Water Treatment

Chapter 8
• The purpose of water treatment is to provide potable water that is
palatable.
• Potable water refers to water that is healthy for human consumption and
free of harmful microorganisms and organic and inorganic compounds that
either cause adverse physiological effects or do not taste good.
• Palatable describes water that is aesthetically acceptable to drink or free
from turbidity, color, odor, and objectionable taste.
• In developed countries, water is treated to be both potable and palatable.
• However, some people do not like the palatability of municipal waters, and
this has given rise to the increased use of household point-of-use
treatment systems and bottled water.
Characteristics of Untreated Water
• Most consumers expect drinking water to be clear, colorless,
odorless, and free of harmful chemicals and pathogenic
microorganisms.
• Natural waters usually contain some degree of dissolved,
particulate, and microbiological constituents, which are obtained
from the surrounding environment.
• Table 8.2 summarizes many of the important chemical and biological
constituents found in water.
PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS
Turbidity
• Low turbidity measurements (less than 1 NTU) are typical for most
groundwater sources, while surface water turbidity varies depending upon
the source.
• In lakes and reservoirs, turbidity is usually stable and ranges from 1 to 20
NTU, but some waters can vary seasonally due to turnover, storms, and
algal activity.
• Turbidity in rivers is highly dependent on precipitation events and can
range from less than 10 NTU to more than 4,000 NTU.
• Turbidity measurements are primarily used for process control, regulatory
compliance, and comparison of different water sources.
• They are also used as an indicator of increased concentrations of
microbial water constituents, such as bacteria, Cryptosporidium oocysts,
and Giardia cysts.
Particles
• Found in natural waters can be measured in terms of their numbers and size.
• Particle counters can measure the number of suspended particles in size ranges generally from
1.0 to 60 mm.
• Particle removal is important because it has been suggested as an indicator of removal of Giardia
and Cryptosporidium cysts from water.
• Accordingly, many treatment facilities employ online particle counters to evaluate process
performance and to aid in process-control decisions.
• Suspended particles such as algae, organic debris, protozoa cysts, and silt can be removed by
conventional sedimentation and depth filtration methods.
• Coagulation and flocculation processes can remove colloidal particles.
• However, many dissolved constituents will remain in solution, such as the lower-molecular-weight
natural organic matter (NOM) (for example, humic and fulvic acids) and synthetic organic
compounds.
• Other treatment methods, such as activated carbon adsorption and reverse osmosis, may be used
to remove these constituents.
Color
• Categorized as apparent or true color.
• Apparent color is measured on unfiltered samples, so it includes the
color imparted by turbidity.
• True color is measured on a water sample passed through a 40 mm
filter, so it is a measure of the color imparted by dissolved
constituents.
• While color is not a regulated health concern, it can be an aesthetic
problem for some individuals and communities, and treatment is
usually provided.
Taste and Odor
• Taste and odor threshold concentrations have been established as guidelines for
determining when constituents can be detected.
• The most prevalent natural odor causing compounds in surface waters come
from the decay of algae (for example, geosmin and methyl isoborneal, which
impart a musty odor at concentrations as low as 0.000005 mg/L).
• Water treated with excess chlorine will have a chlorine odor, which can be
detected as low as 0.010 mg/L.
• Waters containing dissolved inorganic compounds such as iron, manganese, and
copper may have a metallic taste.
• The taste of reduced iron (Fe2+) can be detected at 0.04–0.01 mg/L and the taste
of reduced manganese (Mn2+) can be detected at 0.4–30 mg/L.
• Some natural or synthetic organic compounds will impart an objectionable taste
to water. Examples of these include phenol, which can be detected at a
concentration of 1 mg/L.
Temperature
• Water temperature is very important because it affects many physi-
cal and chemical parameters of water, such as density, viscosity,
vapor pressure, surface tension, solubility, and reaction rates, which
are used in the design and operation of a treatment plant and
associated conveyance system
Pathogens
• Microorganisms that cause sickness and disease.
• Pathogens include many classes of microorganisms, among them viruses, bacteria, protozoa, and
helminths.
• Note the small size of pathogens that can prevent their removal via conventional gravity
sedimentation processes.
• Because there are many different water-based pathogens, monitoring and detecting all of them
would require a prohibitive amount of resources.
• Consequently, indicator organisms (such as coliforms) have been identified and are used to
monitor the microbial water quality.
• At present, the EPA requires water utilities to monitor their water distribution system monthly for
total coliforms.
• The total coliform rule maximum contaminant level is based on frequency of detection (no more
than 5 percent for systems collecting at least 40 samples per month) or the combination of a
positive Escherichia coli sample (or fecal coliforms) with a positive total coliform sample.
Water Quality Standards
• To protect public health, EPA established primary drinking-water
standards by setting health-based maximum contaminant level goals
(MCLGs) and maximum contaminant levels (MCLs) for a large number
of pollutants.
• The MCL is the enforceable standard and is based not only on health
and risk assessment information, but also on costs and the availability
of technology.
• The MCLGs are based solely on health and risk assessment
information.
Overview of Water Treatment Processes
Typical Water Treatment Unit Processes and Their Arrangement These
processes are typically used for: (a) treatment of surface water and (b)
treatment of water with high levels of dissolved constituents.
Coagulation and Flocculation
• The most common method used to remove particles and a portion of
dissolved organic matter is a combination of coagulation and floccula-
tion followed by sedimentation and/or filtration.
• Coagulation is a charge neutralization step that involves the
conditioning of the suspended, colloidal, and dissolved matter by
adding coagulants.
• Flocculation involves the aggregation of destabilized particles and
formation of larger particles known as floc.
PARTICLE STABILITY AND REMOVAL

• Surface charge is the primary contribution to particle stability.

• Stable particles are likely to remain suspended in solution (and measured as
turbidity or TSS).
• Suspended colloids and fine particles are relatively stable and cannot flocculate
and settle in a reasonable period of time.
• The stability of particles in natural waters primarily depends on a balance of the
repulsive and attractive forces between particles.
• Most particles in natural waters are negatively charged, and a repulsive
electrostatic force exists between particles of the same charge.
• After a coagulant is added, the repulsive forces are reduced, particles will come
together, and rapid flocculation can occur.
Jar testing

• widely used for screening the type of coagulant

and the proper coagulant dosage.
• A jar test apparatus consists of six square batch
reactors, each equipped with a paddle mixer that
can turn at variable speeds.
• In a jar test, batch additions of various types and
different dosages of coagulants are added to the
water sample.
• A rapid-mixing stage is combined with the addition
of the coagulant.
• This stage is followed by a slow-mixing stage to
enhance floc formation.
• The samples are then allowed to settle under
undisturbed conditions, and the turbidity of the
settled supernatant is measured and plotted as a
function of coagulant dose in order to determine
the proper coagulant dosage.
Use of Jar Testing to Determine the Optimal
Coagulant Dosage
Sedimentation
• Sedimentation is the process in which the majority of the particles
will settle by gravity within a reasonable time and be removed.
• Particles with densities greater than 1,000 kg/m3 will eventually
settle, and particles with densities less than 1,000 kg/m3 will float to
the water surface.
• In water treatment, there are common types of settling: discrete
particle settling and flocculant settling.
DISCRETE PARTICLE SETTLING
• Discrete particle settling occurs when particles are discrete and do not interfere
with one another as they settle.
• For this type of settling, the movement of a particle in water is determined by a
balance of a downward gravitational force, an upward buoyancy force, and an
upward drag force.
• The settling velocity of particles in a liquid such as water can be described by
either Stokes’ law or Newton’s law.
• Table 8.15 describes each of these laws in greater detail.
• Stokes’ law was derived in Chapter 4.
• It is applicable to spherical particles when the Reynolds number is less than or
equal to 1 (laminar flow). Newton’s law is used to determine the settling velocity
of particles when the Reynolds number is greater than 1 (transition and turbulent
flow).
Application of Stokes’ Law
Application of Newton’s Law
• The settling velocity for discrete particles is constant, because
particles will not interfere with one another, and the size, shape, and
density of particles is assumed to not change as they move through
the reactor.
• A particle (particle 2 in Figure 8.12) that enters at the top of the basin
and settles just before it flows out of the basin is called a critical
particle.
• Its settling velocity is defined as the critical particle-settling velocity,
determined as follows:

• where vc is the critical particle-settling velocity (m/h), ho is the depth

of the sedimentation basin (m), and u is the hydraulic detention time
of the sedimentation basin (h).
• The critical particle-settling velocity is also called the overflow rate
(OR) because it is equal to the ratio of process flow rate to surface
area:

• where A is the surface area of the top of the settling basin (m2) and Q
is the process flow rate (m3/h). Important to our discussion is the
term OR, the overflow rate. Note in Equation 8.10 that the OR is not a
function of the tank depth.
• The OR (m3/m2-h, also written as m/h) is equal to the critical settling
velocity, vc.
• Any particles with a settling velocity (vs) greater than or equal to vc
(or the OR) will be removed.
• Particles with a settling velocity (Vs) less than Vc can also be removed
depending on their position at the inlet.
• For example, assuming particle 3 in Figure 8.12 has a settling velocity,
vs3, less than vc, it can be removed because of its inlet position.
• Note that in Figure 8.12, particle 1 will not be removed, assuming its
settling velocity (vs1) is less than vc relative to its entry point into the
sedimentation basin.
• The percentage of particles removed is determined as follows:
Determining Particle Removal
Filtration
• Filtration is widely used for removing small flocs or precipitated
particles.
• It may be used as the primary turbidity removal process such as direct
filtration of raw water with low turbidity.
• It is also used for removal of pathogens, such as Giardia lamblia and
Cryptosporidium.
• Two types of filtration employed in water treatment facilities include
granular media filtration (discussed next) and membrane filtration
(discussed in a later section).
Disinfection
• Pathogens can either be removed by treatment processes such as
granular filtration or inactivated by disinfection agents.
• The term disinfection in drinking-water practice refers to two
activities
1. Primary disinfection: the inactivation of microorganisms in the
water.
2. Secondary disinfection: maintaining a disinfectant residual in the
treated-water distribution system (also called residual
maintenance).
CURRENT DISINFECTION METHODS
• Generally, disinfectants can be classified as oxidizing agents (for example,
chlorine and ozone), cations of heavy metals (silver or copper) and physical
agents (heat or UV radiation).
• The most commonly used disinfectant is free chlorine.
• Four other common disinfectants are combined chlorine, ozone, chlorine
dioxide and ultraviolet (UV) light.
• Combined chlorine is often limited to secondary disinfection.
• Table 8.20 summarizes the effectiveness, regulatory limits, typical
application, and chemical source of the five most common disinfectants.
• Table 8.21 provides detailed information on the important disinfection
chemistry and application considerations for the five common disinfectants
(including the importance of pH, as shown in Figure 8.16).
• Reactors used for disinfection are usually called contactors.
• Free chlorine, combined chlorine, and chlorine dioxide are most often
used in contactors close to ideal plug flow reactors, such as baffled,
serpentine contactor chambers.
• Both types of contactors can be designed so that they are highly
efficient, closely approaching ideal plug flow.
• Ozone is generally introduced in bubble chambers in series. UV light is
often applied in proprietary reactors where short-circuiting is a
concern because contact times are so short.
DISINFECTION KINETICS
• The mechanisms for pathogen inactivation during disinfection are complex
and not well understood.
• Therefore, kinetic models have been developed that are based on
laboratory observations.
• Chick’s law (Equation 8.12) is the most straightforward model to describe
the disinfection process.

• It assumes the rate of the disinfection reaction is pseudo first order with
respect to the concentration of the pathogens being inactivated:
• where dN/dt is the rate of change in the number of organisms with time
(organisms/volume/time), N is the concentration of organisms
(organisms/volume), and K is the Chick’s law rate constant (time-1)
• Integrating Equation 8.12 results in

• where N0 is the initial concentration of organisms (organisms/volume).

• The rate of disinfection can be determined by plotting the log organism

concentration ratio (N/N0) versus time.
• To better estimate the rate of disinfection, several measurements should be
made at each time step.
• Due to inaccurate measurement, the best fit often may not pass through zero.
• The disinfection rate from Equation 8.28 is related to disinfectant concentration,
and the reaction has a different rate constant for each concentration.
Application of Chick’s Law
• Given the data in the first three columns of Table, graph the data for
the inactivation of Poliovirus type 1, using the disinfectant bromine.
Determine the Chick’s law rate constant for each of the two
disinfectant concentrations.
Ct approach
• The product C*t, which can be viewed as the dosage of disinfectant.
• C is the concentration of a chemical disinfectant (mg/L).
• It is measured after the time segment, t, where t is the time required to achieve a level of inactivation.
• A similar concept is the product of the UV light intensity (I, mW/cm2) and the time of exposure, t.
• I*t (units of mW/cm2*s or mJ/cm2) is used during UV disinfection to compute the dose of UV light.
• The Ct approach is a useful way to compare the relative effectiveness of different disinfectants and the
resistance of different organisms.
• Figure 8.18 illustrates this by comparing the Ct and It required for a 99 percent inactivation of several
microorganisms using the five common disinfectants.
• Figure 8.18 shows that ozone requires a lower Ct for most microorganisms than the other three chemical
oxidants need; therefore, ozone is a stronger disinfectant.
• Also, the microorganism called C. parvum requires the highest Ct among four chemical oxidants, so this
microorganism is most resistant to these disinfectants.
• The It data for UV disinfection are included in Figure 8.18.
• However, not much can be concluded by comparing the It values with the Ct values for the same organism.
Requirements for 99% Inactivation
This chart compares the Ct or It
required for a 99% inactivation of
several pathogens, using five
common disinfectants (listed on the
top).
Ozone requires a lower Ct for most
pathogens than the other three
chemical oxidants, so ozone is a
stronger disinfectant.
The microorganism C. parvum
requires the highest Ct among the
four chemical oxidants, so this
microorganism is most resistant to
these disinfectants.
Application of Ct Value
CLASSIFICATION OF MEMBRANE PROCESSES
• Selection of the type of membrane systems depends upon the constitu-
ents to be removed.
• Four types of membrane systems are used in water treatment:
microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltration (UF), nanofiltration (NF), and reverse
osmosis (RO).
• Figure 8.21 classifies the four membrane processes used in drinking-water
treatment.
• Table 8.24 provides more information about the four types of membrane
filters.
• Microfiltration and ultrafiltration are sometimes classified as membrane
filtration because
Diagram of Membrane Separation Process
• The influent is separated into a
permeate stream (for drinking
water) and a retentate stream,
which currently becomes waste.
• One challenge to the water
treatment industry is to find
beneficial uses for the retentate
Classification of Four Pressure-Driven
Membrane Processes
Typical Components of a Membrane Drinking-Water Treatment Plant
This schematic compares (a) a microfiltration plant and (b) reverse
osmosis plant.