 0.61 [14] at very high Reynolds numbers.
The discharge coefficient depends upon the Reynolds number and the
ratio of orifice to pipe diameter. Orifice meter has the advantage of
being simple in construction and installation, inexpensive, and easily
replaceable with a different opening when different range of flowrates
is required. See head meters, flow nozzle, and Venturi meter. See Fig.
O-3a that shows a concentric orifice plate and Fig. O-3b that shows a
typical velocity profile for a sharp edged orifice meter.

Fig O-3 Orifice meter: a) concentric orifice plate, b) velocity profile for
a sharp edged orifice meter.

Orifice trap: A type of steam trap. The trap is simple in construction

with no moving parts and consists of a plate with a small orifice through
which the condensate and non-condensables pass through. See steam
trap.

Orsat analysis: A wet analysis technique used to measure the quantity

of carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, and oxygen in a given sample of a
gas. In such type of analysis, the composition of the gas mixture is
reported on dry basis.

OSHA: It stands for occupational safety and health administration.

Ostwald-de Waele law: Same as the power law model defined in the
328
study of non-Newtonian fluids. See power law model (for a non-
Newtonian fluid).

Otto cycle, air standard: An ideal cycle in which air behaving as an

ideal gas is considered as the working fluid and the system undergoes
the following four reversible processes as shown in the p-v diagram,
Fig. O-4:

o Isentropic compression (12)

o Constant volume heat addition (23). This is different from Diesel
cycle in which heat is added at constant pressure.
o Isentropic expansion (34)
o Constant volume heat rejection (41).

See Diesel cycle.

Pressure

Fig. O-3 Pressure-volume diagram of Otto cycle.

Overall column efficiency: The term is frequently applied in designing

a tray tower and defined as the ratio of the theoretical number of stages
to the actual number of stages. If E o is the overall column efficiency,
then

329
 theoretical number of stages
Eo 
actual number of stages

Overall column efficiency is applied to estimate the actual number of

stages (trays) required in the distillation and absorption tray towers. It
depends upon the design of trays, flow patterns of trays, flowrates, and
physical properties of the gas/vapor and liquid phases. It is usually
lower for the gas absorption systems than the distillation systems (due
to lower mass transfer coefficients associated with gas absorption
processes). Many correlations have been put forwarded for the
estimation of overall efficiency of the tray towers. Examples include
Drickamer and Bradford, OʹConnell, and Lockett correlations. See
Murphree plate efficiency and Murphree point efficiency.

Overall efficiency: Efficiency of the overall process or plant.

Overall heat transfer coefficient: By definition, it is heat transfer rate

per unit area per unit overall temperature difference. It indicates the
ability of a system to transfer heat and is a measure of the reciprocal of
the total resistance to heat transfer, where total resistance is the sum of
all the heat transfer resistances in series present in the system. Fig. O-5
shows the concept of various resistances that are accommodated in
overall heat transfer coefficient. For pipe or tubing it is usually reported
on the basis of the outside diameter. See individual heat transfer
coefficient.

Overall mass transfer coefficient: It is mass transfer rate per unit area
per unit overall mass transfer difference. The mass transfer difference
may be concentration, mole fraction, or partial pressure. It is a measure
of the reciprocal of the sum of all the resistances to mass transfer in
series and indicates the ability of a system to transfer a desired
component from the bulk of one phase to the bulk of the other phase.
See individual mass transfer coefficient.

Overdamped response: For the step response of a second order control

system, when the damping coefficient (  ) exceeds unity, i.e.,   1.0 ,
the response of the system is called as overdamped response.
Overdamped second order systems always exhibit monotonic response
and are slower than the corresponding underdamped second order
330
systems. Response becomes sluggish with an increase in the value of ζ.
See damping coefficient, critically damped response, and underdamped
response.

Fig. O-5 Description of various resistances to heat transfer.

Overdamped system: A control system that is characterized by an

overdamped response. See overdamped response.

Overdesign: The design of a process equipment or plant above the

optimal design value is referred to as overdesign. Owing to the
uncertainties and unavoidable assumptions in the design procedures, the
calculated specifications of an equipment or a plant may be extended to
be on the safe side. This extended design may also leads to overdesign.
See underdesign.

Overhead product: Also called as top product. The product obtained

from the top of a process vessel. The term is normally employed with
distillation columns and stands for the distillate product. See bottoms.

Override control: The control system in which the control action is

changed or transferred from one control loop to the other normally
employed control loop. This is usually done to prevent the system and
the environment from being damaged. For a compressor, in the normal
331
operation, the manipulated variable such as motor speed is set by the
discharge flowrate. However, if the pressure exceeds a certain value, the
pressure control loop comes in action and overrides the flow control
loop to manipulate the motor speed.

Overshoot: Fig. U-3 shows the general step response of a second order
underdamped system for a change in set point. For the figure, the ratio
A to B is known as overshoot. Where A+B shows the maximum value
of the response and B shows the new set value. It measures the
exceeding of the response beyond the ultimate steady-state value. See
underdamped system.

Oversize: The size of the solid particles greater than the specified or
required size. See undersize.

332
P
P&ID: It stands for piping and instrumentation diagram. See piping and
instrumentation diagram.

Packed bed: Also called as fixed bed. Processes such as adsorption,

filtration, ion exchange, and some heterogeneous reactions require solid
particles to be packed to form a bed of particles inside a shell. For a
packed bed the solid particles remain stationary with respect to each
other and with the wall of the vessel. When the packed particles are of a
catalyst it is a fixed bed reactor, with sand and gravels it may be a deep
bed gravity filter, with adsorbent particles it is a fixed bed adsorber, and
with ion exchange resins it is a fixed bed ion exchanger (water
softener). A packed bed is different from a fluidized bed and a moving
bed in which solid particles do not remain stationary with the wall of
the vessel. A packed column may be differentiated from a packed bed
as unlike packed bed, the packing material is inert (provides only the
surface area of contact) and that it usually has greater length to diameter
ratio than a packed bed. Moreover, a packed column is principally
applied for the mass transfer operations such as distillation, gas
absorption, and liquid-liquid extraction. See Fig. P-1. See also packed
column.

Fig. P-1 Packed bed.

333
Packed bed reactor: Same as fixed bed reactor. See fixed bed reactor.

Packed column: Also called as packed tower. A packed column is a

continuous contact equipment that is employed for carrying out the
mass transfer operations such as distillation, gas absorption, and liquid-
liquid extraction. In a packed column, as shown in Fig. P-2, two phases
are brought into intimate contact in the presence of inert packing
material which promotes interfacial area for the mass to be transported.
The main parts of a packed column are: shell, packing or fill, liquid
distributors and redistributors, packing support, liquid collectors, hold
down grids/bed limiters, and mist eliminator. Taking an example of a
gas absorption (gas-liquid) system, the liquid is distributed from the top
of the column and flows downwards. On its travel, the liquid is
disintegrated and spreads itself over the packing material to expose an
enhanced interfacial required for a greater mass transfer. The gas feed
enters at the bottom of the column and flows upwards countercurrently
to the falling liquid through the spaces available in the packing material.
Within the bed, mass is transferred from the gas phase to the liquid
phase and a relatively purified gas phase leaves at the top while an
enriched liquid solvent is collected at the bottom. In liquid-liquid
extraction, the heavy liquid falls from the top and the light liquid flows
countercurrently to the heavy phase flow. Table P-1 gives a general
comparison of a packed column and a tray tower. See packed bed.

Packed tower: Same as packed column. See packed column.

Packing: Also called as fill. It is the heart of the performance of a

packed column and a cooling tower. Packings are used to enhance the
interfacial area between phases in contact. In gas absorption (say), the
liquid-phase is distributed on the packing surface in the form of thin
layers that give rise to a greater interfacial area for the gas-liquid
contact. Packings are available in numerous sizes, shapes, and
materials. Packings are classified as random packing, structured
packing, and grids. The selection of a packing for a particular duty
depends on its cost (low cost), chemical reactivity to the fluid medium
(should be inert), strength (should not be broken down in loading,
handling, and processing), weight (lower is the better), gas pressure
drop considerations (should be lower), voidage or free area for flow
when packed (large free area for gas and liquid flows), and interfacial

334
area (should be large, the internal area as in porous solids is not useful
in packed columns). Packings are either stacked or dumped in a packed
tower. Examples are Raschig rings, Lessing rings, and Berl saddles. See
Fig. P-3.

Fig. P-2 Packed column.

335
 Table P-1 Comparison of tray tower and packed column [3, 31, 34]
Tray tower
Liquid holdup is greater. It should
not be selected where a longer
residence time is not desired.
It has greater tendency to promote
foaming. When foaming is
excessive, try not to use a tray
tower.
When corrosive conditions exist, the
costly material of construction may
boost the cost of the equipment.
Trays offer higher pressure drop and
gas pumping cost may be excessive.
For large diameter requirements,
packing may have liquid-
distribution problems (may prone to
channeling), trays are then better.
For multifeed or multiproduct
requirements, tray towers are
preferred. Side streams are more
easily removed and added.
More flexible in operation. A wide
range of gas to liquid ratios is
possible.
Vibrations and surges are more
easily accommodated.
Tray towers are easier to clean.
It is easier to maintain isothermal
conditions in a tray tower as side
streams may be drawn and returned
back more easily.
336
Packed column
It provides lower liquid holdup
compared to a tray tower.
When foaming is a problem, packed
column is the choice as packing
provides less tendency to foam
formation.
It is usually economical to use a
packed tower for corrosive
conditions because corrosion
resistant packing can be used at low
cost in comparison to high cost
alloy in the tray tower.
Packed column provides lower
pressure drop and gas pumping cost
is lower. This is advantageous in
vacuum operations.
When column diameter is small, it is
usually economical to use a packed
column.
For multifeed or multiproduct
requirements, packed column is
usually not the first choice.
Less flexible in operation. A
relatively narrow range of gas to
liquid ratios is possible.
Vibrations or surges also
temperature fluctuations may crush
the packing.
Solid particles are not easily
removed from the packing.
However, for solid particles both of
the columns are not satisfactory.
Packed column is difficult to
operate under isothermal conditions.
Fig. P-3 Various types of packings for packed columns: a) Raschig ring,
b) Lessing ring, c) cross partition ring, d) Pall ring, e) Berl saddle, f)
Intalox saddle.

Packing characteristics: Physical properties of a given packing such as

its surface area, void fraction, pressure drop, HETP, packing factor, etc.
are the packing characteristics.

Packing factor: Packing factor characterizes a given packing. It was

used to be defined as the ratio of surface area of the packing per unit
volume to the cube of fractional voidage of the bed. However, it is now
an empirically determined value and generally reported by the
manufacturer. Packing factor is based on the size and type of a packing
and the method of installation. It is widely used in pressure drop and
flooding correlations. Choosing an incorrect value of the packing factor
may considerably deteriorate the design of a packed column.

Packing restrainers: Packings are restrained from being lifted up by

the high gas velocity using packing restrainers. The use of packing
restrainers avoids the effects produced by gas surges. See hold down
grid and bed limiters.

Packing support: An important part of a packed column that holds the

weight of a given bed of packing. Grid support and gas injection
337
support are examples of packing supports. A packing support should
have a large free area and offer a very low pressure drop.

Paddle dryer: A type of indirect dryer that is used for powdery or

granular materials. It consists of a heated jacketed vessel and an agitator
shaft fitted with required number of paddles. Heating medium such as
steam flows inside the surrounding jacket and sometimes in the hollow
paddles as well. The paddles help in mixing and transportation of the
solids and may reduce the deposition of solids on the inner surface of
the dryer. Compact design, high heat transfer coefficient, and ease of
cleaning are the favorable features of the paddle dryers.

Paddle impeller: A type of radial flow mixing impeller that has two
straight blades. It may be differentiated from a turbine impeller as
having only two blades and runs at a lower speed [36]. See Fig. M-7.

Pall rings: A type of random packing used with packed columns. A

Pall ring is a modified form of the Raschig ring. Two rows of windows
are cut in the wall of the ring and internal surfaces are enhanced. A
metal Pall ring has two rows of windows with their tongues turned
towards the center of the ring. This results in an increase in the surface
area of the ring and the improvement in mass transfer efficiency. Pall
rings give low pressure drop and high fluid capacity. See Fig. P-3. See
also Raschig rings.

Pan crushers: End runner and edge runner mills collectively may be
called as pan crushers. See end runner mill and edge runner mill.

Pan distributor: Same as orifice distributor. See orifice distributor.

Panhandle formula: The empirical formula that is applied in pipeline

calculations such as for natural gas pipelines. It may be used in
estimating the pressure drop and pipe diameter required for the
transmission line of a gas. See Weymouth formula.

Parallel feed evaporator system: In parallel multiple effect evaporator

feed system as shown in Fig. P-4, the feed is introduced in each effect
of the evaporation system and unlike forward or backward feed, it does
not flow from one effect to the other. Also, the concentrated product is

338
obtained from each effect. However, the condensing steam enters into
the first effect and the vapors flow from the first effect to the second
effect and so on. See multiple effect evaporator system.

Fig. P-4 Parallel feed multiple effect evaporator system.

Parallel flow: Same as cocurrent flow. See cocurrent flow.

Partial condenser: Unlike total condenser, a partial condenser does not

condense the entire feed vapor and usually non-condensable gases are
allowed to leave without being condensed. See Fig. P-5. See also total
condenser.

Partial molar properties: Partial molar property as obvious from the

word partial is an important concept in describing binary and
multicomponent systems. It describes the contribution of a component
present in a mixture towards the extensive property of the solution such
as volume, enthalpy, and entropy. The partial molar property of a
component i in the solution is the change in the extensive property M of
the solution with change in number of moles of component i keeping
temperature, pressure, and moles of all the other species of the solution
as constant.

 (n  m)   M 
M i      
 ni T , p , n j i  ni  T , p , n j i

Where, M i is partial molar property of component i, n is total

339
number of moles in solution, m is molar property (for one mole) of the
solution for which the partial molar property is defined, M is extensive
property of the solution for which the partial molar property is defined,
T is temperature, p is pressure, n j i is number of moles of all j
components in the mixture that remains constant except the number of
moles of component i which is changing. As it is defined per mole,
partial molar property of a component is an intensive property.

Fig. P-5 Partial condenser.

Partial pressure: In a mixture of gases, it is the pressure exerted by an

individual gas component. For an ideal gas mixture, the partial pressure
of a gas is given by the Dalton’s law of partial pressure which suggests
the sum of the partial pressures of all the components of a gas mixture
is the same as the total pressure of the gas mixture and that the partial
pressure of a gas is equal to the product of the mole fraction of the gas
in the mixture and the total pressure. See Dalton’s law of partial
pressure.

Partial saturation: The ratio of the mass of a condensable vapor (say

water) to the mass of a non-condensable gas (say air) in a mixture of the
condensable vapor and the non-condensable gas is called as partial
saturation. For air-water system, it is frequently called as humidity. See
340
humidity.

Partial vaporization and partial condensation: If all of the liquid

phase consisting of mixture of components is vaporized and collected
after the condensation, it results in the same composition as that of the
original mixture (feed). The result is no separation. If, however, the
liquid mixture is partially vaporized and condensed, the composition of
the condensate obtained will be different and richer in more volatile
component. Similarly, if the liquid mixture is completely vaporized and
partially condensed while in equilibrium with the vapor, the
composition of the liquid will be different from the vapor. In fractional
distillation (distillation with reflux) on each tray of the column, the
liquid phase is partially vaporized (more volatile component is
transferred from the liquid phase to the vapor phase) and the vapor
phase is partially condensed (less volatile component is transferred from
the vapor phase to the liquid phase).

Particle: A minute quantity of matter usually of a solid. Often the terms

particle and solid particle are interchangeable.

Particle density: It is the density of a solid particle taking into account

the volume of pores (voids) in the structure of the particle. The void
spaces among the solid particles are not included. If ρp is the particle
density then

mass of a solid particle with pores

p 
volume of the solid particle with pores
skeletal density

(skeletal density  pore volume)  1

See skeletal density and bulk density.

Particle size: The diameter or linear dimension of a solid particle.

Particle size distribution: It gives the range of a particle size and

describes the way the particle size spreads in a given sample. Particle
size distribution is usually represented by mathematical functions
(distribution functions) such as lognormal distribution and Weibull
distribution.
341
Particulate fluidization: Also called as homogeneous fluidization. A
particulate fluidized bed is shown in Fig. P-6. Solid particles are
observed to be distributed uniformly in the fluidizing medium that is
why it is also known as homogeneous fluidization. Each particle moves
independently and there is little or no aggregation of solid particles.
This occurs when the density difference between the fluid and solid is
not large or particle size is not big enough and fluid velocities are not
very high. This, therefore, usually appears in the case of liquid-solid
fluidization. When the fluid velocities are relatively higher and where
the difference in particle density and fluid density is appreciable or
particle size is comparatively large then the aggregative fluidization is
more probable. This is a usual case with gas-solid systems. Here, the
bed is not uniformly distributed and there are aggregates of solid
particles and large bubbles of gas. See aggregative fluidization.

Fig. P-6 Particulate fluidized bed.

Particulate fluidized bed: Also called as homogeneous fluidized bed.

A fluidized bed that is characterized by particulate fluidization. See
particulate fluidization.

Particulate solids technology: The study of solid particles and the

operations involving solid particles such as size reduction, filtration,
fluidization, etc.
342
Partition coefficient: Same as distribution coefficient. See distribution
coefficient.

Partition law: Same as Nernst’s distribution law. See Nernst’s

distribution law.

Pascal’s law: Pressure applied to a fluid in a confined space is

transmitted equally in each direction.

Path function: The quantity such as heat or work that does depend on
the path or history of a given system. See state function.

Path variable: Same as path function. See path function.

PD: It stands for proportional-derivative control action. See

proportional-derivative control action.

Pebble mill: A single compartment tube mill having pebbles (stone

particles) as the grinding medium [37] is sometimes called as pebble
mill.

Peclet number: For heat transfer, it may be defied as the ratio of the
heat transfer by convection to the heat transfer by conduction which
appears to be a product of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.

heat transport by convection

Peh   Re  Pr
heat transport by conduction

Where, Peh is Peclet number for heat transfer and Re and Pr are
Reynolds and Prandtl numbers, respectively.
For mass transfer, it is the ratio of the convective mass transfer to
the molecular mass transfer and appears to be a product of Reynolds
number and Schmidt number.

mass transport by convection

Pem   Re  Sc
mass transport by molecular diffusion

Where, Pem is Peclet number for mass transfer and Re and Sc are
Reynolds and Schmidt numbers, respectively. Peclet numbers have
343
wide applications in fluid flow involving solid particles such as in fixed
bed reactors.

Pellet: The product of a pelleting process (a process of size enlargement

of solid particles). See pelletting.

Pellet mill: Also called as pelletizer. A size enlargement machinery that

employs compression agglomeration of powdered particles and
produces the required size of pellets. See pelleting.

Pelleting: A size enlargement process in which powdered particles are

joined by compression agglomeration to form a larger particle called as
pellet. The pellets may be produced directly by agglomeration process
(tabletting) or by cutting off the required size of pellets from a relatively
large size agglomerated product. See compression agglomeration and
tabletting.

Pelletizer: Same as pellet mill. See pellet mill.

Penetration: It is a measure of consistency of a given sample of grease.

It is the depth (in tenths of millimeters) of a standard cone, that sinks
into a sample of grease, measured in a standardized test method. A
standard penetrometer is used for the measurement of penetration. See
consistency.

Penetration theory: Sometimes known as Higbie’s model for the

interphase mass transfer. The theory suggests that a chunk of a fluid is
brought by eddies from the bulk phase to the interface where mass
transfer takes place by unsteady process for a fixed period of time. See
Danckwerts’ model.

Peng-Robinson (PR) equation of state: A famous three-parameter

cubic equation of state that relates the p-v-T properties of most gases
under non-ideal conditions. The equation may also be used for liquids
especially hydrocarbons. It is frequently employed to estimate the
vapor-liquid equilibrium data and the other thermodynamic properties
of hydrocarbon systems.

Percentage humidity: It is the ratio of the absolute humidity to the

344
humidity of the saturated air multiplied by 100.

humidity o f the air- water syst em

Percentage humidity   100
humidity o f the satu rated air- water syte m

See relative humidity and humidity.

Percentage relative humidity: It is hundred times the ratio of the

partial pressure of water vapors in air-water mixture to the saturation
pressure of the water vapors (vapor pressure) under the conditions of
interest. See relative humidity.

Percentagerelative humidity  relative humidity100

A 60% relative humidity means 40% more water can enter into the air-
water mixture. See percentage humidity and humidity.

Perforated pipe distributors: These are one of the simplest types of

liquid distributors that are used with packed columns. Perforated pipes
are arranged in either a ladder shape (ladder pipe distributor) or a ring
form (perforated ring distributor). The perforations are only limited to
the downside of the pipes. A pipe header is normally required that
distributes the feed inlet to the other parts of the distributor. Distribution
performance is relatively poor in these kinds of distributors.

Perforated ring distributor: A type of perforated pipe distributor. A

perforated ring distributor is shown in Fig. P-7. See perforated pipe
distributors.

Fig. P-7 Perforated ring distributor.

345
Perforated tray: Same as sieve tray. See sieve tray.

Perforated tray tower: Same as sieve tray tower. See sieve tray tower.

Peristaltic pump: A plastic tubing is pressed (pinched) by a set of

rollers placed one after the other and in doing so the liquid moves
through the tube. The speed of rollers can be controlled to control the
flowrate. See Fig. P-8.

Fig. P-8 Peristaltic pump.

Permeability: It is the ability of a material to allow a fluid to pass

through its body. It is usually reported in the units of Darcy. See
Darcy’s law.

Permeate: The fluid stream that passes through a porous bed or a

membrane is called as permeate. See Fig. M-3.

Pervaporation: The word pervaporation is a combination of the words

permeation and evaporation. It is a selective evaporation-separation of
desired component/s from a feed liquid mixture by the use of a
membrane. The feed solution is introduced on one side of a membrane
and the desired component is obtained in the vapor/gaseous phase on
the other side of the membrane.

Petroleum distillation: The distillation process for the separation of

crude oil into various fractions with distinct boiling point ranges. It
normally requires an atmospheric distillation column in which part of
the fractionation occurs. The bottom product (high boiling) of the
atmospheric distillation column is fractionated in the vacuum
distillation column. See atmospheric distillation unit and vacuum
distillation unit.
346
Petroleum refining: Also called as crude oil refining. Petroleum
refining is the separation and conversion of a crude oil and its fractions
into useful products while undergoing various separation (distillation,
dewaxing, solvent extraction, etc.) and conversion processes
(reforming, hydrocracking, desulfurization, etc.).

PFD: It stands for process flow diagram. See process flow diagram.

Phase: A phase is any homogeneous part of a system. It is physically

distinct and can be separated by mechanical means. Benzene and water,
although both are liquids (same liquid state), but form two separate
phases (as immiscible).

Phase diagram: Phase diagrams describe the behavior of gas, liquid,

and solid phases of a single component or a mixture of components. A
phase diagram has distinct regions defined by state properties such as
temperature, pressure, and specific volume. At some points in a phase
diagram, two or more phases are in equilibrium and at other points a
single phase region is possible. See phase equilibrium.

Phase equilibrium: It is the thermodynamic equilibrium established

between phases. Two or more phases are said to be in equilibrium if the
phases are at the same temperature and pressure and the chemical
potentials of all of the components in each phase are the same.

Phase rule: Same as Gibbs phase rule. See Gibbs phase rule.

Physical adsorption: Also called as physisorption. In the physical

adsorption, the adsorbate sticks to the surface of the adsorbent by weak
van der Waals’ forces and no chemical bonding is occurred. The
physical adsorption is reversible and that the heat of adsorption is
similar to the energy changes involved in a liquefaction process. It is
applied in measuring the surface area, pore volume, and pore size of a
porous material. See chemisorption. See also Table C-2.

Physisorption: Same as physical adsorption. See physical adsorption.

PI: It stands for proportional-integral control action. See proportional-

integral control action.

347
Picket weir: It is used with tray towers and employed for low liquid
flowrates. See Fig. P-9.

Fig. P-9 Weirs used with tray towers: a) picket weir, b) rectangular
weir, c) circular weir.

Pictorial diagram: A type of process diagram. A pictorial diagram

shows three dimensional pictures of the equipments and is helpful for
the advertisement and the non-technical staff.

PID: It stands for proportional-integral-derivative control action. See

proportional-integral-derivative control action.

Piezometer: A piezometer is shown in Fig. P-10. It is a simple type of

manometer that requires no manometeric fluid. It consists of a vertical
glass tube attached to a process pipe or a vessel. The process liquid rises
up in the tube to indicate the pressure. It cannot be used for measuring
the pressure of gases.

Piezometric ring: A circular ring chamber around a pipe containing a

number of equally spaced holes to measure the average effect of
pressure at a given location of the pipe. This type of arrangement may
be used for measuring the pressure head at a given tapping of a
flowmeter such as for a Venturi meter.

Pin mill: A variation of the disc mill and falls in the category of fine
grinders. It consists of two vertical discs with horizontally projected
348
pins on the inside surfaces. One of the discs may be stationary while the
other rotates at a high speed so that the pins on the moving disc pass
close to the pins on the static disc. In a different design, both the discs
may rotate in direction opposite to each other. Material to be reduced in
size is fed from the top to the center of the mill and the size of the
particles is reduced under the action of shear and impact methods of
force.

Fig. P-10 Piezometer attached to a process pipe.

Pinch valve: The valve is used with rubber or similar piping that can be
pinched. However, it may be used with materials that cannot be
pinched, but in such case the valve body itself contains the tubing that
can be pinched. The valve can be used for throttling applications. It is
simple in design and of low cost. It is used for small pipe sizes and
offers little to no resistance when fully opened.

Pinging: Same as knocking. See knocking.

Pipe: Sometimes called as circular pipe. A pipe is a closed conduit with

a circular cross-sectional area. Pipes are extensively used in process and
allied industry because they are easy to be formed (low cost), easy to
install (low cost), easy to purge and clean, and avoid fluid pocketing
(hot spots). Table P-2 gives a comparison of pipes and tubes.

Pipe fittings: Also called as simply fittings. Pipe fittings are the distinct
pieces of pipe connectors relatively small in length in comparison to the
pipe dimensions. Couplings, tees, crosses, unions, and nipples are
349
examples of pipe fittings. Fig. P-11 shows some common pipe fittings.
Pipe fittings are screwed fittings, flanged fittings, and welded fittings.
Screw fittings are usually not common for a pipe size greater than 2 in
and instead flanged or welded fittings are normally employed [20].
Welded joints are usually strong and leak proof.

Table P-2 Comparison of pipe and tube

Pipes
Pipes are generally larger in
diameter.
They are usually thick walled.
They are available in standard
lengths. Normal metal piping
length is 6 m (20 ft).
They are available in many types
of materials. Metallic pipes,
usually, can be threaded. Joining
pipes usually require threading
or welding.
Surface of pipes are usually
rough, therefore, they offer
greater resistance to flow.
Pipes are normally specified in
terms of schedule number and
nominal pipe size.
Tubes
Tubes are relatively smaller in
diameter.
They are usually thin walled.
They are available in coils which
may be several hundreds in
length when uncoiled.
Tubes are also available in many
types of materials and they are
not usually threaded. Tubes are
not joined by screwed fittings.
Tubes are generally made
smooth and offer comparatively
less resistance to flow.
Tubes are specified generally in
terms of outside diameter and
BWG (Birmingham wire gauge).

Pipe flow: Flow of a fluid in a circular pipe.

Pipe still: A fired heater or furnace that contains heating tubes through
which a process fluid flows while being heated is sometimes called as
pipe still. See fired heater.

Piping and instrumentation diagram (P&ID): Also called as

mechanical flow diagram (MFD). It provides the information about the
mechanical details of a process. Each of the process equipments is
shown and if possible relative size of each of the process equipments is
provided. It presents location of the nozzles (inlets and outlets) of the
equipments. It shows the use of sight glasses, sample ports, etc.
Information about pipe size, pipe material of construction (MoC), and
350
insulation is also provided. Detailed instrumentation and control loops
are a part of a P&ID, however, it does not provide information about
equipment layout, fittings, and process conditions (temperature,
pressure, and flowrates). Design engineer has a little concern with this
type of diagram. However, it is quite useful for operators’ training and
for operating the plant. It is also helpful for the construction department
before actually erecting the plant. See process flow diagram.

Fig. P-11 Pipe fittings: a) coupling, b) tee, c) cross, d) reducer coupling,

e) cap, f) return bend, g) wye, h) long elbow, i) short elbow, j) union,
k) long nipple, l) close nipple, m) bushing, n) plug.

Piping isometrics: A type of process design diagram in which three

dimensional piping layouts are shown.

Piping rig: A network of pipes and pipe fittings. Fig. P-12 shows a
piping rig fitted with some of the common fittings. See pipe fittings.
See also Fig. P-11.

Piston flow: Same as plug flow. See plug flow.

Piston pump: It is a reciprocating type of positive displacement pump

in which a piston reciprocates (moves back and forth) inside the
cylindrical housing to pump the liquid. In a simple piston pump (single
acting pump), in the backward stroke the piston moves backward and
351
draws in the feed liquid through the intake valve and captures the liquid
inside the housing. On the forward stroke, the liquid is expelled out of
the cylinder through the discharge valve. Due to the reciprocating
motion of the piston, the discharge is pulsating (not uniform). The
pressure developed is dependent on the length and frequency (rpm) of
the stroke. Piston pumps are either single acting or double acting
pumps. In a single acting piston pump, there is only one pair (intake and
discharge) of valves and the suction and discharge are only at one side
of the pump. In contrast to a single acting piston pump, a double acting
piston pump contains two pairs of valves, one on each side of the
piston. The suction and discharge occur on both sides of the piston. The
discharge through a double acting pump is more uniform than a single
acting piston pump. See Fig. P-13. See also reciprocating pump and
plunger pump.

Flange Pipe

Process Coupling Tee 90°

vessel Valve
elbow

Fig. P-12 Piping rig with some common fittings.

Fig. P-13 Reciprocating piston pump: a) single acting, b) double acting.

Pitot tube: A typical pitot tube is shown in Fig. P-14. It is a flow

352
measuring device that unlike orifice meter and Venturi meter, measures
the point or local velocity at a given point in a flowing fluid. In a typical
construction, it consists of two concentric tubes arranged parallel to the
flow. The outer tube has a series of small holes and measures the static
pressure (actual pressure of the fluid). The inner tube has a small
opening at which the fluid is brought to rest and measures the
stagnation pressure or impact pressure (sum of dynamic or velocity
pressure and static pressure). The difference between the stagnation
pressure and the static pressure is the kinetic or the dynamic pressure
which is a measure of the fluid velocity. The discharge coefficient for a
pitot tube lies between 0.98 and 1.0 [19].

Pipe

Static pressure

Stagnation
pressure Pitot tube

Manometer

Fig. P-14 Pitot tube.

Plait point: In usual cases of liquid-liquid extraction, two immiscible

phases and three components are involved and the equilibrium between
the two phases is customarily represented on a ternary (triangular)
phase diagram. On a triangular phase diagram, at the plait point the
length of the tie line (line joining the compositions of the two phases in
equilibrium) is zero and the two phases in equilibrium have similar
compositions. See Fig. T-5. See also ternary phase diagram.

Planetary mill: It is a size reduction machinery that is used for the fine
353
grinding of solid particles. The mill consists of a cylinder placed on a
circular disc or platform. The material and the grinding media (spheres)
are charged in the cylinder and the cylinder rotates not on its own axis,
but follows (orbits) the motion of the platform. High impact forces
result in fine grinding of the material.

Plant layout: A plant layout defines a suitable arrangement for the

process equipments, personnel, storage facilities, transportation
services, materials handling facilities, etc. in order to best achieve the
production performance.

Plate: Same as tray. See tray.

Plate and frame filter: A type of filter press. It consists of a number of

alternate plates and frames arranged together on a rack and closed
tightly with hydraulic or screw closing mechanism. The plates are
covered with the filtering media (synthetic cloth, canvas, filter paper, or
woven wire). The flow of the slurry through the filter requires a positive
pressure (pressure filter) and the filtration is carried out in a batch
operation. The filter is flexible in operation, i.e., it may be used for a
variety of products, but it has low capacity or throughput. The filter
offers low capital cost and low maintenance cost, however, it delivers
high operating cost. It is easy to operate and easy to maintain and that it
has an added advantage that it can be used at high pressures.

Plate column: Same as tray tower. See tray tower.

Plate dryers: Plate dryers are used for the drying of free flowing
particulate or granular solids. It consists of a series of flat plates
arranged one above the other. Each plate is heated from the inside by a
suitable heating medium such as steam. The material is introduced at
the top plate and conveyed from plate to plate towards the bottom
where the dried product is received. The drying operation may be
possible under vacuum.

Plate efficiency: Same as tray efficiency. See tray efficiency.

Plate heat exchanger: A type of indirect heat exchanger that consists

of a series of thin welded or gasketted plates as shown in Fig. P-15. The

354
hot and cold fluids flow in alternate plate passages and heat is
transferred through the wall of the metal plates. These metal plates are
corrugated in order to enhance the heat transfer coefficient and the heat
transfer surface. Also, corrugations can provide mechanical strength to
the plate geometry. The exchanger has high heat transfer coefficients
and high heat transfer surface to volume ratio. See compact heat
exchanger.

Fig. P-15 Plate heat exchanger.

Plate spacing: Also called as tray spacing. It is the vertical distance

between two successive plates or trays in a tray tower. It is an important
parameter in the design of a tray tower. An improper selection of tray
spacing leads to flooding, high cost, and less efficient column. A greater
value is required to avoid entrainment of liquid droplets from a given
tray to the next (upper) tray and hence to reduce the loss in efficiency.
Vacuum columns require taller disengagement space and therefore
require greater tray spacing.

Plug: It is a type of pipe fitting that is used to blind or close a pipeline.

Unlike a cap, it is threaded from the outside. See Fig. P-11. See also
cap.

Plug flow: Also called as piston flow. Each fluid element has the same
residence time and the fluid velocity is assumed to be uniform over the
entire cross-section of the pipe or vessel. See ideal plug flow reactor.

355
Plug flow reactor, ideal: See ideal plug flow reactor.

Plug valve: A plug valve is shown in Fig. P-16. The valve consists of a
plug that requires 90 degree turn to open or close the flow line. When
fully opened, the valve usually offers very low pressure drop. The valve
is not recommended for the throttling applications and it is normally
used only for the on-off services. The valve has the advantage of being
quick in operation as compared to the gate and globe valves. The valve
may be designed to direct the flow to two or three pipelines (directions).

Fig. P-16 Plug valve.

Plume: The whitish cloudy (misty) exhaust of the natural draft cooling
tower. It is the condensed entrained water emerging from the top of the
tower. The plume may entrain salts of water treatment and corrosion
products from the plant equipment which may cause ecological
problems. It may give rise to fogging and additional rainfall nearby the
plant area. See natural draft cooling tower.

Plunger pump: It is a type of reciprocating positive displacement

pump that is used for developing high pressures. Unlike the piston
pump, in the plunger pump, the pumping element is a plunger and not
the piston. A plunger usually has a greater length to diameter ratio than
a piston. Plunger pump is a single acting pump and the back and forth
motion of the plunger inside the stationary cylinder drives the liquid at
high pressure. With each revolution of the plunger, fixed quantity of
356
liquid is discharged from the pump. Plunger pump is a high viscosity
pump as it is capable of pressurizing high viscosity liquids. See Fig. P-
17. See also reciprocating pump and piston pump.

Fig. P-17 Plunger pump.

Pneumatic atomization: In pneumatic atomization, the atomization

(disintegration into tiny droplets) of a liquid is realized by contacting it
with a compressed gas (usually air), i.e., the energy required for the
atomization is obtained from a compressed gas.

Pneumatic atomizer: The device that carries out the pneumatic

atomization (using a compressed gas) is called as pneumatic atomizer.
See pneumatic atomization.

Pneumatic controller: A pneumatic controller is so called as it

operates on the energy of the compressed air.

Pneumatic conveying: It is the transportation of solid particles by the

use of a compressed gas (usually air) or vacuum.

Pneumatic dryer: Same as flash dryer. See flash dryer.

Pneumatic transport of solids: An increase in the superficial gas

velocity beyond fast fluidization causes the bed to have pneumatic
transport of solids. In the pneumatic transport of solids, the particles
velocity exceeds the terminal velocity and the particles are carried away
with the gas.

Podbielniak contactor: A continuous differential centrifugal contactor

used in liquid-liquid extraction. It consists of numerous concentric
cylindrical sieve plates that rotate on a horizontal axis. The phases are
contacted in a countercurrent fashion. The heavy phase is driven
outwardly and the light phase travels inwardly and the two phases are
357
discharged accordingly at their respective outlets. Both extraction and
phase separation are achieved in the same unit.

Point efficiency: See Murphree point efficiency.

Point function: State function is also called as point function because

the value of such a function can be indicated or plotted as a point on a
property diagram. See state function.

Point variable: Same as point function. See point function.

Poiseuille law: Same as Hagen-Poiseuille law. See Hagen-Poiseuille

law.

Poisoning of a catalyst: Poisoning is one of the mechanisms of catalyst

deactivation. In poisoning of a catalyst, the loss in activity of the
catalyst is caused by chemisorption of a foreign material or impurity to
the catalyst surface. See deactivation of catalyst.

Poles of transfer function: The roots of the denominator of a transfer

function are called as poles of a transfer function. Any value of the
poles equal to Laplace operator s makes the transfer function infinity.
See zeroes of transfer function.

Polytropic process: A thermodynamic process in which pressure and

volume of a gas are related by the following equation:

p V n  C

Where, p is pressure of gas, V is volume of gas, n is the polytropic

index, and C is the polytropic constant. For n = 0 and n = 1 the equation
reduces to isobaric (constant pressure) process and isothermal (constant
temperature) process, respectively.

PONA: It stands for paraffin-olefin-naphthene-aromatic.

Ponchon-Savarit method: When molar latent heats of vaporization are

not constant and there may be issues of heat of solution (non-ideal heat
effects) then instead of using Lewis-Sorel or McCabe-Thiele methods,
358
the graphical Ponchon-Savarit method is applied to work out material
balances and to find out the number of plates in a distillation column.
The method is more general than Lewis-Sorel or McCabe-Thiele
methods and applied even when the condition of constant molar
flowrates is not valid. It requires the use of enthalpy-composition
diagram (enthalpy-concentration data). See McCabe-Theile method.

Pool boiling: In the pool boiling the heating surface is submerged in a

pool of a liquid. Heating in a kettle type reboiler is a typical example.
See Fig. P-18. See also convective boiling.

Fig. P-18 Pool boiling: a) concept of pool boiling, b) pool boiling curve
showing various boiling regimes in a pool boiling.

Pore diffusion: Also called as internal diffusion in comparison to

external diffusion defined for the external fluid film formed on the
outside surface of a particle. The diffusion (mass transfer) of a
component from the outside surface of a material (catalyst) into the
pores of the material is called as pore diffusion or internal diffusion. See
external diffusion and rate controlling step.

Pore diffusion controlled system: Same as internal diffusion

controlled system. See internal diffusion controlled system.

Pore size: Average linear dimension of the openings of the pores of a

porous material. For a cylindrical pore, it is the diameter of the pore and
for a slit pore, it is the width of the opening. Based on pore size, various
kinds of pores may be defined which may be applied to classify the
materials accordingly. See micropores.

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Pore volume: It is the volume of pores or void spaces in a gram (g) of a
solid (adsorbent or catalyst). The method of measurement should also
be mentioned when the value is reported. An example -alumina
catalytic support has a pore volume of 0.58 m3/g.

Porosimetry: It means to characterize a porous solid, i.e., to measure

the properties of a porous material. Pore size distribution, average pore
size, pore volume, and surface area may be determined by porosimetry.

Porosity: Also called as voidage. See voidage.

Porous solid: A solid material that has a porous structure such as a

porous catalyst and that the most of the surface area is available within
the pores of the material and not on the outer surface. Activated carbon
and zeolites are typical examples. A porous solid is frequently used as
an adsorbent, a catalyst, or a support for the active catalytic material.

Positive displacement pump: A positive displacement pump works by

displacing a fixed volume of a liquid per revolution of the pump shaft
rotation. A definite quantity of the liquid is entrapped in a chamber and
then discharged at a higher pressure. Reciprocating and rotary pumps
are the two main types of the positive displacement pumps.
Reciprocating pumps work on the back and forth motion of the
pumping element. Piston pumps, plunger pumps, and diaphragm pumps
are examples of reciprocating pumps. Rotary pumps operate on the
principle in which a fixed quantity of liquid is discharged due to
rotating element inside the casing of the pump. Gear pumps, lobe
pumps, vane pumps, and screw pumps are examples of rotary pumps.
Compact design, flexibility of use, high pressure capability, and high
volumetric efficiency are the main features of this type of pump. See
pumps.

Potential energy: An external form of energy that is possessed by a

body due to elevation from a reference point. See kinetic energy.

Potential head: Also called as elevation head. Potential energy per unit
weight of a fluid is called as potential head. See head.

Pour point: Pour point and cloud point are the two important test

360
methods on liquid fuels and lube oils for the application at low
temperature conditions. When the temperature of an oil sample is kept
on decreasing under standardized conditions in a standardized pour
point apparatus, a temperature is reached where the oil is unable to flow
for a standard time. This temperature is known as pour point. The pour
point is generally a lower value than the corresponding cloud point. See
cloud point.

Power: It is the rate of doing work. The work may be done on the
system by the surroundings or done by the system on the surroundings.
The SI units of power are Js–1 or W.

Power law fluids: Non-Newtonian fluids that follow power law model
are known as power law fluids. See power law model (for non-
Newtonian fluids).

Power law model: For a simple gas phase irreversible reaction,

A  Products , based on the power law model, the following rate
equation may be written

(rA )  k  pAn

Where, (  rA ) is rate of consumption of A, k is rate constant, p A is

partial pressure of A, and n is order of the reaction. The power law
model is an empirical model and simple to use as only few parameters
are required to be fitted against the data.
For non-Newtonian fluids, it is also called as Ostwald-de Waele
model. The power law model is a widely used flow model for
describing the behavior of a non-Newtonian fluid. It is so named as the
shear rate is given the nth power known as the power law index. On a
shear stress-shear rate diagram, for a curve that passes through the
origin, the power law model may be applied and therefore both the
shear thickening and shear thinning fluids may be described by the
power law, however, Bingham plastic fluids do not follow the power
law.

Power number: A dimensionless number that finds its application in

agitated vessels and used to estimate the power requirements for a given
agitated system. It is given as
361
 P
Po 
  N 3  D5

Where, Po is power number, P is power required, ρ is density of

fluid, N is speed of impeller, and D is diameter of impeller.

ppb: It stands for parts per billion.

ppm: It stands for parts per million.

Prandtl analogy: A modified Reynolds analogy in which the effect of

laminar flow (laminar sublayer) adjacent to the wall is also included.
See Reynolds analogy.

Prandtl boundary layer: Same as boundary layer and hydrodynamic

boundary layer. See boundary layer.

Prandtl mixing length: Prandtl has introduced the concept of mixing

length in turbulent flows where fluid eddies move randomly to transport
momentum from one point to another. The mixing length may be
defined as the length a small volume of fluid (moving eddy) travels
before losing its identity and adopting the new velocity.

Prandtl number: It is the ratio of molecular diffusivity of momentum

(kinematic viscosity) to molecular diffusivity of heat (thermal
diffusivity). As it is a combination of properties, it is also a property. It
is denoted by Pr.

momentum diffusivity  c p 
Pr   
thermal diffusivity  k

Where, v and α are momentum and thermal diffusivities,

respectively, while cp, μ, and k are specific heat capacity, viscosity, and
thermal conductivity, respectively. Prandtl number of gases lies in the
range of 0.5–1.0 while it ranges between 2 and >10 for liquids [19]. See
momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity.

Precision: Precise measurements are close to each other and may or

362
may not close to the actual value of the measuring variable. Precision,
therefore, indicates the goodness of an instrument for the repeated
measurements of the measuring variable under constant conditions. A
precise and not the accurate instrument or device is usually preferred in
the process industry. See accuracy.

Pressure atomization: In pressure atomization, droplets are formed by

forcing a pressurized liquid through an orifice at high speed. The
average particle size of droplets is a function of spraying pressure and
liquid flow through the orifice (nozzle). See atomization.

Pressure atomizer: A device that carries out the pressure atomization

of a liquid is called as pressure atomizer. See pressure atomization.

Pressure diffusion: For large pressure gradients, diffusion (mass

transfer) may be caused by a pressure gradient.

Pressure drag: Same as form drag. See form drag.

Pressure drop: It is the decrease in pressure energy of a fluid between

two points due to resistance (frictional forces) offered to the flow of the
fluid. The resistance to flow may be caused by surface roughness or
geometry (form) of the conduit. Higher is the velocity of the fluid
greater will be the pressure drop.

Pressure energy: Pressure energy is the energy possessed by a fluid

due to the force developed by the bombardment of fluid molecules on a
unit area. Increasing activity of the molecular motion in a fluid
increases the pressure of the fluid.

Pressure head: It is the pressure energy per unit weight of a fluid. It

has dimensions of length. The term pressure head is the pressure of a
fluid that is the same as the pressure exerted by an equivalent height of
the column of the fluid. See head.

Pressure filter: Unlike gravity filters and vacuum filters, pressure filers
are operated under positive pressure. The feed slurry is introduced at
high pressure (higher than the atmospheric pressure) and the filtrate
flows through the filter due a positive pressure difference. Plate and

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frame filters and pressure leaf filters are examples of pressure filters.

Pressure leaf filter: A leaf filter that requires positive pressure for the
slurry to flow through the filter is the pressure leaf filter. See leaf filter
and pressure filter.

Pressure ratio: In a compression process, it is the ratio of the outlet

pressure to the inlet pressure.

Pressure swing adsorption: An in-situ regeneration technique for the

adsorbents. Under isothermal conditions, adsorption occurs at high
pressure and regeneration of the adsorbent bed (desorption) is carried
out at a reduced pressure. See temperature swing adsorption.

Pressure vessel: A pressure vessel is a closed container that has

different inside and outside pressures. Improper design of a pressure
vessel is a threat to life and capital and therefore standard procedures
and codes are followed for the design and manufacturing of a pressure
vessel. With regards to a pressure vessel, a chemical engineer may be
called for specifying the operating conditions, finding the dimensions of
the given vessel and thickness of the wall of the vessel (for preliminary
design), suggesting the material of construction, types of heads, and
orientation of the vessel, and providing information about auxiliaries
such as requirements of a particular type of agitator, coils, or heat
transfer jacket.

Pressure-composition diagram: A binary (system of two components)

vapor-liquid phase diagram in which pressure is plotted as y-coordinate
while composition of the more volatile is plotted as x-coordinate. It is
also called as boiling point diagram and p-x-y diagram. Although
mostly referred to a vapor-liquid phase diagram, but generally it may be
any pressure-composition diagram. A typical binary pressure-
composition diagram is shown in Fig. T-3.

Pressure-temperature (p-T) diagram: A thermodynamic property

diagram in which pressure is plotted as y-coordinate and temperature is
plotted as x-coordinate. The diagram gives the information regarding
the effect of variations in temperature and pressure on the phase
behavior of a pure component or a mixture of components. The diagram

364
describes the regions and phases involved in a pure component or
mixture of components. A p-T diagram of a pure component is shown in
Fig. P.19.

Critical point Supercritic

al fluid
region
Critical
pressure
Liquid region
Fusion or melting (compressed or
curve subcooled liquid
(slope of the line region) Vaporization or
Pressure

depends on the type of boiling curve

Solid
component)
region
Gas region
(superheated vapor above
Triple point Vapor region critical temperature may
(superheated be described as gas)
vapor region)

Temperature
Critical
Sublimation curve
temperature
Fig. P-19 Pressure-temperature diagram of a pure component.

Prilling: A molten material such as molten urea is sprayed in a tall

tower and cooled while falling under the influence of gravity force. See
Table P-3 in which a comparison of prilling and spray drying is given.

Priming: If a pump is filled with air or a gas, the pump loses suction.
The priming of a pump is the filling up the casing of the pump with the
liquid to be pumped so that the pump can revive suction.
For the operation of a tray tower, a condition of excessive
entrainment that is caused by the excessive foaming is known as
priming. The space between the trays is occupied by unnecessary
foaming. The foam entrains the liquid droplets and much of the liquid is
entrained (escaped) from the lower to the upper tray. See Fig. T-10.

Principle of corresponding states: It states that substances have the

same compressibility factor (behave in a similar way) at the same
reduced conditions of temperature and pressure. See reduced
temperature and reduced pressure.

Process: One or more steps in series carried out to change inputs to a

desired output. Or, a process is said to occur when a system undergoes a
365
change in state, i.e., one or more properties of a system vary.

Table P-3 Comparison of prilling and spray drying

Prilling
The main point of difference: In
prilling, the material to be prilled
is almost a melt with little
moisture to be dried out. The
main or dominating unit
operation, however, is cooling
rather than drying.
Humidity of air does affect on
the efficiency of the operation,
however, the effect is not as
much greater as that in the case
of spray drying.
The particle size of the product is
larger, normally, 3 mm is an
average value.
The product is called as prills.
A very tall tower is required
which is usually cylindrical in
nature. The aspect ratio (length
to diameter ratio) is quite high.
It is used in making prills of
urea, ammonium sulfate, etc.
Spray drying
In spraying the material to be
sprayed is a solution (or colloidal
solution) with much greater
amount of water (or solvent) to
be dried out. The main unit
operation is therefore drying
instead of cooling.
Humidity of the operation does
affect on the efficiency of the
operation where the effect is
greater as compared to prilling.
The product size is relatively
smaller.
The product is usually called as
powder.
A large cylindrical tower is
required, which is conical at the
bottom (a large cone is attached
at the bottom of the cylindrical
portion). The length to diameter
ratio is quite moderate.
It is used in drying milk to
produce powdered milk.

Process design: Design starts from an idea and the idea is materialized
to earn profit and/or to fulfill some national or human need. Process
design considerations include development of a process, i.e., selection
of the raw material, selection of the process by which raw materials are
converted into desired product, and development of a suitable
flowsheet. These include the process should be economically viable and
it should be the best in respect of plant installation, controllability,
maintenance, heat integration, safety and hazards, and environmental
concerns.
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Process flow diagram (PFD): Unlike the blocks in a block diagram, a
series of flowsheet symbols are connected with flow lines. Each major
process equipment such as reactor, distillation column, heat exchanger,
compressor, etc. is shown on the diagram. Each of the process
equipments is named and allotted a specific equipment number (tag)
according to the area in which it is located. Flow lines are numbered
(named) and necessary information regarding stream flowrate,
composition, temperature, and pressure of each line is provided either
on a separate sheet or on the same sheet (diagram). In addition, flags are
used to indicate the important operating conditions (temperatures,
pressures, etc.). Some basic control loops are also shown on the
diagram. Utility streams for the major equipments are shown. The
diagram is extremely useful for a design engineer for optimizing the
design and sizing the equipments. It, however, does not provide enough
information to start the plant construction. Piping and instrumentation
diagram (P&ID) provides much of this detail. See piping and
instrumentation diagram.

Process reaction curve: See Cohen-Coon tuning method.

Promoter: A promoter is added to a catalyst to affect the activity,

selectivity, and stability of the catalyst.

Propeller: Axial flow fans utilize propellers (fan blades) that drive a
gas.
In agitated tanks, a propeller (a mixing impeller) is used for the low
viscosity liquids and provides axial flow. Three-blade marine propeller
is an example. See mixing impellers. See also Fig. M-7.

Property: Also called as state function, state variable, point variable,

and point function. See state function.

Proportional band: It describes the range of the measured variable

over which the proportional controller takes the corrective action due to
an error in the system. It is expressed in percent and alternately used in
place of gain for the proportional controllers. It is the reciprocal of
dimensionless proportional gain.

367
 100
% proportion al band 
proportion al gain

See proportional gain.

Proportional (P) control action: Controller action in which output of

the controller is proportional to the error. Proportional only action
cannot fully eliminate the offset and therefore it is used only where
offset can be tolerated. A proportional action (controller) has only one
parameter (proprtional gain or controller gain) which makes it simple
with the lowest complexity and easiest to workwith and tune.

Proportional gain: The only parameter of the proportional control

action (controller) that measures the controller output for the given
input to the controller. See proportional band.

Proportional kick: Similar to the derivative kick, however, associated

with proportional controllers only. A proportional controller takes
action in proportion to the error. A sudden fluctuation in the controller
input may give rise to a relatively large action which is termed as
proportional kick. See derivative kick.

Proportional-derivative (PD) control action: A controller action that

includes both the proprtional and derivatoive control modes. Although
offset of a control system is not eliminated with this type of controller
action, however, stability of the system is improved due to the presence
of the derivative mode.

Proportional-integral (PI) control action: The action is a combination

of proportional and integral modes. Proprtional action speeds up the
response of a given control system and integral action eliminates the
offset of the system. PI control action is normally used for inherently
fast loops such as flow loop (as integral action results in slower
response) or for the systems where offset is not tolerable.

Proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control action: The action is

a combination of all the three controller modes, i.e., proportional,
integral, and derivative modes. PID is a robust action that chracterizes a
fast response, zero offset, and stable system. The speed of the control
368
action is enhanced by the proportional mode parameter, i.e., by
increasing the proportional gain, the offset is eliminated with proper
tuning of integral action (integral time), and the stability is improved by
the derivative action (derivative time). It is the most commonly used
control action in the industry. Although it is the best control strategy,
however, the presence of three controller parametrs means highest
complexity and the most difficult to workwith and tune.

Proprietary design: Design procedures for equipments such as most

filters, many types of structured packings, and valve tray towers are not
readily available and usually require pilot plant testing. The proprietary
equipment is not conventionally designed by the design engineer at the
desk, but the design is specified by the manufacturing company.

Proximate analysis: Analysis of a fuel such as coal in which moisture,

ash contents, volatile matter, and fixed carbon for the fuel sample are
determined. No attempt is made to find out the elemental composition.
The analysis is simple and sometimes found sufficiently enough for the
fuel selection for a given duty. See ultimate analysis.

Pseudocritical pressure: It is the critical pressure defined for a mixture

of components and used with the property estimation correlations. It is
not the true critical pressure of the mixture. It is obtained by adding the
product of mole fraction and critical pressure of each component
present in the mixture.

n
p pc   pcr,i  yi
i 1

Where, p pc is pseudocritical pressure and pcr,i and yi are critical

pressure and mole fraction of ith component, respectively. See
pseudocritical temperature.

Pseudocritical temperature: It is the critical temperature defined for a

mixture of components and used with the property estimation
correlations. It is not the true critical temperature of the mixture. It is
obtained by adding the product of mole fraction and critical temperature
of each component present in the mixture.

369
 n
T pc   Tcr,i  yi
i 1

Where, T pc is pseudocritical temperature and Tcr,i and yi are critical

temperature and mole fraction of ith component, respectively. See
pseudocritical pressure.

Pseudoplastic fluids: Also called as shear thinning fluids. These types

of time-independent non-Newtonian fluids exhibit decrease in viscosity
with increasing shear rate. Greater is the shear deformation lower will
be the viscosity. Pseudoplastic fluids are the most commonly available
non-Newtonian fluids. See Fig. N-3.

Pseudosteady-state diffusion: A process of diffusion which is not a

steady-state diffusion process in true sense, however, the length of the
diffusion path changes only minutely in a large interval of time. This
pseudosteady-state diffusion model is helpful in determining the
diffusion coefficient of a component in a non-diffusing gas.

Psychrometer: The device measures the wet bulb and dry bulb
temperatures at the same time and therefore measures the humidity of
an air-water system. A sling psychrometer is an example. See sling
psychrometer and humidity.

Psychrometric chart: Also called as humidity chart. A psychrometric

chart for air-water system is shown in Fig. P-20. It is a graphical
representation of the interdependence of the adiabatic saturation
temperature (wet bulb temperature), the dry bulb temperature, the
absolute humidity, and the percentage relative humidity or percentage
humidity at constant pressure. Other properties such as enthalpy and the
specific volume may also be shown. If any two of these properties are
known the rest of the properties can be obtained from the psychrometric
chart.

Psychrometric ratio: It is defined as the ratio of heat transfer

coefficient to the product of mass transfer coefficient and humid heat. It
is an important concept in humidity calculations where simultaneous
heat and mass transfer are involved. For the air-water system, the

370
psychrometric ratio is close to unity and the wet bulb temperature and
adiabatic saturation temperature are identical.

Fig. P-20 Psychrometric chart.

p-T diagram: It stands for pressure-temperature diagram. See pressure-

temperature diagram.

Pug mill: A solid-solid mixing and granulation equipment. It consists

of a horizontal trough with one or two rotating shafts fitted with
multiple small paddles (blades).

Pulsation intensity: Also called as pulse velocity. It is the product of

pulsation frequency and stroke length (amplitude of pulsation) in a
pulsed extraction column. Increasing pulsation intensity increases
turbulence in the column and generally increases the extraction
efficiency of the column.

Pulse velocity: Same as pulsation intensity. See pulsation intensity.

Pulsed extraction column: A liquid-liquid column extractor in which

extraction is enhanced by adding energy in the form of pulsations
produced in the body of the liquid mixture. Pulsations may be caused
either by reciprocating the plate stack upward and downward or by an
371
external pulsator giving pulsing action to the liquid in which case plate
stack remains rigid. In the former case, it is called as the reciprocating
pulsed extraction column and in the latter case it is known as the liquid
pulsed extraction column. See Fig. L-4.

Pump: A pump is a mechanical device that adds energy to a liquid to

increase the total head (energy) of the liquid. The added energy is used
to move or flow a liquid to overcome the frictional losses, to raise the
liquid to a given height, and to feed a liquid to a process at higher
pressure than the feed stream pressure. As liquids have higher density
than gases a pump requires less amount of energy for the same work
output as required by a compressor. On the basis of mechanism of
imparting energy to the liquid, there are two major types of pumps:
positive displacement pumps and dynamic pumps. See positive
displacement pumps and dynamic pumps. For the design of a pump, a
chemical engineer may be called for selecting the type of pump,
calculating GPM (gallons per minute) of the flowing fluid, calculating
the head requirements, calculating the horse power requirements,
selecting appropriate material of construction (MoC), and estimating the
cost of the overall pumping process.

Pump efficiency: It is the ratio of the output energy delivered by a

pump that does useful work to the total energy supplied to the pump
(brake horsepower). It accounts for all the losses inside the pump. The
total energy supplied to the pump includes the energy that appears as
useful energy in the liquid and the energy that is lost in the pump losses.
See pump losses.

Pump impellers: Pump impeller is the pumping element of the

centrifugal pump that turns the liquid at high speed and increases
kinetic energy of the liquid. It consists of a wheel like structure fitted
with vanes (blades) and connected to the pump shaft. Pump impellers
are either single suction or double suction. In single suction design, the
feed liquid enters only to one side of the impeller while in the double
suction design, the feed liquid enters to both sides of the impeller. There
are three basic designs of pump impellers: open, semi-open or semi-
closed, and closed impellers. In open impellers, vanes are fixed to the
central hub and are opened and not shrouded on any of the sides. These
are normally used to pump suspensions, viscous liquids, and paper

372
pulps. In closed impellers, vanes are shrouded, i.e., surrounded by a disc
on each side. In semi-closed or semi-open impellers, the vanes are
covered (shrouded) on only one side. Semi-open impellers can also be
used for suspensions and viscous liquids. Closed impeller pumps have
high pumping efficiency as compared to the other two types, however,
they are not suitable for liquids with suspended particles. See Fig. P-21.

Fig. P-21 Pump impellers: a) open, b) semi-closed or semi-open,

c) closed.

Pump laws: Same as affinity laws for pumps. See affinity laws for
pumps.

Pump losses: A pump does not operate with 100 percent efficiency
because of the losses associated with the pump. The losses may arise
due to fluid friction (hydraulic and disc losses), friction between the
moving parts of the pump (mechanical losses), and the leakage losses
(mixing of the liquid from the outlet of the impeller to the inlet liquid).

Pumparound: Also known as circulating reflux or intermediate reflux.

Hot liquid is drawn from a bottom plate (at high temperature) called as
pumparound draw plate and cooled externally and returned back to a
plate (pumparound return plate) at some elevated point. See Fig. P-22.

Pumping number: Also known as flow number. It is a dimensionless

number that corresponds to the actual flow in a pump or a mixing vessel
and may be used to characterize the impellers.

Q
NQ 
N  D3

373
 Where, NQ is pumping number, Q is flow rate of fluid, N is
impeller speed, and D is diameter of impeller. It depends on Reynolds
number, type of impeller, and impeller to tank diameter ratio.

Fig. P-22 Concept of pumparound.

Purge stream: The concept of a purge stream is shown in Fig. R-5. In

recycling a process stream, the concentration of inert gradually
increases in a process vessel (say a reactor) with time on operation. A
portion of the recycle stream called as purge stream is therefore
required to be removed from the system to prevent the concentration of
inert to exceed a certain level. Purge stream should be removed when
the impurity is difficult or uneconomical to separate from the other
components of the process stream. See purging.

Purging: Purging is carried out to make a vessel or a line free from air
either with the use of steam or nitrogen. This is required at the shut
down for the maintenance or at the start up of an operation. Also,
purging refers to a process in which a portion of a recycle stream is
required to be removed (purged) to keep the concentration of inert in a
system at a required level. See purge stream.

p-x-y diagram: See pressure-composition diagram.

Pycnometer: Generally, a pycnometer is used to measure the density of

a liquid. It consists of a vessel that is filled with the given sample and
weighed. The volume of the pycnometer is measured by filling it with
water and by knowing the density of water at the conditions of interest.
374
A gas or helium pycnometer, on the other hand, is employed for the
determination of true or skeletal density of a porous solid material by
infusing helium gas into the open pores of the porous solid. See
pycnometery.

Pycnometery: The technique is generally used to measure the density

of liquids. However, gas pycnometery (helium pycnometery) is
employed to measure the true density of a porous solid material. See
pycnometer.

375
Q
q-line: The concept of q-line is employed in the McCabe-Thiele method
of calculating the number of theoretical plates required in a binary
distillation column. The q-line is drawn to locate (draw) the stripping
line or the bottom operating line. The slope of the q-line is based on the
condition of the feed as shown in Fig. Q-1 and it directly affects the
number of plates in the column. See McCabe-Thiele method. See also
Fig. M-2.

Fig. Q-1 q-line slopes on a y-x diagram for the various feed conditions.
xA and yA are mole fractions of more volatile component in liquid and
vapor phases, respectively.

Qualitative analysis: The analysis is carried out to detect the presence

of a component and not the amount or quantity of the component is
known as qualitative analysis. It is therefore suggests what is present
and not how much is present. See quantitative analysis.

Quality (of a vapor): Also called as dryness fraction. The mass (or
mole) fraction of a vapor present in a mixture of vapor and liquid (wet
vapor) under saturated conditions. For a system at saturated conditions,
if x is the quality (of vapor) then the following can be written

376
 mass of the saturated vapor
x
mass of the saturated mixture of liquid and vapor

When x  1 , it is saturated liquid only; when x  0 , it is saturated vapor

only (dry saturated vapor); and when 1  x  0 , it is wet vapor, i.e.,
mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid. See wetness fraction.

Quantitative analysis: The analysis is carried out in which amount or

quantity of a component is determined. As in the acid-base titration, one
can measure normality or morality of an acid or base. See qualitative
analysis.

Quantity meter: Total quantity of a fluid flowing is measured and the

total time of flow is recorded. The average flowrate is measured by
dividing the total flowrate with total time. Quantity meters are simple in
operation and correctly measure the flowrate of a fluid stream. They are
usually used for the calibration purposes.

Quasi-static process: Quasi-static process proceeds infinitely slowly

and remains close to equilibrium state at all the times. The process can
be reversed at any time.

Quench stream: The cold stream that is used for the quenching
(rapidly cooling) of a desired process stream is called as quench stream.
See quenching.

Quenching: Rapid cooling of a process stream usually by adding

another relatively cold process stream (quench stream). See quench
stream.

Quiescent fluidized bed: At and just after the incipient fluidization or

fluidizing point, the fluidized bed is sometimes called as quiescent
fluidized bed as there is little or no mixing (circulation) of solid
particles. The bed that has passed the condition of quiescent fluidized
bed may be called as completely fluidized bed. See incipient
fluidization.

377
R
Rackett equation: The equation is employed for the estimation of
saturated liquid densities. Assuming negligible effect of pressure on the
liquid density, the same equation may be employed for density
estimation at compressed or subcooled liquid (ordinary liquid)
conditions.

Radial diffusion: See radial mixing (for a tubular reactor or a column

type extractor). Also, for a tubular reactor or a column type extractor
the diffusional heat transfer in the radial direction. If the resistance to
radial heat transfer is large, temperature gradients may exist in the
radial direction and there is a need for a two-dimensional plug flow
model to describe the system. See axial diffusion.

Radial flow: The flow of a fluid or thermal energy in the radial

direction. See Fig. A-21. See also axial flow.

Radial flow impellers: In agitated vessels, the types of the impellers

that direct the flow in the radial direction. Six blade disc turbine, flat
blade open turbine, and paddle impellers are examples of radial flow
impellers. See axial flow impellers.

Radial flow tray: A tray design used with tray towers in which liquid
flows in the radial direction. Unlike single cross flow tray design, the
liquid flows outwardly from the middle of the tray on one tray while it
flows inwardly from the ends of the tray on the tray below. The vapor
and liquid are still in the cross flow direction. Double split flow design
is a radial flow tray design. Radial flow design is used for large
diameter towers. See Fig. R-1.

Radial mixing: In an agitated vessel, the mixing in the radial direction

normal to the agitator shaft is called as radial mixing. Flat blade
turbines (open and disc) and paddle impellers are examples of radial
flow impellers.
In a tubular reactor or a column type extractor such as a liquid
pulsed column, radial mixing is the mixing in the radial direction of the
column. For a cylindrical column where the convective flow direction is

378
in the axial direction, the mixing in the radial direction is due to the
diffusional fluxes and if the diffusional rates are not fast, concentration
gradients can exist in the radial direction and may give rise to the
departure from the one-dimensional plug flow model. See axial mixing.

Fig. R-1 Radial flow tray design.

Radial velocity component: The component of the velocity normal to

the axis of a cylindrical pipe that is in the radial direction is called as
radial velocity component. See axial velocity component.

Radiation heat transfer: One of the three modes of heat transfer (the
other two are conduction heat transfer and convection heat transfer). All
bodies above absolute zero of temperature emit energy in the form of
electromagnetic radiations. In radiation heat transfer, thermal energy is
transferred from one point to the other by these electromagnetic
radiations. Not whole range of the electromagnetic spectra contributes
to the thermal energy transfer. Only a small portion of the spectra
ranging from 0.1 to 100 μm [21] wavelengths known as the region of
thermal radiations when incidents upon a body actually raises the
temperature of the body. Transfer of heat energy by radiation does not
require a physical medium. Radiation heat transfer is usually not
important in ordinary heat transfer calculations because radiation
contribution is usually small compared to conduction and convective
heat transfer. However, where temperature is very high and where heat
energy sources are to be insulated, radiation heat transfer has to be
included in heat transfer calculations.

379
Radiosity: It is the rate per unit area at which radiation leaves a surface.

Raffinate: In a liquid-liquid extractor, a solvent phase is contacted with

a given feed solution containing one or more solutes. After the intimate
contact, both the solvent phase and the original solution phase are
separated. The residual original solution from which the solute/s is/are
extracted or partially extracted is known as the raffinate. See Fig. R-2.

Fig. R-2 Concept of extract and raffinate.

Raining bucket extractor: Same as Graesser extractor. See Graesser

extractor.

Rake classifier: A type of mechanical classifier used for the separation

of coarse solid particles from fine particles. It consists of a shallow
rectangular container with inclined bottom. Moveable rakes are fitted at
the bottom and scrap the deposited solids and move the coarser particles
towards the top of the inclined bottom, where they are collected. Rakes
not only scrap the bottom surface, but in a backward stroke, they lift up
and agitate the slurry. Fine particles are collected in the overflow.

Ram pump: Same as hydraulic ram pump. See hydraulic ram pump.

Ramsbottom carbon test: A test method applied on petroleum

fractions to quantify the carbon residue of the fraction. Although the
principle of testing is similar to the Conradson carbon test, but the test
differs in the method of operation. See carbon residue and Conradson
carbon test.

Random packings: Random packings are individual pieces of packing

material which are dumped into the tower and therefore they are
380
randomly packed. Random packings are now-a-days of regular shape
and should not be confused with random shaped broken solids. Random
packings are usually loaded using water (wet method usually employed
for packings heavier than water such as ceramic packings), by lowering
the bucket full of packing and dumping the packing, or using chute-and-
sock method in which a sock is lowered and the packing is transported
through a chute (inclined channel) to avoid breakage of the packing.
Examples of random packings are Raschig rings, Berl saddles, Lessing
rings, cross partition rings, Intalox saddles, and Pall rings. See Fig. P-3.

Rankine cycle: The Rankine cycle consists of four thermodynamic

processes as shown in Fig. R-3. These are isentropic pumping of the
saturated liquid, 12; constant pressure heat addition to form a saturated
vapor (or superheated vapor), 23; isentropic expansion in a turbine to
produce the useful work, 34; and constant pressure heat removal to
condense the vapor, 41. Unlike the Carnot vapor cycle, the
condensation of the vapor produces a saturated liquid and not a wet
vapor and the compressor in the Carnot vapor cycle is replaced by the
pump, which makes the Rankine cycle and not the Carnot cycle as the
basis of practical vapor power cycles though the efficiency of the ideal
Rankine cycle is lower than the Carnot vapor cycle. See Carnot vapor
cycle.

Fig. R-3 Rankine cycle.

Rankine temperature scale: It is an absolute temperature scale on

381
which the boiling point of water is taken as 671.67°R and the freezing
point of water is taken as 491.67°R. The size of the degree on the
Rankine scale is the same as that on the Fahrenheit scale. See Kelvin
temperature scale.

Raoult’s law: In a vapor-liquid mixture of components at equilibrium,

at a constant temperature the partial pressure of a component in the
vapor phase is equal to the product of mole fraction of the component in
the liquid phase and its vapor pressure at the temperature of the
solution. Raoult’s law is applicable for ideal solutions and for the cases
when the concentration of the solute approaches unity. When both the
gas phase and the liquid phase are ideal, combining Raoult’s law with
Dalton’s law may be used to predict the vapor-liquid composition at
equilibrium conditions. See modified Raoult’s law.

Raschig rings: It is a type of random packing used with packed

columns, however, large Raschig rings may be stacked. A Raschig ring
is a piece of hollow cylinder with length equal to its diameter. Together
with Berl saddles they are the first generation packings and are a basis
of many modern packings. Raschig rings are of low cost and available
in a variety of materials such as ceramic, carbon, metal, and plastic.
They are cheap and easy to fabricate. See Fig. P-3. See also Berl
saddles.

Rate: In chemical engineering, a rate usually means a change in a given

quantity with respect to time. Rate of a chemical reaction, rate of mass
transfer, and rate of heat transfer are examples of various types of rates.

Rate control action: Same as derivative control action. See derivative

control action.

Rate controlling step: Also called as rate determining step (RDS). The
slowest step, in a series of process steps, that controls the rate of a
process. It provides the highest resistance to transfer of a given quantity.
In chemical kinetics, it is the slowest step in a set of series of reactions
(reaction mechanism) that controls the rate of a chemical reaction. For a
heterogeneous reaction over a porous catalyst such as Pt/-Al2O3
catalyst, various resistances or steps in series are taken in account for
developing a rate equation required for the design of a certain catalytic

382
reactor. For a gas-solid reaction, the following seven steps as shown in
Fig. R-4 may be outlined [38]

1. Diffusion of reactants through external gas film, i.e., from the gas
phase to the catalyst surface.
2. Diffusion of reactants from the external surface to the pores of the
catalyst.
3. Adsorption of reactants on the surface of the pores (catalyst).
4. Surface chemical reaction on the catalytic surface.
5. Desorption of the reaction products from the surface of the pores
(catalyst).
6. Diffusion of the reaction products through the pores of the catalyst
back to the external surface.
7. Diffusion of the products through the external gas, i.e., from the
catalyst surface into the gas phase.

A rate equation written for such a process considering all the resistances
in series would be extremely complicated and therefore while
developing the rate equation, a single step (resistance) is usually
considered as the rate controlling or rate determining step (RDS) and
the rate equation is developed based on that rate controlling step.

Fig. R-4 Steps involved in a gas-solid reaction systems [38].

Rate determining step (RDS): Same as rate controlling step. See rate
controlling step.
383
Rate of accumulation: See accumulation.

Rate of heat transfer: The amount of heat transfer per unit time. See
Fourier’s law, Newton’s rate equation, and Stefan-Boltzmann law.

Rate of mass transfer: The amount of mass transfer per unit time. See
Fick’s law.

Rate of momentum transfer: The amount of momentum transfer per

unit time. See Newton’s law of viscosity.

Rate of reaction: It is the change in number of moles of a reactant or a

product with change in time per unit volume of the reaction mixture
when the change in time approaches zero. If A is a reactant then the rate
of disappearance of A can be written as

lim  1 N A  1 dN A
(  rA )     
t  0  V t  V dt

Where, (–rA) is the rate of a reaction with respect to A, V is the total

volume of the reaction mixture, NA is the number of moles of A and t is
the time of reaction. The symbol Δ stands for a finite change. The
common SI units of rate of a reaction are mols‒1m‒3. The above
equation may be modified depending upon the reaction system. For
example, for a catalytic gas-solid reaction system, the rate may be based
on weight of the catalyst, instead of volume of the reaction mixture. The
rate of a chemical reaction may be altered by one or more factors such
as temperature, pressure, reactants and products concentrations, light,
presence and concentration of a catalyst, and the rates of the associated
mass transfer processes. The rate of a chemical reaction generally
increases with an increase in temperature and concentration (partial
pressure) of reactant A in the reaction mixture. The information about
the rate of a reaction is used in sizing a reactor vessel and a faster rate
usually requires a smaller size of the reactor vessel, and vice versa.

Rate processes: Same as transfer processes. See transfer processes.

Ratio control: Ratio control is special type of feedforward control

system that is used to maintain two process variables at the same ratio
384
even if they are changing. In ratio control scheme, uncontrolled variable
(wild stream or master stream) regulates the other variable (controlled
stream) in a specific proportion. The control strategy is normally
employed when two fluid streams need to be adjusted at a specific ratio
such as fuel/air mixture in a burner or furnace, reflux ratio in a
distillation column, hydrogen and nitrogen streams in the ammonia
reactor.

Rayleigh distillation: Same as differential distillation. See differential

distillation.

Rayleigh equation: The basic working equation for the binary batch or
differential distillation. It is used in the analysis of simple batch or
differential distillation and relates the mole fraction of the more volatile
component to the total number of moles remaining inside the still.

Rayleigh method: It is one of the commonly used methods of

dimensional analysis. In the Rayleigh method, the dependent variable is
related to the product of independent variables where each independent
variable is raised to an integer exponent. The relationship is then written
in terms of n primary dimensions of the variables and the powers of the
each primary dimensions are equated. n number of independent
equations are therefore obtained which are solved to find out the final
expression in terms of dimensionless groups. See Buckingham pi
method.

Rayleigh number: It is a product of Grashof number and Prandtl

number.

Ra  Gr  Pr

Where, Ra, Gr, and Pr are Rayleigh number, Grashof number, and
Prandlt number, respectively. It is applied in natural convection heat
transfer. See Grashof number and Prandtl number.

RDC: It stands for rotating disc contactor. See rotating disc contactor.

RDS: It stands for rate determining step. See rate determining step.

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Reactor: A chemical engineer when talks about a reactor he or she
usually means a chemical reactor and not a nuclear reactor. See
chemical reactor.

Real number of stages: When the stages involved in a process are not
ideal or equilibrium stages, i.e., the phases leaving a stage are not in
equilibrium with each other, then the number of stages is real number of
stages. Unlike theoretical or equilibrium stages, real stages should not
be a fractional number. For a distillation and absorption tray towers,
real number of stages (plates) can be worked out using the concept of
overall column efficiency. See theoretical number of stages and overall
column efficiency.

Real number of plates: Also called as real number of trays. When the
real stages are the plates such as in a distillation column, the stages are
called as the real number of plates. Under such conditions, each plate in
the tower behaves as a non-equilibrium or real stage. See real stage and
real number of stages.

Real number of trays: Same as real number of plates. See real number
of plates.

Real plate: Also called as real tray. In a real plate, the two phases
leaving the plate are not in equilibrium with each other. See real stage.

Real stage: Unlike equilibrium or theoretical stage, the phases leaving a

real stage are not in equilibrium. See theoretical stage.

Real tray: Same as real plate. See real plate.

Réaumur temperature scale: The temperature scale at which 0°Ré is

taken as the freezing point of water and 80°Ré as the boiling point of
water at atmospheric pressure.

Reboiler: A reboiler is a heat exchanger that is an integral part of a

distillation column. It provides latent heat of vaporization to boil off the
liquid phase to create the vapor phase. As reboiler partially vaporizes
the liquid phase and it is considered as one theoretical plate. Both
internal and external types of reboilers are possible. Kettle type and

386
thermosyphon reboiler are examples of reboilers. See internal reboiler,
external reboiler, kettle type reboiler, and thermosyphon reboiler.

Recessed plate filter: Also known as chamber filter press. Filter

presses are of two types: plate and frame filter and recessed plate filter.
In recessed plate type filter, no frame is required and a number of
circular or rectangular recessed plates (recessed on both sides, i.e., on
both sides having collars around the periphery) are joined together to
form a series of compartments or chambers. The plates are covered with
the filter cloth and the solids or filter cake is collected within the
chambers. A given slurry is pumped under high pressure into these
chambers, liquid (water) is passed through the filter clothes and the
chamber is filled with dewatered cake. Chamber press produces
relatively dry cake compared to a plate and frame filter. See plate and
frame filter.

Reciprocating compressor: A reciprocating compressor consists of a

piston that moves back and forth inside the cylinder housing. In the
backward motion or suction stroke, the gas at a low pressure is drawn
inside the cylinder, while in the forward stroke (return stroke or
discharge stroke), the gas is compressed and driven out of the cylinder
against a higher pressure. The flow of the gas through a reciprocating
compressor is intermittent (discontinuous) and not uniform. The
pressure developed by the compressor depends upon the speed and
frequency of strokes. The rotary motion of the shaft driven by external
fluid or electrical power moves the piston in a linear motion. If the gas
is drawn only on one side of the piston, it is a single acting compressor.
A double acting compressor has suction and discharge on both sides of
the piston and produces a less discontinuous flow compared to the
single acting compressor. A multiple reciprocating compressors can be
arranged to provide a virtually uniform discharge flow of the gas. For
preliminary power calculations, the compression may be assumed to be
adiabatic and reversible (isentropic).

Reciprocating pulsed extraction column: The type of pulsed

extraction column in which the whole plate stack is pulsated upward
and downward to produce pulsations in the liquid body. Karr extraction
column is an example of a reciprocating pulsed extraction column. See
Karr extraction column and pulsed extraction column.

387
Reciprocating pump: A type of positive displacement pump in which
the reciprocating, i.e., the back and forth motion of a piston, plunger or
a diaphragm is used to pump a liquid. A constant volume of liquid is
drawn into the pump chamber and discharged at a positive pressure.
The reciprocating pump converts rotary shaft motion to linear motion
and the pumping element may be actuated by a pneumatic, hydraulic, or
electric source. Piston pumps, plunger pumps, and diaphragm pumps
are the reciprocating pumps. See Fig. P-13. See also centrifugal pump.

Recirculation: In cooling towers, the phenomenon in which a part of

the exit humid air leaving the tower returns back to the air inlet to the
tower. Recirculation decreases the cooling ability of the tower and the
water leaves the tower at a higher temperature. In air cooled heat
exchangers, recirculation occurs when a part of the hot air is redirected
back to the cold air inlet. Recirculation decreases the efficiency of an air
cooled heat exchanger.

Rectangular weir: A weir with rectangular notch is called as

rectangular weir. See Fig. W-3.

Rectification: Same as fractionation (distillation with reflux, i.e.,

repeated simple or equilibrium distillations).

Rectifying column: Same as fractionator, i.e., a distillation column

with reflux. See fractionator.

Rectifying section: Also called as enriching section. See enriching

section.

Recuperators: Recuperators are the direct transfer type (not direct

contact) heat exchangers. Heat is transferred from a hot fluid to a cold
fluid where two fluids are not mixed, but remained separated by a wall
present in between which provides heat transfer surface.

Recycle ratio: It is the ratio of a recycle stream to the product stream.

The concept is frequently used where conversion in the reactor is not
complete and the reactants are fedback to the reactor. See recycle
stream and reflux ratio.

388
Recycle reactor: A plug flow reactor with a portion of the products
going back to the reactor inlet. If the recycle ratio is zero, the reactor is
100% plug flow reactor. On the other hand, for a very large recycle
ratio (approaches infinity) the recycle reactor behaves as 100%
backmixed (CSTR) reactor. See recycle stream.

Recycle stream: The concept of a recycle stream is shown in Fig. R-5.

Conversions of feed reactant/s to products in industrial reactors seldom
reach 100% and therefore in many instances a part of the product
stream is sent back to the reactor in order to increase the yield of the
product. The portion of the product stream that is fedback and mixed
with the fresh feed is known as recycle stream. See reflux.

Fig. R-5 Concept of a recycle stream.

Redistributor: See liquid redistributor.

Redlich-Kwong (RK) equation of state: A type of two-parameter

cubic equation of state.

Redlich-Peterson isotherm: An adsorption isotherm with three

adjustable parameters.

Reduced pressure: It is the ratio of the actual pressure of a component

to its critical pressure. Both pressures are taken in absolute pressure
units.

Reduced property: It is the ratio of the value of a property (at given

condition) to its value at the critical condition. Examples are reduced
389
temperature, reduced pressure, reduced volume, reduced thermal
conductivity, and reduced viscosity.

Reduced temperature: It is the ratio of the actual temperature of a

component to its critical temperature. Both temperatures are taken as
absolute temperature.

Reduced volume: It is the ratio of the actual volume of a component at

given conditions of temperature and pressure to its critical volume.

Reducer: Same as reducer coupling. See reducer coupling.

Reducer coupling: Also called as simply reducer. It is type of pipe

fitting that is used when flow area of the piping is desired to decrease. It
joins a large diameter pipe at the upstream to a small diameter pipe at
the downstream. See Fig. P-11.

Redwood viscometer: An industrial viscometer in which time of efflux

of 50 ml of oil is noted to report the kinematic viscosity of the oil.
There are two types of Redwood viscometers in use, Redwood I and
Redwood II. The Redwood I is used for lighter oils and the oils having
an efflux time < 2000 s under the conditions of the test. Redwood II is
used with heavier oils. See industrial viscometer.

Reflectivity: When thermal radiation falls on a body, a fraction of the

radiant energy is absorbed by the body, fraction is reflected back into
the surroundings and the rest is transmitted through the body. The
fraction of the incident ray that is reflected by the body is called as
reflectivity.

reflected radiant energy

Reflectivity 
total radiant energy

See absorptivity and transmittivity. See also Fig. A-3.

Reflux: In a distillation column, usually a part of the condensed

overhead product is returned back to the top of the column which is
known as reflux. The amount of reflux, usually defined in terms of
reflux ratio, adjusts the desired degree of fractionation and therefore a
390
distillation column with reflux is known as a fractionator or
fractionating column. See reflux ratio.

Reflux drum: Sometimes called as accumulator. It is an integral part of

a distillation column that holds (accumulate) the condensed phase
product obtained from the top of the column and returns back at least a
part of the condensed product as reflux to the tower. See reflux.

Reflux ratio: Also called as external reflux ratio. It is the ratio of moles
of the reflux stream (liquid fedback to a distillation tower) to the moles
of the distillate (top product). Increasing the reflux ratio decreases the
number of plates required in a distillation column, however, the reboiler
and condenser loads are increased. See internal reflux ratio.

Refractive index: Refractive index is the ratio of the velocity of light

of a given wavelength in air to its velocity in the substance under
observation. Refractive index may be used for determining the purity of
a sample. A refractometer such as Abbé refractometer is used for the
measurement of the refractive index. Abbé refractometer has the
advantage that it requires only a very small amount of sample to
directly measure the refractive index.

Refrigerant: The working fluid in a refrigeration cycle is called as

refrigerant. The phase change of the refrigerant produces the desired
refrigeration effect. See refrigeration cycle.

Refrigeration: Refrigeration maintains the temperature of a given

space below the temperature of the nearby surroundings. In
refrigeration, heat flows from a lower temperature to a higher
temperature with the aid of external energy.

Refrigeration cycle: Thermodynamic cycle which produces a

refrigeration effect. Vapor-compression refrigeration cycle is a common
example. See absorption refrigeration cycle and vapor-compression
refrigeration cycle.

Refrigerator: A refrigerator carries out refrigeration to maintain the

temperature of a given space below its nearby surroundings. It is a
reversed heat engine that transfers heat from a lower temperature region

391
to a higher temperature region. See refrigeration.

Regenerability of a catalyst: The ability of a catalyst to be regenerated

(not self regeneration, but using regeneration techniques) for reuse. See
regeneration (of a catalyst).

Regeneration: In liquid-liquid extraction, leaching, and gas absorption,

a used solvent is regenerated when it is subjected to treatment processes
that make the solvent reusable in the process. Also, a used catalyst or
used adsorbent is regenerated so that it can be used again in the given
process. Solvents are usually regenerated by distillation or stripping
processes. Adsorbents usually require decreasing the pressure lower
than or raising the temperature greater than what is required in the given
adsorption process. Catalysts most often require oxidation and reduction
reactions for their regeneration.

Regenerators: Regenerators are indirect transfer type heat exchangers.

Hot and cold fluids enter one by one to transfer the heat. Hot fluid flows
through the exchanger and heat the surface or matrix (porous solid
medium) and the cold fluid later receives the stored heat and heated up.
See recuperators.

Regular packings: Also called as stacked packings. Unlike random

packings, regular packings are not dumped in the column, but stacked
that is loaded in an arranged manner. See random packings.

Reid vapor pressure (RVP) test: A laboratory test method that is

usually used for the light petroleum products such as gasoline and
liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) to measure the Reid vapor pressure of a
given sample. Reid vapor pressure is not the true vapor pressure of the
sample, but obtained under the specified test conditions. The test is
conducted at 100°F and indicates the vaporization characteristics of the
sample.

Relative density: The ratio of the density of a sample to the density of

a reference substance. Normally the reference substance is pure water
for liquids and solids while air for gases. As density is defined for unit
volume of a sample, the value of the relative density results in specific
gravity of the sample, which is defined as the mass of the sample per

392
unit mass of the reference substance.

Relative humidity: It is the ratio of the partial pressure of water vapors

in air to the vapor pressure of water vapors at a given temperature. It is
usually reported in percentage relative humidity. The term relative
humidity may be used for any gas-vapor system, however, it frequently
refers to air-water system. See humidity.

Relative roughness: It is a dimensionless quantity and defined as the

ratio of the absolute roughness to the diameter of the pipe (conduit).
The knowledge of the relative roughness is important in measuring the
frictional pressure drops in pipes and channels. See absolute roughness
and Moody diagram.

Relative saturation: It is the ratio of the partial pressure of a vapor in a

gas to the vapor pressure of that vapor at a given temperature. It is
usually reported in percentage relative saturation. The term relative
humidity and relative saturation may be used interchangeably, however,
relative saturation is always used in general, but relative humidity may
be defined specific to the air-water system.

Relative volatility: Relative volatility is a separation factor defined for

the vapor-liquid operations such as distillation. It is the ratio of the K-
value (equilibrium vaporization constant) of component i to the K-value
of component j. Component i is taken as lighter component while
component j is taken as heavier component. For a system that follows
Raoult’s law, the relative volatility may simply be defined as the ratio
of the vapor pressure of the light component to the vapor pressure of the
heavy component. Greater is the relative volatility greater will be the
ease of separation in a distillation column. See volatility and K-value.

Relief valves: Relief valves are safety devices that are used with
pressure protection systems to protect the equipment and the life. Most
designs do not require an external actuator and work on the pressure of
the systems for which they are designed. The valve is adjusted for the
required pressure and a pressure greater than the set pressure actuates
the valve and relieves the pressure from the system.

Required air: Same as theoretical air. See theoretical air.

393
Required oxygen: Same as theoretical oxygen. See theoretical oxygen.

Reservoir: See thermodynamic reservoir.

Reset rate: It is the reciprocal of integral time and alternately used for
the integral mode of controller. It represents the repeats per minute.

Reset time: Same as integral time. See integral time.

Reset windup: Also called as integral windup. The phenomena in

which the output of a controller continues to change due to the integral
action, although actual output of the final control element reaches to a
saturation point (100% open or 100% closed) is known as integral
windup or reset windup. It is usually observed for the sustained and
large errors in the system.

Resid: Same as residue. See residue.

Residence time: The total time spent by a fluid element inside a

process vessel such as reactor is known as residence time. Different
molecules or fluid elements reside for different times in a process vessel
therefore the term mean residence time which is the average of the sum
of the residence times for all the fluid elements may be defined for the
bulk flow of the fluid in the vessel. See space time.

Residence time distribution (RTD): The time spent by various

molecules in a process vessel is not the same and there exist a
distribution of time for the molecules. Residence time distribution
indicates the non-ideality of the fluid behavior from the ideal flow
patterns and it is therefore helpful in assessing the performance of a
given system. See residence time.

Residual properties: Same as departure functions. See departure

functions.

Residue: Also called as residuum or resid. Usually a solid or semi-solid

leftover product obtained as a result of evaporation, distillation,
filtration, etc. The term residua is plural for residue.

394
Residuum: Same as residue. See residue.

Resistance thermometer: Also called as resistance thermometer

detector (RTD). The increase in resistance of a material with
temperature is the basis of a resistance thermometer. Platinum metal is
widely used with such type of thermometers and the thermometer is
then called as platinum resistance thermometer.

Retentate: The fluid stream that is retained by a membrane in a

membrane separation process and obtained on the side opposite to the
permeate side is called as retentate. See Fig. M-3. See also membrane
separation.

Retrofit: Same as revamp. See revamp.

Revamp: Also called as retrofit. Designing to modify an already

existing facility is called retrofit or revamp.

Reverse flow tray design: On a single tray, the liquid coming form the
above tray flows across the tray on one half of the tray, reverses its
direction to flow across on the other half of the tray and leaves for the
tray below. A longitudinal partition baffle is used that divides the tray
into two halves and the upper and lower downcomers are on the same
side. It is important to mention here that the liquid and vapor flows are
still in the cross flow fashion. This type of tray design is used for low
liquid rates. See Fig. R-6.

Fig. R-6 Reverse flow tray design.

395
Reverse osmosis: A widely used separation technique for water
treatment. In a reverse osmosis process, salts are separated from the
brackish water (containing salt contents higher than fresh water, but less
than sea water) or sea water through membrane under an applied
pressure. The pure water molecules from the saline water permeate
through the membrane and leave to the pure water side (in opposite to
the osmosis where water permeates to the salted water side to dilute the
salted water).

Reversed Carnot cycle: Also called as Carnot refrigeration cycle. If

the direction of the Carnot cycle (Carnot heat engine) is reversed, that is
on a T-s diagram if all the four processes of the Carnot cycle are in
anticlockwise direction, it is the reversed Carnot cycle.

Reversible cycle: Same as ideal cycle. See ideal cycle.

Reversible process: In a reversible process both system and its

surroundings are restored to their original or initial states. In other
words, for a process in which a system can be traced back to its original
or initial state (with initial state properties) without leaving a change on
(the properties of) the surroundings is known as a reversible process. A
reversible or totally reversible process should be both externally as well
as internally reversible.

Reversible work: The work required or produced during a process, if

the process is reversible. It is the minimum possible work input that is
required by a system (for compression) and the maximum possible
work output that is produced in a system (for expansion). See reversible
process.

Reynolds analogy: It describes the relationship between the

momentum transfer and the heat transfer for the turbulent flow
considerations. It assumes that the heat flux in a turbulent system is
analogous to the momentum flux and therefore if the velocity
parameters are known the heat transfer parameters may be obtained
using the Reynolds analogy, and vice versa. The analogy is valid for
gases (Prandtl number equal to unity) and not for liquids. See Martinelli
analogy.

396
Reynolds number: It is a dimensionless number that is defined as the
ratio of inertial to viscous forces.

inertial forces
Reynolds number 
viscous forces

Also, it may be defined as the ratio of total momentum transfer to the

viscous or molecular momentum transfer [39].

total momentum transfer

Reynolds number 
viscous momentum trasnfer

Reynolds number finds its application in fluid flow systems. It indicates

the type of flow behavior for a given system. For a pipe flow, flow is
always laminar for Reynolds number less than 2100 and flow is usually
turbulent for Reynolds number greater than 4000. Between these two
limits the flow lies in the transition region and it may be turbulent or
laminar depending upon the conditions.

Rheogram: A graphical relationship between shear stress and shear rate

and indicates the flow characteristics of a fluid. A rheogram of a
Newtonian fluid is a straight line passing through the origin while a
non-Newtonian fluid shows a more complicated rheogram. See Fig. N-
3.

Rheology: It is the study of deformation and flow and focuses

predominantly on non-Newtonian fluids. See non-Newtonian fluids.

Rheopectic fluids: Type of time dependent non-Newtonian fluids in

which viscosity increases with time and for a constant shear rate more
and more shear stress is required with the passage of time. See
thixotropic fluids.

Ribbon blades: In ribbon mixers, two counteracting helical ribbon

blades in a horizontal round bottomed trough that are used for mixing
solid particles. See ribbon mixers.

Ribbon agitator: In agitated vessels, low speed helical (spiral) ribbon

impellers are used for highly viscous materials. See Fig. M-7.
397
Ribbon mixer: A solid-solid mixing equipment which consists of a
horizontal round bottomed trough in which two counteracting helical
ribbon blades are fitted. See Fig. R-7.

Fig. R-7 Ribbon mixer.

Rich solution: The solvent leaving at the bottom of a gas absorber is a

rich solution as it contains a high concentration of solute/s. See lean
solution.

Riffled table: A shaking table with riffles (strips of low height). See
shaking table.

Right angled triangular diagram: See ternary phase diagram.

Ring roller pulverizer: A type of fine grinder. It consists of a series of

rollers that are located inside a cylindrical ring. The feed is crushed
between the surfaces of the grinding ring and the rollers. In one design,
the rollers are pivoted to a common shaft and by the centrifugal force
move outwardly towards the grinding ring.

Ripple tray: A countercurrent flow, corrugated (ripple like), and

perforated distillation column tray design.

Rise time: It is the time required for the respone (output measured
variable) to reach the set point for the first time. See underdamped
system.

398
Rising film evaporator: Same as climbing film evaporator. See
climbing film evaporator.

Rittinger’s law: It is an energy law that is used to estimate the energy

requirements for a given size reduction duty. It states that the energy
required to reduce the size of a material is proportional to the new
surface created during the size reduction. A rule of thumb suggests the
Rittinger’s law to be recommended for estimating the energy
requirements for the fine crushers as a large surface area is created
during the fine grinding of solid materials. See Bond’s law and Kick’s
law.

RK equation of state: It stands for the Redlich-Kwong equation of

state. See Redlich-Kwong equation of state.

Rod baffles: Rod baffles are shown in Fig. R-8. These are used with
shell and tube heat exchangers. See baffles.

Fig. R-8 Rod baffles.

Rod mill: Rod mill is a size reduction machinery that belongs to the
intermediate class of grinding mills. Like a ball mill, it is a tumbling
mill, but unlike ball mill, steel rods are used as the grinding medium
and crushing is not affected by impact. The mill rotates at its axis and
the rods roll past each other and grind the feed particles in between by
attrition, compression, and shear. See ball mill.

Rosette wall wiper: A type of wall wiper that is used to direct the flow
of a liquid towards the center of the packing in relatively small diameter
packed columns. See wall wiper.

Rotameter: A rotameter is shown in Fig. R-9. It is a variable area

399
flowmeter in which the pressure drop remains constant and the flowrate
is a function of the area of constriction to flow. A rotameter consists of
a uniformly tapered tube (usually made of glass) installed vertically in
the flow system with a unidirectional freely moving float submerged in
the fluid body. As the flowrate is increased the float moves up and the
position of the float indicates the quantity of flow. The float may be
constructed of various kinds of materials to adopt the required range of
flows and to avoid the possible wear and corrosion. Obviously, a lighter
material for float is required for a gas flow than that is required for a
liquid flow. Depending upon the shape of the float, very high values
(close to unity) of discharge coefficients are possible. The device is
expensive and provides relatively lower flow capacities compared to the
head meters such as orifice meter and Venturi meter.

Fig. R-9 Rotameter.

Rotary bed adsorber: Also called as adsorption wheel. An adsorption

system in which a circular and shallow adsorbent bed (wheel like)
rotates around its axis and the adsorption and regeneration of the bed
occur continuously. At one time, a part of the bed is used for the
adsorption while the other part is subjected to the regeneration.

Rotary coal breaker: A rotary coal breaker is a large perforated

cylinder that rotates at the horizontal axis. Feed coal enters from the one
end of the cylinder and during the rotation of the cylinder, the coal
particles are lifted up along the wall of the cylinder by internal lifters
400
and fall from a reasonable height and crushed by the action of impact
force. Similar to the action of a trommel, the particles with size smaller
than the perforations of the cylinder are sieved (passed) through the
perforations and the larger particles travel along the direction of the
length of the crusher and leave at the other end of the cylinder. See
trommel.

Rotary compressor: A rotary compressor is a type of positive

displacement compressor in which a rotating element displaces a fixed
quantity of gas on each rotation. Screw compressor, lobe compressor,
liquid ring compressor, and sliding vane compressor are the various
types of the rotary compressors.

Rotary drum filter: Frequently known as rotary drum vacuum filter

and continuous rotary drum vacuum filter. Unlike filter press, rotary
drum filter is a continuous high capacity filter. It consists of a hollow
revolving drum covered with the filter cloth and partially submerged in
the slurry. The slurry is placed in a trough which consists of a plough to
agitate the slurry. Both positive pressure and vacuum rotary drum filters
are available. However, due to the complex design of positive pressure
rotary drum filters, vacuum filters are more common. Vacuum is
generated inside the drum and the slurry flows due to pressure
difference across the filter cloth. The solids are deposited outside (rim)
the drum and scraped and collected. A rotary drum filter cannot be used
for the viscous slurries because the driving force (pressure difference)
for the flow is not high enough as it cannot be greater than 760 mm Hg.
It has high initial cost, however, the operating cost is low. See Fig. R-
10.

Rotary drum vacuum filter: See rotary drum filter.

Rotary dryer: Also called as continuous rotary drum dryer. It is a

continuous high volume industrial dryer that is applied for granular
solids. It consists of a hollow circular cylinder usually inclined at some
angle to ease the flow of granular solids inside the cylinder. The
cylindrical body is incorporated with internal flights. These flights lift
the material and keep the material raining in the cylinder. This causes
large surface to be exposed to heating media such as air and hence high
rates of drying are achieved. In some designs, steam heated tubes are

401
used within the shell. This is done to maintain the temperature of the air
as it flows along the length of the dryer. The material to be dried is fed
to the dryer and flows downward towards the other end of the dryer. As
mentioned before, hot air in countercurrent flow may be employed or
heated walls may be used for the drying. Not only the hot air, but flue
gases or superheated steam may also be employed for the drying. Rates
of drying are much higher than the shelf or tray dryers. See Fig. R-11.

Fig. R-10 Rotary drum filter.

Fig. R-11 Rotary dryer.

Rotary pump: Rotary pump is a type of positive displacement pump. It

operates on the principle that a fixed quantity of a liquid is discharged
due to the rotation of the working element present inside the casing of
the pump. Unlike reciprocating pump, it does not contain suction and
discharge check valves. Gear pump, lobe pump, vane pump, and screw
pump are examples of rotary pumps. See gear pump, lobe pump, and
screw pump.

402
Rotary tray dryer: Same as turbo shelf dryer. See turbo shelf dryer.

Rotating disc contactor (RDC): A rotating disc contactor is shown in

Fig. R-12. It is a type of column type liquid-liquid extractor that
requires energy addition. It consists of a vertical shell equipped with
fixed (attached to the wall) stator rings that form multiple compartments
in the shell. Within each compartment, there is a horizontal disc
attached to the vertical shaft. The rotation of the shaft (discs) spreads
the dispersed phase into the continuous phase and an intimate contact is
achieved between the phases involved.

Light
liquid out Interface
Heavy
liquid in

Rotating
disc

Light Stator
liquid in

Heavy
liquid out
Fig. R-12 Rotating disc contactor.

Rotocel extractor: It is a type of leaching extractor. It consists of a

cylindrical vessel with various compartments that rotate about a vertical
axis.

Roughness: Same as absolute roughness. See absolute roughness.

Round downcomer: Same as circular downcomer. See circular

downcomer.

403
Round weir: Same as circular weir. See circular weir.

rpm: It stands for revolution per minute.

RTD: It stands for residence time distribution. See residence time

distribution. Also, it stands for resistance thermometer detector. See
resistance thermometer.

Rupture discs: Same as bursting discs. See bursting discs.

Rushton turbine: Standard six-blade (flat) disc turbine is sometimes

called as Rushton turbine. See Fig. M-7. See also turbine impeller.

RVP: It stands for Reid vapor pressure. See Reid vapor pressure test.

404
S
Saddle packings: Also called as saddles. The Berl saddles and Intalox
saddles together are called as saddle packings. These are the types of
random packings that are used with packed towers. See Berl saddles
and Intalox saddles.

Saddles: Same as saddle packings. See saddle packings.

SAE: It stands for society of automotive engineers.

Safety factor: Uncertainties and unavoidable assumptions in the design

procedures necessitate the use of safety factors in the designs. A large
value of safety factor may produce an expensive design while a low
value may give an unworkable design.

Safety valve: A safety valve is installed to protect life and equipment. It

responses to the set value of the pressure and operates to release the
excess or over pressure.

Salting out evaporator: It is a type of evaporator-crystallizer. A crystal

accumulator or den is attached to the main body of the evaporator to
collect the crystals formed. Short tube vertical evaporator may be used
as a salting out evaporator. See short tube vertical evaporator.

Sampling: A process of collecting a sample for carrying out the

required analysis of the sample.

Sand mill: The mill is used for the fine grinding of solid particles. It
consists of a vertical cylinder containing a centrally located agitator
shaft fitted with several flat discs. The mill is loaded with high density
sand (usually zircon sand) which is used as the grinding medium. The
particle suspension (dispersion) enters the agitated bed (grinding
medium) from the bottom and a relatively fine suspension leaves at the
top. A screen is required at the top to hold the grinding medium to flow
with the suspension.

Saponification number: It is the number of milligrams (mg) of

405
potassium hydroxide that are required to saponify one gram (g) of a
given sample.

Saturated air: When the partial pressure of water vapors present in air-
water mixture becomes equal to the vapor pressure of the water at the
temperature of measurement, the condition of the air-water mixture is
saturated air. At the saturated air condition, the air-water mixture is at
its dew point and if a small amount of heat is taken out of the system,
the water vapors start condensing. It is thus the maximum concentration
of water vapors that the air can hold under the given conditions.

Saturated liquid: A liquid at its bubble point is called as saturated

liquid. It is called saturated because at a given temperature and pressure
the composition does not vary and equilibrium is reached. Also, it may
be said that so much energy is saturated in the liquid that if an
infinitesimal (very small) amount of heat is added to the saturated
liquid, it will start changing to the vapor phase. See Fig. S-1 and Fig. T-
4. See also saturated vapor.

Fig. S-1 Phase behavior of a substance.

Saturated liquid water: When the saturated liquid is pure water, it is

saturated water or saturated liquid water. See saturated liquid.

Saturated steam: When the saturated vapor is pure water, it is called as

406
saturated steam. Saturated steam, due to its associated high heat transfer
coefficients, is widely used as condensing vapor to transfer heat. See
saturated vapor.

Saturated vapor: A vapor at its dew point is a saturated vapor. The

term saturated is used because the vapor does not change its
composition at a given temperature and pressure and therefore
equilibrium is established. Also, it may be said that so much energy is
saturated in the vapor that if an infinitesimal (very small) amount of
energy is taken away from the vapor it will start changing to the liquid
phase. See Fig. S-1 and Fig. T-4. See also saturated liquid.

Saturated wet vapor: The mixture of saturated liquid and saturated

vapor together is the saturated wet vapor. The relative amount of
saturated vapor and saturated liquid is specified by the quality or
dryness fraction of the saturated wet vapor. See quality.

Saturation pressure: It is the pressure exerted by the vapors at

saturated conditions (equilibrium conditions) when they are at their
saturation temperature. For a pure component saturation pressure is
termed as vapor pressure. See saturation temperature.

Saturation temperature: The temperature at the saturation pressure is

called as saturation temperature. Saturation temperature is the boiling
point of a pure component. See saturation pressure.

Sauter mean diameter: Also called as volume-surface mean diameter.

It is the diameter of a hypothetical sphere whose volume to surface ratio
is the same as the average volume to surface ratio of all the particles
present in the sample. It is the most commonly used diameter in
chemical engineering and has its applications in adsorption, liquid-
liquid extraction, absorption, etc. It is denoted by “d32” because it is
proportional to the ratio of diameter cubed to the diameter squared.

Saybolt universal seconds (sus): These are the frequently used units of
kinematic viscosity (in American practice). It is the time of efflux of an
oil in a Saybolt universal viscometer. See Saybolt viscometer.

Saybolt viscometer: A type of industrial viscometer that is used for the

407
measurement of viscosity of fuels and oils. This type of viscometer is
used in American practice. Saybolt universal and Saybolt Furol are the
two variations of the Saybolt viscometer.

Scale: The metal salts deposited on the heat transfer surfaces due to
heating or boiling of the water. The formation of scale on heater and
boiler tubes is highly undesirable as it offers an extra resistance to heat
transfer. See scaling.

Scale formation: Same as scaling. See scaling.

Scaling: The term is frequently applied with heat transfer equipment

and alike. Water contains salts such as metal sulfates, carbonates, and
chlorides. When the water is heated up or boiled off to produce steam
these salts due to their decreasing solubility with temperature and their
increase in concentration on boiling start depositing on the boiler and
heat exchanger tubes. This phenomenon of the deposition of salts is
termed as scaling or scale formation. See fouling.

SCF: It stands for standard cubic feet.

Schedule number: Pipes are specified in terms of nominal diameter

and schedule number. Schedule number is an approximate ratio of
thousand times the internal working pressure to the fiber stress of the
material. It is a dimensionless ratio and refers to the thickness of a given
pipe wall. Greater the schedule number greater is the thickness of the
pipe wall. Thus schedule 40 has less thickness than schedule 80. For the
same nominal pipe diameter and different schedule numbers the outside
diameters would be the same, however, the inside diameters of the pipes
will be different. This is required to accommodate the pipe fittings. Ten
schedule numbers are in use. These are 10, 20, 30, 40, 60, 80, 100, 120,
140, and 160 [40]. Schedule 40 is the commonly used schedule number
[41].

internal working pressure

Schedule number   1000
fibre stress

See nominal diameter.

408
Scheibel column: A liquid-liquid extraction device that is categorized
in the column extractors requiring energy input. Series of impellers are
mounted vertically in a cylindrical column. Between any two impellers
(in separation zone) a wire mesh or particle packing is installed that is
used to aid in the coalescence. In some designs, shrouded baffles are
installed instead of packing between the impellers. This type of column
is not commonly used in the modern days. See Fig. S-2.

Fig. S-2 Scheibel

Schmidt number: It is a dimensionless number and defined as the ratio

of the momentum diffusivity to the mass diffusivity. It is denoted by Sc.

momentum diffusivit y  
Sc   
mass diffusivit y D D

Where, ν is kinematic viscosity or momentum diffusivity, D is

mass diffusivity, μ is dynamic viscosity, and ρ is density. Schmidt
409
number depends only on the physical properties of the fluid and thus it
is itself a property. It finds its application where mass transfers while
fluid is flowing. For gases Schmidt number ranges between 0.5 and 2.0
and for liquids it ranges between 100 and >10000 [19]. See momentum
diffusivity and mass diffusivity.

Scraped surface heat exchanger: In a scraped surface heat exchanger,

a rotating impeller is installed within the body of the heat exchanger.
There should be a small clearance between the tip of the impeller blade
and the inside surface of the wall of the heat exchanger. This is required
to scrap the layer of the viscous liquid in order to improve heat transfer
coefficient and to increase the rate of heat transfer. The exchanger is
also applied for heat sensitive materials to avoid overheating at the wall
of the heat transfer surface.

Screen analysis: Also called as sieve analysis. Screen analysis suggests

measuring the particle size and distribution of particle size for a given
mass of particles with the use of standard set of screens. Screens of
various mesh sizes are arranged one above the other with a bottom pan
and are shaken. The material retained on each screen and in the pan is
weighed and the particle size and its distribution are worked out. Sieves
are arranged in such a manner that the ratio of the sieve apertures on
consecutive sieves is 2, 2 , 4 2 (to make a geometric series instead of
arithmetic series) depending on how much closer sizing is required. For
closer sizing, narrow screen interval of 4 2 is used. For usual screen
analysis, a screen interval of 2 is common. Shaking of the set of
screens arranged in a sieve shaker is normally carried out for 10 to 20
minutes. Screen analysis technique cannot be used for particle size
analysis below 0.0015 in [20].

Screen efficiency: Also called as effectiveness of screen. Screen

efficiency may be defined in various ways. In one way, it is the ratio of
the amount of material that passed through a screen to the amount fed to
the screen.

Screen standards: Laboratory screens used for the measurement of

particle size and distribution of particle size are manufactured according
to different standards promulgated by different countries or societies.
Examples are US Tyler standards, BSS (British standards screens),
410
ASTM and others. Each particular standard has standardized the wire
diameter and the mesh number of the screens. See screen analysis.

Screening: One of the methods of classification (separation) of solid

particles that is based upon the size of the particles. On a laboratory
scale, set of screens are used for measuring the mean particle size and
distribution of particle size present in a sample. On an industrial scale,
however, the screening is employed for the separation of different sizes
of the solid particles to produce the desired product grades. See screens
and screen analysis.

Screens: Also called as sieves. Screens are multihole punched metal

sheets or wire mesh clothes (with required openings) fitted in a
framework. Laboratory screens are employed to measure the average
particle diameter and the distribution of particle size of a given mass of
solid particles. Industrial screens are used for the size separation of
solid particles at large scale. Examples of screens employed at industrial
scale are vibrating screens, electromagnetic screens, and trommels.

Screw conveyor: Also known as helical conveyor. Screw conveyor is

an efficient device for transporting the solid particles. It is a shallow
trough (may be a pipe) in which a helical fin (screw) is attached to a
rotating shaft. The helical fin conveys the material in the direction
parallel to the shaft. When required, the conveyor may be enclosed to
avoid the contact with the surrounding air.

Screw feeder: A screw conveyor that is used for feeding solid particles
to a downstream unit.

Screw mixer: A helical screw rotates within the body of the mixer and
helps in carrying out the mixing of the solid particles. Both horizontal
and vertical mixer designs are available. See horizontal screw mixer and
vertical screw mixer.

Screw pump: Screw pump is a positive displacement rotary pump. It

may contain one, two or three screws in its construction. With each
rotation of the pump shaft, the liquid captured in the screw cavity
travels ahead in the axial direction. The pump produces a uniform flow
and can be used reliably for metering purposes. The pump is widely

411
used to pump highly viscous liquids.

Scrubber: A scrubber is required to carry out a scrubbing operation.

Packed column, spray column, and Venturi scrubber are examples of
scrubbers. See scrubbing.

Scrubbing: Scrubbing means cleaning of a gas. Scrubbing refers to

both mechanical-physical separation and gas absorption operation. In
mechanical-physical scrubbing operation, solid particles are separated
from a gas phase and unlike gas absorption, no mass transfer is
involved. Spray columns, packed columns or Venturi scrubbers may be
used for such type of separation. Water is usually used as the scrubbing
agent. For the case of gas absorption, scrubbing removes one or more
soluble components from the gas phase by the use of liquid solvent.
Removal of ammonia from an air-ammonia mixture using a suitable
solvent is an example of this type of scrubbing process. See gas
absorption.

Second falling rate drying period: In drying of some solids, at the end
of the first falling rate period, there is further decrease in drying rate
and a second falling rate period is observed. The second falling rate
drying period starts where the first falling rate period ends and
continues till the equilibrium moisture contents are reached. See Fig. D-
19.

Second law of thermodynamics: First law of thermodynamics

describes the relationship among various energies involved in a system,
but it does not explain the direction of the process. Second law of
thermodynamics, on the other hand, explains the direction of a process
and efficiency with which one type of energy can be converted to other
useful type of energy. Over the years, different definitions of second
law of thermodynamics are presented:

o It is impossible to build a device (heat engine) that can operate in

cycles to take heat from a source (thermal reservoir) and convert it
to useful work with 100% efficiency without changing the
conditions of the surroundings.
o It is impossible to construct a device that can transfer heat from a
low temperature region to a higher temperature region without input

412
 of external energy.
o Entropy of a process in an isolated system either increases or
remains constant. Entropy increases for an irreversible process
while it remains constant for a reversible process.

See first law of thermodynamics.

Second order system: In process dynamics, a second order system is

the one in which the output variable is described by the solution of
second order differential equation.

Secondary air: In most fuel burners the incoming fuel is mixed with air
(primary air) as it leaves the fuel port. The additional air that is required
afterwards (in the combustion chamber) to facilitate and control the
combustion is the secondary air.

Sedimentation: It is a process of separating suspended solids from a

suspension and defined as the settling of solid particles under the
influence of gravity.

Sediments: During a sedimentation operation, the solid particles that

settle under the influence of gravity are called sediments. See
sedimentation.

Seed crystals: These are fine crystals that are added in a solution
(crystallizer) for increasing the rate of crystallization. The crystallizing
solids from the solution grow on the seed crystals and the rate of
crystallization is enhanced. See seeding.

Seeding: The process of adding fine crystals (seed crystals) to a

solution (crystallizer) to increase the rate of crystallization.

Segmental baffle: A segmental baffle is a circular disc with one or

more segments cut away from the disc. Segmental baffles are widely
used with heat exchangers and baffle columns. The baffles are designed
based on the baffle cut and the number of segments cut away from the
disc. Depending on the number of segments cut away, segmental baffles
are single segmental, double segmental, and triple segmental baffles.
Single segmental (one segment is cut away from the disc) baffles with

413
25% baffle cut are the most commonly employed segmental baffles
[11]. See Fig. S-3. See also baffles and baffle cut.

Fig. S-3 a) Flow patterns through segmental baffles, b) from left: 25%
cut segmental baffle and 50% cut segmental baffle.

Segmental downcomer: Also called as chord type downcomer. Unlike

circular downcomer, the cross-section of the downcomer is formed by
removing a segment of the tray. See Fig. C-20 and Fig. S-6. See also
circular downcomer.

Seider-Tate correlation: An empirical heat transfer correlation that is

used for estimating heat transfer coefficients in circular pipes.

Selectivity: Selectivity of a chemical reaction is usually defined in

more than one ways. It may be defined as the ratio of the moles of
desired product formed to the moles of the undesired product formed.
Also, it is the moles of limiting reactant converted to the desired
product divided by the moles of the limiting reactant converted to the
undesired product. Also, it is the ratio of the moles of the desired
product formed to the moles of the limiting reactant converted.

SEM: It stands for scanning electron microscopy. See scanning electron

microscopy.

Semi-batch process: Same as semi-continuous process. See semi-

continuous process.

Semi-continuous process: Also called as semi-batch process. Unlike

continuous and batch processing, for a semi-continuous process either
the feed is introduced and the product is not removed or the product is
removed and the feed is not introduced during the operation under
consideration. See Fig. S-4.

414
 Fig. S-4 Comparison of various processing modes: a) batch process,
b) continuous flow process, c) and d) semi-batch processes or semi-
continuous processes.

Semi-infinite solid: It is an idealized (model) body that has one

bounded plane surface and in all other directions considered extending
to infinity.

Semi-lean solution: The partially regenerated solvent that is sent to the

absorption tower at some intermediate stage (where the concentration
matches) is a semi-lean solution. See lean solution and rich solution.

Sensible heat: The amount of heat added or removed that results in the
change in the temperature of a substance (pure component) and does not
change the phase of the substance. See Fig. H-3. See also latent heat.

Sensor: A sensor is a device (instrument) that is used for the

measurement of a process variable. Thermometers, pressure gauges,
level gauges, and pH meters are examples of various kinds of sensors.

Separation factor: It is a measure of separation effectiveness of a

separation process. For two components A and B, it may defined as the
ratio of the mole fraction of component A in phase-I to the mole fraction
of component A in phase-II divided by the ratio of the mole fraction of
component B in phase-I to the mole fraction of component B in phase-
II. If separation factor is  , then

x A, I / x A, II

xB, I / xB, II

415
 Where, x A, I is the mole fraction of component A in phase-I, x A, II is
the mole fraction of component A in phase-II, xB , I is the mole fraction
of component B in phase-I, and xB, II is the mole fraction of component
B in phase-II.
For the distillation operation it is the same as relative volatility.

Separation processes: Each chemical and petrochemical industry

requires one or more purification steps that essentially require
separation processes such as filtration, distillation, and gas absorption.
Generally separation processes are categorized as either mechanical-
physical separation processes or mass transfer operations. Examples of
mechanical-physical separation processes are screening, filtration,
magnetic separation, centrifugation, and cyclone separation while
examples of mass transfer operations are distillation, gas absorption,
adsorption, liquid-liquid extraction, drying, crystallization, leaching,
and membrane separation. A selection of a particular separation process
should be based on the property which has the greatest difference for
the components to be separated. This should cause economical and
easiest separation. Of course the final decision for the selection of a
separation process should be based on the overall cost considerations.
For homogeneous mixtures, a mass transfer separation operation is
usually desired while for heterogeneous mixtures the use of a
mechanical-physical separation process is preferred. A heterogeneous
mixture usually comes first in the train of purification steps. Also, an
easier operation should be performed earlier.

Sequestration: Generally, the term suggests the capturing and storage

of carbon dioxide in a carbon sink such as oceans and abandoned oil
wells. See greenhouse effect.

Settling tank: It is a gravity separator in which the solid-liquid or

liquid-liquid phases are separated under the influence of gravity. A
settling tank should be arranged at the first place in a series of
purification steps. See gravity separator.

Shaft work: Useful work is sometimes called as shaft work as it can

turn a shaft. The work is required in moving turbines, pumps,
compressors, pistons, etc.
416
Shaking table: Also called as washing table and concentrating table. It
is a mechanical classifier (separator) that is used to separate solid
particles with various sizes and weights. It consists of a slightly inclined
horizontal table which is given the longitudinal reciprocating motion.
Together with the reciprocating motion of the table, the flow water
stream across the table classifies the feed particles.

Shape factor: In particulate technology, it is a dimensionless quantity

that is used to relate the characteristic length of a particle to its surface
area or volume. See sphericity.
In radiation heat transfer, it is the same as view factor. See view
factor.

Shear force method: In shear force, sharp cleavage is produced usually

by metal edges. It is different from attrition force method in which size
is reduced by rubbing and not by sharp cutting action. Shear force is
applied in single roll crushers. See attrition force method, compression
force method, and impact force method.

Shear rate: Same as velocity gradient. See velocity gradient.

Shear thickening fluids: The class of non-Newtonian fluids in which

the fluid viscosity increases with increasing shear rate, i.e., greater is the
shear deformation greater will be the viscosity. A mixture of sand and
water (quicksand) is a good example of shear thickening fluids. See
shear thinning fluids and dilatant fluids.

Shear thinning fluids: Same as pseudoplastic fluids. See pseudoplastic

fluids.

Shelf dryer: Same as tray dryer. See tray dryer.

Shell: The casing of a heat exchanger, packed column, tray tower, etc.
is called as shell. A shell is usually made cylindrical due to reasons of
cost, easy cleaning, good strength, good distribution of fluid contents,
and prevention of hot spots and dead zones (where mixing is a
problem). Moreover, a cylindrical column sustains greater pressure
force so a reduced thickness of the vessel is the result. See Fig. F-9 and
Fig. P-2.

417
Shell and tube heat exchanger: The king of the heat exchangers used
in chemical and petrochemical industry is the shell and tube heat
exchanger. It consists of a cylindrical shell contained within which a
stack of tubes called as tube bundle. One of the fluids flows in the body
of the shell and exchanges heat with the fluid flowing inside the tubes.
In most designs, segmental baffles are used to increase the turbulence in
the shell side fluid and therefore increases the shell side heat transfer
coefficient. One or more tube side passes or shell side passes can be
arranged and U-shaped tubes may also be employed. However, shell
passes greater than one causes difficulty of construction. A differential
expansion between the shell and tube bundle may be accommodated by
designing a floating head heat exchanger or incorporating an expansion
loop in the body of shell. A variety of shell and tube heat exchanger
designs may be observed in the TEMA classification. For the minimum
cost standard components are used in the design. If the fluid is
corrosive, fouling, hot, or at high pressure it should be placed on tube
side. A clean fluid should be placed on the shell side and a corrosive
fluid should not be placed in the shell in order to save the cost of the
shell which is usually expensive. A relatively viscous fluid should be
placed in the shell side because of induced turbulence. Such fluid in
tubes will create a high resistance to heat transfer. See Fig. F-9 and Fig.
U-6.

Sherwood number: It is the ratio of the molecular mass transfer

resistance to the convective mass transfer resistance or it is the ratio of
the total or convective mass transfer to the molecular mass transfer. It is
denoted by Sh.

molecular mass transfer resistance

Sh 
convective or total mass transfer resistance
total or convective mass transfer

molecular mass transfer

See Nusselt number.

Short tube vertical evaporator: Also called as calandria (vertical tube

heat exchanger part of the evaporator is sometimes called as calandria)
evaporator, is a natural circulation type evaporator in which tubes are
placed vertically and steam condenses outside the tubes. Natural
418
circulation occurs due to the density difference between the liquid
present in the body of the evaporator and the liquid-vapor mixture
present inside the tubes. In the usual cases, the caldaria has a central
downtake (it may have more than one downtakes and even an off center
downtake) which has flow area equal to the total flow area of all the
tubes. The evaporator has better circulation (convection) than the
horizontal tube evaporator and due to improved circulation, it provides
higher heat transfer coefficients. Also, compared to horizontal tube
evaporator the fouling occurs inside the tubes and the tubes are
relatively easy to clean. It has the advantage that it requires less
headroom and low initial cost. It may be used for a variety of products
and may be used with both salting and non-salting applications,
however, it is better to have a propeller agitator beneath the downcomer
(propeller calandria) to keep the crystals in suspensions, otherwise the
crystals may settle. This type of evaporator is usually not suitable for
foaming liquids, highly viscous liquids, and highly scaling and salting
liquids. Also, it is also not suitable for heat sensitive material because
some portion of the liquid may remain heated for a much longer time in
the evaporator. See Fig. S-5. See also horizontal tube evaporator.

Fig. S-5 Short tube vertical evaporator.

419
Shrinking core model: In this model the fluid-solid reaction is
assumed to occur at the outer surface of a solid particle and the layers
beneath do not take part in the reaction until the outer layer is
completely consumed into products. The reaction front gradually
proceeds towards the center of the solid particle and keeps on
decreasing the size of the unreacted solid (core). This is why it is called
as shrinking core model.

SI engine: It stands for spark ignition engine. See spark ignition engine.

Side stream: In a multicomponent distillation column, one or more of

the product streams may be taken from an intermediate stage (tray)
between the first and the last stages. The side stream (product) is in
addition to the usual product streams taken from the top and the bottom
of the column. See drawoff tray.

Sieve analysis: Same as screen analysis. See screen analysis.

Sieve tray: Also called as perforated tray. One of the principal types of
trays that is extensively used with tray towers. A sieve tray is formed
simply by piercing holes in a metal plate. Holes are usually 3 to 12 mm
in diameter [3] and laid out either in a triangular or square fashion,
however, the triangular pitch is more common. Unlike bubble columns,
sieve trays have no liquid seal so the vapor force keeps the liquid to stay
on the tray and avoids the tray from weeping. Although sieve trays have
low turndown ratio (maximum to minimum flow capacity), but they
offer low pressure drops and have low first cost while keeping virtually
the same efficiency. See Fig. S-6.

Sieve tray column: Also called as perforated tray column. A tray tower
fitted with sieve trays. See sieve tray.

Sieves: Same as screens that are used for the separation of solid
particles of different sizes. See screens.

Sigma blade mixer: Same as Z blade mixer. See Z blade mixer.

Similitude: It describes the relationship between the model and the

corresponding prototype.

420
 Tray

(b)
Weir

(a)
Downcomer plate
Fig. S-6 Sieve tray design: a) sieve tray with a downcomer, b) a part of
sieve tray deck.

Simplex pump: A type of reciprocating piston pump in which there is

only one piston (cylinder) which draws in the liquid and discharges
accordingly.

Simulation: A simulation is a mathematical copying of a process and is

a mathematical model that predicts the process responses even without
actually running the process. It is useful in predicting temperatures,
pressures, compositions, and flowrates of the flow streams (raw
materials and products). Common examples of process simulation
softwares are Aspen PLUS, Aspen HYSYS, CHEMCAD, PRO/II,
BATCH PLUS, and SUPERPRO DESIGNER.

Simultaneous heat and mass transfer: For a process where both heat
and mass are transferred simultaneously (at the same time) and the laws
of mass and heat transfer collectively are required for the analysis.
Humidification is an example of simultaneous heat and mass transfer. In
a cooling tower, latent heat of water is provided by the air and mass is
transferred from the water phase into the air phase. See humidification.

Simultaneous momentum and heat transfer: When a fluid flows

while gaining or dissipating heat, simultaneous momentum and heat
transfer occurs. Both the laws of fluid flow and heat transfer are
required to analyze such a process.

Single roll crusher: A single roll crusher is a size reduction machinery

421
and used for the coarse crushing of relatively soft materials such as coal
and limestone. In a typical design, as shown in Fig. S-7, a toothed roller
and a breaker plate is used to crush the material. Both the shear and
compression methods may be utilized in the crushing duty. This type of
crusher is frequently used for crushing coal.

Fig. S-7 Single (toothed) roll crusher.

Single stage process: A process in which intimate contact of phases

(mass transfer) and separation of the phases occur only in a single stage.
See multistage system and equilibrium distillation.

Siphon: Also written as syphon. A siphon can transfer a liquid from an

inlet point at a higher elevation to the outlet point at a lower elevation in
which a part of the liquid line is higher than the inlet point. The final
difference in potential energies of the liquid is responsible for the flow
of the liquid. To develop a siphon, at the outlet side of the siphon
tubing, air inside the siphon tubing is removed which produces vacuum
within the tubing. The liquid at the inlet moves into the tubing to fill up
the vacuum and discharges at the outlet. The flow of the liquid is
continued until unless the surrounding air leaks into the siphon piping.
See Fig. S-8.

Size distribution: See particle size distribution and drop size

distribution.

Size enlargement: The process of increasing the size of the solid

particles is called as size enlargement. It is therefore the reverse of size
422
reduction in which the objective is to reduce the particle size. Size
enlargement may be carried out by pressure compaction, granulation,
sintering, spraying, extrusion, and prilling. The products of the various
size enlargement processes may be called as agglomerates, granules,
tablets, prills, and extrudates. Size enlargement is usually carried out to
improve the storage and material handling properties of a material and
to improve the appearance of a product to increase the market value of
the product. See size reduction.

Fig. S-8 Concept of siphon.

Size reduction: Also called as comminution. A unit operation of

chemical engineering in which the size of a relatively large particle is
reduced to form the smaller particles of desired range. Various kinds of
coarse crushers, intermediate crushers, fine grinders, and cutting
machines are employed for the specific requirements. Jaw crushers,
hammer mill, and ball mill are common examples. Size reduction
increases the material handling properties of a material, facilitates in the
separation of a component from a solid phase, increases the surface area
of the particles which usually enhances the rates of both the physical
(say drying and adsorption) and chemical processes, and decreases the
diffusional resistance through a porous solid particle. Size reduction of
solid materials usually requires the use of the following four methods of
force: Compression, impact, attrition or rubbing, and shear or cutting.
With respect to energy requirements size reduction is a highly
inefficient process. A large amount of energy is wasted in friction and
423
only a small part of total input energy is actually used in creating the
new surface. See size enlargement.

Size reduction equipment: Equipment required for reducing the size of

the solid particles. Size reduction equipments may be classified as
coarse crushers (jaw crusher, gyratory crusher, etc.), intermediate
crushers (end runner mill, crushing rolls, etc.), fine and ultrafine
crushers (ball mill, colloidal mills, etc.), and cutting machines.

Size separation: It is the separation of solid particles based on their

size. Various types of screens or sieves and hydraulic and pneumatic
classifiers may be employed for the segregation of solid particles.

Skeletal density: Also called as true density. For a porous material (say
a catalyst), it is the actual or true density of the solid material. It does
not account for the spaces between the individual particles as well as
the pores present within the solid particles. See bulk density and particle
density.

Skin friction: It is the fluid friction caused when a flowing fluid

contacts the surface of a solid. It is due to the transfer of momentum
from the fluid body to the solid surface. Fluid energy is lost due to
friction and therefore extra energy (pump energy) is required in the flow
line to overcome the energy loss. Unlike form friction, skin friction
depends on the surface roughness and does not depend on the geometry
and orientation of the flow channel. See form friction.

Skin temperature: It is the outside temperature of a tube or a process

vessel.

Sling psychrometer: The psychrometer consists of two thermometers

held on a support plate. The bulb of one of the thermometers, called as
wet bulb thermometer, is covered with a cloth (sock) soaked in water.
The other thermometer without such covering is called as the dry bulb
thermometer. A handle attached to the support plate is held tightly and
the apparatus is swung (slung) rapidly (to increase the relative velocity
of the air and the bulb) in the air. Depending upon the humidity
conditions of the air, the evaporation from the wet bulb causes the wet
bulb thermometer to show lower temperature reading than the dry bulb

424
thermometer. The motion is stopped after the time the equilibrium is
reached and the two temperature readings are promptly noted. The wet
bulb and dry bulb temperatures are used to measure the humidity of the
air. See humidity chart.

Sludge: Semi-solid residual material usually a product of waste water

treatment.

Slug: In a gas-liquid flow system or a gas-solid fluidized bed system,

there are situations when the size of gas bubble increases to a large
extent so that the size of the gas bubble approaches that of the diameter
of the pipe or column. These gas bubbles are called as slugs and the
characteristic flow is called as slug flow. See slug flow and slugging.

Slug flow: A type of two-phase flow which is characterized by the

formation of large gas bubbles approaching diameter of the column. It
is more commonly encountered in long and narrow fluidized vessels.
See Fig. S-9. See also slug and slugging.

Fig. S-9 Slug flow.

425
Slugging: In a gas-solid fluidized bed, when the gas bubbles coalesce to
grow to a large extent and occupy most of the cross-sectional area of the
column (i.e., bubbles grow approximately to the size of column
diameter), slugs are said to be formed. The portion of the bed above a
slug (large bubble) is pushed upward like a piston and the solid particles
rain down to disintegrate the slug. Formation and disintegration of a
slug result in an unstable piston like motion in the vessel and the
phenomenon is known as slugging. It arises due to the vessel geometry
and it is strongly undesirable because it increases the problems of
entrainment and lowers the efficiency of the column. Tall fluidized
columns having small diameters are more prone to slugging as
compared to large diameter columns. See Fig. S-9.

Slurry: A slurry is a mixture in which solid particles are suspended in a

liquid usually water.

Slurry bubble column reactor: A bubble column when used as a

slurry reactor, it is the slurry bubble column reactor. See bubble column
and slurry reactor.

Slurry phase reactor: Same as slurry reactor. See slurry reactor.

Slurry reactor: Also called as slurry phase reactor. A three-phase

reactor system in which the solid catalyst is kept suspended in a liquid
mixture while gas is bubbled through the suspension is commonly
known as a slurry reactor. A slurry reactor is a well mixed reactor and
that it may be a bubble column reactor or a stirred tank reactor. Lower
pressure drop, lower catalyst consumption, and ease of catalyst removal
and addition may be some of the advantages of the slurry reactor over
the fixed bed reactor.

Smoke point: Smoke point measures the tendency of smoke formation

of an oil sample such as kerosene and jet fuel. It is the maximum height
of the flame in millimeters (mm) without smoking when a sample is
burned in a standardized smoke point apparatus following standardized
test method. A high smoke point means the sample oil has low tendency
for the smoke formation.

Smooth roll crusher: See crushing rolls.

426
Smooth stratified flow: See stratified flow.

SNF: It stands for solids not fat.

Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equation of state: A three-parameter

modification of the Redlich-Kwong equation of state. See Redlich-
Kwong equation of state.

Soft water: Unlike hard water, soft water does not contain appreciable
amounts of dissolved salts of calcium and magnesium and that it does
not precipitate the traditional sodium soap. Demineralized water and
distillated water are examples of soft waters. Soft water has many
advantages over hard water. It readily produces lather with the
traditional sodium soap, it does not form scaling on the boiler and heat
exchanger tubes, and it is suitable for drinking and textile finishing. A
hard water can be softened by removing calcium and magnesium ions
either by heating (for temporary hardness) or by ion exchange method
(for permanent hardness) in which an ion exchange material such as
sodium zeolite is used to exchange the heavy calcium and magnesium
ions with the lighter sodium ions. See hard water and water softening.

Solubility: It is the amount of solute in grams (g) that are dissolved in

hundred grams (g) of the solvent.

Solvent: In solvent extraction (liquid-liquid extraction or leaching) and

gas absorption, a solvent is the liquid phase added to the system to
extract/absorb the desired component/s and to relatively purify the feed.
In solvent extraction, the solvent is also called as extractant, while in
gas absorption it is also known as absorbent. See solvent extraction and
absorbent.

Solvent extraction: The liquid-liquid extraction and leaching are the

solvent extraction operations. In a solvent extraction operation, an
external liquid (or solvent) is added to the feed that contains at least one
component which has high affinity with the solvent under the
conditions of operation. Refining of lube oils and extraction of
vegetable oils are examples of solvent extraction. See liquid-liquid
extraction and leaching.

427
Sonic velocity: If the Mach number for a flowing fluid is unity the
velocity of the flowing fluid is the sonic velocity. In such a case, the
velocity of the fluid and the velocity of the sound in that fluid are the
same.

Sonication: In sonication, ultrasound waves are used to vibrate a liquid

and that it may be used to degas (to remove soluble gases from the
liquid) a given liquid sample. Also, solvent extraction may be carried
out using the sonication technique.

Sorel method: A stepwise plate-to-plate analytical method used to

calculate the number of theoretical plates required to separate the
components of a binary mixture in a distillation column. See Lewis-
Sorel method.

Soret effect: Thermal diffusion phenomenon is called as Soret effect. In

this phenomenon, mass is transferred by the application of temperature
gradient.

Sorption: The term is general and used both for the absorption and
adsorption. The term is useful when the process of absorption or
adsorption is difficult to distinguish. See desorption.

Sour gas: A gas is said to be sour if it contains sufficient amount of

sulfur contents. Normally the term is employed with natural gas
purification where sulfurous compounds are to be removed from the
natural gas. Once treated the gas is called as sweet gas. See sweet gas.

SOx: It means sulfur oxides.

Space time: The term is applied in the analysis of continuous flow

reactors such as plug flow reactor and CSTR. It is defined as the time
required to process one reactor volume of a given feed at specified
conditions (usually inlet reactor conditions). Space time of 1 min means
that one reactor volume of a feed is being processed in a reactor in one
minute at specified conditions. The units of space time are those of
time. See space velocity.

Space velocity: It is the reciprocal of space time and applied in the

428
analysis of continuous flow reactors such as plug flow reactor and
CSTR. It is defined as the number of rector volumes of a feed at
specified conditions which can be treated in unit time. A space velocity
of 10 h‒1 means that ten reactor volumes of the feed at specified
conditions are treated in a reactor per hour. See space time.

Span: It is the numerical difference between the upper and lower limits
of a measuring instrument. For example, an instrument having a range
of 4 to 20 mbar will have a span of 16 mbar.

Sparged column: Same as bubble column. See bubble column.

Specific area: The surface area per unit mass or volume of a solid
particle.

Specific gravity: For equal volumes of both the sample and the
reference substance, it is defined as the ratio of the mass of a sample to
the mass of the reference substance (water). For liquid and solid
samples the reference substance is taken as water while for gases air is
taken as the reference substance. Although the definition of specific
gravity comes out to be the definition of relative density, but it is
defined to avoid the volume measurements and should be measured
only by taking the ratio of the weights of the substances for a constant
volume (in a constant volume vessel). Specific gravity of liquids and
solids is usually reported when water is taken at 4°C (the highest
density of water at 1.013 bar), however, for refinery related calculations
it is usually reported when both the sample and the reference are at
15.6°C (60°F). See relative density.

Specific heat capacity: It is defined as the amount of heat energy

required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a substance through
one degree. Also, it means the amount of heat energy removed from a
unit mass of a substance to lower the temperature through one degree.
As heat is a path function, heat capacity is also path dependent and two
types of specific heat capacities are defined, namely, constant pressure
specific heat capacity and constant volume specific heat capacity. For
ideal gases, constant pressure heat capacity is always greater than
constant volume heat capacity. Specific heat capacities of mixtures of
gases and liquids can be taken as additive. See heat capacity ratio.

429
Specific quantity: A quantity per unit mass is usually called as a
specific quantity. Specific volume and specific enthalpy are examples
of specific quantities.

quantity
Specific quantity 
mass

Specific weight: It is weight per unit volume of a fluid. It is therefore a

product of density and acceleration of gravity. The product is useful in
the study of hydrostatic equilibrium applications.

Spent catalyst: A spent catalyst is a used catalyst which is usually

effectively inactive and requires regeneration or replacement. When
unable to be regenerated, it may be used to recover precious metal
contents.

Sphericity: It is the most commonly used shape factor in particulate

solids technology and defined as the ratio of the surface area of a sphere
(hypothetical) having the same volume as that of the given particle to
the surface area of that particle. It accounts for the departure of the
shape of a particle from the spherical shape. Sphericity is unity for a
spherical particle. Typical sphericities of most crushed materials lie in
the range of 0.6‒0.7 [19]. See shape factor.

Spinodal curve: In a three component (ternary) phase diagram, the

two-phase region or demixing zone is bounded by a series of
composition points called as binodal curve. The mixtures inside a
binodal curve usually, but not always, separate into two phases (with
compositions at the ends of a tie line). Within the binodal curve there is
a region bounded by the spinodal curve in which a mixture is unstable
and readily separate into two phases. A mixture in the region between
the binodal and spinodal is metastable or supersaturated and remained
mixed unless enough work energy is provided to demix the mixture.
See ternary phase diagram.

Spiral heat exchanger: Hot fluid enters the eye (center) of the
exchanger and flows in a spiral way to exit at the rim of the exchanger.
The cold fluid enters in the reverse direction (countercurrent fashion) at
the rim in the channel adjacent to the hot fluid channel and leaves at the
430
center. Due to high velocity (due to spiral action), fouling is usually not
a problem in such type of units. Also, cleaning is easy when end plates
are removed. Countercurrent advantages can be achieved and operation
may be possible at less severe temperatures.

Spiral rings: These are the random packings used with packed
columns. Single, double, and triple internal spiral rings are made to
enhance the interfacial area compared to the Raschig rings, Lessing
rings, and cross partition rings. These are usually stacked and give high
pressure drop.

Spitzkasten: It is a gravity settler classifier (separator) that is used to

separate solid particles according to their size (terminal velocities). A
spitzkasten, as shown in Fig. S-10, consists of a series of conical shaped
vessels (say three) which are arranged with increasing diameter in the
direction of flow. A slurry (suspension of solid particles in a fluid
usually water) is introduced from the top of the first vessel having
smallest diameter. Larger and heavier (coarse) particles are separated in
the first vessel and are collected from the bottom of the vessel.
Overflow of the first vessel runs to the top of the second vessel having
greater diameter to lower the velocity of the fluid. Separation of
medium sized particles is carried out in the second vessel and the
remaining particles (mainly fines) are separated in the next vessel where
velocity is further reduced to settle down the fines.

Fig. S-10 Spitzkasten.

431
Splash bar: A type of packing that is used with cooling towers. It
disintegrates (splashes) the liquid water reaching over its body and
forms small water droplets. See Fig. A-19.

Split flow design: For large diameter tray towers or where liquid
flowrate is very high, the liquid flow is split or divided into two or more
flow paths and the flow scheme is known as split flow. See double pass
flow.
Split flow configurations are also used with the shell and tube heat
exchangers. As shown in Fig. S-11, the shell side flow enters at the
center of the shell and a longitudinal baffle is used that splits the flow in
two halves to flow over the tubes. Two parallel split flows in the same
shell formulate a double split flow configuration.

Fig. S-11 Shell side flow arrangements in a shell and tube heat
exchanger: a) single pass flow, b) divided flow, c) split flow, and d)
double split flow.

Spouted bed: A type of bed in which a fluid (usually a gas) forms an

opening throughout (centrally) the bed. It has jet like upward movement
of particles surrounded by slow downward movement of particles as
shown in the following figure (Fig. S-12). Spouted bed is used to dry
large solid particles such as grains, peas, beans, and sticky materials
which are difficult to be fluidized [42].

Spouted fluidized bed: A fluidized bed which has the characteristics

close to a spouted bed is sometimes called as spouted fluidized bed. See
spouted bed.
432
 Fig. S-12 Spouted bed: a) without draft tube, b) with draft tube.

Spray column: A gas absorption device in which a downward flowing

liquid is sprayed and disintegrated (the disintegration is caused by some
mechanical means and not by the gas as the case with Venturi
scrubbers) in a continuous stream of gas flowing countercurrently to the
liquid flow. Due to increased surface area of the liquid phase (droplets)
an intimate contact of the gas and liquid phases is possible. A spray
column offers very low gas pressure drop, although liquid pressure is
dropped considerably due to the flow through small spray openings.
Spray columns may also be useful when applied for removing the solid
(dust) particles from a gas stream. As liquid is disintegrated in droplets,
a mist eliminator (demister pad) is normally required at the gas phase
outlet. See Fig. S-13.

Spray dryer: In a spray dryer, a liquid or slurry to be dried is sprayed

as fine droplets through an atomizer, nozzle, or orifice plate into a hot
gas stream. The hot air (drying medium) usually flows cocurrently to
the feed, although countercurrent and concurrent-countercurrent
schemes may also be adopted. The dried solids are collected at the
bottom and a cyclone separator is usually required to recover the dried
product from the exit air stream. Due to the enhanced surface area,
drying rates are usually high. Now as the material is contacted for a
433
relatively short period of time, it is suitable for drying the heat sensitive
materials. See Fig. S-14. See also spray drying.

Fig. S-13 Spray column.

Spray drying: In spray drying, the drying of solids is achieved through

the contact of droplets (fine spray) of feed with a hot gas stream. Spray
drying is an important technique for the materials which are thermally
sensitive because the product is exposed to the hot gas (usually air) for a
very short period of time. See spray dryer.

Spray pond: A spray pond is an open reservoir where the incoming

water is collected, evaporated, and cooled down. Fountains and jets are
used to spray the liquid water vertically upward into the air to increase
the rates of sensible heat transfer and evaporation which result in the
reduction of the temperature of the water. No mechanical means are
used for air flow and no packing (fill) is required. The spraying causes
considerable drift losses. Spray ponds are recommended where small
capacity and a wide wet bulb approach (difference between exit water
temperature and wet bulb temperature of air) are acceptable.
434
 Fig. S-14 Spray dryer.

Spray tower: Same as spray column. See spray column.

SRK equation: It stands for the Soave-Redlich-Kwong (SRK) equation

of state. See Soave Redlich-Kwong equation of state.

SS: It stands for stainless steel.

Stability: A system is said to be stable if it gives restricted or bounded

response for all types of bounded disturbances (inputs). Different
criteria are used to check the stability of a process against disturbances
such as root evaluation criterion, Routh-Hurwitz criterion, root locus
criterion, etc. Root evaluation method is one of the simplest method in
which roots (poles) of the denominator of the transfer function of a
control system are evaluated. For a stable system, all roots must be
negative.
For a catalyst, it refers to the life of the catalyst. If the activity and
selectivity of a catalytic system remains unchanged during the course of
a given period of time, under the same conditions of temperature,
pressure, and space time, the catalyst gives the same product
composition for the same feed composition, the catalyst is said to have
stable characteristics for that period of time. See Fig. S-15.

Stabilization: Stabilization is required to stable (constant) the

composition of a process stream such as petroleum fraction by
435
removing the lighter components from the stream. An example is the
removal of lighter components such as gases from a refinery liquid
product such as naphtha.

Fig S-15 a) Unstable control process, b) stable control process.

Stabilizer: A stabilizer is required to carry out the stabilization of a

process stream. It is usually a distillation column or flash unit. See
stabilization.

Stack: Also called as chimney. The part of a furnace which begins from
the furnace roof and projects into the atmosphere is usually known as
stack.

Stacked packings: Same as regular packings. See regular packings.

Stage efficiency: For a single stage, it is the ratio of the actual change
in composition of a given component in a given phase to the
equilibrium change in composition of that component in the same
phase.

Stagewise contactor: Unlike continuous contactor (differential

contactor) such as packed column, a stagewise contactor has multiple
distinct stages of operation. In each stage, phases are brought into
intimate contact and are allowed to separate. Tray towers and mixer-
settlers arranged in series are common examples of stagewise
contactors. See differential contactor.

Stagnation point: The point at which a flowing fluid is brought at rest

436
(velocity is brought to zero) by placing an obstacle in the flow path. See
stagnation pressure or impact pressure.

Stagnation pressure: Same as impact pressure. See impact pressure.

Standard atmospheric pressure: The air above the surface of the earth
constitutes a huge column (of air). This column of air exerts pressure on
the surface of the earth. The pressure caused by this atmospheric
column of air at 0°C at sea level is the standard atmospheric pressure
which is equivalent to 101.3 kPa. It is important to distinguish between
standard atmospheric pressure and barometric pressure (atmospheric
pressure). Standard atmospheric pressure is the one defined above and
always remains constant at the value of 101.3 kPa, however, barometric
pressure is the pressure under prevalent or local conditions so it may
vary from time to time and place to place. See barometric pressure.

Standard heat of combustion: See heat of combustion.

Standard heat of formation: See heat of formation.

Standard heat of reaction: See heat of reaction.

Standard screens: Same as screen standards. See screen standards.

Standard state: The value of heat of formation, heat of reaction,

entropy, etc. is at standard state when defined at 25°C and 1 atm. The
concept of standard state is different from standard temperature and
pressure (STP) conditions in which case the temperature is 25°C and
not 0°C. See standard temperature and pressure.

Standard temperature and pressure (STP): Also called as normal

temperature and pressure (NTP). The condition of 1 atm and 0°C is
called as standard temperature and pressure. It is not the same as
standard state which is usually at 25°C and 1 atm. See standard state.

Stanton and Pannell diagram: Same as Stanton diagram. See Stanton

diagram.

Stanton diagram: The relationship between fraction factor and

437
Reynolds number on a log-log plane is known as Stanton diagram [27].
Moody chart is an example of Stanton diagram. However, sometimes,
the terms Stanton diagram and Moody chart or Moody diagram are used
interchangeably. See Moody chart.

Stanton number: It is a dimensionless number that is used in the study

of convective heat transfer. It is proportional to the ratio of the
convective heat transfer to a fluid to the thermal capacity of the fluid. It
is denoted by St.

convectiveheat transfer Nu h
St   
thermal capacity Re  Pr   c p  u

Where, Nu is Nuselt number, Re is Reynolds number, Pr is Prandtl

number, h is convective heat transfer coefficient, ρ is density of fluid, cp
is specific heat of fluid, and u is velocity of fluid.

State: The condition of a system is called as state of the system. The

properties (point functions) of a system define the state of the system.

State function: Also called as point function, point variable, state

variable, and property. State functions such as temperature, pressure,
volume, enthalpy, entropy, and internal energy do not depend upon path
or history traced by the system, but they depend only on the present
condition of the system. Therefore, a state function is a characteristic of
a system and unlike path function, it can be possessed by the system
and changes in the state functions can be measured. See path function.

State postulate: State or condition of a thermodynamic system is

described by its state properties such as temperature, pressure, volume,
enthalpy, etc. State postulate is used to specify the number of
independent properties required to define the state of a system. It is
stated that for a simple compressible system only two independent
intensive properties are required to fix (completely specify) the state of
the system. To fix refers to fix all the other properties of the system. A
simple compressible system is the one for which there is only one mode
of work that is simple compression or expansion by volume change is
considered and external fields such as gravitational and electrical are
absent. Two properties are said to be independent if the change in one
438
property affects the system and the effect of the other property remains
constant. If changing one property changes the other property (that is it
cannot be held at a constant value) the properties are dependent
properties.

State variable: Same as state function. See state function.

Static fluid: A fluid at rest or not moving is a static fluid. In a static

fluid, all the velocity vectors are zero.

Static mixer: Also called as motionless mixer. The mixer, unlike an

agitated tank, has no moving elements and that is why it is called as
static or motionless mixer. A static mixer is an inline mixer that consists
of stationary mixing inserts (mixing elements) fitted inside a pipe shell
along the length of the mixer (shell). Highly viscous fluids such as
polymeric solutions, slurries, and pastes are continuously mixed with
static mixers. The mixing elements are arranged in such a way that the
direction of fluid changes with the movement and twisting, rotating, and
folding of the fluid may cause mixing. See Fig. S-16.

Fig. S-16 A schematic static mixer.

Static pressure: It is the actual pressure of a fluid. It is a characteristic

of a system (property of system like temperature and enthalpy) which is
used to define the state of the system. For a flowing fluid, the pressure
normal to the flow direction is the static pressure. See Fig. S-17. See
also kinetic pressure.

Static submergence: For a bubble cap tray, it is the distance between

the top of the bubble cap slot and the tip of the exit weir. See bubble cap
tray.

Stationary tubesheet heat exchanger: Same as fixed tubesheet heat

439
exchanger. See fixed tube sheet heat exchanger.

Fig. S-17 Concept of static pressure.

Steady-state process: For a steady-state process, the system parameters

such as flowrate, temperature, concentration, pressure, etc. remain
constant and do not vary with time, however, small is the time interval.
In other words, the derivative of a quantity with respect to time is zero.
See unsteady-state process.

Steam condensate: When a saturated water vapor (steam) is

condensed, the liquid condensate product is obtained and called as
steam condensate.

Steam distillation: Steam distillation is applied to a mixture of

substances that are not miscible with water. In steam distillation, a
mixture of water and an organic substance not miscible with water
(forming heterogeneous mixture with water) is codistilled. In this case,
when the sum of the vapor pressures of the individual components
equals to the external pressure, the system boils off at a temperature
lower than the boiling point of any of the substance. It is used to
separate volatile organic materials from non-volatile matter. It may be
employed for heat sensitive materials to separate high boiling substance
from non-volatile impurities. It is frequently employed in the extraction
of essential oils. Steam distillation has a limited applicability as
immiscibility of steam with components to be distilled is a prerequisite
of the phenomenon. See steam stripping.

Steam economy: Same as economy (in evaporators). See economy.

Steam ejector: It is steam operated ejector. See ejector.

440
Steam power plant: The power plant in which steam is used as the
working fluid that exchanges heat and work with the surrounding. Heat
energy is added from an external source to water to produce steam
which is used to drive the steam turbine to produce the required amount
of work (power). See vapor power cycle and Rankine cycle.

Steam stripping: Transfer of a component (soluble in steam) from a

liquid stream to the gaseous water. See stripping. In some cases, steam
distillation is also termed as steam stripping as it is used to boil off the
heavy components insoluble with the steam. Steam addition in the
atmospheric distillation and vacuum distillation towers for crude oil
refining is an example of such type of steam stripping. See stripping and
steam distillation.

Steam tables: Tables of thermodynamic properties of water that enlist

the properties of saturated water, saturated water vapor (steam), and
superheated water vapor (steam).

Steam trap: A steam trap is required to trap the steam and to remove
the condensate and non-condensable gases such as air from a steam
system. Condensate and other non-condensable gases are automatically
discharged and the live steam is blocked from flowing out of the steam
system. Inverted bucket, float and thermostatic, disc trap, and bimetallic
thermostatic are some of the types of steam traps.

Stefan-Boltzmann’s law: For a black body, the total radiant energy

flux is proportional to the fourth power of absolute temperature. Stefan-
Boltzmann constant is taken as the proportionality factor. See radiation
heat transfer.

Still: The portion of a distillation apparatus in which the feed liquid is

boiled off. The whole distillation apparatus is sometimes referred to as a
still [36].

Stoichiometric coefficient: In a balanced chemical reaction equation,

the coefficients of the reacting species are called as stoichiometric
coefficients. For reactants, stoichiometric coefficient is negative while
for products it is positive. For the chemical reaction, A  2 B  3D , ‒1,
2, and 3 are the stoichiometric coefficients of components A, B, and C,

441
respectively.

Stoker: Stoker is a mechanical device that is used for feeding coal to

the furnace and supplying the air required for combustion and taking
away the leftover of the combustion process. Traveling grate stoker is
an example.

Stokes flow: Also called as creeping flow. The flow of a fluid relative
to a body where Stokes law regime is applicable, i.e., for spheres when
the Reynolds number is less than 0.1 [43]. See Stokes law.

Stokes law: It describes the effect of frictional forces on a spherical

particle due to its motion in a fluid at low velocities. It states that the
drag force (retarding force) on a sphere moving through a fluid is
proportional to the radius of the sphere, viscosity of the fluid, and the
velocity with which the sphere is moving. Stokes law, for a sphere, is
applicable when Reynolds number is less than 0.1 [43].

Storage tank: A storage tank is a vessel that is used to hold or store a

material. Both the feed materials and the products (inventory) may be
required to be stored. Storage tanks are usually cylindrical, however,
spheroidal tanks and spherical tanks are also common. Spherical tanks
are used for the compressed and liquefied gases as the tank can
withstand high pressures with minimum wall thickness. Based on the
roof movement, tanks are either fixed roof (fixed head) or floating roof
(floating head) storage tanks. Floating roof storage tanks are usually
employed for the storage of flammable and volatile liquids. See floating
roof storage tank. Bins (relatively large diameter and short height) and
silos (relatively small diameter and tall height) are used to store solid
particles.

STP: It stands for standard temperature and pressure. See standard

temperature and pressure.

Straight through transport reactor (STTR): Inerts or reactants

(entering at the bottom) themselves carry the catalyst, flow through the
reactor, and leave at the top [44].

Stratified flow: In a two-phase gas liquid flow in a horizontal pipe, at

442
low gas and liquid flows the two phases flow in horizontal distinct
separate layers and the flow is called as stratified flow. The stratified
flow is either smooth stratified flow or stratified wavy flow depending
upon the turbulence present at the surface. See Fig. S-18.

(a) (b)
Gas flowing Gas flowing

Liquid flowing Liquid flowing

Fig. S-18 Stratified flow: a) smooth stratified, b) stratified wavy flow.

Stratified wavy flow: Same as wavy flow. See wavy flow and stratified
flow.

Streamlined flow: Same as laminar flow. See laminar flow.

Stripper: A stripper is required to carry out a stripping operation.

Similar equipment is used for gas absorption and stripping. See gas
absorption, absorber, and stripping.

Stripping: Stripping is the reverse of gas absorption. It is the mass

transfer operation in which one or more components are transferred
from a liquid phase to a gas phase. Unlike gas absorption, it is increased
with an increase in temperature and decreases with a decrease in
pressure. See gas absorption.

Stripping factor: The reciprocal of absorption factor is known as

stripping factor. For optimum design, the recommended value for
stripping factor is 1.2  S  2.0 [25], where S is stripping factor. See
absorption factor.

Stripping section: For a distillation column the section below the feed
point is called as stripping section. See Fig. M-2. See also enriching
section.
443
Structured packings: These are pads of wire mesh or thin sheets of
metals or some plastic materials. Structured packings are not dumped in
the tower, but they require stacking which is usually costly. Most of the
structured packings give lower pressure drop for the gas phase and offer
higher fluid capacities. Also, they give usually a low value of HETP
(more efficient). Due to low pressure drops and high efficiency,
structured packings are mostly recommended for vacuum operations.
Panapak, Mellapak, Gempak, Montz, and Flexipak are examples of
structured packings. See random packings.

STTR: It stands for straight through transport reactor. See straight

through transport reactor.

Subcooled liquid: Also called as compressed liquid. If the temperature

of a saturated liquid (liquid at its bubble point) is decreased at a
constant pressure, it enters into the subcooled region. Or, if the pressure
is increased without changing the temperature of the liquid at its bubble
point, it goes into the subcooled region. Ordinary liquid water from a
tap is in subcooled or compressed liquid region. See Fig. S-1 and Fig.
T-4.

Sublimation: A process in which the solid phase of a substance directly

changes to the vapor phase without passing through the liquid phase.
The reverse of sublimation is desublimation. See Fig. P-19.

Submerged combustion burner evaporator: In submerged

combustion burner evaporator, the evaporator body contains a fuel
burner submerged in the liquid solution. The combustion products
(heating media) leave the flue at the bottom of the evaporator and
bubble up through the solution. Heating media is therefore directly
mixed with the solution to be evaporated and no heating surface is
required.

Subsonic flow: When Mach number is less than unity, the flow of a
fluid is called as subsonic flow. It is thus the flow characterized by the
fluid velocity when it is less than the velocity of the sound in that fluid.
Sonic and supersonic flows usually appear in the study of nozzles or
pressure relief systems, however, chemical engineers mostly deal with
subsonic flow systems. See Mach number.

444
Suction head: The total head available at the pump inlet is the suction
head. It is the sum of the pressure in the feed reservoir and height of the
free surface in the feed liquid reservoir above the pump inlet on suction
side minus the total head loss due to friction. See Fig. S-19. See also
suction lift.

Fig. S-19 Concept of suction head.

Suction lift: In many situations, the feed point is happened to be below

the pump inlet as shown in Fig. S-20. The vertical height on the suction
side of a pump from the free surface of the liquid feed, i.e., the distance
between the free level of the liquid to be pumped and the pump inlet
minus the head loss in the piping is called suction lift. When the
frictional losses are neglected, the maximum possible suction lift of a
pump is 10.4 mH2O (10.4 mH2O is the standard atmospheric pressure at
the sea level). See suction head.

Fig. S-20 Concept of suction lift.

445
Supercritical fluid: A component above its critical temperature and
critical pressure is in the supercritical fluid region as shown in Fig. P-
19. The component in the supercritical region is neither liquid nor gas
and gas and liquid are merged in a manner that there is no physical
distinction possible for the gas or liquid phase. Supercritical fluids are
extensively applied in solvent extraction. See supercritical extraction.

Supercritical fluid extraction: It is the extraction of valuable

component/s (solute/s) from a solid or liquid phase using supercritical
fluid as the solvent. Extraction by supercritical fluids requires low
number of stages (efficiency is enhanced) as diffusion coefficient
increases for the supercritical solvents. Also, it is relatively easy to
separate the supercritical solvent by converting it into the gas phase.
However, the extraction requires higher cost as the conditions to be
maintained are above the critical point of the solvent that keep the
solvent in the supercritical phase. See supercritical fluid.

Superficial velocity: It can be calculated as the ratio of the volumetric

flowrate to the whole cross-sectional area (unobstructed cross-section)
of the conduit. It is, therefore, the velocity of a liquid or gas flowing in
an empty tube or column (conduit) and assumes as there is no
obstruction to the flow and that the bed of solid particles or packing,
etc. is absent.

Superheated steam: When a superheated vapor is the pure water, it is

called as superheated steam. See superheated vapor.

Superheated vapor: If a dry saturated vapor is heated at constant

pressure, its temperature increases beyond dew point temperature and it
goes into the superheated region. Also, if the pressure of a dry saturated
vapor is decreased at a constant temperature, it becomes superheated
vapor. See Fig. S-1 and Fig. T-4. See also saturated vapor.

Superheater: A water vapor (steam) in equilibrium with the liquid

water (saturated water) within the body of a boiler is the saturated
steam. Superheating requires further heating of the saturated steam, at
constant pressure, in a superheater. A superheater is a heat exchanger
that usually contains convective heat transfer tubes in which the flue
gases produced within the boiler exchange heat with the saturated steam

446
and superheat the saturated steam to a required degree of superheat. See
superheated vapor.

Supersaturation: The condition in which the concentration of a

solution (salt solution) exceeds that of the concentration of the solution
at the equilibrium. The term is frequently applied in crystallization
technology. In one method of supersaturation, decrease in temperature
can easily supersaturate a saturated solution (at equilibrium).

Supersonic flow: When Mach number is greater than unity, the flow of
a fluid is referred to as supersonic flow. It is thus the flow characterized
by the fluid velocity when it is greater than the velocity of the sound in
that fluid. See Mach number.

Supersonic velocity: The velocity of a fluid in supersonic flow. See

supersonic flow.

Surface forces: In contrast to body forces, surface forces act on a fluid

by its surroundings through physical contact at the surface. They
depend on the extent of the surface area at which the forces act. Forces
due to molecular interactions are surface forces. See body forces.

Surface mean diameter: It is the diameter of a sphere whose surface

area when multiplied by the total number of particles in a group of
particles (powder) gives the total surface area of the particles [8].

Surface renewal theory: Same as Danckwert’s model. See

Dacnckwert’s model.

Surface roughness: Same as absolute surface roughness. See absolute

surface roughness.

Surge tank: Surge tanks are used to stabilize or regulate the liquid
stream flows. These are used to damp the fluctuations in flowrate,
composition or temperature. Adequate residence time (surge time) is
provided to dull any variations present in the flow streams. They are
often employed upstream to an important downstream operation. See
surging.

447
Surge time: The residence time required in an accumulator vessel such
as surge tank to even the variations in a liquid stream flowrate. See
surge tank.

Surging: The process is observed in centrifugal and axial flow

compressors where the inlet flow decreases to a value that a negative or
reverse flow is started and seeks to acquire the set (outlet) pressure at
the inlet. This causes the normal flow to resume, but the reverse flow
occurs again. If keeps on, it can cause serious damage to the equipment.
A higher pressure than the set value at the discharge end may cause
similar phenomenon.

Surroundings: Also called as environment. Anything other than the

system is surroundings. A system and its surroundings together form the
universe. See Fig. B-12.

Sweep diffusion: A condensable vapor (saturated steam) can

selectively separate a component from a gas phase by the process
known as sweep diffusion.

Sweet gas: See sour gas.

Swelling index: Also called as crucible swelling number or free

swelling index. It is a measure of the swelling capacity of a coal when
subjected to heating. It indicates the tendency of a coal sample to
increase its volume during carbonization and therefore describes the
coking behavior of a coal.

Swenson-Walker crystallizer: A shallow open trough of semi-circular

bottom with cooling jacket attached to the outside surface.
Crystallization is carried out by cooling the solution within the trough
while cooling water is flowing inside the jacket. Internal agitators are
required not only to increase the heat transfer from the wall, but also to
ensure uniform crystal size distribution (CSD).

Swing check valve: A type of check valve which consists of a hinged

(loosely connected) disc that rests on the valve seat when the valve is in
fully closed position. If the upstream pressure is higher than the
downstream pressure, the disc moves upwards and opens the flow

448
channel to let the fluid to pass though the valve. However, if the
downstream pressure is greater for some reasons the disc shuts off the
valve opening and the flow is discontinued. See Fig. C-8. See also
check valve.

Syn gas: Same as synthesis gas. See synthesis gas.

Synthesis gas: Also called as syn gas. Generally considered, a gas

mixture that consists mainly of carbon monoxide and hydrogen gases.
However, sometimes a mixture of nitrogen and hydrogen for the
production of ammonia is also termed as synthesis gas. Steam
reforming of natural gas and gasification of coal or biomass are the
typical sources of synthesis gas. Synthesis gas is widely used in the
production of methanol and ammonia.

Syphon: Same as siphon. See siphon.

System: Anything under observation is called as system. It may be a

distant planet if the planet is under observation. See Fig. B-12.

System boundary: Same as boundary. See boundary.

449
T
T fitting: Same as tee fitting. See tee fitting.

Tabletting: Compression agglomeration, one of the methods of size

enlargement, when applied to produce a tablet like product, it is called
as tabletting. Tabletting is sometimes considered as the same as
pelleting process, however, pellets may also be produced by cutting of
small portions (pellets) from a large agglomerated product. See
compression agglomeration and pelleting.

Tangential flow: In a tangential flow, the flow of a fluid follows the

motion of the impeller. In other words, the fluid forms a tangent at each
point of the circular ring of the trajectory of the impeller. Tangential
flow is different from the radial flow which follows radial direction (in
an agitated vessel the flow direction perpendicular to the agitated shaft).
Fig. T-1 shows the tangential flow in an agitated vessel. See also axial
flow and radial flow.
Tangential flow to a vessel such as knockout drum is the fluid entry
making tangent to the circular trajectory of the fluid lines inside the
vessel.

Fig. T-1 Tangential flow: a) concept of tangential flow, b) tangential

flow in an agitated tank.

Tank reactor: In one way, based on the shape of the reactor, reactors
may be classified as either tank reactors or tubular reactors [45]. A
reactor that has the geometry of a tank usually cylindrical (length not
450
much different from diameter) is a tank reactor. Tubular reactor, on the
other hand, figures like a tube with length much larger than its diameter.
Tank reactor is usually a backmixed reactor while a tubular reactor is
usually a plug flow reactor. A tank reactor may be operated in
continuous, batch, or semi-batch fashion while a tubular reactor usually
operates in continuous mode. CSTRs and batch reactors are usually tank
type reactors. See Fig. T-2. See also batch reactor and continuous
stirred tank reactor.

Fig. T-2 a) Batch reactor, b) continuous stirred tank reactor, c) tubular

reactor, d) fixed bed tubular reactor.

TDS: It stands for total dissolved solids.

Tee fitting: Also known as T fitting. The name of the pipe fitting
comes from its shape resembling to the letter “T”. It connects a branch
pipe perpendicular to the main pipe and provides a three way
connection. Fig. P-11 shows the tee fitting.

Teeter bed: It is usually considered as a fluidized bed in which solid

particle size is rather coarser than a normal fluidized bed. The particle
size is, however, smaller than a spouted bed. See fluidized bed and
spouted bed.

Teller rosette: Also called as tellerette. A type of random packing that

is used with packed columns. The packing offers low pressure drop, low
wall thrust, and low specific weight. It is commonly available in

451
plastics.

Tellerette: Same as teller rosette. See teller rosette.

TEM: It stands for transmission electron microscopy. See transmission

electron microscopy.

TEMA: It stands for tubular exchanger manufacturers association.

TEMA classification: The classification of the shell and tube heat

exchangers carried out by tubular exchanger manufacturers association
based on types of shell, front end, and rear end.

Temkin isotherm: An adsorption isotherm model in which heat of

adsorption is assumed to vary linearly with the surface coverage.

Temperature cross: In a heat exchanger device, if the exit temperature

of the cold fluid stream gets higher than the exit temperature of the hot
fluid, then the difference between the cold fluid temperature and the hot
fluid temperature is called as temperature cross. Temperature cross may
occur in counterflow heat exchangers and in a shell and tube heat
exchanger with one shell and two or more tube passes. This is an
unwanted situation as the direction of heat transfer reverses and cold
fluid is started giving heat to the hot fluid.

Temperature gradient: The differential change in temperature

between two given points with respect to distance. In other words the
difference in temperatures between two given points divided by the
distance between the points when the distance approaches zero. Heat is
transferred between two points only when temperature gradient exists
between the points. See Fourier’s law of heat conduction.

Temperature profile: Point to point variation in temperature

(temperature distribution) with respect to distance.

Temperature programmed desorption (TPD): A gas such as

ammonia (NH3-TPD) is adsorbed on a material (catalyst) surface and
the material is heated under controlled rate. The temperature is
increased and the gas is progressively desorbed. The concentration of

452
the desorbed gas is measured at various temperatures and a TPD
spectrum is developed. NH3-TDP is a common technique for measuring
the concentration of acid sites on a catalyst surface such as a zeolite.

Temperature swing adsorption: It is the regeneration of adsorbents

carried out by increasing the temperature of the adsorbent bed. A heated
gas may be used to purge the adsorbed species. See adsorbent
regeneration and pressure swing adsorption.

Temperature-composition diagram: It is also called as boiling point

diagram and T-x-y diagram. A binary (system of two components)
vapor-liquid phase diagram in which temperature is plotted as y-
coordinate while composition of the more volatile component is plotted
as x-coordinate. A typical binary temperature-composition diagram is
shown in Fig. T-3. Although mostly referred to a vapor-liquid phase
diagram, but generally it may be any temperature-composition diagram.
See pressure-composition diagram.

Temperature-enthalpy diagram: Also known as T-h diagram. It is a

thermodynamic property diagram in which temperature and enthalpy
are plotted along the y- and x-axes, respectively. Fig. T-4 shows a
temperature-enthalpy diagram of a pure component.

Temperature-entropy diagram: Also known as T-s diagram. It is a

thermodynamic property diagram in which temperature and entropy are
plotted as y- and x- coordinates, respectively. T-s diagram is helpful in
thermodynamic calculations of a system involving constant temperature
and isentropic processes.

Tempering: It is a process in which an excessive activity of a new

catalyst is avoided by introducing a small amount of a foreign
compound in order to reduce the coking and high temperature rise (as
may occur in exothermic reactions).

Ternary mixture: A mixture of three components is a ternary mixture.

As an example, methyl alcohol, ethyl alcohol, and water form a ternary
mixture.

Ternary phase diagram: Thermodynamic phase diagram for a system

453
containing three components. Three component liquid-liquid equilibria
are graphically described by a ternary phase diagram. Most often it is
presented on an equilateral or right angled isosceles triangular plot.
Each corner (apex) of the triangle represents pure (100%) component.
In Fig. T-5, the top corner, point A represents pure or 100% solute, the
right corner, point C represents pure or 100% diluent (i.e., the
component with which solute is present in the solution), and the left
corner, point B represents pure or 100% solvent. The line AB opposite
to the corner C shows zero % C in the mixture, representing only A and
B in the solution. Similarly, line BC and line AC represent zero% A and
zero% B, respectively. The two-phase region is marked by a boundary
envelop (dome shaped area) while the rest of the area shows a single
phase region. The tie lines are drawn in the two-phase region to
determine the equilibrium composition of the phases. Liquid-liquid
extraction is only possible when the compositions lie within the dome
shaped area. See triangular diagrams.

TGA: It stands for thermogravimetric analysis. See thermogravimetric

analysis.

T-h diagram: Same as temperature-enthalpy diagram. See temperature-

enthalpy diagram.

Theoretical air: Also called as required air. It is the stoichiometric

amount of air required for the complete combustion of a combustible
(fuel). It is therefore the number of moles or weight of air calculated
from the balanced chemical equation for the reaction under
consideration. See also excess air.

Theoretical flame temperature: Same as adiabatic flame temperature.

See adiabatic flame temperature.

Theoretical number of stages: In mass transfer based separation

processes, when each of the stages required for a given separation duty
is ideal or equilibrium stage, i.e., phases leaving a stage are in
thermodynamic equilibrium with each other, then the number of stages
is theoretical number of stages. Unlike practical or real stages,
theoretical stages may be a fractional number.

454
 Fig. T-3 a) Temperature-composition diagram (at constant pressure),
b) pressure composition diagram (at constant temperature).

Theoretical number of plates: Also called as theoretical number of

trays. When the theoretical or ideal stages are the plates such as in a
distillation column, the stages are called as the theoretical number of
plates. Under such conditions, each plate in the tower behaves like an
equilibrium stage. See theoretical stage.

Theoretical number of trays: Same as theoretical number of plates.

See theoretical number of plates.
455
 Fig. T-4 Temperature-enthalpy diagram of a pure component.

Fig. T-5 Ternary phase diagram.

Theoretical oxygen: Also called as required oxygen. It is the oxygen

content of theoretical air required for the complete combustion. See
theoretical air.
456
Theoretical plate: An equilibrium or ideal plate. In a theoretical plate,
the two phases leaving the plate are in thermodynamic equilibrium. See
theoretical stage.

Theoretical stage: Also called as ideal or equilibrium stage. If the

phases leaving a stage are in thermodynamic equilibrium to each other,
then such a stage is a theoretical stage. In a single theoretical stage, two
or more phases are brought into intimate contact and sufficient time is
given so that equilibrium is reached after which the phases are
separated. See real stage.

Theoretical tray: Same as theoretical plate. See theoretical plate.

Thermal boundary layer: Similar to the hydrodynamic boundary layer

as the region in which velocity gradients (distribution) are present in a
flowing fluid, a thermal boundary layer is defined as the region in
which temperature gradients are present in the flow and is important in
the case of heat transfer. Consider a solid surface maintained at a
temperature higher than the fluid flowing over the surface. A variation
of temperature in fluid will be observed from the solid surface to the
point far from the surface in the body of the fluid, such a region of
temperature variation is known as thermal boundary layer. See
boundary layer.

Thermal conductivity: One of the three transport properties used in

transport phenomena. The other two are viscosity and mass diffusivity.
Thermal conductivity is the heat conducting ability of a material.
Fourier’s law of heat conduction defines thermal conductivity as the
amount of heat transfer by conduction per unit time per unit heat
transfer area per unit temperature difference for the unit material
thickness. The SI units of thermal conductivity are Wm–1K–1. The
value is generally higher for metals and lower for non-metals, liquids,
and gases. For a gas, thermal conductivity increases with temperature
and approximately increases as the square root of the absolute
temperature. It may be taken as independent of pressure at low
pressures (say) upto 10 atm. For gases, when pressure approaches zero
(perfect vacuum), thermal conductivity may be taken as zero. Thermal
conductivity of liquids also vary with temperature and often taken as a
linear function of temperature. Practically speaking, thermal

457
conductivity is not a function of pressure for liquids. See Fourier’s law.

Thermal diffusion: Same as heat diffusion. See heat diffusion.

Thermal diffusivity: Also called as transport diffusivity of heat. It is

the ratio of thermal conductivity to the product of density and specific
heat. It is a measure of how fast a material can take heat away from a
heat source. As it is a combination of properties, it is itself a property.
The SI units of thermal diffusivity are m2s–1.

k

 cp

Where, α is thermal diffusivity, and k,  , and cp, are thermal

conductivity, density, and specific heat capacity of the material,
respectively. It is important to note that definition of thermal diffusivity
includes both density and heat capacity terms which make it more
meaningful than thermal conductivity alone. Density represents the
mass capacity and specific heat measures the thermal capacity.

Thermal energy: Same as heat. See heat.

Thermal efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of net work output to heat

energy supplied (for a power cycle or heat engine).

Thermal equilibrium: It is one of the three conditions of

thermodynamic equilibrium. The other two are mechanical and
chemical equilibria. If the temperature of a system is the same
throughout, the system is said to be in thermal equilibrium. For a
system with interacting phases, if the temperature of the phases is the
same, the phases are said to be in thermal equilibrium. See
thermodynamic equilibrium.

Thermal insulation: Thermal insulation retards the rate of heat transfer

to or from a system (say furnace wall) by providing a high resistance to
heat transfer. Low thermal conductivity materials and reflective
surfaces are examples o thermal insulations.

Thermal radiations: The range of electromagnetic radiations with

458
wavelengths between 0.1 and 100 microns that is important in radiation
heat transfer. See radiation heat transfer.

Thermal reservoir: Also called as heat reservoir. A thermal reservoir

is an idealized body that can exchange heat with a given system and
remains at a constant temperature. Large masses of water such as rivers,
oceans, and atmosphere surrounding us may be approximated as
thermal reservoirs.

Thermal resistance: Thermal resistance is the resistance to heat

transfer and a high value of thermal resistance decreases the rate of heat
transfer. Thermal resistance may be defined as the ratio of temperature
gradient (driving potential) to the rate of heat transfer.

temperatur e gradient
Thermal resistance 
rate of heat trasnfer

For a plane wall thermal resistance may be written as:

x
Thermal resistance 
kA

Where, Δx is the plane wall thickness, k is thermal conductivity of

the plane wall material, and A is surface area of the plane wall
perpendicular to the direction of heat flow. See Fig. O-5. See also
inside, outside, and overall heat transfer coefficients.

Thermal shock: If a body is excessively heated or cooled in a short

period of time (high heating or cooling rate) or if a body is heated and
does not allow to expand, the body experiences thermal shock which
generates excessive internal stresses that may cause fracture and crystal
deformation.

Thermal swing adsorption: Same as temperature swing adsorption.

See temperature swing adsorption.

Thermie: Thermie is a unit of energy and it is defined as the amount of

heat required to raise the temperature of one metric ton of water through
one degree Celsius.
459
Thermister: Thermister is a semiconductor device that is used for
measuring temperature of a body. The resistance of a thermister either
decreases or increases with temperature which is a measure of
temperature of the body. Thermisters are either negative temperature
coefficient (NTC) in which resistance decreases with increase in
temperature or positive temperature coefficient (PTC) in which
resistance increases with increase in temperature. See resistance
thermometer.

Thermocouple: A thermocouple is a temperature measuring element

that is formed by joining two thermoelectrically dissimilar metals.
When heated at a junction an emf (electromotive force) is generated
(Seebeck effect) which is a function of temperature of measurement.
Increasing temperature increases the generated emf. J-type, K-type, and
N-type are some examples of thermocouples.

Thermodynamic equilibrium: When two or more phases in contact

have equal temperatures, pressures, and chemical potentials, then the
phases are said to be in thermodynamic equilibrium. In other words,
when phases are in thermal, mechanical, and chemical equilibria they
are in thermodynamic equilibrium. Truly speaking, this can only occur
in a closed system, because in an open system the condition of
mechanical equilibrium is not exactly fulfilled. At the thermodynamic
equilibrium, the molecular motion does not cease and all the
thermodynamic equilibria are therefore dynamic in nature. When two
phases such as vapor and liquid in a system have the same temperature,
they are said to be in thermal equilibrium. When two phases such as
vapor and liquid in a system have the same pressure, they are said to be
in mechanical equilibrium. When all components in a system of two
phases such as vapor and liquid have the same chemical potentials in
each phase, then the phases are said to be in chemical equilibrium.

Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA): In thermogravimetric analysis,

the loss in weight of a sample material such as coked catalyst is
measured with time or temperature.

Thermometer: A thermometer measures the temperature of a body at a

given point. Liquid-in-glass thermometers, bimetallic thermometers,
thermocouples, resistance thermometers, and radiation pyrometers are

460
examples of thermometers.

Thermopile: A set of thermocouples connected in series. Thermopile is

used radiation thermometers.

Thermosyphon reboiler: A thermosyphon reboiler is a shell and tube

assembly in which, unlike a forced circulation reboiler, natural
circulation occurs and the fluid flows due to the density difference
between the liquid in the tower and the vapor-liquid mixture in the
reboiler. The vapor-liquid mixture enters the tower and disengaged
within the tower. Horizontal and vertical thermosyphon reboilers are the
two variations of a thermosyphon reboiler. See Fig. F-14. See also
forced circulation reboiler and kettle type reboiler.

Thickener: It is the equipment for thickening operation. The purpose of

a thickener is to concentrate a slurry before it goes to a filtration
process. See Fig. T-6. See also thickening.

Fig. T-6 Thickener.

Thickening: It is a sedimentation process in which the objective is to

thicken or concentrate a slurry. See thickener.

Thiele modulus: For a solid catalytic reaction, the reactants first diffuse
through the pores of the catalyst particle before being adsorbed and
converted into the products. The overall reaction rate is therefore
dependent not only on the intrinsic chemical kinetics, but the rate of
diffusion of reacting species through the pores. Thiele modulus, a
dimensionless quantity, indicates the importance of diffusional
resistance in a catalytic reaction and suggests whether the reaction rate
461
is chemical reaction limited or diffusional limited. A large value of the
modulus indicates important diffusional pore resistance while a small
value indicates diffusion is not important in determining the reaction
rate and that the effectiveness factor is approximately unity. The
modulus is used in the calculations of effectiveness factor (that accounts
for the diffusional contribution in the reaction rate calculations). See
effectiveness factor.

Thiele-Geddes method: For multicomponent distillation, it is one of

the two rigorous stage-to-stage methods that are suitable for the manual
calculations. The other is the Lewis-Matheson method. See Lewis-
Matheson method.

Third law of thermodynamics: It states that the entropy of a pure

crystalline substance is zero at the absolute zero of temperature (at 0 K).
This law is helpful in calculating the absolute value of entropy of a
substance.

Thixotropic fluids: Type of time dependent non-Newtonian fluids in

which viscosity decreases with time and therefore for a constant shear
rate, the amount of required shear stress reduces with the passage of
time. See rheopectic fluids.

Three-blade marine propeller: See propeller and mixing impellers.

See also Fig. M-7.

Three-phase separator: A three-phase separator separates a gas phase

and two immiscible liquid phases. The separator is usually a horizontal
vessel attached to which a vertical vessel at the bottom (boot) that
collects the heavier liquid phase usually the water phase. A petroleum
fraction containing water and associated gases can be separated from
the gas and water in a three-phase separator. See water drawoff boot.

Three-way valve: The valve diverts a stream of fluid to two fluid

channels (divides into two fluid streams) or it can join two fluid streams
and directs the mixture to a single channel.

Threshold limit value (TLV): The commonly defined threshold limit

value is the time weighted average (TWA) threshold limit value (TLV-

462
TWA) which is the maximum safe concentration of a component in air
to which all workers may be exposed repeatedly for 40 hours a week (5
days and 8 hours a day) for a long period of time without any health
hazard [46].

Threshold stress: Same as yield stress. See yield stress. See also
Bingham plastic fluids.

Throat: The minimum flow opening in a Venturi meter or a

converging-diverging nozzle. See Fig. C-17 and Fig. V-6.

Throttled valve: A valve with partial opening of the valve is

considered at a throttled position. See Fig. T-7.

Throttling process: Also called as free expansion. Expansion of a gas

through a small opening or a throttled valve is a throttling process.
Throttling occurs very rapidly and it is considered that the heat energy
does not have enough time to leave or enter the system and therefore the
process is assumed to be adiabatic. Also, as no shaft work output is
involved and the gas works against itself, therefore, throttling process is
usually taken as isenthalpic process. Throttling process may be used to
decrease the pressure of a fluid (gas stream) as well as temperature of
the gas stream.

Fig. T-7 Valve position: a) fully closed, b) throttled, c) fully opened.

Throughput: Same as capacity. See capacity.

Tie component: In material balance calculations, if a component

appears only in one stream entering into a process and leaves the
process without undergoing a chemical reaction in only one outlet
stream such a component is called as tie component. The presence of
one or more tie components often greatly simplifies the material
balance calculations.

463
Tie line: In general, a line that connects the compositions
(concentrations) of the phases in equilibrium is known as a tie line.
Numerous tie lines may be made at different compositions. On a T-x-y
equilibrium diagram (boiling point diagram) the line that joins the
compositions of a liquid and vapor in equilibrium and on a ternary
liquid-liquid (triangular plane) equilibrium diagram, the line joining the
composition of two liquid phases in equilibrium are examples of tie
lines. See Fig. T-3 and Fig. T-5.

Time constant: The term is related to process control technology. It

tells the speed of response and is a measure of the time required to
reach the output variable (controlled variable) to ultimate value of the
response. Smaller is time constant faster will be the response, and vice
versa. The time constant is frequently reported in minutes (min).

TLV: It stands for threshold limiting value. See threshold limit value.

TOL: It stands for top operating line. See top operating line.

Toothed roll crusher: A size reduction machinery in which the feed

material is crushed by compression, impact, and shear methods of force.
Either a single toothed roll fitted with a breaker plate or two toothed
rolls may be employed. See Fig. S-7. Nipping the feed is easier in these
types of roll crushers than crushing rolls (smooth roll surfaces). Toothed
roll crushers may be used for coal and other not very hard materials.
See single roll crusher.

Top operating line (TOL): It represents the mass balance across each
plate from the feed point to the top most plate of the distillation column.
See Fig. M-2. See also bottom operating line.

Topped crude: Same as atmospheric reduced crude. See atmospheric

reduced crude and topping.

Topping: The separation of relatively lighter products from a crude oil

(in the atmospheric distillation column) leaving behind a relatively
heavier fraction is called as topping. The heavier fraction left behind is
called as topped crude. See atmospheric distillation unit.

464
Tortuosity: Tortuosity may be defined as the square of the tortuosity
factor. See tortuosity factor.

Tortuosity factor: For a porous material, it is the measure of deviations

in actual pore geometry from the straight cylindrical pore geometry
(ideal pore geometry). Tortuosity factor may be defined as the ratio of
the effective diffusion (pore) length to the length of straight cylindrical
pore. It is generally measured experimentally and ranges between 2 and
6 [47]. It is used to measure the effective diffusivity of a fluid in a
porous material.

Total condenser: A total condenser condenses all of the vapors it

receives. It is different from a partial condenser in which some of the
gases (vapors) are allowed to escape without being condensed. See Fig.
B-7 and Fig. D-11. See also partial condenser.

Total head: Total energy of a fluid per unit weight of the fluid is called
as total head. In most cases, the sum of potential head, kinetic head, and
pressure head is taken as the total head of a fluid at a specified point.
See head.

Total reflux: In a distillation operation, when the entire condensed

product is sent back (pumped back) to the column, the column is said to
be operated under total reflux conditions. The reflux ratio is unity at the
total reflux condition. See Fig. T-8. See also reflux.

Condenser

Overhead
vapor Coolant

Reflux
drum

Reflux

Fig. T-8 Concept of total reflux.

465
TPD: It stands for temperature programmed desorption. See
temperature programmed desorption.

TPR: It stands for temperature programmed reduction.

Transducer: A transducer converts one type of energy into another

form of energy. See transmitter.

Transfer function: The term is widely used in process dynamics and

control technology. It describes the relationship between input and
output variables in the Laplace domain and defined as the ratio of
Laplace transform of the output variable (response variable) in
deviation form to the Laplace transform of input variable (disturbance
or forcing function) in the deviation form.

Transfer processes: Also called as rate processes. Momentum, heat,

and mass transfer processes are called as transfer processes. In a
transfer process, the rate of flow of a quantity (momentum, heat, or
mass) is proportional to the area for flow as well as to the relevant value
of the gradient (potential difference). For example, rate of heat transfer
is proportional to the area for heat flow and the temperature gradient.
See rate of heat transfer, rate of mass transfer, and rate of momentum
transfer.

Transient process: It is the same as unsteady-state process. See

unsteady-state process.

Transition flow: The flow behavior of a fluid in the transition region is

sometimes called as transition flow. See transition region.

Transition region: Consider a certain fluid is flowing in a pipe. At low

velocities, when the Reynolds number is below 2100, the flow is
characterized as laminar flow. Upon increasing the Reynolds number,
the flow behavior changes from laminar to turbulent flow. Above the
Reynolds number of 4000, the flow is usually turbulent. Between
Reynolds number 2100 (fully laminar region) and 4000 (fully
turbulent), the flow is neither fully laminar nor fully turbulent and it
may be viewed as a mixed character of both laminar and turbulent
flows. The region where flow is neither 100% laminar nor it is 100%

466
turbulent, but a mixture of both the principal types of flows is called as
transition region. Pipe flow has just been taken as an example, the flow
behavior will be the same in other conduits, however, the range of
Reynolds numbers will be different.
Also, consider a flat plate over which a fluid is flowing. At the
leading edge of the flat plate, boundary layer starts to build up. Flow is
laminar at the start of the boundary layer formation and after some
distance from the leading edge the boundary layer is fully developed
and known as turbulent boundary layer. Between the turbulent
boundary layer region and laminar boundary region there exists the
transition region (transition from laminar boundary layer to turbulent
flow boundary layer) which may be, as said before, neither 100%
laminar nor 100% turbulent, but a mixture of both the principal types of
flows is called as transition region. Depending upon the conditions,
turbulent and transition flow regions may never be developed in flow
over a flat plate. See Fig. T-14.

Transition state theory: Same as absolute reaction rate theory. See

absolute reaction rate theory.

Transmission electron microscopy (TEM): A material characterizing

technique that is used to analyze the crystallite behavior of the material.
It may be used for a very small crystal size.

Transmitter: A transmitter conditions a received signal (from a

transducer) and sends it to the required destination [48] while a
transducer converts one form of energy (process measurement) to
another form that is compatible to the transmitter. Sometimes the terms
transmitter and transducer are used interchangeably [48]. See
transducer.

Transmittivity: The fraction of the incident ray (radiation) that is

transmitted through a body, i.e., the fraction that neither reflected nor
absorbed in the body. The sum of transmittivity, obsorpitivity, and
reflectivity is unity. If the entire radiation incident on the body passes
through the body then the transimittivity is unity. See Fig. A-3. See also
absorptivity and reflectivity.

Transport diffusivity of heat: Same as thermal diffusivity. See

467
thermal diffusivity.

Transport diffusivity of mass: Same as diffusion coefficient. See

diffusion coefficient.

Transport diffusivity of momentum: Same as kinematic viscosity.

See kinematic viscosity.

Transport phenomena: The study of transfer processes is transport

phenomena. In chemical engineering, the collective study of
momentum, heat, and mass transfer processes is called as transport
phenomena. See transfer processes.

Transport processes: Same as transfer processes. See transfer

processes.

Transport property: Newton’s law (of viscosity), Fourier’s law (of

heat conduction), and Fick’s law (of molecular mass transfer)
proportionality factors are viscosity, thermal conductivity, and mass
diffusivity, respectively. These proportionality factors are called as
transport properties. These proportionality factors (transport properties)
are not constants, but vary with the condition of the system. See
dynamic viscosity, thermal conductivity, and mass diffusivity.

Traverse fins: Unlike longitudinal fins that are made parallel to the
axis of the tube, traverse fins are fitted across the axis of the tube.
Traverse fins are used when the fluid streams are flowing in a cross
flow fashion. Air cooled heat exchangers are incorporated with traverse
finned tubes as air flows normal to the direction of fluid flowing inside
the tubes. See Fig. F-6. See also longitudinal fins.

Tray: Also called as plate. Trays are an integral part of a tray tower.
Usually a large number of trays are securely fitted within the shell of a
tray tower. A single tray contains a number of small holes which
facilitates in intimate contact of the fluid phases. Trays are normally
made of metals and strong enough to withstand the column liquid heads
and pressure in the column. Large diameter trays are usually designed
with a manhole inside the tray body. For a gas/vapor-liquid operation,
the tray holes disperse the gas phase in the form of small gas bubbles.

468
Larger holes and low vapor velocity cause the formation of larger
bubble sizes while smaller holes and higher vapor velocity cause the
formation of smaller bubble sizes. The jet of the gas phase helps in
disintegrating the liquid pool at the tray deck and the interfacial area is
greatly enhanced and a liquid and gas form a froth. Intimate contact is
the result and mass is transferred. The gas and liquid phases are
disengaged in the disengaging section and the gas phase leaves the plate
and reaches the plate above. The liquid phase droplets coalesce and
reach back to the liquid pool at the deck. Fine liquid droplets may
escape with the gas phase (entrainment) and decreases the tray
efficiency. See tray tower.
The term tray is also used with tray or shelf dryers. See tray dryer.

Tray dryer: Also called as shelf dryer, compartment dryer, and cabinet
dryer. A type of batch dryer where material to be dried is placed in
shallow metal trays and the trays themselves are placed inside a cabinet.
Heated air flows over the material to moist off the material. When the
desired amount of drying is achieved, the cabinet or compartment is
opened and the trays are removed. Tray dryers can be operated under
vacuum or can be used with atmosphere other than air such as
superheated organic vapors. Vacuum is applied for the materials that
may not capable of withstanding high temperatures. Superheated
organic vapors may be employed where air may damage the product. In
perforated trays, the air can flow through the material which not only
decreases the drying time, but it is also helpful in avoiding the lumping
of the granular materials. See also tunnel dryer.

Tray efficiency: See Murphree tray efficiency.

Tray spacing: Same as plate spacing. See plate spacing.

Tray tower: A tray tower is a cylindrical column that consists of a

certain number of horizontal trays with or without downcomers. The
main parts of a tray tower are shell, trays, donwcomers, and weir plates.
The shell is usually vertical due to the natural flow of the liquid and gas
and that a vertically installed column occupies less space. Each tray acts
as a stage and unlike packed column (differential contactor), it is a
stagewise mass transfer equipment. Three commonly used trays are
sieve tray, valve tray, and bubble cap tray. Tray towers are frequently

469
used for the distillation and gas absorption, although liquid-liquid
extraction is also carried out. Efficiency of a tray tower is generally
higher for distillation than gas absorption due to lower mass transfer
rates in the latter case. A sieve tray tower for liquid-liquid extraction is
shown in Fig. T-9. For a gas/vapor-liquid system, the performance of a
sieve tray as a function of gas and liquid rates is shown in Fig. T-10
while a comparison of sieve tray with other commonly used tray
designs is given in Table T-1. See also Fig. D-11, Fig. B-16, Fig. V-2,
and Fig. S-6. See packed column.

Fig. T-9 A sieve tray liquid-liquid extraction column.

Treybal extractor: A liquid-liquid extraction device that may be

viewed as a series of mixer-settlers arranged vertically.

Triangular diagrams: Three component data such as three component

470
equilibrium data that is used in the design of liquid-liquid extraction
systems is conveniently shown on a triangular diagram. Both right
angled isosceles and equilateral triangular planes are used for the said
purpose. Each of the corners (apexes) of the triangular plane represents
a pure component. The line opposite to an apex shows 0% of the
corresponding component. See Fig. T-11. See also ternary phase
diagram. Liquid rate

Fig. T-10 Performance of a gas/vapor-liquid tray tower [3].

Fig. T-11 Triangular diagram: a) right angled isosceles diagram,

b) equilateral diagram.

Triangular pitch: See tube pitch.

Triangular weir: A weir with triangular or V-notch is called as

triangular weir. See Fig. W-3. See also weir.
471
Table T-1 General comparison of bubble cap tray, valve tray, and sieve
tray [3, 31, 34, 49]
Factor Bubble cap tray Valve tray Sieve tray
Cost Most expensive Moderately Least
expensive (cost expensive
closer to sieve tray)
Turndown Highest In between bubble Lowest
ratio (10:1 or 8:1 cap and sieve trays
(Flexibility) common) (about 4:1 to 5:1,
may be higher in
special designs)
Efficiency No distinguishable difference. Almost the same when
operating in their design values
Pressure Highest In between bubble Lowest
drop cap and sieve trays
(closer to sieve
tray)
Capacity Lowest Higher Higher
(comparable to
sieve tray)
Entrainment Highest Nearly the same as 1/3 of bubble
(3 times that of that for sieve tray cap tray
sieve tray)
Design Design procedures Proprietary Design
procedures are well defined. In procedures are
most installations, readily
standard bubble available.
cap is used
Fouling Highest Moderate Lowest
chances (sufficient ability (trays may be
to collect solids) plugged in
heated
applications)
Maintenance Highest Moderate Lowest
Selection Use when no other If sieve trays are Always the first
choice, as for very not satisfactory choice in
low gas rates or valve trays are then installation. Do
high flexibility. recommended. not use if
Do not use in greater
fouling services flexibility is
like coking. needed.

472
Trickle bed reactor: In a trickle bed reactor, the liquid trickles (flows
without filling the spaces between the solid particles) through a fixed
bed of solids (catalyst) and the gas flows either cocurrently or
countercurrently through the bed. This three-phase arrangement gives
rise to a large contact area for the gas liquid contact.

Triple effect evaporator: Multiple effect assembly of evaporators

consisting of three effects (evaporators). See multiple effect evaporator
system.

Triple point: For a pure component, it is the point at which all the three
phases of a substance coexist in equilibrium. Thus for water at 0.01C
and 0.6117 kPa (triple point of water) solid water (ice), liquid water,
and gaseous water all coexist. See pressure-temperature diagram (Fig.
P-19) of a pure component. See critical point.

Trommel: Trommel is a cylindrical revolving screen that is used to

separate different sizes of solid particles. There are two types of
trommels, a simple trommel and a compound trammel [40]. Simple
trommel is a single sieve cylinder with sections of various sieve sizes
fitted one after the other. Compound trommel is a multiple concentric
sieve cylinder assembly. The inner most cylinder where the feed is
introduced has the coarsest openings while the outer most cylinder has
the smallest openings. The speed of a trommel is adjusted so as to avoid
centrifuging (inefficient operation where particles do not fall back and
constantly move along the wall of the trommel) and therefore the
trommel runs at a speed less than the critical speed of the trommel.

Trough mixer: A solid-solid mixing equipment that consists of a semi-

circular trough which is integrated with some kind of mixing element.
Small paddles attached to a rotating shaft (pug or paddle mill), a ribbon
element (ribbon mixer), or mixing blades such as Z blades (Z blade
mixer) may be used in the trough. Paddle mixer, ribbon mixer, and two-
arm kneader mixer are common examples.

Trouton’s rule: A very rough rule for the estimation of latent heat of
vaporization at normal boiling point.

True boiling point (TBP): Same as molal average boiling point. See

473
molal average boiling point.

True boiling point (TBP) distillation: A laboratory distillation method

that is normally used to evaluate crude oils. Unlike ASTM distillation
test, true boiling point distillation is carried out with reflux and a better
degree of separation is obtained. The results of TBP distillation are
presented in the form of TBP distillation curve. As compared to other
distillation test methods TBP distillation is laborious and takes longer
times. See ASTM distillation and distillation curve.

True density: Same as skeletal density. See skeletal density.

Truncated Virial equation of state: Virial equation retained upto the

term containing second viral coefficient is called as truncated Virial
equation of state. See Virial equation of state.

T-s diagram: Same as temperature-entropy diagram. See temperature-

entropy diagram.

Tube layout in heat exchangers: Arrangement of tubes in the

tubesheet for a shell and tube heat exchanger. See clearance and tube
pitch.

Tube mill: Tube mill like a ball mill belongs to the class of tumbling
mills and used for the fine grinding of solid particles. A tube mill is
cylindrical in shape with length to diameter ratio of 3 to 5 [37]. Balls or
pebbles or both in different compartments may be used as the grinding
media. Owing to the longer residence time, it gives finer product than a
comparable ball mill. See ball mill.

Tube pitch: It is the shortest center-to-center distance between the two

adjacent tubes in a heat exchanger type equipment. Tubes are arranged
in triangular pitch, square pitch, rotated square pitch, or rotated
triangular pitch. Fig. T-12 shows various tube pitch arrangements.
Table T-2 gives a comparison of square and triangular pitches.

Tubular bowl centrifuge: A tubular bowl centrifuge is shown in Fig.

T-13. It consists of a long and narrow tubular bowl that rotates about its
vertical axis. The feed to the centrifuge is entered at the bottom and the

474
rotation of the bowl forms two layers of the liquid inside the bowl. If
solids are present, they will stick to the inner wall of the bowl and the
heavy liquid layer will be formed adjacent to the solids. The inner layer
(nearest to the axis) is the light liquid layer while the outer layer is the
heavy liquid layer. The light and heavy liquid layers are collected at
their respective outlets. No continuous system for the removal of solids
is designed and the solids may be obtained at the end of the operation.
This type of centrifuge is simple in construction, operation, and
maintenance, however, it gives low separation capacity. See disc bowl
centrifuge.

Fig. T-12 Various tube layouts: a) triangular pitch, b) square pitch,

c) rotated triangular pitch, d) rotated square pitch.

Tubular reactor: As a tubular reactor is frequently modeled as a plug

flow reactor, it is usually considered the same as the plug flow reactor.
See Fig. T-2. See also plug flow reactor and tank reactor.

Tumbler mixer: In a tumbler mixer, the charged material tumbles (falls

over and rolls) inside a rotating shell. Double cone mixer and V-mixer
are typical examples. See double cone mixer and V-mixer.

Tumbling mill: A size reduction mill in which the grinding medium

such as balls in a ball mill tumbles (falls over and rolls) inside the shell
of the mill. Ball mill and rod mill are typical examples. See ball mill
and rod mill.
475
 Table T-2 Comparison of square and triangular pitches
Square pitch
It offers lower pressure drop.
External tube cleaning is easier
therefore it can be used for
relatively dirty fluids in the shell.
Lower heat transfer coefficient
therefore it can be used for low
viscosity fluids with confidence.
It requires large diameter of the
shell therefore the exchanger is
costlier.
Triangular pitch
It offers higher pressure drop.
External tube cleaning is
relatively difficult therefore it
should be used for relatively
clean fluids in the shell.
Higher heat transfer coefficient
therefore it may be a good
choice for high viscosity fluids.
It requires smaller diameter
shell therefore the exchanger is
cheaper. It is therefore always
be preferred over the square
pitch unless conditions do not
permit its use.

Fig. T-13 Tubular bowl centrifuge.

Tuning of controllers: Tuning of a controller means adjusting the

controller parameters for the optimal control of a given process. For a
proportional-integral-derivative (PID) controller, it is the adjustment of
476
the values of proportional gain, integral time, and derivative time.
Complexity of control, offset (steady-state error), and quality of
oscillations (overshoot, decay ratio, etc.) are optimized for the best
control. See proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control action.

Tunnel dryer: The material to be dried is loaded on trays which are

arranged in trucks that move through the drying tunnel usually on
guided rails or roller conveyors. The tray trucks enter the one end of the
tunnel and after the desired amount of drying is achieved, leave at the
other end. Countercurrent or cocurrent heated air to the direction of the
movement of trucks is employed for the drying of the material. Unlike
tray or shelf dryer, tunnel dryer is a continuous dryer. See tray dryer.

Turbine: A turbine is a device that changes the energy of a flowing

fluid usually at high temperature and pressure to the form of energy
(work) that rotates the turbine shaft and produces useful work. Unlike
compressor, turbine produces the useful work. Depending on the
working fluid, turbine is either gas turbine (gas is the working fluid) or
steam turbine (steam is the working fluid).

Turbine impeller: The impeller is used with agitated vessels and is

probably the most commonly employed mixing impeller. Turbines
usually turn at high speeds. Open blade and disc blade turbines are the
two variations of turbine impellers where the turbine blades may be
pitched or flat. Pitched-blade turbines are normally used with 45°
pitched blades. Pitched blade turbine provides a mixed flow of both
radial and axial nature. Flat blade turbine impellers drive the liquid
radially outwards towards the wall of the container and may be
employed for the gas absorption operation. See Fig. M-7.

Turbine meter: A type of flowmeter in which a multibladed wheel

known as turbine or rotor is suspended parallel to the direction of flow.
The turbine is free to rotate by the flow of the fluid and the rotation of
the wheel is a measure of the fluid flowrate.

Turbine pump: Same as diffuser pump. See diffuser pump.

Turbo grid tray: A modified sieve tray with parallel slots (not circular
perforations) and operates in a countercurrent flow pattern without

477
downcomer.

Turbo shelf dryer: Also known as turbo tray dryer. The dryer consists
of rotating shelves and may be viewed as a modification of the common
shelf dryer. A series of doughnut shaped circular trays are attached to a
central rotating shaft. Feed is introduced to the top tray, moves from
tray to tray and discharged at the bottom of the dryer. Heating is
provided at the periphery of the tray column and a set of turbo fans
attached at the center are used to move the air through the dryer. See
tray dryer.

Turbo tray dryer: Same as turbo shelf dryer. See turbo shelf dryer.

Turbulence: Turbulence is caused by irregular, disordered, and chaotic

motion of a fluid in which one portion of the fluid is mixed with the
other portion of the fluid. Turbulence is a characteristic of turbulent
flow. See turbulent flow.

Turbulent boundary layer: Consider a horizontal flat plate placed

inside the body of a flowing fluid. When the fluid reaches the leading
edge of the plate, the boundary layer starts to develop. In the beginning,
the flow inside the boundary layer is laminar, however, further away
from the leading edge, boundary layer is fully developed. This fully
developed boundary layer is called as turbulent boundary layer. Not
only for the flat plate, the same is true for a flow inside a pipe, etc.
Turbulent boundary layer contains three separate zones that can be
distinguished as laminar sublayer or viscous sublayer, buffer layer, and
turbulent layer. On a flat plate, the critical Reynolds number for
transition form laminar to turbulent flow appears between 500,000 and
1,000,000, where Reynolds number is defined in terms of distance from
the leading edge (characteristic length). See Fig. T-14.

Turbulent flow: A type of flow in which the concept of fluid flowing

in parallel layers (a characteristic of laminar flow) is no more valid and
one portion of the fluid mixes up with the other portion of the fluid.
Flow behavior is disordered and chaotic in nature. Unlike laminar flow
which is dominated by viscous forces, inertial forces dominate and are
responsible to a much extent for the momentum transfer in turbulent
flow. This kind of flow is of extreme importance in process engineering

478
as it increases heat and mass transfer rates to a large extent. For the pipe
flow, flow is usually turbulent when the Reynolds number exceeds
4000, however, in few cases flow may still be laminar even above this
value. See Fig. T-15. See also laminar flow.

Fig. T-14 Turbulent boundary layer.

Fig. T-15 Comparison of turbulent and laminar flows: a) turbulent flow,

b) laminar flow.

Turbulent fluidized bed: A type of aggregative fluidized bed. Upon

increasing the superficial gas velocity beyond the bubbling or slugging
fluidization conditions, the fluidized bed appears to operate under
479
turbulent fluidized bed conditions. In turbulent fluidized bed conditions
the gas bubbles are constantly broken and formed and the solid
aggregates flow in an intense turbulent manner. See aggregative
fluidization and bubbling fluidization.

Turnaround: The period in which the process plant is remained shut

down and cleaning and maintenance of the process equipments are
carried out and new catalysts or adsorbents are loaded if required.
Turnaround is scheduled annually in most of the industries and it is
sometimes called as annual turnaround. Normally 15 to 20 days are
scheduled, however, it depends on the type of industry and sales
conditions. A smallest possible time is desired to avoid production loss
and to increase the number of stream days.

Turndown ratio: The ratio of the maximum value to the minimum

value of a measurement. When the measurement is capacity of a
process plant, it is the ratio of the maximum throughput (capacity) to
the minimum throughput. See throughput.

Twin shell mixer: Same as V-mixer. See V-mixer.

Two-arm kneader mixer: See Z blade mixer.

Two-film theory: Also called as two resistance theory and Whitman

theory. The theory explains the mechanism of interphase mass transfer.
It assumes that when two phases, gas and liquid phases (say), come into
contact with each other, two fluid films, the liquid film and the gas film,
are formed at each side of the interface as shown in Fig. T-16. There is
no convective transport and mass is only transferred by molecular
diffusion through these films. The interface is considered at equilibrium
offering no resistance and the two films are considered as the main
resistances to interphase mass transfer. Concentration gradients occur
only within these two films. Beyond the two layers, i.e., within the
bodies of the fluids, there is a well mixed condition and there are no
concentration gradients.

Two-fluid manometer: A two-fluid manometer is shown in Fig. T-17.

It is a variation of the simple U-tube manometer where instead of a
single fluid, two fluids are employed as the manometeric fluids. This

480
makes the device sensitive even to very small changes in pressures. See
U-tube manometer.

Liquid film
pA

pAi Main body of liquid

pAi (Turbulent flow)
Main body of gas
(Turbulent flow) CCAiAi

CA
Gas film

Interface (assume
equilibrium at interface)
Fig. T-16 Concept of two-film theory. Where, pA is bulk partial pressure
of component A in gas phase, CA is bulk concentration of A in liquid
phase, and the subscript i represents quantities at the interface.

Fig. T-17 Two-fluid manometer. Where, p1 and p2 are pressures at point

1 and point 2, respectively. Δh is the difference in heights of the
manometeric fluid-1 in the two legs.
481
Two-phase flow: The flow of fluids that comprises of two phases. It
may be liquid-liquid flow, liquid-solid flow, gas-liquid flow, or gas-
solid flow.

Two-resistance theory: Same as two-film theory. See two-film theory.

T-x-y diagram: Same as temperature-composition diagram. See

temperature-composition diagram.

Tyler standard screens: Tyler standard of screens is the US standard.

Screens upto 400 mesh are available [22]. It shares 200 mesh screen
with the US ASTM, i.e., 200 mesh screen [22] is the same in both
standards. See screen standards.

482
U
UFL: It stands for upper flammability limit. See upper flammability
limit.

UHT: It stands for ultrahigh temperature. See UHT treatment.

UHT treatment: It is ultrahigh temperature treatment, a heat treatment

process for milk. Milk is exposed to a high temperature in the range of
135150°C for a very short period of time of only few seconds (~ 25
s).

Ultimate analysis: The quantitative information of the elements present

in solid or liquid fuels. Carbon, hydrogen, sulfur, nitrogen, and ash are
usually reported while oxygen is calculated by difference. See
proximate analysis.

Ultrasonic flowmeter: An ultrasonic beam is projected to a flowing

fluid stream and the response to the injected pulse by the flowing fluid
is a measure of the flowrate.

Unary system: Unary system is a one component system. Applying

phase rule to a unary system, only two variables (say temperature and
pressure) are required to determine the condition of the system. As there
is one component so composition is fixed.

Unassociated gas: Natural gas that occurs alone and does not available
in solution or associated with oil or gas condensate. See associated gas.

Unavailable energy: The amount of energy that is lost during a process

and cannot be converted into useful work. See unavailability and
exergy.

Unavailability: The measure of the fraction of the heat energy that

cannot be converted into useful work. Entropy is a measure of
unavailability of useful work. See exergy.

Unbaffled tank: An agitated tank (vessel) without baffles. For low

483
viscosity liquids an unbaffled vessel gives rise to the vortex formation
and performs poorly. See Fig. U-1. See also baffles and baffled tank.

Fig. U-1 a) Unbaffled agitated vessel, b) baffled agitated vessel.

Unbound moisture: The term is used in unit operation of drying. These

are the moisture contents in excess of the equilibrium moisture contents
of a material present at 100% relative humidity of air at a given
temperature. These moisture contents exert the same vapor pressure as
that of the pure water at a given temperature. Fig. U-2 shows the
concept of unbound moisture contents. See bound moisture.

Underdamped response: The response of a second order control

system with damping coefficient (  ) as 0    1 and shows an
oscillatory response. Fig. U-3 shows the general underdamped response
of a second order control system for a step input in the set point. See
damping coefficient, overdamped response, and critically damped
response.

Underdamped system: A control system that is characterized by an

underdamped response. See overdamped response.

Underdesign: The design of a process equipment or plant below the

optimal design value is referred to as underdesign. See overdesign.

484
 Fig. U-2 Bound and unbound moisture contents.

Fig. U-3 General response for an underdamped second order system for
a step input in the set point.

Underfiring: The term is applied where insufficient heat is provided. It

is usually related to the operation of a furnace.

Undersize: The size of the solid particles less than the specified or
required size. See oversize.
485
Underwood equation: The equation is used for the calculations of the
minimum reflux ratio required in the operation of a distillation column.
It is a part of the Fenske-Underwood-Gilliland (FUG) short cut method
that is used in the design of a fractionating column for estimating the
number of stages required. Underwood equation is applied when the
relative volatilities are considered as constant. See Fenske-Underwood-
Gilliland short cut method.

Unidirectional flow: For unidirectional flow, the velocity of a fluid is

non-zero in one and only one direction. Therefore out of the three
velocity components, only one is non-zero.

UNIFAC method: UNIFAC stands for UNIQUAC functional-group

activity coefficients. It is a group contribution method that is used to
predict coefficients for UNIQUAC equation and to estimate the liquid
phase activity coefficients. It is a complicated method, but easy to use
with computers. See UNIQUAC model.

Uniflux tray: A type of tray that is used with distillation and absorption
tray towers.

Uniform flow: The flow of a fluid in which convective acceleration is

zero.

Uniform product: A product with little variation in the quality.

Union: Union is a type of pipe fitting which is employed to join two

separate pieces of a pipe. Unlike coupling, union has two parts, out of
which one is attached to the end of the first piece of pipe and the other
is attached to the end of the second piece of pipe. The two parts are
joined by a tightening ring or bonnet. Union is advantageous to be used
in situations where both pipes are fixed and no pipe movement is
available which is essential in the case of a coupling. A union is shown
in Fig. P-11. See coupling.

UNIQUAC model: It stands for universal quasi-chemical model and is

a widely applicable activity coefficient model that has two adjustable
parameters. See UNIFAC method.

486
Unit operations: In chemical and petrochemical industry, there are
various process steps that are integrated to perform the required task.
These steps are reactions as well as some physical operations such as
distillation, evaporation, drying, etc. Such physical operations in which
no chemical change occurs are termed as unit operations. Now the
principles, on which these operations are based, are independent of the
type of industry and one can study each of them as a separate entity
irrespective to the kind of industry in which it is employed and
therefore the term unit is justified to be used with such operations. See
unit processes.

Unit processes: Chemical engineering may broadly be divided into two

separate classes, namely, unit operations and unit processes. A unit
process involves a chemical change and it is essentially a single class of
chemical reactions. Examples are nitration, alkylation, sulfonation,
hydrogenation, and isomerization. See unit operations.

Univariant data: If an experiment is repeated and the data obtained in

the new run is the same as the data obtained in the previous run such a
data is termed univariant data.

Univariant system: A univariant system is the one that has number of

degrees of freedom equal to unity. If the value of a single variable (say
temperature or pressure) is required to completely define the state of a
system, then such a system is univariant.

Universal gas constant: Also called as ideal gas constant or simple gas
pV
constant. It is the ideal gas law constant and defined as the ratio ,
nT
where, p is absolute pressure, V is volume, T is absolute temperature,
and n is number of moles of a gas. It has different numerical values in
different sets of units. Table U-1 shows the commonly used values of
the universal gas constant.

Universal gas law: Same as ideal gas law. See ideal gas law.

Universal jaw crusher: A type of jaw crusher in which the moving jaw
is pivoted at the center. This is advantageous to have variable feed and
product openings. See Fig. U-4. See also jaw crusher, Blake jaw
487
crusher, and Dodge jaw crusher.

Table U-1 Values of gas constants in various units

Gas constant Volume Pressure Temperature Mole
8.31434 m3 Pa K gmol
3
0.0000831434 m bar K gmol
0.00831434 m3 kPa K gmol
0.082057 m3 atm K kmol
10.731 ft3 lbf/in2 °R lb-mol
0.7302 ft3 atm °R lb-mol
3
82.057 cm atm K gmol
Pressure × volume
(energy)
8.31434 J K gmol
0.00831434 kJ K gmol
1.9872 Btu °R lb-mol
1545.3 ftlbf °R lb-mol
1.9872 cal (thermochemical) K gmol

Fig. U-4 Universal jaw crusher.

Universal velocity distribution: Also known as universal velocity

profile. It is a correlation based on a large number of experimental data
and developed for the velocity (time averaged) measurement near the
wall. Universal velocity distribution is so named as for smooth pipes it
provides reasonably well agreement with experimental velocities over a
wide range of Reynolds numbers.

488
Universal velocity profile: Same as universal velocity distribution. See
universal velocity distribution.

Universe: In thermodynamics, it is the system and the surroundings

combined. See system and surroundings.

Unloading: The process of removing a deactivated catalyst from a

reactor vessel, i.e., unpacking the reactor vessel. The term may be used
in general for any kind of packing. See loading.

Unsheared flow: The velocity profile in a pipe for a Bingham fluid is

shown in Fig. U-5. The region from A to B is unsheared and moves like
a plug of fluid.

Fig. U-5 Unsheared flow.

Unsteady-state process: Also called as transient process and dynamic

process. Time dependent process is called as unsteady-state process.
Contrary to a steady-state process, for an unsteady-state or transient
process, the specified variable does not remain constant with time. For
such a process, the time rate of change of a quantity (temperature,
pressure, flowrate, etc.) is not zero. When the temperature of a water
bath varies with time it is an unsteady-state process. The concept of
unsteady-state behavior is important in startups, shutdowns, or any
period of disturbances in the processes. See steady-state process.

UOP: It stands for universal oil products.

UOP characterization factor: Also called as Watson characterization

factor or simply characterization factor. On the basis that the specific
gravity of a petroleum fraction is approximately proportional to the
cube roots of its true boiling point (molal average boiling point) at
atmospheric pressure, UOP characterization factor may be defined as
489
below:

3 TB
K
s

Where, K is the UOP characterization factor, TB is the true boiling

point (molal average boiling point) and s is the specific gravity. The
definition of characterization factor may vary from source to source,
and it is important to mention the reference when quoting the value of
the characterization factor. UOP characterization factor is additive on
weight basis.

Upper consolute temperature: Also called as upper critical solution

temperature. For a two liquid system, it is the maximum temperature
above which two liquids are miscible in all proportions and constitute
one liquid phase. It is thus the highest temperature at which the two
liquid phases coexist in equilibrium. On a mutual solubility diagram,
the maximum peak point on the equilibrium curve is the upper
consolute temperature. See lower consolute temperature. See Fig. C-16.
See also consolute temperature and lower consolute temperature.

Upper critical solution temperature: Same as upper consolute

temperature. See upper consolute temperature.

Upper explosive limit: Same as upper flammability limit. See upper

flammability limit.

Upper flammability limit (UFL): Also called as upper explosive limit.

It is the maximum concentration (upper limit) of a fuel in air above
which the fuel does not get burned. Unlike lower flammability limit, air
to fuel ratio is so low (highly rich solution) that there is insufficient
oxygen to support the combustion reaction. See flammability limits and
lower flammability limit.

Utilities: A process plant usually has a utility section that furnishes

plant facilities to run the plant. The utility section supplies cooling
water for the heat exchangers and reactors, steam for heating,
compressed gases such as air and nitrogen for purging, etc. and deals
with water treatment including waste water treatment, power
490
production, and more.

U-tube heat exchanger: A U-tube heat exchanger is so called as it

contains U-shaped tubes. Such an exchanger consists only of one tube
sheet and has low initial cost. The U-bend tubes are difficult to clean
and replace and therefore the exchanger is employed for clean fluids.
As one end of the U-tube bundle is not fixed and free to move in the
shell, this exchanger has no expansion problem and the tube bundle is
easy to drag out (pull through assembly) of the shell. See Fig. U-6. See
also fixed tubesheet heat exchanger.

Fig. U-6 U-tube shell and tube heat exchanger.

U-tube manometer: A U-tube manometer is a simple U-shaped

glass/plastic tube that is used for measuring small pressure differences
between upstream and downstream flows. The U-tube is partially filled
with a manometeric fluid (say mercury). The difference in the levels of
the manometeric fluid in the two legs of the manometer is a measure of
the differential pressure between the given (two) points. A U-tube
manometer can be employed for the measurement of gauge pressure
(difference between the pressure of a process fluid and the barometric
pressure) if one of the legs of the manometer is kept opened to the
atmosphere. See Fig. U-7. See also manometer.

491
 Constriction
causing pressure
drop
Fluid Fluid
flowing in flowing out

p1 > p2
Flexible Scale
tubing p2
p1

Glass U-tube
Manometeric
manometer
fluid

Fig. U-7 U-tube manometer. pi is pressure at ith position and Δh is the

difference in heights of the manometeric fluid in the two legs.

492
V
Vacant site: Also called as empty site. In studying a catalytic reaction
mechanism, a vacant site is the active site which is not occupied by
adsorbed species (inert or reactants). See occupied site.

Vacuum: Vacuum is the pressure value below the atmospheric pressure

(barometric pressure) and related to barometric pressure and absolute
pressure as

Vacuum  barometric pressure  absolute pressure

Maximum value of vacuum cannot be greater than 760 mmHg against a

standard atmospheric pressure. In many industrial installations, vacuum
is required in priming pumps, sterilizing food and pharmaceutical
technologies, packaging, distillation, evaporation, drying,
crystallization, etc. Steam ejectors and vacuum pumps are normally
employed to create vacuum in a given system. See absolute pressure
and gauge pressure.

Vacuum column: The separation column that operates under vacuum

conditions.

Vacuum crystallizer: In a vacuum crystallizer, the hot and saturated

feed solution is flashed into the crystallizer and adiabatically cooled to
the temperature of the boiling solution inside the crystallizer (at low
pressure) where it is evaporated and concentrated. Steam ejectors are
normally employed for the vacuum generation. The crystallizer can be
operated either continuously or batchwise. Continuous operation is
normally operated in multiple effects to enhance the steam economy.

Vacuum distillation: The distillation operation at a pressure below

atmospheric pressure is called as vacuum distillation. For the
components that require, under normal conditions (1.013 bar), high
boiling temperatures or the components that otherwise decompose
(cracked) at or near their boiling temperatures, vacuum distillation is
suitable which is helpful in reducing the distilling temperature of the
components.
493
Vacuum distillation unit (VDU): In a crude oil refinery, the
atmospheric distillation residue (heavy fractions) which is not possibly
or economically distilled in the atmospheric distillation column is sent
to the vacuum distillation tower for further fractionation. In the vacuum
distillation unit, various fractions are obtained at a reduced pressure.
Light and heavy vacuum gas oils and vacuum residue are the commonly
obtained fractions. See Fig. V-1.

Fig. V-1 Vacuum distillation unit.

Vacuum dryers: Shelf, rotary (cylindrical), and double cone rotating

dryers may be designed for vacuum operation. Application of the
vacuum facilitates the vapor to leave the solid material at higher rates
compared to the operation at normal pressure. This is usually required
when drying leads to some chemical changes in the solid product and
where product is heat sensitive and goes under decomposition or quality
issues upon exposure to high temperatures.

Vacuum filters: Filtration is a fluid flow phenomenon that requires

some driving force for fluid to flow through the filtering medium. This
driving force may be caused by gravity (gravity filters), positive
pressure (filter presses), or vacuum as in the case of vacuum filters.
Greater is the value of the vacuum greater will be the rate of filtration.
494
Most rotary drum vacuum filters operate on the principle of vacuum
filtration. See rotary drum vacuum filter.

Vacuum pump: The function of a vacuum pump is to receive the fluid

at a pressure less than the atmospheric pressure and to discharge it
against the atmospheric pressure (usually). Although a vacuum pump is
used with vapors and gases, but the term vacuum pump and not the
vacuum compressor is popular. Vacuum pumps are frequently required
in distillation, drying, and evaporation operations. Ejectors of various
types are used especially in large installations such as vacuum
distillation of atmospheric residua (plural for residue). Rotary,
diaphragm type, sliding vane, and liquid ring types are other examples
of vacuum pumps.

Vacuum residue: Also called vacuum residuum. The residue of the

atmospheric crude oil distillation column is charged to the vacuum
distillation column for further fractionation. The fraction that is unable
to be distilled and obtained as the bottom product in the vacuum
distillation column is known as vacuum residue. Vaccum residue is not
the end product and subjected to furher conversion and separation
processes to obtain the other valuable fractions. Generally, it is the
bottom product of any vacuum distillation column. See vacuum
distillation unit.

Vacuum residuum: Same as vacuum residue. See vacuum residue.

Valve: Valves are used to control the flow and pressure of a fluid.
However, valves are also used to reduce the temperature of the gaseous
streams. Valves are operated by placing a constriction in the flow of a
given fluid stream. There are many types of valves that are used in
industrial applications. Examples are gate valve, globe valve, and check
valve.

Valve characteristics: The fluid flowrate through a valve is a function

of valve opening. Valves, therefore, are designed to have different
relationship between valve opening and the percent flow through the
valve. Three such common valve characteristics are quick-opening,
linear, and equal percentage.

495
Valve tray: It is one of the three most common and basic tray types that
are used with tray towers. The other two are bubble cap trays and sieve
trays. A valve tray is a modification of the sieve tray with larger holes
that are fitted with some kind of constriction (valve). The hole size
usually ranges between 35–40 mm [3]. The modification improves the
turndown ratio and helps in improving weeping tendencies of a sieve
tray. The design of a valve tray is of proprietary nature and examples of
valve trays are Glitsch Ballast tray, Koch Flexitray, and Nutter Float
valve tray. See Fig. V-2. See also sieve tray and bubble cap tray.

Fig. V-2 a) Two types of valves for valve trays), b) a part of valve tray.

van der Waals adsorption: Same as physical adsorption. See physical

adsorption.

van der Waals equation of state: It is a cubic equation of state. The

equation is considered as a basis of many modern equations of state.
The use of this equation for the pvT calculations is not recommended in
most of the cases. More modern equations such as Soave-Redlich-
Kwong (SRK) and Peng-Robinson (PR) equations of state better
represent the pvT behavior of real systems.

van Laar equation: It is a well known two-parameter excess Gibbs

free energy equation that is widely employed to correlate activity
coefficients.

van Winkle correlation: An empirical correlation that is developed for

496
the estimation of the plate efficiency of a binary distillation tower.

Vane pump: Sliding vanes add energy to the fluid by the help of a rotor
and forced the fluid to exit at a higher pressure.

Vaned-disc impeller: A vaned-disc impeller is shown in Fig. V-3. The

impeller is commonly used with an agitated tank to disperse a gas in a
liquid to carry out the gas absorption operation.

Fig. V-3 Vaned-disc impeller.

van’t Hoff equation: It expresses variation of equilibrium constant for

a chemical reaction with reaction temperature utilizing enthalpy change
of the reaction.

Vapor: A vapor is a gaseous phase that can be isothermally compressed

to a liquid or solid phase, i.e., a vapor can be condensed to liquid or
desublime to solid if compressed at constant temperature. Sometimes
the term gas is differentiated from a vapor and only reserved for the
phase above critical temperature and below critical pressure as such a
phase cannot be isothermally compressed to liquid or desublimed to
solid. However, a gas phase is usually considered a general term that
includes the vapor. See gas. See also Fig. P-19.

Vapor binding: Same as vapor lock. See vapor lock.

Vapor compression: The mechanical compression of vapors is known

as vapor compression. It is frequently employed in refrigeration and
heat pump systems and in increasing the steam economy of an
evaporator. The vapor compression increases the pressure and
saturation temperature of the vapor.

Vapor compression refrigeration: A vapor compression refrigeration

is shown in Fig. V-4. It is the most widely used refrigeration cycle in
497
which a refrigerant is compressed, condensed, throttled, and vaporized.
An ideal vapor-compression refrigeration cycle consists of the
following four processes:

o Isentropic (reversible and adiabatic) compression in a compressor,

12
o Constant pressure heat removal, 23
o Isenthalpic expansion in a throttling valve (highly irreversible),
34
o Constant pressure heat addition (refrigeration effect), 41.

Fig. V-4 Vapor-compression refrigeration cycle.

Vapor lock: Also called as vapor binding. It is a severe kind of

cavitation in a pumping system. In a liquid pumping system, severe
bubble formation in the pump casing loses suction and stops the normal
flow of the liquid. As an example, in a gasoline engine bubbles may be
formed in the fuel pump or carburetor and this bubble formation stops
the normal flow of the fuel. This is called as vapor lock.

Vapor power cycle: A type of power cycle in which the working fluid
undergoes condensation (becomes liquid) and vaporization (becomes
vapor) in various processes that constitute the complete cycle. See
Rankine cycle.

Vapor pressure: In a vapor-liquid system at equilibrium, it is the

498
pressure exerted by the vapors on the surface of the liquid and it is the
pressure at which a pure component starts boiling for a given
temperature. For pure water at 100C, the vapor pressure is 1.013 bar.
Vapor pressure is a strong function of temperature and upon increasing
temperature vapor pressure is increased. The effect of temperature is
frequently reported by Antoine equation.

Vapor recompression: A method of increasing the economy of an

evaporator. The vapor generated in an evaporator is subjected to vapor
compression which increases the saturation temperature of the vapor so
that it can again be used as a heating source.

Vapor velocity: It is the ratio of the volumetric flowrate of the vapors

to the cross-sectional area considered or it is the ratio of the mass
velocity of the vapors to the density of the vapors. Normally the cross-
sectional area taken is the unobstructed (i.e., of empty vessel) cross-
sectional area and the vapor velocity is then the superficial vapor
velocity. The concept is frequently employed in the design and
operation of vapor-liquid equipments.

Vaporization: The process in which a liquid phase is transformed into

a vapor phase. Though the terms vaporization and evaporation may be
used interchangeably, however, if the vaporizing liquid is water, the
term evaporation may be employed. See evaporation.

Vaporizer: The term vaporizer is usually used for a heat exchanger

equipment in which heat energy is added to vaporize a pure component
from its liquid state to its vapor state. Evaporator, however, is different
as it boils off a solution of two or more components. There is, however,
another opinion by which when water is the solvent or the main
component to be vaporized, an evaporator is the required equipment
[50] and for a solvent other than water, a vaporizer is the equipment.
The two terms may be used interchangeably. See evaporator.

Vapor-liquid equilibria: It is plural for vapor-liquid equilibrium. See

vapor-liquid equilibrium.

Vapor-liquid equilibrium (VLE): The thermodynamic equilibrium

that is established between a vapor and the liquid in equilibrium with

499
the vapor. The knowledge of vapor-liquid equilibrium of a given system
is useful in the design of distillation and flash units. Vapor and liquid
phases are said to be in equilibrium if both the phases have the same
temperature and pressure and each component in both phases have the
same chemical potential. See Fig. P-19, Fig. S-1, and Fig. T-3.

Vapor-liquid separator: A gravity separator vessel in which vapor and

liquid phases are separated. The vapor-liquid feed mixture enters the
vessel and strikes against the impingement baffle that decreases the
momentum of the incoming stream. The vapors move upwards and
leave at the top while liquid flows downwards and leaves at the bottom.
A demister pad is placed near the vapor outlet in order to reduce
entrainment of the liquid droplets in the exit vapor phase. See Fig. V-5.
See also knockout drum.

Fig. V-5 Vapor-liquid separator.

Vapor-liquid-liquid-equilibrium (VLLE): The equilibrium

established between the two liquid phases and the vapor phase is called
as vapor-liquid-liquid-equilibrium. The liquid phases may be partially
miscible or practically immiscible.

Variable area meters: Flow measuring devices in which area for flow
changes with the flow of the fluid and a constant pressure drop is
maintained. Rotameter is a typical example of such types of meters. See
500
head meters.

VDU: It stands for vacuum distillation unit. See vacuum distillation

unit.

Vegetable refining: A series of separation and conversion processes in

which a vegetable oil is purified and prepared for the market.

Velocity gradient: Also called as shear rate. It is the change in velocity

between two fluid layers at points of infinitely short distance. It is the
driving force for molecular momentum transfer. See Newton’s law of
viscosity.

Velocity head: Also called as kinetic head. Kinetic energy per unit
weight of a fluid is called as velocity head. See head.

Velocity meters: In velocity meters, a rotor or impeller is the primary

element that measures the flowrate of a fluid. The impeller rotates with
the flow of the fluid. Greater is the flowrate (or velocity) of the fluid
greater will be the rotation of the impeller. This rotation as a function of
fluid velocity is a measure of the flowrate of the fluid. A magnetic
device is installed which measures the rotation of the impeller and
therefore the flowrate. Turbine meter is an example of velocity meters.

Velocity profile: It is the variation in velocity (velocity distribution)

with respect to distance normal to the direction of flow. For a
Newtonian fluid, the velocity profile in a circular pipe under the fully
developed laminar flow conditions is parabolic in shape. See Fig. T-15.

Vena contracta: When a fluid flows through an orifice, the fluid jet
forms a minimum cross-sectional area downstream the orifice. This
point of minimum cross-sectional area is known as vena contracta. At
the vena contracta, the fluid jet has the maximum velocity and the
lowest static pressure energy. See Fig. O-3.

Vent: An opening for the vapors or gases to leave into the atmosphere.
This is required especially to avoid the accumulation of vapors or gases
in a confined space. The confined vapors and gases may cause fire or
explosion. At a large scale, for hazardous vapors and gases, it is

501
recommended that they must be vented to the flare for incineration.

Venturi meter: A Venturi meter is shown in Fig. V-6. It is a type of

head flowmeter that consists of a converging fluid section and a
diverging fluid section. The two sections meet at the throat of the meter.
The vena contracta is said to be formed at the throat of the Venturi
meter, so the coefficient of contraction is unity. The pressure drop
between an upstream point and throat of the Venturi meter is a measure
of the flowrate of a given flow stream. The diverging cone helps in
smooth transformation of kinetic energy of the fluid to static pressure
energy. Therefore, unlike orifice meter, energy recovery is higher, but
at the cost of more complicated and expensive design. Venturi meter
has therefore a very high discharge coefficient (about 0.98) which is
much higher than a corresponding orifice meter. However, it is more
costly compared to orifice meter and requires a relatively large space
for the installation and a pipe section has to be cut off to fit the Venturi
meter. See orifice meter and head meters.

Fig. V-6 Venturi meter.

Venturi scrubber: When required for gas absorption, the liquid is

dispersed in the continuous gas phase and the mass transfers from the
gas phase to the liquid phase. However, it is preferred when gas
contains solid particles. In the case of gas containing tiny solid particles
(gas cleaning), the solid particles are entrained in the liquid and washed
away to clean the gas. High efficiencies are possible and low pressure
drop for the gas phase is resulted, however, as the liquid is sprayed from
the nozzles liquid side pressure drop is usually higher. See Fig. V-7. See
also absorber.

502
 Fig. V-7 Venturi scrubber.

Vertical screw mixer: It is a solid-solid blending device that is used for

the mixing of free flowing solids. In a typical design, it consists of a
stationary conical vessel fitted with a rotating screw. The screw device
not only rotates at its axis, but it also orbits along the periphery of the
vessel. The rotating screw lifts the solid particles and drops them from
the top under the influence of gravity. See Fig. V-8.

Vertical tube evaporator: See short tube vertical evaporator and long
tube vertical evaporator.

VGC: It stands for viscosity gravity constant. See viscosity gravity

constant.

VI: It stands for viscosity index. See viscosity index.

Vibrating screens: Vibrating screens are flat screen surfaces and

503
consist of single or more screen decks which vibrate to separate
different sizes of the solid particles.

Fig. V-8 Vertical screw mixer: a) orbiting screw, b) center screw.

View factor: Also called as angle factor, configuration factor,

geometric factor, and shape factor. It is defined as the fraction of
radiation energy leaving a surface A that is intercepted by surface B. It
is therefore the ratio of the part of the radiation energy leaving surface A
that is directly received by surface B to the total radiation energy
leaving surface A. View factors do not depend upon the temperature and
properties of the surfaces, however, they depend upon the orientation of
surfaces relative to each other. View factors are used in radiation heat
transfer calculations to account for the shapes and relative orientation of
the objects emitting and receiving the radiation energy.

Virial coefficients: The coefficients of Virial equation of state. See

Virial equation.

Virial equation of state: A thermodynamic equation of state written in

a power series of reciprocal of molar volume or pressure. It is used for
the gaseous phases only.

504
Visbreaking: It is a mild thermal cracking process subjected to
atmospheric and vacuum residues. The product obtained (the cracked
material) has a lower viscosity than the feed material.

Viscoelastic fluids: A class of non-Newtonian fluids that has viscous as

well as elastic properties. Viscoelastic fluids are time dependent non-
Newtonian fluids and examples may include some polymer melts.

Viscosity: Same as dynamic viscosity. See dynamic viscosity.

Viscosity index (VI): An empirical method that suggests the variation

in viscosity of a fluid (normally lubricating oil) with variation in
temperature. A low viscosity index indicates a relatively large change in
viscosity with temperature.

Viscosity-gravity constant (VGC): The constant (utilizing the specific

gravity and kinematic viscosity) is used to characterize a crude oil.
Paraffinic crudes have lower viscosity-gravity constant while
naphthenic crudes have higher viscosity-gravity constant.

Viscous flow: Laminar flow is also called as viscous flow. See laminar
flow.

Viscous sublayer: Same as laminar sublayer. See laminar sublayer.

VLE: It stands for vapor-liquid equilibrium. See vapor-liquid

equilibrium.

VLLE: It stands for vapor-liquid-liquid equilibrium. See vapor-liquid-

liquid equilibrium.

V-mixer: Also called as twin shell mixer. A batch type solid-solid

mixing device in which two separate cylinders are joined in such a
fashion so that a V-shaped is formed as shown in Fig. V-9. The solid
particles are charged to the V-shell and the mixer is closed. The V-
shaped container is supported on a horizontal shaft which tumbles the
mixing vessel to obtain the desired degree of mixing. It is used for the
mixing of free flowing solids.

505
 Fig. V-9 V-mixer.

V-notch: A weir, a flow measuring device for the flow of a liquid in

open channels, may be designed with various kinds of notches. V-notch
as shown in Fig. W-3 is one such type of notches. See triangular weir.

VOCs: It stands for volatile organic compounds. See volatile organic

compounds.

Void fraction: Same as voidage. See voidage.

Voidage: Also called fractional voidage, void fraction, and porosity. It

may be defined for a bed of solid particles (bed voidage or interparticle
voidage) or for a porous material (particle voidage or intraparticle
voidage). For a bed of solid particles, it is the fraction of the volume not
occupied by the particles.

volume of bed  volume of particles

Fractional voidage 
volume of bed

For a porous material, it is the fraction of void spaces within a porous

material, i.e., the volume of pores in a material divided by the total bulk
volume of the material. As voidage is a ratio of volumes it is
dimensionless. Generally, an increase in the fractional voidage causes a
decrease in the pressure drop for the fluid flowing through a bed of
506
particles. It is one of the major parameters to be considered in the
design of packed beds and packed columns.

Volatile organic compounds (VOCs): Carbon containing compounds

that have tendency to readily vaporize into atmosphere under ordinary
conditions. These compounds may cause smog formation and frequent
exposure to VOCs may cause health issues.

Volatility: It is the tendency of a liquid to vaporize and may be

expressed in the form of K-value. It may, therefore, be defined as the
ratio of the mole fraction of component A in the vapor phase to the mole
fraction of component A in the liquid phase in equilibrium with the
vapor phase.

yA
Volatility of A 
xA

Where, p A is partial pressure of component A in vapor phase while

x A is mole fraction of component A in liquid phase in equilibrium with
the vapor phase. See K-value and relative volatility.

Volume average boiling point (VABP): Usually defined for a mixture

of hydrocarbons (petroleum fractions), it is the sum of the product of
volume fraction and boiling temperature of each fraction.

in
VABP   vi  Tbi
i 1

Where, VABP is volume average boiling point, v i and Tbi are the volume
fraction and boiling point of ith fraction. For an ASTM distillation data,
VABP can be given by:

T10  T30  T50  T70  T90

VABP 
5

Where, T10, T30, T50, T70, and T90 are temperatures corresponding to
10%, 30%, 50%, 70%, and 90% (in volume), respectively of the ASTM
distillation data. See average boiling point.
507
Volume expansivity: Also called coefficient of volume expansion. It is
defined as the ratio of change in volume of a material with a differential
change in temperature (rate of change of volume with respect to
temperature) per unit volume at constant pressure.

1  V 
  
V  T  p

Where,  is the isothermal compressibility and p, V, and T are

pressure, volume, and temperature, respectively. The divider V is used
for  to be independent of volume. The SI units of  are K1. See
isothermal compressibility.

Volume fraction: The ratio of the volume of a component to the total

volume of the mixture is the volume fraction of the component in the
mixture. Thus for component A in the mixture:

volume of component A
Volume fraction of A 
total volume of the mixture

Sum of the volume fractions of all the components in a mixture is equal

to unity.

Volume mean diameter: For a collection of particles (powder), it is the

diameter of a sphere the volume of which when multiplied by total
number of particles results in equal to the total volume of all the
particles in the collection [8].

Volume percent: The volume of a component present in 100 units of

volume of a mixture of components. Thus for component A in the
mixture:

volume of component A
Volume percent of A   100
total volume of the mixture

See volume fraction.

Volume-surface mean diameter: Also called as Sauter mean diameter.

508
See Sauter mean diameter.

Volumetric efficiency: It describes the throughput of a compressor

relative to its design throughput. It is defined as the ratio of the actual
volume of a gas drawn by the compressor to the actual capacity of the
compressor (displacement volume or swept volume). The volume of the
gas is measured at some reference conditions.

Volute: The discharge section of a centrifugal pump or centrifugal

compressor which enables the pump or compressor to convert, at the
expense of low energy losses, kinetic energy into pressure energy of a
fluid. See volute pump.

Volute pump: The presence of a volute casing enables the pump to

recover most of the kinetic energy into pressure energy of the liquid.
See Fig. V-10. See also volute.

Fig. V-10 Volute centrifugal pump.

von Kármán equation: The equation is used for estimating the friction
factor in hydraulically smooth tubes and pipes.

von Kármán number: It is a product of Reynolds number and square

root of the Fanning friction factor.

Vortex breaker: In vessels such as phase separators, vortex breakers

are installed at the liquid outlet especially at low liquid rates to avoid
vortex formation. In a gas-liquid system, vortex formation may cause
509
the gas phase to entrain into the liquid which may result in cavitaion of
the pump, loss in efficiency of the separator, loss in flow of the gas
phase, etc. Flat plates, crosses, radial vanes, and other designs may be
employed as probable vortex breaker designs. See vortex formation.

Vortex formation: Vortex formation appears in agitated and mixing

tanks, gas-liquid separators, and surge tanks. In vortex formation, the
swirling of a liquid is accompanied by the surface of the liquid dipped
in. In an unbaffled tank when the impeller speed increases the vortex
begins to form. Moreover, it forms when the liquid discharges from the
bottom, side or, top of a liquid vessel. In agitated vessels, vortex
formation causes poor mixing and gas entraining near the impeller. In
vessels such as phase separators, it leads to gas entrainment in the liquid
leaving the vessel that may lead to poor separation efficiency, cavitation
in the downstream pumping system, false reading of the liquid quantity
(level), and vibrations in a piping system due to gas-liquid (two-phase)
flow. Vortex formation in agitated tanks can be avoided by using
baffles or by changing the orientation of the agitator such as using an
off centered, inclined, or side entering agitator shaft. See Fig. V-11. In
the case of vessels, avoiding tangential inlets and using vortex breakers
may reduce the formation of vortex. See vortex breaker.

Fig. V-11 a) Vortex formation, b) off centered agitator, c) inclined

agitator, d) side entering agitator, e) baffled tank.

510
W
WABP: It stands for weight average boiling point. See weight average
boiling point.

Wake formation: See boundary layer separation. See also Fig. B-13.

Wall turbulence: Turbulence (characteristic of turbulent flow) may be

caused by the contact of a flowing fluid stream with a solid wall. The
wall shear effects hinder the flow of a fluid and at high Reynolds
number instabilities in the fluid body give rise to the turbulent flow.
This type of turbulence is called as wall turbulence. It is therefore
caused when the fluid flows through conduits or open channels or flows
past solid surfaces. See free turbulence.

Wall wiper: In relatively small diameter packed columns, a special

type of liquid redistributor called as wall wiper is used to direct the
liquid, flowing near the wall, to the main body of the packing. Rosette
wall wiper is a typical example. Fig. W-1 shows the concept of the use
of wall wipers.

Fig. W-1 Concept of wall wiper.

Washing: It is the extraction of one or more target components from a

liquid phase (liquid-liquid extraction) or a solid phase (leaching) with
511
the help of water. In filtration, filter cake is washed to recover one or
more valuable components which otherwise would run with the cake.

Washing table: Same as shaking table. See shaking table.

Waste heat boiler: Waste heat boiler is a heat exchanger that is

employed to generate steam from the excess or waste heat produced in a
process. In the production of synthesis gas by steam reforming of
natural gas, large amount of heat is available in the secondary reformer
due to exothermic nature of the chemical reactions involved. This heat
energy is used to produce high pressure steam in the associated waste
heat boiler.

Water cooling: In industrial practice, a large quantity of cooling water

is used in coolers, condensers, and reactors in order to remove heat
energy from the process streams. During the heat removal process, this
water becomes hot and cannot be used again for the cooling duty. A
large amount of fresh and treated water is then required. Moreover, the
hot water disposal is a problem. In order to solve these problems, the
hot water is sent to a cooling system such as cooling tower to decrease
its temperature. This process of cooling the hot water is called as water
cooling. See cooling water and cooling water tower.

Water cooling tower: Same as cooling water tower. See cooling water
tower.

Water drawoff boot: Also known as simply boot. Fig. W-2 shows the
concept of the water drawoff boot. In the usual hydrocarbon gas-liquid
separators where water is present along with hydrocarbons and is
undesirable in further processing of the hydrocarbons, a relatively small
vertical extension (vessel) to the horizontal phase separator vessel is
installed. This extended vessel is used as an accumulator for water and
frequently called as water drawoff boot or simply boot. Water in the
boot settles due to gravity and viscosity of the hydrocarbons plays an
important role.

Water equivalent: In measuring heat of combustion (calorific value) of

a fuel, in a calorimeter, the total heat produced is transferred to a known
mass of water. The rise in temperature of water is measured and hence

512
the calorific value is measured. However, not only the temperature of
water, but the temperature of the associated parts of the calorimeter in
contact with the water is also increased. The heat utilized in raising the
temperature of these parts expressed in terms of water is calculated
which is known as water equivalent.

Fig. W-2 Water drawoff boot.

Water hammer: Also called as hydraulic hammer. When flow of a

liquid in a pipeline is suddenly reduced, a hammering sound is the result
and known as the so called water hammering. Although the term is used
in general for all liquids, however, it is named because the characteristic
sound is produced when a valve is shut off suddenly with water as the
flowing stream. During water hammering, large forces may result
(caused by the rate of change of momentum of a liquid stream due to
rapidly closing a valve, etc.) which may cause damage to the
installation. Water hammer can be avoided by slowly closing the valve,
by using relief valves or by the use of surge chambers.

Water softening: The process of producing soft water. The heavy ions
of calcium and magnesium are exchanged with lighter sodium ions. See
zeolite softening, hard water, and soft water.

Water tube boiler: In water tube boilers, the feed water is inside the
boiler tubes and the hot gases (that heat the boiler feed water) surround
the tubes. See Fig. F-8. See also boiler and fire tube boiler.

Watson characterization factor: Same as UOP characterization factor.

513
See UOP characterization factor.

Watson equation: An empirical and reliable equation which is used for

the prediction of enthalpy of vaporization (latent heat of vaporization)
of a pure component at a given temperature. The use of the equation
requires one value of the latent heat of vaporization at a temperature
other than the temperature of interest. Latent heat of vaporization at
normal boiling point is most commonly available and can be applied
with the Watson equation. See latent heat of vaporization.

Wavy flow: Also called as stratified wavy flow. In a two-phase gas

liquid flow in a horizontal pipe, at low gas and liquid flows the two
phases flow in horizontal distinct and separate layers and the flow is
called as stratified flow or smooth stratified flow. However, upon
increasing the gas velocity, the drag force caused by the gas flow upon
the liquid surface is increased and the flow is disturbed and becomes
wavy as shown in Fig. S-18. This type of flow is called as wavy or
stratified wavy flow.

Weber number: A dimensionless number that is the ratio of the inertial

forces to the surface forces. It is important in two-phase dispersions. It
is denoted by We.

Weeping: In a tray tower, for low gas or vapor velocity not all of the
liquid reaches the downcomer, but some of the liquid falls through the
plate holes (in countercurrent to the gas or vapor flow). Under these
conditions, the tray is said to be weeping. Weeping reduces the
efficiency of the column because not all of the liquid flow across the
tray to reach to the downcomer. Instead of complete cross flow, cross
flow coupled with counter flow is the achieved. The problem of
weeping is mainly associated with the sieve tray towers. See Fig. T-10.

Weight average boiling point (WABP): It is the average boiling point

of a mixture usually a petroleum fraction based on mass fraction of the
each liquid fraction. It is defined by the following expression:

i n
WABP   ( wi  TBi )
i 1

514
 Where, wi is weight fraction of ith fraction and TBi is boiling point
of ith weight fraction. See average boiling point.

Weight fraction: Also called as mass fraction. It is the ratio of the

weight (mass) of a component to the total weight (mass) of the mixture
of components. It is a dimensionless quantity. The sum of the weight
fractions of all of the components present in a mixture is unity.

Weight hourly space velocity (WHSV): The term is frequently used in

heterogeneous reactor technology and it is defined as the ratio of mass
of the feed per hour to the mass of the catalyst. Its units are h1.

mass of the feed per hour

WHSV 
mass of the catalyst

See space velocity.

Weight percent: Also called as mass percent. The weight (mass) of a

component present in 100 units of weight (mass) of the mixture of
components. Thus, for component A in the mixture

mass of component A
Weight percent of A   100
total mass of the mixture

See weight fraction.

Weir: Weirs are used for the measurement of liquid flowrate in open
channels. Weirs with rectangular, triangular, trapezoidal, and other
shapes of notches are available. However, weirs with rectangular and
triangular notches are common. Various types of weirs are shown in
Fig. W-3.
In tray towers, weirs are employed to maintain the required liquid
depth on a tray. Rectangular weirs are normally used with tray towers.
Both inlet and outlet weirs may be employed. Inlet weirs are used for a
more positive liquid seal. They are normally used with circular
downcomers and with segmental donwcomers they are usually not
recommended. A high weir may increase the separation efficiency,
however, it causes greater pressure drop. This is because a high weir
515
produces a greater depth of liquid pool on the tray deck. See Fig. C-10,
Fig. P-9, and Fig. S-6.

Fig. W-3 Various types of weirs for flow measurement: a) rectangular

weir, b) triangular or V-notch weir, c) Cipolletti (trapezoidal weir).

Weir head: The height of the liquid flows over the weir is called as
weir head. The measurement of the weir head is proportional to the
liquid flowrate. See Fig. W-4. See also weir.

Fig. W-4 The concept of weir head.

Well mixed: A well mixed system has the same composition

throughout. See well mixed reactor.

Well mixed reactor: A continuous stirred tank reactor (CSTR) is also

known as well mixed reactor as the contents of a CSTR have nearly
constant composition throughout. See continuous stirred tank reactor.
See also Fig. T-2.

Well type manometer: A well type manometer is shown in Fig. W-5.

In this type of manometer, one of the legs of the manometer is a large
cross-sectional area reservoir known as the well. This makes the relative
vertical displacement of the manometeric fluid in the well as negligible
compared to its vertical displacement in the other leg and suggests
measuring the reading only in one leg and does not require measuring
516
the difference in the two liquid levels. See manometer and U-tube
manometer.

Fig. W-5 Well type manometer.

Wet basis: The basis of analysis of materials such as fuels and

combustion products that includes water contents. It is different from
dry basis in which water contents are not included. See dry basis.

Wet bulb approach: It is defined as the temperature difference

between the water leaving the cooling tower and the wet bulb
temperature of the incoming air. Theoretically possible, a cooling tower
can only cool the incoming water upto the wet bulb temperature of the
entering air. See wet bulb temperature and approach.

Wet bulb depression: It is the difference between the dry bulb

temperature and the wet bulb temperature. See dry bulb temperature and
wet bulb temperature.

Wet bulb temperature: It is the steady-state non-equilibrium

temperature that is attained when a small quantity of liquid is in contact
with a large stream of a gas (for which the wet bulb temperature is to be
517
measured) under adiabatic conditions and the temperature and humidity
of the gas remained unaltered. It is different from adiabatic saturation
temperature in which temperature and humidity of the gas is changed.
For air-water system, however, the value of wet bulb temperature is
equal to the adiabatic saturation temperature. In measuring wet bulb
temperature of air, every effort is made to reduce the contribution of
radiation heat transfer and to make the measurement a sole function of
convective heat transfer. This is usually done by increasing the velocity
of air either by a fan or by swirling the wet bulb thermometer itself. The
wet bulb temperature is always less than the dry bulb temperature
except when the gas for which wet bulb temperature is to be measured
is already saturated. Wet bulb temperature of air is a measure of the
humidity of air and depends only on temperature and humidity of air. If
dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures of air are known, the humidity of
air may be calculated from the humidity chart. See dry bulb temperature
and humidity chart.

Wet gas: Wet gas is a natural gas that contains appreciable amounts of
higher hydrocarbons associated with it. However, any gas that contains
appreciable amounts of water vapors associated with it may be termed
as wet gas.

Wet grinding: Grinding of a solid material while keeping the material

wet is called as wet grinding. Wet grinding has some advantages over
dry grinding, such as less power usage, increased plant capacity, and
avoidance of dust loss. However, cost of drying the material and the
caking of the material along with the increased wear and corrosion of
the equipment are some of the disadvantages. See dry grinding.

Wet screening: In wet screening, water is employed during the

screening of the solid particles. It is carried out to wash away the fine
particles through the screen apertures. Moreover, there are few chances
for the fine particles to adhere to the surface of the bigger particles.
However, wet screening discourages the use of steel wire cloths which
are cheaper than stainless steel cloths and extra cost of drying may also
be expended. See screening.

Wet steam: For a wet vapor, when the vapor is a water vapor, it is the
wet steam. Therefore, wet steam is a mixture of saturated steam and

518
saturated water. Wet steam when heated at constant pressure becomes
dry saturated steam, while at constant pressure cooling it becomes all
saturated liquid water with no vapors. See wet vapor and dryness
fraction or quality.

Wet test meter: It is a type of flow measuring device that is used for
the measurement of gas flowrate. It is called wet test because the
incoming gas passes through the water contained in the body of the
meter.

Wet vapor: The mixture of saturated vapor and saturated liquid is

called as wet vapor. A wet vapor upon heating at constant pressure
becomes dry saturated vapor while at constant pressure cooling it
becomes all saturated liquid. See dryness fraction or quality.

Wetness fraction: It is defined as the ratio of the mass of saturated

liquid to the total mass of wet vapor (mixture of saturated liquid and
saturated vapor). See dryness fraction or quality.

Wetness fraction  1  dryness fraction

Wetted perimeter: The periphery of a pipe or channel that a fluid wets

(contacts), i.e., it is the total length of the border of a conduit to which a
fluid contacts. For a circular pipe, the wetted perimeter is   d , where
d is the diameter of the pipe. See hydraulic mean diameter and
hydraulic mean radius.

Wetted wall column: It is a gas-liquid mass transfer equipment that

falls in the category of liquid dispersed equipments. It consists of a
vertical tube (column) in which the gas moves upward through the
column while the liquid is allowed to fall under the influence of gravity
in such a way that the liquid evenly wets the inner surface of the
column and a thin film of liquid is formed on the inner wall surface of
the column. Wetted wall column is used for the experimental mass
transfer studies as the interfacial surface may be easy to control and
measure. It provides low gas pressure drop and offers low mass transfer
efficiencies. Due to poor mass transfer efficiency, it is seldom used for
industrial gas absorption applications. However, as heat removal is easy
it may be a good choice with absorption-reaction systems that are
519
characterized by highly exothermic heat of reaction. See Fig. W-6. See
also gas absorption and absorber.

Fig. W-6 Wetted wall column.

Weymouth formula: The empirical formula is applied in the

calculations regarding compressible fluid pipelines. It may be used in
estimating the pressure drop and pipe diameter required for the
transmission line of a gas. See Panhandle formula.

Whitman theory: Same as two-film theory. See two-film theory.

WHSV: It stands for weight hourly space velocity. See weight hourly
space velocity.

Wick vaporizing burner: A liquid fuel burner that makes use of a

wick, which soaks itself (by capillary action) with the fuel present in the
reservoir of a lamp or stove. Such type of burner is employed in
household lamps and stoves.

520
Wiedemann, Franz, Lorenz law: It gives a relationship between
thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of a substance. The law
states that the ratio of the thermal conductivity of a substance to the
product of electrical conductivity of the substance and absolute
temperature is a constant quantity. The constant quantity is often called
as Lorenz number.

Wien’s displacement law: For a black body, at a specific temperature,

monochromatic radiation intensity increases with increasing wavelength
until a wavelength called as maximum wavelength or peak wavelength
is reached where the intensity is maximum, after which it decreases
with wavelength. For a range of temperatures, this peak wavelength is
inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Greater is the
temperature lower will be the peak wavelength.

Wilke and Chang correlation: An empirical relationship that is used

to estimate the binary liquid diffusion (diffusion coefficient) of solute A
in liquid B. See diffusion coefficient.

Wilke’s formula: A reliable semi-empirical formula that is used to

estimate the viscosity of a mixture of gases.

Wind energy: The kinetic energy of the wind can be utilized and can
adequately be converted to useful energy (say electricity). This kinetic
energy of the wind is termed as wind energy. See wind turbine.

Wind sock: A kind of stitched cloth on a raised pole that indicates the
direction of wind. See Fig. W-7.

Fig. W-7 Wind sock.

521
Wind turbine: The kinetic energy of the wind (wind energy) can be
exploited and can be used for the production of electricity. Wind turbine
may be employed for such kind of energy conversion. See wind energy.

Windage losses: Same as drift losses. See drift losses.

Wiped film evaporator: Same as agitated film evaporator. See agitated

film evaporator.

Wire mesh packings: These packings are made of wire mesh or wire
gauze and used with packed columns. Both random and structured wire
mesh packings are available.

Wobbe index: It is the ratio of the calorific value of a fuel gas to the
square root of its specific gravity.

calorific value
Wobbe index 
specific gravity

The concept of Wobbe index is important as the energy contained in a

fuel gas is directly related to its calorific value and inversely
proportional to the square root of the specific gravity when issues
through an orifice (burner). Two gases having the same Wobbe number
may be used with the same burner. A typical natural gas may have
Wobbe index of 50 MJ/m3 under ordinary temperature and pressure
conditions.

Wood grids: A type of grid packing that is used in conditions where

relatively large voids are required. Wood grids are inexpensive and
commonly used in cooling towers. They are helpful to use with liquids
or gases having solid particles. See grids.

Work: Work is said to be done if a force acts on a body through some

distance. It is said to be done when energy transfers from on point to the
other without temperature difference between the two points. Like heat
energy, work is a path function and cannot be stored in a body. There is
no point saying work at a point or work difference between two points.
It is just a carrier of energy and transfers energy from one point to the
other. Compared to heat energy, it is of higher quality energy (or useful
522
energy) and it can 100 percent be converted to other forms of energies.
Table W-1 below shows a brief comparison between work and heat.

Table W-1 Comparison of work and heat

Work
Energy in transit and cannot be
stored or possessed by a body.
Work requires no temperature
difference for energy transfer.
It is higher quality energy (or
useful energy) and can 100% be
converted to other forms of
energies.
Heat
Energy in transit and cannot be
stored or possessed by a body.
Heat can transfer energy only
when there is a temperature
difference.
It is low grade energy and cannot
be converted 100% to any other
form of energy.

Work function: Helmholtz free energy is sometimes called as work

function. See Helmholtz free energy.

Work index: Also called as energy index. It is defined as the energy

required to crush a very large feed size to such a product size that 80%
of the product passes through a 100 micron sieve. Work index of a
typical coal is 13.0 while of a typical graphite is 43.56 [37].

Working fluid: A working fluid exchanges heat and work with the
surroundings. The refrigerant in a refrigeration system, water (steam) in
a steam power plant, and combustion products in a gas power cycle are
key examples of working fluids.

Working pressure: It usually represents the maximum safe pressure

for which the equipment is designed.

Working temperature: It usually represents the maximum safe

temperature for which the equipment is designed.

Wye fitting: Also known as Y fitting. The name of the fitting comes
from its shape resembling to the letter “Y”. Unlike the tee fitting, the
wye fitting connects a branch pipe to the main pipe at an angle different
than 90, usually 45. Fig. P-11 shows the wye fitting. See tee fitting.

523
Wye strainer: Also known as Y strainer. Wye strainer has taken its
name from its configuration as shown in Fig. W-8. It is used to sieve a
gas or liquid stream that is expected to possess some solid particles. It is
used before a pumping equipment or at a sampling port. It is suggested
for services where infrequent cleaning is required.

Fig. W-8 Wye strainer.

Wye valve: Also known as Y valve. The name of the valve comes from
its shape resembling to the letter “Y”. Wye valve is similar to the globe
valve, but with the stem inclined at some angle as shown in Fig. W-9.
The wye shape offers a bit straighter path to the fluid flowing through
the valve and therefore less frictional loss (pressure energy loss) across
the valve. See globe valve.

Fig. W-9 Wye valve.

524
X
XANES: It stands for x-ray absorption near edge spectroscopy.

XAS: It stands for x-ray absorption spectroscopy. See x-ray absorption

spectroscopy.

XPS: It stands for x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. See x-ray

photoelectron spectroscopy.

X-ray absorption spectroscopy: A material (catalyst) characterizing

technique for obtaining the infromation on elements present in the
material.

X-ray diffraction (XRD): An analytical technique that is employed to

identify crystal structures.

X-ray fluorescence (XRF) spectrometry: An analytical technique

useful for elemental analysis for a broad range of materials.

X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS): An analytical technique

that is normally applied for the qualitative surface analysis.

XRD: It stands for x-ray diffraction. See x-ray diffraction.

XRF: It stands for x-ray fluorescence (spectrometry). See x-ray

fluorescence spectrometry.

x-x diagram: In liquid-liquid extraction usually a desired component A

is required to be extracted from a feed mixture using a liquid solvent. At
the equilibrium, component A is distributed between the extract phase
and the raffinate phase. An x-x equilibrium diagram can be prepared in
which the concentration of component A in one liquid phase is plotted
along the x-axis while the concentration of component A in the other
liquid phase is plotted along the y-axis. See Fig. X-1. See also ternary
phase diagram.

525
Fig. X-1 x-x diagram for liquid-liquid equilibrium. xA1 is composition of
component A in one phase and xA2 is composition A in second phase.

526
Y
Y fitting: Same as wye fitting. See wye fitting.

Y strainer: Same as wye strainer. See wye strainer.

Y valve: Same as wye valve. See wye valve.

Yeast: Yeast is a unicellular fungus which provides enzymes that are

helpful in producing ethanol by fermentation of sugars (say molasses).

Yield: For a chemical reaction it may be the ratio of the number of

moles of the desired product produced to the number of moles of the
limiting reactant fed to the reactor system. For an extraction or
crystallization process, it may be defined as the ratio of the mass of the
desired component to the mass of the feed entered the unit. Different
sources define the yield of a process in a different manner so care
should be taken while using the yield information in cross references.
Yield is usually reported as percentage yield.

Yield stress: Also called as threshold stress. Bingham plastic non-

Newtonian fluids do not deform unless a minimum amount of shear
stress is applied. The amount of the shear stress that has to be exceeded
for the Bingham plastic fluids to set the flow is called as yield stress.
See Bingham plastic fluids. See also Fig. N-3.

y-x diagram: A vapor-liquid equilibrium diagram in which the

composition of more volatile component in vapor phase is plotted as y-
coordinate while the composition of more volatile component in liquid
phase in equilibrium to the vapor phase just described is plotted as x-
coordinate. A diagonal line is usually drawn that represents no
separation line or equal vapor-liquid composition line. In a y-x diagram,
if the equilibrium line is a curve above the no separation line, then at
any given point the vapor composition is higher than the liquid
composition and the reverse is true when equilibrium curve is below the
separation line. An azeotropic concentration lies on the diagonal line.
See Fig.Y-1.

527
Fig. Y-1 y-x diagram: a) for a zeotropic mixture, b) for an azeotropic
mixture. x is composition of more volatile in liquid phase and y is
composition of more volatile in vapor phase.

528
Z
Z blade mixer: Also called as sigma blade mixer [51]. It is a two-arm
kneader mixer with sigma or Z blades and used for the mixing of solid
particles. Two Z shaped blades known as arms are placed in a metal
trough. The arms rotate in opposite direction at low speed and consume
a large amount of power. Such type of mixer may be designed having
external jacket which can be used to heat the contents. The mixed
product is discharged by tilting the trough or alternately through a hole
at the bottom. The mixer can be operated either in the batch or semi-
batch mode and it is most commonly used for pastes or high viscosity
liquids and occasionally employed for the dry solids mixing. See Fig. Z-
1 that shows a pair of sigma blades (two arms). See also kneader mixer.

Fig. Z-1 A pair of Z or sigma blades.

Z tube heat exchanger: In a Z tube heat exchanger Z shaped tubes, as

shown in Fig. Z-2, are incorporated in the design. These types of
exchangers are used with molten salts and liquid metals (alloys) and
designed to accommodate differential expansion problems.

Fig. Z-2 Z tube configuration.

Zeolite softening: The process is used for the softening of hard water,
i.e., used to remove Ca++ and Mg++ (ions) from the water using zeolites
as the softening agent. Sodium zeolites are the common softening
529
agents where sodium ions are replaced by the heavier calcium and
magnesium ions.

Zeolites: Zeolites are crystalline aluminosilicates. Both natural and

synthetic zeolites are available. They have wide applications and
frequently used in adsorption, catalysis, and ion exchange processes.
Zeolite A, ZSM-5, and zeolite Y are common examples of zeolites.
Zeolite Y is used as a catalyst in fluid catalytic cracking (FCC) of heavy
petroleum fractions to produce gasoline range products.

Zeotrope: A liquid mixture opposite in characteristics to an azeotrope,

i.e., having no constant boiling point at any mixture composition. It can
be distilled to pure components by simple rectification, requiring no
azeotropic or extractive distillation. A mixture of n-hexane and n-
heptane is a typical example. See Fig. Y-1. See also azeotrope.

Zero order kinetics: Kinetics of the zero order reaction. See zero order
reaction.

Zero order reaction: For a zero order reaction, the rate of the reaction
is independent of concentration of any of the reactant species.
Decomposition of hydrogen iodide on gold surface may be given as an
example of a zero order reaction.

Zero pressure specific heats: The specific heat capacities of gases at

low pressures ( p  0 ) (and elevated temperatures) are ideal gas
specific heat capacities. Such ideal gas specific heat capacities are
called as zero pressure specific heat capacities or simply zero pressure
specific heats. Ideal gas heat capacity is a function only of temperature
and does not depend on pressure. See specific heat capacity.

Zero time: The time at which a process is just set off. The terminology
is normally employed with transient processes and with the process
control applications. It is written as at t  0 . Before t  0 (i.e., t  0 ),
there is no activity in the process, but at t  0 , the process is just
started.

Zero wall slip: Same as no slip condition. See no slip condition.

530
Zeroes of transfer function: Roots of the numerator of a transfer
function are zeroes of the transfer function. These are the values of the
Laplace transform operator s that result in zero value of the transfer
function. See transfer function and poles of transfer function.

Zeroth law of thermodynamics: When two bodies independently have

equality of temperature to a third body, they have equality of
temperature with each other, i.e., if each of the two bodies is in thermal
equilibrium with a third body, both of these bodies are in thermal
equilibrium with each other. This law does not quantify temperatures,
i.e., it does not give numerical values of temperatures, it only suggests
the equality of temperatures.

Zeta meter: It is an instrument that is used for measuring

electrophoretic mobility.

Zeta potential: It is also called as electrokinetic potential. If a colloidal

particle is present in a liquid, there develops a stationary liquid layer
adhered to the surface of the colloid. The potential drop develops
between the surface of the colloid and the liquid. This drop in potential
occurs in two parts: a) between the surface of the colloid and the
adhered layer; and b) between the adhered layer and the body of the
liquid. The potential described in (b), i.e., between the adhered layer
and the body of the liquid is known as zeta potential. It is therefore the
potential difference that develops between the surface of the diffused
layer of the liquid, which surrounds the colloidal particle, and the bulk
liquid surrounding the colloidal particle.

Zick’s nomograph: The nomograph is used in the design of supports

for horizontal vessels.

Ziegler-Nichols tuning rules: A closed loop (i.e., controller remains

active in the control loop) controller tuning method of Ziegler and
Nichols. Removing integral and derivative actions and leaving
proportional action alone, the ultimate gain and ultimate period are
obtained for the sustained oscillations. The actual control parameters
(proportional gain, integral time, and derivative time) are then
calculated using the information of ultimate gain and ultimate period as
obtained above. For example, for proportional only controller,

531
proportional gain is equal to 0.5 times the ultimate gain. See controller
tuning.

Zigzag classifier: A type of air classifier that is made of a zigzag

shaped tube due to which it has its name. There are both gravity and
centrifugal types of zigzag classifiers. In a simple gravity type zigzag
classifier as shown in Fig. Z-3, the feed to the classifier enters the
vertical zigzag tube and the air forces the particles to go upwards. If the
air push to a particle is not enough, the particle upon striking to the
zigzag wall loses its momentum and falls back. The zigzag path may
also be helpful in producing turbulence that breaks the loosely bound
particles apart. The air to the classifier may either be used in a forced
fashion or in an induced manner. The fine particles are taken up by the
air stream while heavy particles are collected at the bottom.

Fig. Z-3 Zigzag classifier.

Zipper conveyor: It is used for the transportation of solid particles and

essentially a belt conveyor with zipper attached to its edges. When
material to be conveyed is charged, the edges are zipped (closed), the

532
material is transported to the desired location, and the edges are
unzipped (opened) to collect the material at the discharge point. As it
encapsulates the material while transporting, it may be used at any
angle or even upside down. Also, it helps in transporting materials
without dust and leakage. Extra cost of the zipper discourages its use in
many of the cases. See belt conveyor.

Zone refining: A batch purification technique based on the principles

of fractional crystallization. It is mainly employed to obtain highly pure
metals and semiconductors.

Zones of sedimentation: During the course of sedimentation of the

solids from slurries, three separate zones may be observed that are
called as the zones of sedimentation. Taking slurry of the solid particles
in a cylinder, after the elapse of some time, three distinct zones may be
appeared as shown in Fig. Z-4. The top zone is the clear or hazy liquid,
the middle zone is the slurry or settling zone, and the bottom zone is the
concentrated sludge or compression zone.

Fig. Z-4 Zones of sedimentation.

Zymase: Zymase is an enzyme, a biological catalyst, that carries out the

fermentation reactions and converts sugars into alcohol and carbon
dioxide.

533
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