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 Wave Velocity

- wave velocity, distance traversed by a periodic, or cyclic, motion per unit time.

- It is also equal to the product of its wavelength and frequency

- It is known that the time is equal to the reciprocal of the wave's frequency

- substituting this produces an equation relating to wavelength and frequency.

 Wavelength and Frequency

- We will use a Wave on a string Simulation to see how wavelength and frequency

influence wave's velocity

- In the first set-up, we keep everything constant with a frequency of 1.50 Hz.

The calculated velocity was 0.6 m/s

- In the second set-up, Everything is still constant except the frequecy which is changed

to 2.12Hz. The velocity was 0.059 m/s, close enough to 0.06m/s. It is not exact because my reading is
not

accurate but it is close enough to say that wavelength and frequency doesn't influnce

velocity. Only wavelength is dependent on frequency.

- So what really influence wave velocity if a change on frequency and wavelength doesn't affect its
magnitude?

 Medium

- energy from electromagnetic waves is transferred through vibrations of electric and magnetic fields.

- and energy from mechanical waves is transferred through vibrations of particles (solid, liquid & gas
particles).

- from the definition itself, it tells that Wave velovity is dependent on the medium because mediums are
composed of particles and an alteration of particles in the medium will influence the velocity of waves.

- Since we are concerned with rock mechanics, we are only focusing on Mechanical waves, Specifically
the Sound, water & seismic waves.
  Sound waves in its mediums

- Sound waves is also formed by the vibration of kinetic energy passed from molecule to molecule

- So The closer the particles are to each other and the tighter their bonds, the less time it takes for them
to pass the sound to each other and the faster sound can travel.

- Wave velocity in Solid materials > Wave velocity in Liquid materials > Wave velocity in Gas materials

 intertial property, Density

- Inertial properties are those properties related to the material's tendency to be sluggish to changes in
its state of motion. The density of a medium is an example of an inertial property. The greater the inertia
of individual particles of the medium, the less responsive they will be to the interactions between
neighboring particles and the slower that the wave will be

- So the higher the density the slower the wave. But this is different in gas because the higher the
density the faster the wave in gas mediums.

- Density describes the mass of a substance per volume. This tells that density is directly proportional to
the mass of the material. Physically, larger mass tends to have larger molecules which makes them
harder to vibrate because larger molecules requires more energy. Thus waves, being made up of kinetic
energy, will travel at a slower rate on a denser material because its large molecules vibrate at a slower
rate.

 intertial property, Humidity

- the higher the humidity the faster the wave in gas.

- Humidity is the result of water vapor being present in air. Like any liquid, water has a tendency to
evaporate. As it does, particles of gaseous water become mixed in the air. This additional matter will
affect the mass density of the air

- But why does wave is faster in gas when its humidity or density is high?

- Recall that wave is produced through vibrations, so it means that more vibrations will produce higher
velocity.

- So gas molecules, having large distance between each other, it makes harder for them to make
vibration. But when an increase in gas density, due to increase in humidity, we learned that its
molecules becomes larger in size. This enlargement of molecules decreases the distance between each
molecules, which helps them to vibrate more.

- so as i said earlier, sound wave is really transferred faster in gas when its density is high.
  Elastic Property, Elasticity

- Elastic properties are those properties related to the tendency of a material to maintain its shape and
not deform whenever a force or stress is applied to it.

- waves travel faster through materials that are more elastic

- At a particle level, the forces of attraction between atoms and/or molecules are strong when the
material has high elastic property. The stronger the attraction, the quicker they move. Thus, they vibrate
at higher speeds, making waves to travel at a faster rate.

 Elastic Property, Temperature

- waves travel faster through materials that have high temperature

- This is due to the increased kinetic energy of the air molecules and the decrease in density.

- this increased in kinetic energy makes the molecules to move faster, which produces more vibrations,

 Seismic Waves in its Mediums

- The two types of seismic waves are body waves and surface waves.

- Body waves travels through the interior of the earth,body waves arrive before the surface waves
emitted by an earthquake. These waves are of a higher frequency than surface waves.

- Body waves are also composed of p or primary waves and s or secondary waves. P-waves are called
primary waves because it is the fastest seismic wave to be detected when thee's earthquake.

- S-waves are second to p-waves since they are next to be detected when there's an earthquake.

- S-waves can't travel through liquid because as you can see on the picture, s-waves can't pass through
the earth's outer core, which is composed of liquid.

- love waves is the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-side. Confined to the surface
of thecrust, Love waves produce entirely horizontal motion.

- A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a lake or an ocean. Because it rolls,
it moves the ground up and down, and side-to-side in the same direction that the wave is moving. Most
of the shaking felt from an earthquake is due to the Rayleigh wave, which can be much larger than the
other waves

- in the following section, we will be discussing factors influencing the p-waves, s-waves, love waves and
rayleigh waves velocity.
  P-Waves, 1: Rigidity

- let us first discuss the factos influencing p-waves velocity

- The more rigid the material, the faster the P-waves

- because rigidity is the materials resistance in being bent sideways and is able to straighten itself out
once the shearing force has passed.

- the molecules in a rigid material are also intact, producing more vibration.

- Liquids and gas have no rigidity, but they are compressible, which is the next factor.

 P-Waves, 2: Compressibility

-The more compressible the material, the faster the P-waves.

-How much the material can be compressed into a smaller volume and then recover its previous volume
once the compressing force has passed.

- So since the molecules are compressed, it takes less time for waves to transfer.

 P-Waves, 3: Density

-Last factor for p-waves is density and I already explaine it

-so the more dense the material, the faster the P-waves.

 S-Waves, 1: Rigidity

- the concept is the same with rigidity on p-waves

- so the more rigid the material, the faster the S-waves.

- since s-waves can only travel through solids, it compressibility doesn't affect it.

 S-Waves, 2: Density

- the concept is also the same with density on p-waves

- so the more dense the material, the faster the S-waves.

 Love Waves, 1: S-Waves

- Love waves are transverse waves that vibrate the ground in the horizontal direction perpendicular to
the direction that the waves are traveling.
- They are formed by the interaction of S waves with Earth's surface and shallow structure and
dispersive waves.

- Amplitude of ground vibration caused by a Love wave decreases with depth.

- so love waves are influenced by the earth's surface, shallow structure, dispersive wave and depth

-depth since they can't travel through the inner core and they are surface waves

 Love Waves, 2: Density

- the concept is also the same with density on p-waves

- so the more dense the material, the faster the love waves.

 Rayleigh Waves, 1: Elasticity

- rayleigh waves are influenced by the elasticity from s-waves and slightly on p-waves

- Like Love waves they are dispersive so the particular speed at which they travel depends on the wave
period and the near-surface geologic structure, and they also decrease in amplitude with depth.

 Rayleigh Waves, 2: Density

- the concept is also the same with density on p-waves

- so the more dense the material, the faster the Rayleigh waves.

 Other Factors, Phase & Group Velocity

-Phase velocity is the velocity of a single wave.

- while Group velocity is the resultant wave.

- when one or more waves combined, they will add up and results to a new wave. the velocities of these
single waves are phase waves and when waves combined their velocities also add up which is called
group velocity

- it may increase or decrease the velocity that is why we have dispersion.

 Static and Dynamic Moduli of Elasticity, Modulus of Elasticity

- Modulus of elasticity is a material property that describes its stiffness and is therefore one of the most
important properties of solid materials.
- it describes the materials rigidity

 Determination of Elasticity, Static Moduli Method

- The static method is based on pulling or bending a sample of the material in an instrument
whichmeasures force and measuring the changes of the length. The tension and bending test are based
on the principle of Hooke’s law and they are called static methods.

 Determination of Elasticity, Static Moduli Method

- for the first and only method, hooke's law states that the strain in a solid is proportional to the applied
stress within the elastic limit of that solid.

 Static Moduli Method, Extensometer

- extensometer is an instrument for measuringthe deformation of a material under stress.

- An extensometer is an accessory to a tensile strength tester and is extensively used in materials

testing. This instrument places a sample under stress, which causes it to physically deform. These
deformities can be almost invisible to the eye or they can be clearly visible. Extensometry is the practice
of measuring these differences.

 Static Moduli Method Application, 1: Wellbore Stability

- Wellbore Stability requires a proper balance between production. It requires a proper balance
between the uncontrollable factors of earth stresses, rock strength, and pore pressure.

- Wellbore stability refers to the structural integrity of a wellbore that prevents it from collapsing. Mud
loss is frequently encountered while drilling and happens when the mud weight essential to maintain
wellbore stability and well control exceeds the fracture resistance of the formation, especially in
depleted reservoirs.

 Static Moduli Method Application, 2: In-Situ Stress

-This stress defines the quantity and direction of compression that is being applied to a rock at a specific
location.

-In situ stress state is the original stress status in the rock before excavations or other perturbations. In
situ stresses are also called far-field stresses.

 Dynamic Modulus

- The ratio of stress to strain under vibratoryconditions (calculated from data obtained from either free
or forced vibration tests, in shear, compression,or elongation). It is a property of viscoelastic materials.

 Viscoelasticity

- studied using dynamic mechanical analysis where an oscillatory force (stress) is applied to a material
and the resulting displacement (strain) is measured.

 Dynamic Moduli Method, 1: Pulse

-It is generally 20, 30, and 40% higher than the static modulus of elasticity for high, medium, and low
strength concrete respectively.

 Dynamic Moduli Method, 2: Forced Resonance Frequency

- Resonant Frequency, (A Standard Test Method for Fundamental Transverse Longitudinal and Torsional
Resonant Frequencies of Concrete Specimens) is a test that allowsthe determination of Ed .

 Grouting

- A mixture of cement, sand and water or chemical used to fill gaps. They are used inthe repair of
concrete cracks, fill seams and gaps in tiles, seal and fill gaps for waterproofing, and for soil stabilization.

- It is also used for giving extra strength to the foundations of load-bearing structures. Grouts are used
in a variety of application such as repair of cracks, water stopping in submerged structures such as
canals, tunnels, etc., fill seams between tiles, and for stabilizing soil. Here we have briefed about types
of grouts used in the repair of cracks.

 Types, Cementitious Grout

-It is also known as slurry grouting or hydraulic cement grouting. Cementitious grout is used to seal wide
cracks particularly in gravity dams, canal linings, foundations and thick concrete wall sand also used for
enhancing extra strength to machine foundations, base plate or anchor bolts for machines or equipment
and others. It is divided into the following class depending upon the size of particles.

 Cementitious Grout, Ordinary Portland Cement Grout

-This is the most common type of grout used for repair of concrete cracks. Wider cracks can fill up using
OPC grout as they have the particulate size of 15 microns.

 Cementitious Grout, Microfine Cement Grout

-It is finely ground slag, fine fly ash, or Portland cement that are all mixed with water for allowing
penetration into the fine cracks.

-Silica flume or any other fine pozzolana can be used with microfine. The particulate size of microfine
cement grout ranges from 6 to 10 microns.

 Cementitious Grout, Ultrafine Cement Grout

-They are used for sealing very fine to hairline cracks. They have particles of size 3 to 5 micron.

 Types, Chemical Grout

- They are consist of polymers such as acrylic, polyurethane, sodium silicate, epoxy or any other suitable
polymer.

- Chemical grouts are an emulsion of water and liquid resin. Chemical grouting requires injection of
specially formulated chemical grouts into finer cracks that cannot be possible by cement grouts. They
can be applied in moist environments and can fill very fine cracks.

 Types, Polyester Based Grout

- They are used for anchoring to impart strength to foundations that must be achieved in limited
available space. It can also be made to have special characteristics such as fast setting, free flow, no-
shrink and others by an addition of different additives as per the end-user requirement.

 Types, Non-Shrink Grout

- It is useful for sealing of cracks where shrinkage cracking is anticipated.

- Such grouts are specially formulated and have a special blend of cement, aggregates, and other
additives to compensate for possible shrinkage, flowability and setting time considerations. Non-shrink
grouts are also used for connecting precast concrete sections.
  Methods, Permeation Grouting

- for the methods of grouting, let start with permeation grouting

-It consists of injecting grout under controlled, low pressure in order to permeate the strata without
causing fracturing. It can be applied in both soil and rock. Cement grouts are typically used to treat the
bedrock beneath dams. Fractures and joints in the rock can be easily sealed; reducing the overall
permeability of the rock formation. This mitigates potential seepage related issues and increases the
dam’s overall longevity.

 Methods, Jet Grouting

- It creates in-situ columns of grouted soil using very high pressure grout injection. Groutingis performed
by pumping high velocity jets of grout (or sometimes grout and air or grout, water and air)through the
side of a grout monitor, attached at the end of the drill string.

-The jets erode and mix the soil as the drill string and the monitor are being rotated and withdrawn.

- jet grouting have 3 types namely, single, double and triple fuild jet

 Jet Grouting, Single Fluid Jet

- Simple jet grouting because of its exclusive reliance on the high velocity of Jetstream to cut, remove
and mix the in-situ soil.

 Jet Grouting, Double Fluid Jet

-It isthe simultaneous injection of high velocity grout stream within a cone of compressed air.

-The double fluid system is capable of creating a larger volume than the single fluid system.

 Jet Grouting, Triple Fluid Jet

-is the most complicated jet grouting system due to the simultaneous injection of three different fluids,
air, water, and grout.

-The triple fluid system can create the largest column diameter among the three types.

 Methods, Compensation Grouting

-It is also called fracture grouting, involves the injection of grout to intentionally fracture the ground,
creating “grout lenses” to displace the surrounding soil in order to provide controlled heave of soils and
structures. It is commonly used to protect buildings by mitigating settlement caused by tunnelling
operations.

 Methods, Compaction Grouting

-It is typically performed in loose or weak soils to mitigate settlements and is also used for sinkhole
remediation. Compaction grouting involves the injection of a very stiff, mortar like,cementitious grout
into soil to densify or compact the soil under high pressure.

 Methods, Chemical Grouting

- this can be used to stabilise soils for tunnelling, control water seepage, and provide excavation
support.

- Chemical grout is injected under pressure in order to permeate soils and create a homogeneous mass
with increased strength and reduced permeability.

 Methods, Hot Bitumen Grouting

- It is special type of grouting where melted bitumen is used as grouting material. Hot-Bitumen grouting
is often used to cut off high magnitude, subterranean water inflows.

- The Major feature of hot bitumen grout is its temperature dependent viscosity.